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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.
Cncpclopactna Bntanmta:
OR, A
DICTIONARY
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE SIXTH EDITION.
Sllustrntri) luitf) nrarli) Gtr bunirrt (Cngrabmuss.
VOL. VIII.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PErItI.
EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY;
AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND COMPANY, 90, CHEAPSIDE,
LONDON.
1823.
B
% 1966.
Encyclopedia Britannica
XE3
E L E
Electricity
ELECTRICITY, Medical. See Materia Me-
DICA.
ELECTRIDES, anciently islands in the Adriatic
sea, which received their name from the quantity
of amber (electrum) which they produced. They
were at the mouth of the Po, according to Apollonius
of Rhodes j but some historians doubt of their exis¬
tence.
ELECTROMETER. In various parts of the ar¬
ticle Electricity, we have described a great variety
of instruments for ascertaining the presence of electri¬
city, and measuring its quantity or proportion.
But there are several instruments of this kind that
have not been described in that article j and as they are
well deserving a place in this work, either from the in¬
genuity of their construction, the reputation of their in¬
ventors, or the intrinsic value of the instruments them¬
selves, we shall give an account of them here.
Plate CC.' ^ *o‘ !• Plate CC. is a geometrical representation
Fig. i. ' of Mr Cavallo’s improved atmospherical electrometer,
of half its real size. The principal part of this in¬
strument is a glass tube CDMN, cemented at the bot-
fif- 4.
Fig.j.
tom into the wooden piece AB, by which part the instru¬
ment is to be held when used for the atmosphere ; and
it also serves to screw the instrument into its wooden
case ABO, fig. 2. when it is not to be used. The
upper part of the tube CDMN, is shaped tapering to a
smaller extremity, which is entirely covered with seal¬
ing-wax, melted by heat, and not dissolved in spirits.
Into this tapering part a small tube is cemented, the
lower extremity G of which being also covered with seal¬
ing-wax, projects a short way within the tube CDMN.
Into this smaller tube a wire is cemented, which with its
lower extremity touches the flat piece of ivory H, fasten¬
ed to the tube by means of cork ; the upper extremity of
the wire projects about a quarter of an inch above the
tube, and screws into the brass cap EF, which is
open at the bottom, and serves to defend the waxed
part of the instrument from the rain, &c. In fig. 3.
a section of this brass cap is represented, in order to
show its internal shape, and the manner in which it is
screwed to the wire, projecting above the tube L. The
small tube L, and the upper extremity of the large
tube CDMN, appear like one continued piece, on ac¬
count of the sealing-wax, which covers them both.
The conical corks P of this electrometer, which by
their repulsion show the electricity, &c. are as small as
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
E L E
can conveniently be made, and they are suspended by Electrome-
exceeding fine silver wires. These wires are shaped in ter.
a ring at the top, by which they hang very loosely on the '  *' 1
flat piece of ivory H, which has two holes for that pur¬
pose. By this method of suspension, which is applica¬
ble toevery sort of electrometer, the friction is lessened
almost to nothing, and thence the instrument is sen¬
sible of a very small degree of electricity. IM, and KN,
are two narrow slips of tin-foil, stuck to the inside of
the glass CDMN, and communicating with the wooden
bottom AB j they serve to convey off that electricity,
which, when the corks touch the glass, is communicated
to it, and being accumulated, might disturb the free
motion of the corks.
In regard to its use, this instrument may serve to
observe the artificial, as well as the atmospherical elec¬
tricity. When it is to be used for artificial electricity,
this electrometer is set upon a table or other convenient
support; then it is electrified by touching the brass cap
El with an electrified body, which electricity will
sometimes be preserved for more than an hour. Mr
Lavallo had one of these electrometers which would re¬
main electrical for more than twelve hours, though in
a room without a fire. If in an electrified state, any
electrified substance be brought near the cap EF, the
corks of the electrometer, by their converging, or by in¬
creasing their divergency, will shew the species of that
body’s electricity.
It is necessary to remark, that to communicate any
electricity to this electrometer, by means of an excited
electric, e. g. a piece of sealing-wax, (which we sup¬
pose is always negatively electrified), is not very rea¬
dily done in the usual manner, on account of the cap
EF being well rounded, and free from points or sharp
edges. By the approach of the wax, the electrometer
will be caused to diverge ; but as soon as the wax is re¬
moved, the wires immediately collapse. The best me¬
thod to electrify it, is to bring the excited wax so near
the cap, that one or both the corks may touch the side
of the bottle CDM j after which, they will soon col¬
lapse and appear unelectrified : if now the wax be
moved, they will again diverge, and remain electrified
positively.
When this instrument is to be used to try the electri¬
city ot the fogs, the air, the clouds, &c. the observer
is to do nothing more than to unscrew it from its case,
and, holding it by the bottom AB, to present it to the
A open
X
E L E [2
Electronic- open air, a little above bis head, bo that he may conve-
ter. niently see the corks P, which will immediately di-
* " verge if there be any sufficient quantity of electricity ;
whose nature, i. e. whether positive or negative, may
be ascertained by bringing an excited piece of sealing-
wax, or other electric, towards the brass cap El.
It is perhaps unnecessary to remark, that this obser¬
vation must be made in an open place, as the roads out
of town, the fields, the top of a house, &c.
The principal advantages of this electrometer, as stat¬
ed by Mr Cavallo, are as follows.
1. The smallness of its size. Mr Cavallo made one
so small, that its case, which was of brass, measured
only three inches and a half in length, and nine-tenths
of an inch in diameter, and yet it acted perfectly well.
2. Its being always ready for experiments, without
fear of entangling the threads, or having an equivocal
result by the sluggishness of its motion.
3. Its not being disturbed by wind or rain.
4. Its great sensibility ; and,
5. Its keeping the communicated electricity longer
than any other electrometer.
II. Saussure's Electrometer. M. de Saussure’s
electrometer, with which he made the observations on
atmospherical electricity that have been related in the
second chapter of Part V. of the article Electkici-
Fig. 4. TY, and reprfesented at fig. 4. is much the same with
that of Mr Cavallo above described. The following
are the most materia] circumstances in which they dif¬
fer : First, the fine wires, by which the balls are sus¬
pended, should not be long enough to reach the tin-
foil which is pasted on the inside of the glass, because
the electricity, when strong, will cause them to touch
this tin-foil twice consecutively, and thus deprive them
in a moment of their electricity. To prevent this de¬
fect, and yet give them a sufficient degree of motion,
it is necessary to use larger glasses than these that are.
generally applied to Mr Cavallo’s electrometer j two
or three inches in diameter will be found to answer the
purpose very well. But as it is necessary to carry off
the electricity which may be communicated to the in¬
side of the glass, and thus be confounded with that
which belongs to those substances that are under exa¬
mination j four pieces of tin-foil should be pasted on the
inside of the glass ; the balls should not be more than
one-twentieth of an inch diameter, suspended by silver
wires, moving freely in holes nicely rounded. The
bottom of the electrometer should be of metal $ for this
l enders it more easy to deprive it of any acquired elec¬
tricity, by touching the bottom and top at the same
time.
In order to collect a great quantity of electricity
from the air, the electrometer is furnished with a point¬
ed wire, 15 inches or two feet long, which unscrews
in three or four pieces, to render the instrument more
portable j see fig. 4. When it rains or snows, the small
Fig. 4. & 5. parapluie, fig. 5. is to be screwed on the top of the
instrument, as by this its insulation is preserved, not¬
withstanding the rain.
This instrument indicates not only the electricity of
fogs, but that also of serene weather, and enables us to
discover the kind of electricity which reigns in the at¬
mosphere ; and to a certain degree to form an estimate
of its quantity, and that under two different points of
] E L E
view, the degree of intensity, and the distance from Elcc'rome-
the earth at which it first begins to be sensible. ter.
A conductor raised lor the purpose of making obser- '
ration on atmospherical electricity will be found to ex¬
hibit signs of electricity, only when the electric fluid is
more or less condensed in the air, than in the earth.
Though the air resists the passage of the electric fluid,
it is not absolutely impermeable to it; it suffers it to pass
gradually, and generally with more ease in proportion
as its mass or thickness is less. It is therefore interest¬
ing to discover at what height it is necessary to be ele¬
vated, in order to find a sensible difference between the
electricity of the earth, and that of the air. A. very
sensible difference may be generally discovered by this
instrument, at the distance of four or five feet from the
ground 5 sometimes it may be seen if the instrument is
placed even on the ground 5 while at others, it must
be raised seven or more feet before the balls w’ill open $
sometimes, though seldom, this height is not sufficient.
This distance is generally greatest when the electricity
is strongest, though necessarily modified by a variety of
circumstances, some of which are known, as the de¬
gree of dryness or humidity of the air, and others are
unknown.
The degree of intensity, at a given height, may be
discovered thus; raise the electrometer, and judge by
the divisions which are placed on the edge of it, the de¬
gree of their divergence. To find the relation between
this degree of divergence, and the force of the electri¬
city, M. de Saussure took the following method : As
he could not with certainty double or triple a given
quantity of electricity ; yet as a given force may be re¬
duced one half, a fourth or eighth, &.c. by dividing
between two equal and similar bodies, the electricity
contained in one ; he took two of his unarmed electro¬
meters, which were as similar as possible, and electri¬
fied one of them, so that the balls separated precisely
six lines; he then touched the top thereof by the top
of that which was not electrified ; in an instant the elec¬
tricity was equally divided between them, as was evi¬
dent by the divergence of the balls, which was four
lines in each; consequently a diminution of half the
density had only lessened the divergence one-third.
One of these electrometers was then deprived of its elec¬
tricity, and was afterwards brought in contact with the
other as before; the remaining electricity divided it¬
self again between them, and the balls fell from four to
twenty-eight lines, nearly in the same proportion as be¬
fore; in the third operation they fell to nineteen ; in
the fourth to one, where he was obliged to stop, as there
was not now sufficient force in the fluid to pass from one
electrometer to the other, and distribute itself uniform¬
ly between them. The same experiment, repeated se¬
veral times, gave very nearly the same results. Nega¬
tive electricity decreased also in the same proportion as
the positive. The following table may therefore be
considered as giving a general, though not exact idea
of the increase in force, which corresponds to different
degrees of divergence in the balls ; it is only calculated
to every fourth of a line; the force of electricity is al¬
ways expressed by whole numbers, as it would be ridi¬
culous to put a greater degree of exactness in the num¬
bers than is to be found in the experiments which form
the bases of the calculation.
Distance
E L E
Electronic- Distance of tlie balls
ter. in fourths of a line.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24     64
Those who are desirous to carry this measure of the
electric force further, may do it by having similar elec¬
trometers constructed, but made upon a larger scale,
and with heavier balls, which would only separate one
line, with the degree of electricity that makes the
smaller ones diverge sis lines 5 these would consequent¬
ly measure a force 1024 times greater than that which
forms the unity of the preceding table ; and thus by
degrees we may be enabled to discover the ratio of the
strongest discharge of a great battery, or perhaps even
of thunder itself, to that of a piece of amber, which
only attracts a bit of straw or any other light sub¬
stance.
In order to observe the electricity of the atmosphere
with this instrument, we must first bring the electric
fluid contained in the electrometer to the same degree
of density with that at the surface of the earth j this is
easily done by letting the bottom and top touch the
ground at the same time •, then raise the point, keep¬
ing the bottom still in contact with the ground, from
whence it may be lifted up in a vertical position till the
balls are level with the eye.
The second circumstance is to render the divergence
of the balls, which is occasioned by the electricity of
the air, permanent. This is effected by touching the
top of the electrometer with the finger ; but here the
acquired electricity becomes contrary to that of the
body by which they are electrified. Let us suppose, for
example, that the electrometer is at five feet from the
ground, and the balls diverging.j touch the top of the
electrometer with the finger, and the balls will close ;
but they will again open, if the electrometer is with¬
drawn from the influence of the electricity of the air,
by being brought nearer the ground, or into the house.
M. Saussure only employed this method when the elec¬
tricity was so weak that he could not perceive any un¬
til the electrometer was raised considerably above his
eye : as in this case he could not perceive the diver-
E L E
gence of the balls, he always endeavoured to obtain a Electrome-
permanent electricity in the foregoing manner. ter.
The following example will render the use of the
foregoing observations more familiar. Choose an open
situation free from trees and houses, screw the conduc¬
tor on the top of the electrometer, lay hold of it by its
base, and place it so that the base and conductor may
touch the ground at the same time j then elevate it to
the height of the eye, and observe the quantity of lines,
or fourths of a line, that the balls have diverged j now
lower it till the balls almost touch each other, and ob¬
serve at what distance the top of the conductor is from
the ground j and this is the height from the ground at
which the electricity of the air begins to be sensible. If
the electricity of the air is sufficiently strong to make
the balls diverge when it stands upon the ground, one
of the lengths of the electrometer must be unscrewed
from it. If the balls, however, still diverge, the other
parts of the conductor should also be unscrewed, and
you may mark down, that the electricity is sensible at
zero, or on the surface of the earth. If, on the con¬
trary, the electricity is so weak, as not to cause the
balls to diverge when they are even with the eye, and
consequently when the conductor is two feet higher, or
seven feet from the ground, you should then raise it a
foot higher j while it is thus elevated, touch the top
with the other hand ; when this hand is taken away,
lower the electrometer, and if it is electrified, you may
say the electricity is sensible at eight feet •, if it is not,
raise it as high as the arm can reach, and repeat the
.same operation ; if any electricity is found, write down
electricity sensible at nine feet j if not, mark o, or no
electricity relative to this instrument, and this mode of
employing it ; for signs of electricity may still be ob¬
tained, by throwing a metallic ball 50 or 60 feet into
the air, which is at the same time connected with the
electrometer by a metallic thread.
One advantage of this instrument is, that it will often
exhibit signs of electricity when none can be obtained
from a conductor of 100 feet in height, because it can
more easily be preserved from humidity, &c. which will
destroy the insulation of the large conductors.
This electrometer may be used instead of the con¬
denser of M. Volta, by only placing it on a piece of
oiled silk, somewhat larger than the base of the instru¬
ment •, but in this case, it is the base, and not the
top of the instrument, which must be brought into
contact with the substance whose electricity is to be
explored.
It is easy to discover also by this instrument, the elec¬
tricity of any substance, as of cloths, hair of different
animals, &c. For this purpose, it must be held by the
base, and the substance rubbed briskly (only once) by
the ball of the electrometer j the kind of electricity
may be ascertained in the usual manner. It is proper,
however, to observe here, that as the top of the electro¬
meter acts in this case as an insulated rubber, the elec¬
tricity it acquires is always contrary to that of the rub¬
bed body.
III. Cadet's Electrometer, is thus described by
the author, as translated in Nicholson’s Journal.
Fig. 6. In a glass tube A, 18 or 20 inches long, Fig. 6.
is inclosed another shorter tube X, sealed at both ends.
This tube contains a graduated scale : one of the ends
of these two tubes is cemented in a handle of turned
A 2 wood,
[ 3 ]
Corresponding forces
of electricity.
1
• 2
3
4
5
6
8
• 10
■ 12
14
J7
- 20
23
• 26
29
32
36
40
44
48
52
. 60
E L E [ 4 ] E L E
Electronic-wood, C, by which it is held in the hand j the other
ter. end is closed by a brass cap, D j the distance between
* “ ' ‘ the extremities of the small tube and that of the large
one is filled with red wax, B, 13 ; on the cap D is
screwed at pleasure, either a ring E, or a brass hook F.
The ring is used for applying the instrument to the
ball of a conductor, and the hook when it is hung
to a ring: on the cap I> is a brass stem G, termi¬
nating by a knob. This stem is bended, and the
extremity of its knob must be directly beneath the line
with which the graduated scale of the small tube com¬
mences.
Round the large tube is a brass ring H, half of which
extends to the length of twelve or fifteen lines in the
form of a half tube P, applied against the sides of the
tube. This gutter serves to mark the degrees, by slid’
ing along the graduated scale by means of a button
beneath I. On the ring H is fixed one of the small
electrometers invented by Saussure, K, K, which is sur¬
mounted by a stem V, on which stem is fixed at pleasure
either a point L, or a ball M, of the same size as that
which terminates the stem G, opposite which it is
placed. The extremity of this point or ball must be
placed immediately over the extremity of the half tube
or scale P, and horizontally to the centre of the ball,
which terminates the stem G.
At the top of Saussure’s electrometer is a small ring
N, which serves to connect it with the chain Z when
required.
To explain the use of this instrument by a single ex¬
periment, charge a Eeyden jar, till the spontaneous
overflowing announces it to be saturated. Then place
the ring E on the knob of this bottle, and cause the
electrometer of Saussure, armed with its point, to slide
towards it. Observe the degree at which the divergence
of the thread stream commences, and at that instant
suppress the point, and adapt in its place the ball M.
Continue to advance the electrometer of Saussure till
the electric pressure of the atmosphere in the jar causes
the threads to diverge •, again observe the degrees, re¬
place the point L, and close the shutters of the room ;
then continue to advance the electrometer till the lumi¬
nous point appears, which again affords new degrees.
Lastly, replace the ball M, and fix the chain Z to the
small ring N: cause it to communicate with the exte¬
rior coating of the jar, and advance the electrometer till
the explosion takes place. Then comparing the different
degrees, we may ascertain the comparative difference
between the respective methods.
As soon as these relative proportions have been once
accurately ascertained by attentive observations, one of
those methods alone will be sufficient for measuring the
. intensity of electricity j and, in fact, if the body intend¬
ed to be submitted to examination be little charged with
the electric fluid, the diverging of the threads, by means
of the point, will fix the limits of the electric atmo¬
sphere : if it be more, the pressure of the atmosphere on
the ball M, which is substituted for the point, will in¬
dicate this quantity. In short, if the body be loaded
with a considerable mass of electric matter, it w'ill be
shown by the luminous point. If a Leyden jar, instead
of being positively, is negatively electrified, the point
indicates it at the same time that it measures the elec¬
tric atmosphere, for instead of a luminous point, a star
A
will be observed upon the ball of the jar, and another Electroae.
at the end of the point. ter.
Let us now apply this electrometer to useful observa-v—
tions.
In order to connect the idea of a determinate quanti¬
ty of fluid to each degree of the electrometer-, it is neces¬
sary to compare these degrees with the known quanti¬
ties. Suppose for instance we have a jar, the coating
of which is six inches square} electrify it till a spon¬
taneous discharge takes place, and remark, by means
of Henley’s electrometer, at what degree this discharge
is effected. Again, electrify the jar, till it is nearly sa¬
turated, and measuring with this electrometer, observe,
that the luminous point appears for instance at two de¬
grees ; then say, that when the electrometer, applied
to an electrified body, marks two degrees, the body
contains six inches square of electricity. Repeat this
experiment with a plate of glass, the coating of which is
seven, eight, ten, or twelve square inches, and we may
form a scale of proportion, which is of the greatest uti¬
lity in accurate experiments.
“ In endeavouring to ascertain some of these pro¬
positions, (says M. Cadet), I have made an ofiservation
which has convinced me of the utility of my electrome¬
ter in discovering the capacity of electric apparatus.
Having taken a jar from an electric battery, I electri¬
fied it, and measured it with a point which I passed
along a string of silk ; on observing the distance at which
the luminous point appeared, I joined this jar to another
of the same size, and imagined that by doubling the
quantity of matter, the measure I had taken would also
be doubled } on the contrary, however, the latter
measure was not more than about one-third of the for¬
mer: I then added a third bottle} and still obtained
nearly the same result} whence the following proposi¬
tion appears to be established } namely, that the extent
of the electric atmosphere is in an inverse ratio to the
quantity of fluid accumulated. Another observation
which I have several times made, on measuring the elec¬
tric atmosphere of a conductor, is, that the limits of this-
atmosphere form an elliptic figure around the body,
nearly similar to that represented at fig. 7. pjg ^
“ This doubtless arises from the electrified body-
suspended in a chamber, being nearer to the earth than
the ceiling} but it would be a curious experiment to
measure it at an equal distance from every attracting
body, in order to observe whether the fluid has not
really a tendency to descend towards the earth, rather
than in any other direction. It is my intention to re¬
peat this experiment, as I consider it of great impor¬
tance to ascertain whether electricity gravitates towards-
the globe.
“ From these first attempts, I conceive my electrome¬
ter would be well adapted for measuring the absolute
capacity of Leyden jars, and also their capacity with
regard to their size, or to the quality of the glass of
which they are constructed} for the latter, by its-
greater or less density, absorbs a greater or less quantity,
of fluid.”
IV. Lawson's Electrometer. This is a simplified
improvement on Brooke’s steelyard electrometer, and
should have been described when that instrument was
mentioned, instead of Mr Adams’s: but it did not oc¬
cur to us till after that sheet was printed.
The
E L E [
Uectronie- The following account is given of this electrometer,
ter. in a letter from Mr Lawson to the editor of the Philo-
' V sophical Magazine.
“ Some time ago it struck me that some additions to
Brooke’s electrometer might be made, so as to fit it for a
good discharging electrometer to measure the repulsion
between two balls (of a certain size) in grains, and also
effect the discharge of a battery at the same time. The
instrument known by the name of Cuthbertson’s dis¬
charging electrometer, (See Electricity, N® 203.)
was at that time the best, and indeed the only in¬
strument for discharging batteries or jars by its own
action, then made ; but I think this will be found, in
the essentials, and in the theory and use, a more per¬
fect instrument.
riff. 8. “ On the basis (fig. 8.) is fixed the glass pillar G,
supporting the hollow brass ball B. I is a light gra¬
duated brass tube, divided (from the weight W towards
the ball B) into 30 parts, representing grains. W
is a sliding weight. L, a light brass ball screwed to
the end of the tube I. On the other end of which tube
adjusts the heavy counterbalance ball C, the tube I and
its two balls being suspended at their common centre of
gravity by a silk line in the centre of the ball B, the
mechanism of which is shewn in fig. 9. The brass ball
F is stationary, and of the same size as the ball L; and
is fixed by, and adjusts close to, the ball L, or at any
lower station between that and the ring r. The brass
tube to which the ball A is fixed is divided into inches,
halves, and quarters : (a more minute division is unne¬
cessary and improper.) The divisions begin, or the line
O is marked on the said tube at the ring r, when the
three balls A, L, F, are close together. The ring
r serves as an index, as the divisions pass in succession
into the glass tube P on lowering the ball A. The
hook H is screwed into the base of P. The quadrant,
or Henley’s electrometer, Q, is supported in a long brass
stem, to keep it out of the atmosphere of the lower part
Fig- 5. of the instrument. Fig. 9. shows the internal construc¬
tion of the ball B, fig. 8. In the first place the ball
screws in half, horizontally. The light tube I passes
through the ball, and is suspended nearly in the centre of
it by some silk twist, 5, which small silk twist is fixed
into the eye of the adjusting wire, o, part of which
wire is filed square and goes through the square hole h.
The nut n screws on a, and serves to adjust the light
tube I vertically. The light plates PP are of copper,
and move freely on the wire w w somewhat like a hinge,
and rest on the copper wires CC, serving to make the
direct communication between the inside and out of the
battery or jar. NN are notches serving to let the tube
I descend when the discharge is made. Into the tube Z
the glass pillar is ground. Note, that at the bottom of
the notch N is a piece of brass filled with a Y, and
so placed as to keep the centres of the balls L and
F, fig. 8. under each other when they come close toge¬
ther.
“ When the instrument is adjusted, which is done by
placing the weight W, fig. 8. at o on the line of grains,
and then screwing or unscrewing the counterbalance
ball C, till the tube I rises slowly into its horizontal
position . then set the ball A at the distance from the
ball Lthat you choose, and the weight W placed at the
division or number of grains that you wish the repulsive
power of the electricity to arrive at before the discharge
; ] E L E
is made : this being done, connect the battery or jar Electroms-
with the ball B, by means of the wire y, the end of ter*
which goes into B at the hole X, and should stand at”-77—*
right angles to B, the ball of y resting on the battery :
then connect the outside of the battery or jar with the
hook H. As the battery charges, the electrometer Q
continues to rise 5 and when it is so highly charged that
the repulsive power between the balls L and F is equal
to the number of grains at which the weight W was
placed, the ball L will descead, and deliver the charge
of the battery to the ball A. The substance or thing
through which the shock is intended to be passed, must
form part of the communication between the hook H
and the outside of the battery or jar.
V. Matic/i's Electrometer. Fig. 10. contains a re- Fig. ie>
presentation of this electrometer, and the different parts
of which it consists. OP is a board of dry mahogany,
twelve inches in length and four in breadth, which
serves as a stand for the instrument. In this board are
fastened two massy glass pillars, M and N, which sup¬
port the two brass caps or rings GG, with the two
forks of tempered steel KK screwed into them. The
two rings GG are well covered with varnish.
In the ring is fastened a brass rod, which terminates
in a ball E of the same metal, and an inch in diameter.
The length of the rod and ball together is four inches
and a half.
A very delicate beam AB, the arms of which are of
unequal length, moves on a short triangular axis (a knife
edge) of well tempered steel, on the fork K of the pillar
M. It is seventeen inches in length, and so constructed
that the short arm forms a third, and the long one two-
thirds of the whole beam. The short arm of brass fur¬
nished with the ball B, exactly of the same size as the
ball E, is divided into forty-five parts equivalent to
grains. The long arm A is of glass covered with
copal varnish, and ends in an ivory ball A, into which
is fitted an ivory hook R, destined to support the ivory
scale H. In order to render the insulation more com¬
plete, this scale is suspended by three hairs.
A very delicate beam CD, eleven inches in length,
moves on an axis like the former, on the pillar N,
though not here shewn. This beam is proportioned in
the same manner, one arm being a third and the other
two-thirds of the whole length. The long arm of brass
is furnished at the end with a ball D, and divided into
thirty parts corresponding to grains. The short arm of
glass terminates in a long roundish plate C, covered with
copal varnish. The steel forks are shewn by the sections
of the two brass caps FF, as are also the two knife edges
L, L. By these caps the escape of the electric matter
is partly prevented.
A brass ring Q, capable of being moved along the
short arm of the upper beam AB, shews by means of
marks determined by trial and cut out on the beam,
the number of grains which must be placed in the
small scale to restore the equilibrium of the beam,,
at each distance of the ring Q from the point of sus¬
pension.
On the long arm CD of the lower beam there is al¬
so a moveable ring S, which, like the ring Q, shews in¬
grains, by its distance from the point of suspension, the
power requisite to overcome the preponderance of LD -
in regard to LC.
The power necessary for this purpose will be.found, if .
the.
E L E
.Electronic-th« shell H, which weighs exactly fourteen grains, be
ter. suffered to sink down on the glass plate C, and the ring
 V ' .9 be pushed forwards till both the arms of the beam are
in equilibrium. The part of the beam on which the
ring l- has moved, is divided into fourteen parts, so that
o marks the place where the ring 5 must stand when
the beam, in its free state, is in equilibrium ; and 14
stands at the place where the ring ^ again restores a
perfect equilibrium when the shell H is laid on the glass
plate C. Each of these parts, which are divided into
quarters, indicates a grain. The lower divisions of the
scale will be found with more accuracy, if quarters of a
grain be put in succession, into the shell H (after it has
been laid on the plate C), and the ring s be moved be¬
tween each quarter of a grain until the perfect equih-,
brium be restored. This place on the beam is then to
be marked, and you may continue in this manner until
the 30th part of a grain be given. Both scales, for the
sake of distinctness, are only divided so low as quarters
of a grain j though the instrument is so delicate, and
must absolutely be so, that i-20th of a grain is suffi¬
cient to destroy the equilibrium.
The two glass pillars M and N, together with the
steel forks affixed to them, are so fitted into the stand,
that both the beams lie parallel to each other as well as
to the rod GE. In this position of the beams AB, the
balls B and E are just in contact. The smallest glass
pillar N is of such a height that the ball of the beam
CD stands at the distance of exactly four lines from the
ring G, and cannot move without touching the latter.
The small shell H is suspended in such a manner that
there is a distance of exactly two lines between it and
the shell C. In each of the brass rings GG is a small
hole, that the instrument may be connected with the
two sides of an electric jar. I is a brass wire, with a
hollow bit of ivory, a, destined to support the beam
CD, which is necessarily preponderate at D, in order
to prevent oscillation between the discharges to be ex¬
amined by the instrument.
It may be readily comprehended that, when the
beam AB has moved, A must pass over twice the space
that B does ; and that in the beam CD, the case is the
same in regard to C and D. If AB be therefore con¬
nected with the external, and CD with the internal side
of a battery, but in such a manner that the instrument
is at a sufficient distance beyond the electric atmosphere;
and if the battery be charged, the repulsive effect of
the electric power will oblige the hall B to separate
from the hall E ; the shell H must therefore naturally
sink, down with double velocity, so that when the
ball B rises a line, the shell H must sink two : when it
reaches this depth it will touch the shell C, and the lat¬
ter, by the power excited in it, will be obliged to sink,
by which D must naturally again ascend in a double
proportion to the sinking of C 5 so that when C has
fallen two lines, D must have ascended four, and D
that moment touches the ring by which the two sides
of the battery are connected with each other, and dis¬
charges the battery.
But as the attractive electric power between unlike
atjnospheres, under like circumstances, is at least as
strong as its repulsive power between like atmospheres,
it would thence follow, that the electric power, instead
of repelling the ball B from the ball E, would rather
attract D, and by its contact with G, promote the dis-
E L E
charging’, by which the instrument would fail of itsElectrorae-
object, and be subjected to the temperature of the at- ter.
mosphere like all other electrometers j and, besides this, »
the electric power could no longer be determined by
weight. To obviate this inconvenience, the instrument,
in all electrical experiments, must be applied in such a
manner that the power with which the ball D is attract¬
ed by AB may exceed in strength the power required
to repel the hall B from the ball E. For this purpose
the ring s must always be removed two divisions farther
on CD, towards D, than the ring Q is shifted on AB
towards B. If, for example, an electric force were re¬
quired equal to eight grains, according to this electro¬
meter, the ring Q must be removed to the place where
8 stands, and the ring s to the place marked 10. The
repulsive power will then naturally repel the balls B and
E before G is in a condition to attract the ball D, as
a power of two grains would be necessary for this pur¬
pose, besides that of the eight already in action. The
shell H with its weight of fourteen grains, will easily
overcome the preponderance of LD over LC, as it
amounts only to ten grains, and therefore nothing exists
that can impede the discharging.
When the ring s, according to the required power,
is removed so far towards D, that the shell H is not
able by its weight to destroy the preponderance of LD
in regard to LC, the active power of the shell H must
be so far increased by the addition of weights, that it
can act with a preponderance of four grains on the
plate C. If, for example, an electric power of 14
grains be required, the ring s must be removed to 16,
by which LD rests upon o, with a preponderance of
16 grains in regard to LC. Now, to make H act on
the plate C with a preponderance of four grains, it must
be increased to 20 grains, that is, six grains weight
more must be added, as it weighs only 14 $ which six
grains are again laid upon LB •, and therefore the ring
Q is shifted to 20, as the strength of the repulsive power
is pointed out by 14 grains.
If an electric power of 25 grains be required, the
ring s must be removed to 27, and the weight of 17
grains be put into the shell H, in order to produce a
preponderance of four grains in regard to s. These 17
grains are added to the required power of 25 grains,
and the ring Q is pushed to 42, &c. In this manner
the repulsive power always acts before the attractive
power can.
It may be readily perceived that the faults and in¬
conveniences common to all the electrometers hitherto
employed, and which have been already mentioned,
cannot take place here j because the discharging is per¬
formed by immediate connection between the positive
and negative electricity in the instrument itself, without
any external means being employed.
One of the most essential advantages of this instru¬
ment is, the certainty with which the same result may
be expected when the experiment is repeated. From
the same degree of electric power, whatever be the
temperature of the atmosphere, it will always be neces¬
sary to commence the separation of the two balls B and
E from each other, the quantity of coated glass and the
distance of the ring Q from the axis L being the
same.
Another no less important advantage of this instru¬
ment is, that in an experiment where the same electric
power,
[ 6 ]
E L E
[
Electrome
ter.
* Phil
Magaz.
t'ol. ir.
Fisr. ix.
Fig. li.
Fis
13-
power, often repeated, is necessary to ascertain the re¬
sult with accuracy ; such, for example, as the charging
a battery through acids, water, &c.; the same degree
of precaution is not necessary as is indispensably so in
any other electrometer, as the person who puts the ma¬
chine in motion has nothing to do but to count how
often the electrometer discharges itself 5 and the instru¬
ment may be inclosed in a glass case, or prevented in
any other manner from external contact, or any other
circumstances which might render the experiment un¬
certain.
“ I flatter myself (says M. Hauch), that the simplicity
of the construction of this instrument, the facility with
which it may be made at a very small expence, and the
certainty that two instruments, prepared according to
the same scale, with a like quantity of coated glass, must
exactly correspond with each other; but above all, that
the certainty and accuracy by which experiments may
be made with it, and by these means be accurately de¬
scribed, are advantages which will not be found united
in any of the electrometers hitherto invented.” *
We shall close this account of electrometers with
describing the construction and use of M. Coulomb’s
electrometer, or, as he calls it, Electrical Balance.
ABDC (fig. II.) represents a glass cylinder, twelve
inches in diameter and the same in height, covered by a
glass plate fitted to it by a projecting fillet on the under
surface. This cover is pierced with two round holes
one inch and three-fourths in diameter. One of them
/is in the centre, and receives the low-er end of the
glass tube f h, of twenty four inches height, which is
fixed in the hole with a cement made of sealing-wax,
or other electric substance. The top of this tube re¬
ceives the brass collar H, (fig. i 2. N° 3.) bored truly
cylindrical with a small shoulder, which rests on the
top of the tube. This collar is fastened with cement,
and receives the hollow cylinder <p (fig. 12. N° 2.),
to which is joined the circular plate a b, divided on the
edge into 360 degrees. It is also pierced with a round
hole G in the centre, which receives the cylindrical
pin i (fig. 12. N° 1.) having a milled head b, and fur¬
nished with an index i o, whose point is bent down so
as to mark the divisions on the circle a b. This pin
turns stiffly in the hole G, and the cylinder <p moves
steadily in the collar II. To the lower end of the cen¬
tre pin is fastened a little pincer, q, formed like the
end of a port crayon, and tightened by the ring y, so
as to hold fast the suspension wire, the lower end of
which is grasped by a similar pincer, P 0 (fig. 13.)
tightened by the ring <p. The lower end <p 0 is cylin¬
drical, and is of such a weight, as to draw the wire
perfectly straight, but without any risk of breaking it.
It may be made equal to half of the weight that will
just break it.
This pincer is enlarged at C, and pierced with a
hole, which tightly receives the arm g- C ^ of the elec¬
trometer. This arm is eight inches long ; and consists
of a dry silk thread, or a slender straw completely
dried, and dipped in melted lac or fine sealing-wax,
and held perpendicularly before a clear fire, till it be¬
come a slender cylinder of about one-tenth of an inch
in diameter. This occupies six of the eight inches,
from £• to <7 : the remaining two inches, consist of a fine
thread of the lac or sealing-wax, as it drains off in
forming the arm.. At <7, is a ball of pith or fine cork,
7 ] E L E
one-fourth or one-half of an inch in diameter, made very Electronic,
smooth, and gilded. It is balanced by a vertical circle ter.
of paper g-, of large dimensions, made stiff with varnish. v-—v——'
The resistance of the air to this plane soon checks the
oscillations of the arm.
The whole instrument is seen in its place in fig. 11.
where the arm hangs horizontally about the middle of
the height of the great cylinder. In its oscillations
the ball a moves round in a circle, whose centre is in
the axis of the whole instrument. Its situation is indi¬
cated by a graduated circle 2; 0 drawn on a slip of
paper, and made to adhere to the glass by varnish.
The electrified body whose action ;s to be observed, is
another small ball of cork £, also gilt, or a brass ball
well polished. This is carried by a stalk of lac m cp,
inclosing a dry silk thread. This stalk is grasped by a
clamp of cleft deal, or any similar contrivance, which
is made to lie firm on the glass cover. When this ball-
is let down through the hole m, it stands so as to touch
the ball a on the arm, when that ball is opposite to O
on the graduated circle. .
In order to electrify the ball t, we are to employ
the insulating handle, fig. 14. which is a slender stick Fig. r4.
of sealing-wax or lac, holding a metal wire that carries
a small polished metallic balk This is to be touched
with some electrified body, such as the prime conductor
of a machine, the knob of ajar, &c. This electrified
ball is to be introduced cautiously into the hole m, and
the ball t is to be touched with it. The ball a is im¬
mediately repelled to a distance, twisting the suspension
wire, till the force of twist exerted by the wire ba¬
lances the mutual repulsion of the balls t and a.
This is the process for examining the law of electric
action. When it is desired to examine the action of
different bodies in different states, another apparatus
is wanted. This is represented by the piece c A if (fig.
15.) consisting of a plug of sealing-wax A, fittingpjg r-
tightly into the hole m, and pierced by the wire c d,
hooked at c, to receive a wire to connect it occasionally
with an electrified body, and having below a polished
metal ball d.
Ihe instrument is fitted for observation in the follow¬
ing manner : The milled button b is turned at top, till
the twist index i 0 is at the mark o of the twist circle.
Then the whole is turned in the collar H, till the ball
a stand opposite to the mark o of the paper circle ss 0 Q,
and at the same time the ball t or d is touched. The
observation is thus made. The ball t is first electrified
as just described, and thus a is repelled, and retiring-
twists the wire, settling, after a few oscillations, at such
a distance as is proportional to the repulsion. The twist-
index is now turned so as to force a nearer to t. The
repulsion thus produced is estimated by adding the mo¬
tion of the index to the angle at which the ball first
stopped. Giving the index another turn, we haveanother
repulsion, which is estimated in a similar way, and thus
we obtain as many measures as required.
It is not necessary to make this instrument of very
large dimensions; one 14 inches high, and five in dia¬
meter, of which the arm a g should occupy two inches
and a half, will be sufficiently large for most purposes.
The diameter of the glass cylinder must always be
double the length of the arm a g, that the position of
this may not be disturbed by the action of the glass.
Dr liobison considered this electrometer as one of
the
E L E [8
Electronic- the most valuable instruments that have been made, as
ter. it is not only extremely delicate, but gives absolute
v measures with the greatest accuracy. For all purposes
in which only repulsions were to be measured, he pre¬
ferred it to his own instrument described in Electri¬
city, N° 206. # . .
Pie, however, suggested several improvements in it,
which are deserving of attention,
The bottom should be furnished with a round hole,
admitting the lower end of the cylinder C o belonging
to the lower pincer (when the wire is strained at both
ends) to hang freely, by which means much tedious os¬
cillation will be prevented. It is much more conveni¬
ent to have the suspension wire strained at both ends j
and it should extend as far below the arms as above it,
and the lower extremity should be grasped by a pincer
that turns by a milled head in a hole at the end of a
slender spring. The instrument may then be speedily
adjusted by placing the twist index at O, and gently
turning the lower button till the ball a point exactly at
o on the paper circle.
The instrument will he greatly improved, if, in place
of the apparatus with the ball t, we substitute the piece
represented at fig. 15. making some little changes in its
construction. Thus, instead of the wire c d, is used
the smallest glass tube that will admit of being varnish¬
ed on the inside, which is done by drawing through it
a silk thread dipped in varnish, made of lac..
The outside of the tube must also be varnished, and
a brass ball d fixed at its lower end, and a slender wire
surmounted by a ball, is to be inserted into the tube,
so as to touch the ball below. The position of the ball
d will not be liable to alteration, when the hole m is
once stopped with the plug. In making delicate ex¬
periments, the upper ball c must be touched with the
charger, represented at fig. 14. by which means the ball
d is electrified. Then drawing out C by means of the
forceps, the ball d is left completely insulated. In ex¬
amining the electricity of the atmosphere, to which
purpose this instrument is well adapted, the wire must
be allowed to remain in the tube.
It was by means of this incomparable instrument,
that M. Coulomb made the valuable experiments, to
which we alluded in the article Electricity, when
treating of the law of action of the electric fluid. By
means of this electrometer, he also made his experi¬
ments on the dissipation of electricity into the air, and
along imperfect conductors. He ascertained the law of
dissipation into the air from bodies in contact, and the
relation which this bore to the original repulsion, by
first observing the gradual approach of the ball a to¬
wards t, in proportion as the electricity dissipated from
both, and then slackening the twist index til! the ball
a resumed its original situation.
The following was the general result of Mr Cou¬
lomb’s experiments.
That the momentary dissipation of moderate degrees
of electricity is proportional to the degree of electricity
at the moment. He found that the dissipation is not
sensibly affected by the state of the barometer or ther¬
mometer , nor is there any sensible difference of bodies
of different sixes or different substances, or even dif¬
ferent figures, provided that the electricity is very
weak.
But he found that the dissipation was greatly affect-
] E L E
ed by the different states of humidity of the air. In theElectrom.
scale of Saussure’s hygrometer, the relation to the quan- , ter*
tity of water which a cubic foot of air is capable of
holding in solution is distinctly marked j the relation
of this solution to the dissipation of electricity in Cou¬
lomb’s experiments, may hence be seen in the following
table, the first column of which marks the degrees of
Saussure’s hygrometer, the second how many grains of
water are dissolved in a cubic foot of air at each de¬
gree, and the third column column (shews the corre¬
sponding dissipation per minute.
69 6,197 ZT5
75 7»295 *r
80 8,045
87 9,221 x1*
Hence it follows, that the dissipation is very nearly
in the triplicate ratio of the moisture of the air. Thus
if we make |x=
6,180
m
will be= 2,764. If we
make
8,045
"6,180
make
eo _9,340
6,180
m will be = 2,76 j and if we
will be = 3,61 *, or at a me¬
dium m will be = 3,40-
The immediate object that M. Coulomb had in view
in his experiments, was to ascertain the diminution of
repulsion. He found that this, in a given state of the
air, was a certain proportion of the whole repulsion
taken at the moment of diminution, which is double
the proportion of the density of the fluid j for the re¬
pulsions by which we judge of the dissipation are reci¬
procal, being exerted by every particle of fluid in the
ball t of the electrometer, on every particle of fluid in
the ball a. The diminution of repulsion is therefore
proportional to the density of the electric fluid in each
ball ; and, as during the whole dissipation, the densities
continue to have their original proportion, and as the
diminution of repulsion is directly proportional to the
diminution of the products of the densities, it is con¬
sequently directly proportional to the square of ei¬
ther. If we put d for the density, the mutual repul¬
sion will be represented by eP, and its momentary di¬
minution by the fluxion of dx, or 2 dd~2 dxd. But
2 dxd : dt—2 d : d. The diminution of the repulsion
observed by experiment will be to the whole repul¬
sion, in double the proportion that the diminution of
density, or the dissipation of fluid will have to the
whole quantity of fluid at the moment of observation.
Let us, for instance, suppose the observed diminution of
repulsion to be •, we may conclude, that the quanti¬
ty of fluid lost by dissipation is M. Coulomb did
not examine the proportion of the dissipations from bo¬
dies of various sizes. But we know, that if two spheres
communicate by a very long canal, their superficial
densities, and the tendencies of fluid to escape from
them, are inversely as the diameters of the spheres.
Now, in a body that has twice the diameter of another
body, the surface of the former is quadruple of that of
the latter*, and though the tendency of fluid to escape
from the former is only the half of its tendency to es¬
cape from the latter, yet the greater surface of the
former may so far make up for its smaller density, that
the
E L E [ 9 ] E L E
Klectrome- dissipation of fluid from a large sphere may in fact
ter. be greater than that from a small one in the same given
We have remarked above, that these experiments
were made in a particular state of the air $ and the law
of dissipation ascertained by them is of course adapted
only to that given state. In a dift'erent state of the air,
even if this should be impregnated with the same pro¬
portion of moisture, the law of dissipation may be dif¬
ferent. The inference which M. Coulomb expected to
draw from his experiments was, that the ratio of dissi¬
pation would prove to be less than the cube of the
quantity of water held in solution, except when that
quantity of water was what the air was capable of
holding in solution at the given temperature.
T-his is agreeable to observation j for we know that
air which is considered as dry, that is, when it is not
nearly saturated with moisture, is the most favourable to
electrical phenomena.
Such is the general result of Coulomb’s experiments
on the dissipation of electricity into the air.
The method in which M. Coulomb examined the
dissipation along imperfect conductors, by means of this
instrument, was, by completely insulating the ball t,
and then after observing the loss sustained by a body in
Contact with it from the air, sliding a metallic rod
down the insulating stalk, till the dissipation began to
exceed what took place only by the air.
From his experiments respecting the dissipation along
imperfect conductors, he found that this took place in a
different manner from that in which electricity escaped
by communication with the contiguous air. The elec¬
tricity seems to be diffused chiefly along the surface of
the insulator, and appears principally to be produced
by the moisture that is more or less attached to it. M.
Coulomb illustrates this in the following manner.
Water is found to adhere to the surface of all bodies
from which it is prevented by adhesion from escaping
when the bodies are electrified, and is thus rendered
capable of receiving a greater degree of electric power.
Let us suppose that the particles of moisture are disposed
uniformly over the surface, with intervals between them;
the electricity that is communicated to one particle,
must acquire a certain degree of density, before it can
fly from this particle to the next, across the intervening
insulating space. When an imperfect conductor of this
kind is electrified at one extremity, the communicated
electricity, in passing to the other extremity, must be
weakened every step in passing from particle to particle.
Suppose we have three adjacent particles, which we
may call o, A, and c ; we.infer from N° 374. of the ar¬
ticle Electricity, that the motion of £ is sensibly ef¬
fected, only by the difference of a and c: and therefore
the passage of electric fluid from b to e, requires that
this difference be superior, or at least equal to the force
necessary for clearing this coercive interval. Let a par¬
ticle pass over. The density of fluid of the particle b is
diminished, while the density of the particle on the
other side of a remains as before. Therefore some
fluid will pass from a to i, and from the particle pre¬
ceding a to o ; and so on, till we come to the electri¬
fied end of this insulator. It is plain, from this con¬
sideration, that we must at last arrive at a particle be¬
yond c, where the whole repulsion of the preceding
Vol. VIII. Part L +
particle is just sufficient to clear the coercive interval. Eicct,on;c-
Some fluid will come over j and the repulsion of this, ter
acting now in the opposite direction, will prevent any *—■—v——'
fluid from coming to supply its place in the particle -
which it has just quitted $ the transference of fluid will
therefore stop here, and beyond this point the insulation
will be complete. Hence we perceive that there is a
mathematical relation between the insulating power, and
the length of the canal; and this may be ascertained by
the theory which we adopted in the article Electri¬
city. We shall here give an instance of this investi¬
gation $ and, for the sake of simplicity, we shall take a
very probable case, vix. where the insulating interval,
or, as we may more properly call it, the coercive inter¬
val, is equal in every part of the canal.
Let R represent the coercive power of the insulator,
or the degree of force required to clear the coercive
interval between two particles. Suppose a ball C, fig.
l6. suspended by a silken thread AB j and let us de-Fig. 16.
note the quantity of a redundant fluid in the ball by C,
and let the densities at the different points of the canal
be denoted by AD, P i/, &c. ordinates to some curve
D </B, cutting the axis in B, the point where the thread
AB begins to insulate completely. LetPjo be an element
of the axis $ draw the ordinate pj\ a tangent to the
curve r//F, the normal d E, and draw f e perpendicu¬
lar to P d. Suppose AC=r, AP=*, and P dzzy.
Then we shall have Vp—xy and de— —y. It was
shewn in N° 374. of the article Electricity, that the
only sensible action of the fluid on a particle at P is-——,
^ 9C
when the action of the redundant fluid in the globe on
the particle at P, having the density y, is denoted by
—— Therefore ~ is =R, the coercive power of
the thread, which is supposed to be constant,
V dX'de
is therefore equal to some constant line R. But P/>
(or/e) : t/ e = P : PE. The subnormal, PE, is
therefore a constant line. But as this is the property
of a parabola, the curve of density D J B must be a
parabola, of which 2PE =: 2R, is the parameter.
Cor. I.—The densities at different points of an im¬
perfect insulator are in the subduplicate ratio of their
distances from the point of complete insulation: for
P d2: AD*=BP : BA.
Cor. 2.—The lengths of canal requisite for insulating
different densities of the electric fluid are in the dupli-
AD*
cate ratio of their densities j for AB= -vrp, and PE
2rE
is a constant quantity.
Cor. 3.—-The length of canal requisite for insulation
is inverselv as its coercive power, and may be repre-
, . D* _ a r> DA2 D*
ge"ttd b? It • ForAB=^E=IU-
If we reflect on this theory, we shall perceive, that
our formulae determine the distribution of fluid along
the surface of an imperfect conductor, only in a cer¬
tain manner, supposing that the ball C has received a
certain determinate portion of fluid, for this portion dif¬
fusing itself, particle by particle, through the conduct¬
ing matter, will extend to b in such a manner, as that
B the
E L E [ ic
Eieeirome-tlie repulsion shall be everywhere in equilibrio with the
ter. coercive power of the insulating interval, taken at <i
t...- v—-— maximum. We must here remark that this resistance
is not active, but only coercive, ami may be compared
,,tothe resistance afforded by viscidity or friction. Any
repulsion of electric fluid, which falls short of this,
will not disturb the stability of the fluid that is spread
along the canal, according to any law whatever. So
that if AD represent the electric density of the globe,
and remain constant, any curve or density will answer,
provided that be everywhere less than R. It is
x
therefore an indeterminate problem, to assign in gene¬
ral the disposition of fluid in the canal. 1 he density is
as the ordinates of a parabola on this supposition only,
that the maximum of R is everywhere the same. And,
in this case, the distance AB is a mmimum: for, in
other cases of density we must have — less than R. If,
x
therefore, we vary a single element of the curve DrfB,
in order, that the stability of the fluid may not be dis¬
turbed, having d constant, we must necessarily have x
larger, that —?■ may still be less than R j that is, we
x
most lengthen the axis.
The reasonings which have thus been deduced from
theory, were confirmed by M. Coulomb in a numerous
set of experiments. These are chiefly valuable for ha¬
ving stated the relation that subsists between the elec¬
tric density, and the length of support necessary for
complete insulation. But as M. Coulomb has not given
us the scale of his electrometer, according to which
the absolute measures of the densities were determined,
4-iftP experiments can be of but little use till this be
known.
We hinted, at the end of the theoretical part of
Electricity, that the theory of Volta’s condenser
might be more satisfactorily explained after we had
considered the above experiments of Coulomb. The
account which we gave of the condenser in Chap. xiii.
of that article, (chiefly from Cavallo), was the only one
we could properly give in that early part of our view of
the science. We are now prepared for a more scientific
account of the effects of that instrument. The follow¬
ing is nearly the manner in which Dr Robison consi¬
dered the subject.
Let the cover of an electrophorus be furnished with
a graduated electrometer, such as may indicate the pro¬
portional degrees of electricity ; electrify it positively to
any degree, we shall suppose six, while it is held in the
hand, at a little distance, directly over a metallic plate
lying on a wine glass, or such like insulating stand,
but made to communicate with the ground by a wire.
Now bring it gradually down towards the plate. The-;
ory teaches, and we see it confirmed by experiment,
that the electrometer will gradually subside, and will
perhaps fall to 2°, before the electricity is communicated
in a spark : but let us stop it beTore this happens j the
attraction of the lying plate produces a compensation of
four degrees of the mutual repulsion of the parts of the
cover, by condensing the fluid on its inferior surface, and
forming a deficient stratum above. J. his needs no farther
explanation, after what we said under Electricity, on
3 ] E L E
the charging of coated glass plates. Now we may sup-
pose that the escape of the fluid from this body into the ter.
air, begins as soon as it is electrified to 6°, and that it ' '
will fly to the insulated plate with the degree 2, if it be
brought nearer. But if we can prevent this commu¬
nication to the insulated plate, by interposing an elec¬
tric, we may electrify the cover again, while so near
the metallic plate, to 6°, before it will pass off into
the air. If now it be removed from the lying plate,
the fluid would cause the electrometer to rise to io°, if
it did not immediately pass off', and an electric excite¬
ment of any kind which could raise this body only to
6° by its intensity, will, by means of this apparatus,
raise it to the degree 10, if it be sufficiently copious in
extent. If we do the same thing when the wire which
connects the lying plate with the ground is taken away,
we know that the same diminution of the electricity of
the other plate cannot be produced by bringing it down
snear the lying insulated plate.
The theory of Volta’s condenser now becomes very
simple. M. Volta seems to have obscured his con¬
ceptions of it, by being intent on the electrophorus
which he had lately invented, and was thus led into
fruitless attempts to explain the advantages of the im¬
perfect conductor above the perfect insulator. But the
condensing apparatus is wholly different from an elec¬
trophorus ; its operations are more analogous to those
of a coated plate not charged, and insulated only on
one side; and such a coated plate lying on a table will
be a complete condenser, if the upper coating be of the
same dimensions as the plate of the condenser. All
the directions given by M. Volta for preparing the
imperfect conductors prove, that the effect produced
is to make them as perfect conductors as possible for
any degree of electricity that exceeds a certain small
intensity, but such as shall not suffer this very weak
electricity to clear the first step of the conducting space*
The marble must be thoroughly dried, and even heat¬
ed in an oven, and either used in this warm state, or
must be varnished, so as to prevent the reabsorption of
moisture. We know that marble of slender dimensions,
so as to be completely dried throughout, will not con¬
duct electricity till it has again become moist. A thick
piece of marble is rendered dry only superficially, and
still conducts internally. It is then in the best possible
state for a condenser. The same is the case with dry
unbaked wood. Varnishing the upper surface of a
piece of marble or wood is equivalent to covering it
with a thin glass plate. Now by this method of cover¬
ing the top of the marble, a book, or even the table,
with a piece of clean dry silk, they all become most
perfect condensators. This view of the matter has
great advantage. We learn from it how to form a
condensing apparatus much more simple and at the
same time much more efficacious. We require only
the simple moveable plate, which must be covered on the
under side with a very thin coating of the finest coach-
painters varnish. By connecting this, by a wire, with
the substance whose weak electricity is to be examined,
this electricity will be raised in the proportion of the
thickness of the varnish to the fourth of the plate’s dia¬
meter. This condensation will he produced by detach- .
ing the wire from the insulating handle of the condensing
plate, and then lifting this from the table on which it wa«
lying. It will then afford sparks, though the original
electricity
//.. t/r/i//•'////. .
E L E [
Eleetromo- electricity was not strong enough to affect the most de¬
ter licate electrometer.
11 ELECTIIOPHORUS. See Electricity Index.
Element*. ELECTRUM, in Natural History. See Amber.
v ELECTUARY, in Pharmacy, a form of medicine
composed of powders and other ingredients, incorpo¬
rated with some conserve, honey, or syrup; to be di¬
vided into doses, like boluses, when taken.
Vossius observes, that all the remedies prescribed for
the sick, as well as the confections taken by way of re¬
gale, were called by the Greeks txXtiyuxrx, and tx.Xux-
rx, of the verb “ I like;” whence, says he,
was formed the Latin e/ectarium, and afterwards elec-
iuariam. This conjecture he supports from the laws of
Sicily, where it is ordained, that electuaries, syrups,
and other remedies, be prepared after the legal manner.
The Bollandists, who relate this etymology, seem to
confirm it. For the composition and different sorts of
electuaries, see Pharmacy.
ELEEMOSYNA Carucarum, or pro Aratris, or
Aratri, in our ancient customs, a penny which King
Ethelred ordered to be paid for every plough in Eng¬
land towards the support of the poor. Sometimes it is
also called eleemosyna i-egis, because first appointed by
the king.
ELEEMOSYNARIES, in our old writers, is
used for the almoner or peculiar officer who received
the eleemosynary rents and gifts, and distributed them
to pious and charitable uses. There was such an officer
in all religious houses. The bishops also used to have
their almoners, as now the king has.
ELEGANCE, (from eligo, “ I choose,”) denotes a
manner of doing or saying things politely, agreeably,
and with choice. With choice, so as to rise above the
common manners; politely, so as to strike people of de¬
licate taste ; and agreeably, so as to diffuse a relish
which gratifies every body.
Elegance, in oratory and composition, an orna¬
ment of politeness and agreeableness shown in any dis¬
course, with such a choice of rich and happy expres¬
sions, as to rise politely above the common manners, so
as to strike people of a delicate taste.
It is observed, that elegance, though irregular, is
preferable to regularity without elegance : that is, by
being so scrupulous of grammatical construction, we
lose certain licences wherein the elegance of language
consists.
ELEGIAC, in ancient poetry, any thing belong¬
ing to elegy. See Elegy.
ELEG1T, in Law, a writ of execution, which lies
for a person who has recovered debt or damages ; or
upon a recognizance in any court against a defendant
that is not able to satisfy the same in bis goods.
ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of poem.
See the article PoETRY.
ELEMENTS, in Physics, the first principles of
which ad bodies in the system of nature are com¬
posed.
'Ihese are supposed to he few in number, unchange¬
able, and by their combinations to produce that ex¬
tensive variety of objects to be met with in the woiks
of nature.
That there is in reality some foundation for this doc-
trine of elementary bodies is plain ; for there are some
priaciples evidently exempted from every change or
ii ] E L E
decay, and which can he mixed or changed into differ- Elemeni*.
ent forms of matter. A person who surveys the works y-  
of nature in an inattentive manner, may perhaps form
a contrary opinion, when he considers the numerous "
tribes of fossils, plants, and animals, with the wonder¬
ful variety that appears among them in almost every
instance. He may from thence be induced to con¬
clude, that nature employs a vast variety of materials
in producing such prodigious diversity. But let him
inquire into the origin of this apparent diversity, and
he will find that these bodies which se^m the most dif¬
ferent from each other are composed nearly of the same
elements. Thus the blood, chyle, milk, urine, &c.
as well as the various solid parts of animals, are all com¬
posed of one particular substance ; grass, for instance,
by the assistance of air and water, and even sometimes
of very insipid kinds of grass. The same simplicity
presents itself in the original composition of the nou¬
rishment of vegetables, notwithstanding the variety
among them with respect to hardness, softness, elastici¬
ty, taste, odour, and medical qualities. They chiefly
depend, for these, upon water, and the light of the sun ;
and the same simplicity must take place in animals that
are fed on vegetables. The analysis of animal substances
confirms this hypothesis; for they can all be reduced
into a few principles, which are the same in all, and
only differ with regard to the proportions in which they
are combined. With regard to animals, the case ap¬
pears to be the same : and the more we are acquainted
with them, the more reason we have to believe that the
variety in their origin is very small. /
Notwithstanding the infinite variety of natural pro¬
ductions, therefore, it appears, that the materials em¬
ployed in their formation are but few ; that these
are uniformly and certainly the same, totally exempli d
from any change or decay ; and that the constant and
gradual change of one body into another is produced
by the various separations and combinations of the
original and elementary parts, which is plain from the
regularity^and uniformity of nature at all times. There
is a change of forms and combinations through which
it passes, and this has been the case from the earliest
accounts of time; the productions of nature have al¬
ways been of the same kind, and succeeded one an¬
other in the same order. If we examine an oak, for
instance, we find it composed of the same matter with
that of any other that has existed from the earliest ages.
This regularity and uniformity in the course of nature
shows that the elementary parts of bodies are perma¬
nent and unchangeable; for if these elementary parti¬
cles which constituted an oak some thousand years ago,
had been undergoing any gradual decay, the oaks of
the present times would have been found considerably
different from those that existed long ago ; but as no
difference lias been observed, it would seem that the
ultimate elements of bodies have always continued the
same.
Reflections of this kind have suggested an idea of
several principal elements of which all other bodies
are composed, which by their various combinations
furnished all the variety of natural bodies. Democri¬
tus, and other great philosophers of antiquity, fixed
the number to four, which have retained the name of
elements ever since. These are, fire, air, earth, and
water; each of which they imagined was naturally
B 2 disp osed
E L E
disposed to hold its own place in the universe. Thus
the earth, as heaviest, naturally tended towards the
centre, and occupied the lower parts j the water as
approaching next to it in gravity, was spread chiefly
on the outside of the earth: the air, being more subtile
and rare, occupied the middle place j while the fire, be¬
ing still more Subtile and active, receded to the great¬
est distance of all, and was supposed to compose the
planets and stars. This system was extended to all the
productions of nature. Meteors were produced from
a combination of fire and air j animals were considered
as composed of earth and water; and those that were
warm had likewise a proportion of the element of fire.
Thus they went on, explaining some of the most strik¬
ing qualities of the several productions of nature from
the different proportions of the four elements they con¬
tained.
But though this system appears not at all destitute of
beauty and propriety, and on this account has been
long received, we know from modern discoveries that
these four substances are not really elementary bodies;
nor do they answer our purpose in forming a system, as
we know too little of the intimate structure and texture
of them to enable us to explain jother bodies by them.
Any other attempts that have been made to assign
the number of elementary bodies have been much less
fortunate. The older chemists, with Paracelsus at their
head, pretend to speak of four elementary bodies, salt,
sulphur, earth, and mercury : but when we attempt to
form an idea of what they mean, we find it very per¬
plexed ; and that the expressions concerning them are
enveloped in so much obscurity, that they cannot be
comprehended ; and the theory is built entirely upon
experiments made on metallic substances.
Attempts have been made by some to show that
the elements, whatever they are, must necessarily be
invisible or imperceptible by any of our senses. An
inquiry into their number or properties therefore must
be attended with very little success; and all the know¬
ledge we can have upon the subject must be drawn from
a view of their combinations, and reasoning analogically
from the transmutations we observe to take place in
nature. The modern discoveries in aerology have ena¬
bled us to proceed farther in this way than what it was
possible for the ancient philosophers to do. We now
find that all the dift'erent kinds of air are composed of
that invisible and subtile fluid named heat, united in a
certain way with some other substance ; by which union
the compound acquires the properties of gravitation,
expansion, rarefaction, &c. for pure heat, unless when
united with some terrestrial substance, neither gravi¬
tates nor expands. This is evident from the phenome¬
na of the burning glass, where the light concentrated
in the focus will neither heat the air nor water, unless
it meets with something with which it can form a per¬
manent union. Heat, therefore, is justly to be consi¬
dered as one of the original elements ; being always ca¬
pable of uniting with bodies, and of being extricated
from them unchanged : while the same bodies are by
their union with it changed into various forms; water,
for instance, into ice or vapour, both of which return in¬
to their original state by the abstraction or addition of
heat in a certain degree.. Hence it becomes almost na¬
tural to conclude, that- there are only two elements in
the universe ; and this opinion we find adopted by se-
E L E
veral philosophers, particularly the count de Tressan in Element*,
his Essay on the Electric Fluid. According to his -v-—-J
doctrine, two primitive material substances seem to exist
in nature; one that incessantly acts, and to which it
is essential to be in motion ; the other absolutely pas¬
sive, and whose nature it is to be inert, and move en¬
tirely as directed by the former. Should this doctrine
be adopted, little difficulty would occur in determining
the active matter to be that universal fluid, which, in its
various modifications of light, heat, and electricity,
has such a share in the operations of nature. But in
fixing on the passive element we are greatly embar¬
rassed ; nor are the discoveries in aerology or any other
science as yet able to remove the difficulty entirely.
According to the doctrines which long prevailed among
chemical philosophers, there are three things that seem
to be unchangeable, viz. earth ; phlogiston ; and that
invisible, though terrestrial and gravitating principle,
called by the antiphlogistians the oxygenous or acidify¬
ing principle, and by the phlogistians the basis of de-
phlogisticated air. In our experiments, say they,
on the first, we find that earth, though vitrified by
the most intense fire, may be recovered in its proper
form: and some very pure earths, particularly mag¬
nesia alba, cannot be changed even in the focus of
the most powerful mirror. In like manner we may
dissipate charcoal in vacuo by the solar rays, and
the compound is inflammable air : we may decompose
this compound by a metallic calx, and we have our
charcoal again unchanged, for all metals contain char¬
coal in substance. Let us try to destroy it by common
fire, and we have it then in the fixed air produced,
from which it may be recovered unchanged by means
of the electric spark. With the basis of dephlogistica-
ted air the case is still more difficult; for we cannot
by any means procure a sight of it by itself. We may
combine it with heat, and we have dephlogisticated air ;
to the compound we may add charcoal, and we have
fixed air: by decomposing the former by burning iron
in it, we have the metal greatly increased in weight by
some unknown substance : and if we attempt to separate
the latter, we have water, or some kind of vapour which
still conceals it from our view.
In some experiments which were made by the in¬
genious Mr Watt, it was found that nitrous acid
might be phlogisticated by the purest earth or me¬
tallic calx; whence, according to this doctrine, it
is not unreasonable to suppose that phlogiston may be
only a certain modification of earth, and not an element
distinct from it: but with regard to the basis of de¬
phlogisticated air, no experiment has ever shown that
it can either be procured by itself, or changed into
any other substance; so that it appears to have the na¬
ture of an element as much as light or heat. Though
we should therefore be inclined to divide the whole
matter of the universe into two classes, the one active
and the other acted upon, we must allow that the pas¬
sive matter even on this earth is not precisely of the
same kind: much less are we to extend our specula¬
tions in this respect to the celestial regions ; for who
can determine whether the substance of the moon is
the same with that of our earth, or that the elements
of Jupiter are the same with those of Saturn ? There
is even a difficulty with regard to the division which
seems so well established, viz. of matter in general into
active
[ 12 ]
E L E [i
Elements active and passive ; for no person can prove, that the
ii matter which is active in one case may not be passive
Elepnanta. jn anot|ier> and occasionally resume its activity. Some-
' ’ thing like this certainly happens in the case of the
electric fluid, which is modified into heat or light, ac¬
cording to different circumstances; and we cannot
know but it is the very same substance that constitutes
the most solid bodies. This opinion at least did not
seem absurd to Sir Isaac Newton, who proposed it as
a query, Whether gross bodies and light were not con¬
vertible into one another ? The end of our inquiries on
this subject therefore must be, That the universe may
be composed of many elements, or of one element; and
of the nature of these elements, or of the single one, we
know nothing.
Element, in a figurative sense, is used for the prin¬
ciples and foundations of any art or science ; as Euclid’s
Elements, &c.
Elements, in Astronomy, are those principles de¬
duced from astronomical observations and calculations,
and those fundamental numbers ^vhich are employed in
the construction of tables of the planetary motions.
Thus, the elements of the theory of the sun, or ra¬
ther of the earth, are his mean motion and eccentricity,
and the motion of the aphelia. The elements of the
theory of the moon are its mean motion; that of its
node and apogee, its eccentricity, the inclination of its
orbit to the plane of the ecliptic, &c.
ELEMI, or Elemy, in the Materia Medico. See
Amykis.
ELENCHUS, in antiquity, a kind of ear-rings set
with large pearls.
Elenchus, in Logic, by the Latins called argumen-
tum and inquisitio, is a vicious or fallacious argument,
which deceives under the appearance of a truth; the
same with what is otherwise called sophism.
ELEPHANT. See Elephas, Mammalia Index.
American Elephant; an animal only known in a
fossil state, and that but partially, from the teeth, some
of the jaw-bones, the thigh-bones, and vertebrre, found
with many others five or six feet beneath the surface on
the banks of the Ohio. But these bones differ in se¬
veral respects from those of the elephant; for which,
see Fossil Bones. As yet the living animal has eva¬
ded our search. Mr Pennant thinks it “ more than
probable, that it still exists in some of those remote parts
of the vast new continent unpenetrated yet by Europeans.
Providence maintains and continues every created spe¬
cies ; and we have as much assurance that no race of
animals will any more cease while the earth remains, than
seed-time and harvest, cold and heat, summer and win¬
ter, day or night?’1 See Mammuth.
Elephant Beetle. See Scarab;eus, EntomolOt
GY Index.
Knights of the Elephant, an order of knighthood
in Denmark, conferred upon none but persons of the first
quality and merit. It is also called the order of St Mary.
Its institution is said to have been owing to a gentlemani
among the Danish croises having killed an elephant, in
an expedition against the Saracens,.in 1184 ; in,memory
of which, King Canutus instituted this order, the badge
of which is a towered elephant, with an image of the
holy virgin encircled with rays, and hung on a watered
sky-coloured ribbon, like the george in England.
ELEPHANTA, a small, but very remarkable
] E L E.
island, about five miles from the castle of Bombay in Elephanta,
the East Indies. Of this we have the following de-
scription in Mr Grose’s Voyage to the East Indies.
“ ]t can at most be but about three miles in compass,,
and consists almost all of hill; at the foot of which, as
you land, you see, just above the shore, on your right,,
an elephant, coarsely cut out in stone, of the natural
bigness, and at some little distance not impossible to be
taken for a real elephant, from the stone being natUr
rally of the colour of that beast. It stands on a plat¬
form of stones of the same colour. On the back of
this elephant was placed, standing, another young one,
appearing to have been all of the same stone, but has
been long broken down. Of the meaning, or history,
of this image, there is no tradition old enough to give
any account. Returning then to the foot of the hill,
you ascend an easy slant, which about half way up the
hill brings you to the opening or portal of a large ca¬
vern hewn out of a solid rock into a magnificent
temple: for such surely it may be termed, considering
the immense workmanship of such an excavation; and
seems to me a far more bold attempt than that of the
pyramids of Egypt. There is a fair entrance into this
subterraneous temple, which is an oblong square, in
length about 80 or go feet, by 40 broad. The roof
is nothing but the rock cut flat at top, and in which
I could not discern anything that did not show it to
be all of one piece. It is about ten feet high,, and sup¬
ported towards the middle, at equidistance from the
sides and from one another, with two regular rows of
pillars of a singular order. They are very massive,
short in proportion to their thickness, and their capi¬
tal bears some resemblance to a. round cushion pressed
by the superincumbent mountain, with which they are
also of one piece. At the further end of this temple
are three gigantic figuresthe face of one of them is
at least five feet in, length, and of a proportionable
breadth. But these representations have no reference
or connection either to any known history or the
mythology of, the Gentoos. They had continued in
a tolerable state of preservation and wholeness, consi¬
dering the remoteness of their antiquity, until the ar¬
rival of the Portuguese, who made themselves masters
of the place; and in the blind fury of their bigotry,
not suffering any idols but their own, they must have
even been at some pains to maim and deface them, as
they now remain, considering the hardness of the stone.
It is said they even brought field-pieces to the demoli¬
tion of images, which so greatly deserved to be spared
for the unequalled curiosity of them. Of this Queen
Catherine of Portugal was, it seems, so sensible, that
she could not conceive that any traveller would return
from that side of India without visiting the wonders
of this cavern; of which too the sight appeared to me
to exceed all the descriptions I had heard of them.
About two-thirds of the way up this temple, on each,
side, and fronting each other, are two doors or out¬
lets into smaller grots or excavations, and freely open
to the air. Near and about the door-way, on the
right hand, are several mutilated images, single and in
groups.. In one of the last, I remarked a kind of re¬
semblance to the story of Solomon dividing the child,
there standing a figure with a drawn sword, holding in
one hand an infant with the head downwards, which
it appears in act, to cleave through the niiddle* The
outlet.;
E L E [14
Klcphanla outlet of the other on the left hand is into an area of
(1 about 20 feet in length and 12 in breadth j at the np-
E!eve- per end of which, as you turn to the right, presents it-
v' self a colonnade covered at top, of xo or 12 leet deep,
and in length answering to the breadth of the area :
this joins to an apartment of the most regular architec¬
ture, an oblong square, with a door in perfect symme¬
try ; and the whole executed in quite a contrary taste
and manner from any of the oldest or best Gentoo build¬
ings anywhere extant. I took particular notice of
some paintings round the cornices, not for any thing
curious in the" design, but for the beauty and freshness
of the colouring, which must have lasted some thou¬
sands of years, on supposing it, as there is all reason to
suppose it, cotemporary with the building itself. The
fioor of the apartment is generally full of water, its
pavement or ground-work not permitting it to be
drawn oft or to be soaked up. For it is to be obser¬
ved, that even the cavern itself is not visitable after the
rains, until the ground of it has had time to dry into a
competent hardness.”
ELEPHANTIASIS, called also the lepra of the
Arabians, in Medicine, a chronical disease, one of the
two species of leprosy which affects the whole body,
where even the bones as well as the skin are covered
with spots and tumours, which being red, at last turn
black. See Medicine Index.
ELEPHANTINE, or Elephantis, in Ancient
Geography, an island in the Nile to the south of Syene ;
with a cognominal town, where the navigation on the
Nile ends, because just below the less cataract. And
here to the west of the Nile stood the last Roman gar¬
rison (Notitia Imperii).
Elephantine, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to the books wherein were registered the trans¬
actions of the senate and magistrates of Rome, of the
emperors or generals of armies, and even of the provin¬
cial magistrates, the births and classes of the people,
and other things relating to the census.
They are supposed to have been so called, as being
made of leaves of ivory or elephants tusks.
ELEPHANTOMACHI. See Ethiopia.
ELEPHANTOPUS, a genus of plants belonging
to the syngenesia class, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Composite. See Botany
Index.
ELEPHAS, the Elephant, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of bruta. See AIammalia
jf ndex.
ELEVATION, the same with Altitude or
height.
Elevation of the Host, in the church of Rome, that
part of the mass where the priest raises the host above
his head for the, people to adore.
ELEVATOR, in A natomy, the name of several
muscles, so called from their serving to raise the parts of
the body to which they belong.
ELEVATORY, in Surgery, an instrument for rai¬
sing depressed or fractured parts of the skull, to be ap¬
plied after the integuments and periosteum are removed.
See Surgery.
ELEVE, a term purely French, though of late used
also in our language. Literally it signifies a disciple or
scholar bred up under any one, being formed from the
Italian allievo, an “ apprentice” or novice.”
] E L E
It w'as first used by the French writers in speaking Elere
of painters; such a painter was an eleve of Da \inci, 11,.
of Raphael, &c. From painting it came to be applied , eu»ni»‘
to such as studied or learned any other art under a ma¬
ster. In the Royal Academy of Sciences, there were
20 eleves ; and in that of inscriptions, 10 eleves. The
eleves are to act in concert with the pensionaries. See
Academy.
The denomination eleve, however, has been since
suppressed, and that of adjoint substituted in its room ;
because every body did not know the sense affixed to
it by the academy : and now the pensionary academists
have not, as formerly, each of them an eleve; but the
eleves are become adjoints, or associates of the acade¬
my.
ELEVENTH, or chord of the eleventh. See In¬
terval.
ELEUSINIA, in Grecian antiquity, a festival kept
in honour of Ceres, every fourth year by some states,
but by others every fifth. The Athenians celebrated
it at Eleusis, a town of Attica: whence the name.
Ceres, says an Athenian orator (Isocrates), wan¬
dering in quest of her daughter Proserpine, came into
Attica, where some good offices were done her, which
it is unlawful for those who are not initiated to hear.
In return she conferred two unparalleled benefits ; to
wit, the knowledge of agriculture, by which the hu¬
man race is raised above the brute creation ; and the
mysteries, from which the partakers derive sweeter
hopes than other men enjoy, both as to the present life
and to eternity. It was the popular opinion, that
the Eleusinian goddesses suggested prudent council to
their votaries, and influenced their conduct; that
these wTere respected in the infernal regions, and had
precedence in the assemblies of the blessed ; while the
unhallowed were in utter darkness, wallowing in mire,
or labouring to fill a leaky vessel. 1 he Athenians
were solicitous to secure these advantages to their
children, by having them initiated as soon as was al¬
lowed.
Ceres was supposed to be particularly partial to Eleu¬
sis and its vicinity. There were the memorials of her
presence and of her bounty ; the well named Callicho-
rus, by which she had rested, in the reign of Ercc-
theus ; the stone on which she sat, named the sorrow¬
ful; the Rharian plain, where barley was first sown;
and the threshing-floor and altar of Triptolemus, a
herdsman whom she instructed in the culture of that
grain, the use of which .succeeded to acorns. Her
mysteries continued to possess a pre-eminence in holi¬
ness, and to be accounted as much superior to all other
religious festivals as the gods were to the heroes. Even
the garments worn at the solemnity were supposed to
partake of their efficacy, and to be endued with signal
virtues. It was usual to retain them until they were
perishing; and then to dedicate them in the temple,
or to reserve them for the purpose of enwrapping new¬
born children.
The mvstic temple, as it was called, provided by
Pericles for the solemnity, created such awe by its
sanctity as could be equalled only by the effect of its
beauty and magnitude, which excited astonishment in
every beholder. The profane or uninitiated were for¬
bidden to enter it on any pretence. Two young A-
carnanians happened inadvertently to mix with the
crowd
E L E t 15 ] . E L E
uja. crowd at the season of the mysteries, and to go in; but 15th till the 23d. During that time it was unlawful
—'the question suggested by their ignorance presently be- to arrest any man, or present any petition, on pain of
trayed them, and their intrusion was punished with forfeiting a thousand drachmas, or according to others
death. The chief priest, hierophant, or mystagogue, on pain of death. It was also unlawful for those who
was taken from the Eumolpidse, a holy family flourish- were initiated to sit upon the cover of a well, to eat
ing at Athens, and descended from Eumolpus, a shep- beans, mullets, or weazels. If any woman rode to
herd and favourite of Ceres. He was enjoined celiba- Eleusis in a chariot, she was obliged by an edict of
cy, and wore a stole or long garment, his hair, and a Lycurgus to pay 6ooo drachmas. The design of this
wreath of myrtle. The grand requisites in his cha- law was to destroy all distinction between the richer
racter were strength and melody of voice, solemnity of and poorer sort of citizens. When the season ap-
deportment, magnificence, and great decorum. Un- proached, the mystae or persons who had been initiated
der him, besides many of inferior station, was the only in the lesser mysteries, repaired to Eleusis to be
daduchus or torch-bearer, who had likewise his hair, instructed in the ceremonial. Theservicefortheopen-
with a fillet; the priest, who officiated at the altar ; and ing of the temple, with morning sacrifice, was per-
the hiero-ceryx, or sacred herald ; all very important formed. The ritual was then produced from the sanc-
personages. The latter was of a family which claimed tuary. It was enveloped in symbolical figures of ani-
the god Mercury and Aglauros the daughter of Cecrops mals, which suggested words compendiously, in letters
for its ancestors. with ligatures, implicated, the tops huddled together,
The secrecy in which the mysteries were envoloped, or disposed circularly like a wheel ; the whole utterly
served to enhance the idea of their consequence, and to inexplicable to the profane. The case, which was
increase the desire of participation. It was so particu- called petroma, consisted of two stones exactly fitted.
Jar, that no person was allowed even to name the hiero- The mysterious record was replaced after the reading,
pliant by whom he bad been initiated. Public abhor- and closed up until a future festival. The principal
rence and detestation awaited the babbler, and the law rite was nocturnal, and confined to the temple and its
directed he should die. environs. The mystae waited without, with impa-
The Athenians suffered none to be initiated into tience and apprehension. Lamentations and strange
these mysteries but such as were members of their ci- noises were heard. It thundered. Flashes of light
ty. This regulation, which compelled Hercules, Cas- and of fire rendered the deep succeeding darkness more
tor, and Pollux, to become citizens of Athens, was terrible. They were beaten, and perceived not the
strictly observed in the first ages of the institution, but hand. They beheld frightful apparitions, monsters,
afterwards all persons, barbarians excepted, were freely and phantoms of a canine form. They were filled
initiated. with terror, became perplexed and unable to stir.
The festivals were divided into great and less my- The scene then suddenly changed to brilliant and
steries. The less were instituted from the following agreeable. The propyhea or vestibules of the temple
circumstance. Hercules passed near Eleusis while the were opened, the curtains withdrawn, the hidden
Athenians were celebrating the mysteries, and desired things displayed. They were introduced by the hiero-
to be initiated. As this could not be done, because he pliant and daduchus, and the former showed them the
was a stranger, and as Emmolpus was unwilling to dis- mysteries. The splendour of illumination, the glory
please him on account of his great power, and the ser- of the temple and of tiie images, the singing and dan-
vices which he had done to the Athenians, another cing which accompanied the exhibition, all contributed
festival was instituted without violating the laws. It to soothe the mind after its late agitation, and to render
was called pixgx, and Hercules was solemnly admitted the wondering devotee tranquil and self-satisfied. Af-
to the celebration and initiated. These less mysteries ter this inspection, or, as it was called, the aitlopsiu,
were observed at Agrm near the liissus. The greater they retired, and others advanced. The succeeding
were celebrated at Eleusis, from which place Ceres days were employed in purification, in sacrifice, in
has been called Eleusinia. In later times the smaller pompous processions, and spectacles, at which they
festivals were preparatory to the greater, and no per- assisted, wearing myrtle crowns. The second day was
son could be initiated at Eleusis without a previous pu- called u\x$i pvrM, to the sea, you that are initiated; bt-
rification at Agrse. This purification they performed cause they were commanded to purify themselves by
by keeping themselves pure, chaste, and unpolluted, bathing in the sea. On the third day sacrifices, anil
during nine days ; after which they came and offered chiefly a mullet, were offered ; as also barley from a
sacrifices and prayers, wearing garlands of flowers, call- field of Eleusis. These oblations were called" 0y«, and
ed or and having under their feet Aia held so sacred that the priests themselves were not, as ia
Jupiter's skin, which was the skin of a victim other sacrifices, permitted to partake of them. On the
offered to that god. The person who assisted was call- fourth day they made a solemn procession, in which
ed Vigrtvo; from water, which was used at the pu- the xaXxSiov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried about in a
rification, and they themselves were called (xvrrxi, the consecrated cart, while on every side the people shouted
initiated. A?ipjTs<>, Hail, Ceres.1 After these followed women,
A year after the initiation at the less mysteries they called xirofo^oi, who earned baskets, in which was sesa-
sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and were admitted in the min, carded wool, grains of salt, a serpent, pomegra-
greater, and the secrets of the festivals were solemnly nates, reeds, ivy boughs, certain cakes, &c. The fifth
revealed to them, from which they were called apo^ot wus cMed’H t*/> Xx/x7rx$<t)» viuigx, the torch day ; because
am] iTroTrrxi, inspectators. on the following night the people ran about with
this festival was observed in the month Boedro- torches in their hands. It was usual to dedicate
anon or September, and continued nine days from the torches to Ceres, and contend which should offer the
biggest,.
IE L E [ i
Eleushiia. biggest, in commemoration of the travels of the ged-
  ^ dess, and, of her lighting a torch in the flames of Mount
TEtna. The sixth day was called from lacchus,
the soil of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied his
mother in her search after Proserpine, with a torch in
his hand. From that circumstance his statue had a
torch in his hand, and was carried in solemn procession
from the Ceramicus to Eleusis. The statue, with
those that accompanied it, called was
crowned with myrtle. In the way nothing was heard
but singing and the noise of brazen kettles as the vo¬
taries danced along. The way through which they
issued from the city was called 'l«g«c *5«f, the sacred way,
the resting place *I«g* s-wen, from a. jig-tree which grew in
the neighbourhood. They also stopped on a bridge
over the Cephisus, where they derided those that passed
by. After they had passed this bridge, they entered
.Eleusis by a place called pvrixn the mystical en¬
trance. On the seventh day were sports, in which the
"victors were rewarded with a measure of barley, as that
grain had been first sown in Eleusis. The eighth day
was called ^*5*, because once ^Esculapms at
Jiis return from Epidaucus to Athens, was initiated by
the repetition of the less mysteries. It became custom¬
ary therefore to celebrate them a second time upon
this, that such as had not hitherto been initiated might
be lawfully admitted. The ninth and last day of the
festival was called nAfi^oiti.ear^jewt’ewe/^because it
was usual to fill two such vessels with wine; one of
them being placed towards the east, and the other to¬
wards the west; which, after the repetition of some
mystical words, were both thrown down, and the wine
ibeing spilt on the ground, was ofl'ered as a libation.
The story of Ceres and Proserpine, the foundation of
(the Eleusinian mysteries, was partly local. It was both
verbally delivered, and represented in allegorical show.
Proserpine was gathering flowers when she was stolen by
Pluto. Hence the procession of the holy basket, which
was placed on a car dragged along by oxen, and follow¬
ed by a train of females, some carrying the mystic chests,
shouting, -Ha*7, Ceres ! At night a procession was made
with lighted torches, to commemorate the goddess
searching for her daughter. A measure of barley, the
grain which, it was believed, she had given, was the re¬
ward of the victors in the gymnic exercises; and the
•transactions at the temple had a reference to the le¬
gend. A knowledge of these things and places, from
which the profane were excluded, was the amount of
initiation $ and the mode of it, which had been devised
by craft, was skilfully adapted to the reigning super¬
stitions. The operation was forcible, and the eftect
in proportion. Jhe priesthood flourished as piety in¬
creased. The dispensation was corrupt, but its ten¬
dency not malignant. It produced sanctity of man¬
ners and an attention to the social duties; desire to
be as distinguished by what was deemed virtue as by
silence. ... . .
Some have supposed the principal rites at this festi¬
val to have been obscene and abominable, and that
from thence proceeded all the mysterious secrecy. They
•were carried from Eleusis to Pome in the reign of
Adrian, where they were observed with the same ce¬
remonies as before, though perhaps with more free¬
dom and licentiousness. They lasted about 1800
6 ] E L E
vears, and were at last abolished by Theodosius the Eleusiaia,
Great. . . , Eleusis- .
ELEUSIS, in Ancient Geography, a town in Atti- *
ca, between Megara and the Piraeus, celebrated for the
festivals of Ceres. See the preceding article.—Those
rites were finally extinguished in Greece upon the inva¬
sion of Alaric the Goth. Eleusis, on the overthrow
of its goddess and the cessation of its gainful traffic,
probably became soon an obscure place, without cha¬
racter or riches. For some ages, however, it was not
entirely forsaken, as is evident from the vast consump¬
tion of the ancient materials, and from the present re¬
mains, of which the following account is given by Dr
Chandler 44 The port was small and of a circular * Travels
form. The stones of one pier are seen above water, rnta Greece,
and the corresponding side may be traced. About half P’ i69-
a mile from the shore is a long hill, which divides the
plain. In the side next the sea are traces of a theatre,
and on the top are cisterns cut in the rock. In the way
to it, some masses of wall and rubbish, partly ancient,
are standing; with ruined churches; and beyond, a
long broken aqueduct crosses to the mountains. The
Christian pirates had infested the place so much, that in
1676 it was abandoned. It is now a small village at
the eastern extremity of the rocky brow, on which was
once a castle; and is inhabited by a few Albanian fa¬
milies, employed in the culture of the plain, and super¬
intended by a Turk, who resides in an old square tower.
The proprietor was Achmet Aga, the primate or prin¬
cipal person of Athens.
44 The mystic temple at Eleusis was planned by
Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon. Pericles was
overseer of the building. It was of the Doric order ;
the cell so large as to admit the company of a theatre.
The columns on the pavement within, and their capi¬
tals, were raised by Corsebus. Mentagenes of Xypete
added the architraves and the pillars above them, which
sustained the roof. Another completed the edifice.
This was a in antis, or without exterior columns,
which would have occupied the room required for the
victims. The aspect was changed to Prostylos under
Demetrius the Phalerean; Philo, a famous architect,
erecting a portico, which gave dignity to the fabric,
and rendered the entrance more commodious. The
site was beneath the brow, at the east end, and encom¬
passed by the fortress. Some marbles, which are un¬
commonly massive, and some pieces of the columns,
remain on the spot. The breadth of the cell is about
150 feet; the length, including the pronaos and por¬
tico is 216 feet; the diameter of the columns, which
are fluted, 6 inches from the bottom of the shafts, is 6
feet, and more than six inches. The temple was a de-
castyle, or had 10 columns in the front, which was to
the east. The peribolus or inclosure, which surround¬
ed it on the north-east and on the south side, measures
387 feet in length from north to south, and 328 feet
in breadth from east to west. On the west side it join¬
ed the angles of the west end of the temple in a straight
line. Between the west wall of the inclosure and temple
and the wall of the citadel was a passage of 42 feet 6
inches wide, which led to the summit of a high rock
at the north-west angle of the inclosure, on which are
visible the traces of a temple in antis, in length 74 feet
6 inches from north to south, and in breadth from the
E L E [
Eleusis, east to the wall of the citadel, to which It joined on
Eletitlieria. the west, 54lfeet. It was perhaps that sacred to Trip-
'' '“"v tolemus. TLhis spot commands a very extensive view
of the plain and bay. About three-fourths of the cot¬
tages are within the precincts of the mystic temple, and
the square tower stands on the ruined wall of the in¬
closure.
“ At a small distance from the north end of the in¬
closure is a heap of marble, consisting of fragments of
the Doric and Ionic orders j remains, it is likely, of
the temples of Diana Propylea and of Neptune, and
of the Propyleum or gateway. Wilder saw some large
stones carved with wheat-ears and bundles of poppy.
Near it is the bust of a colossal statue of excellent
workmanship, maimed, and the face disfigured ; the
breadth at the shoulders, as measured by Pococke, five
feet and a half; and the basket on the head above two
feet deep. It probably represented Proserpine. In
the heap are two or three inscribed pedestals; and on
one are a couple of torches, crossed. We saw another
fixed in the same stairs, which lead up the square tower
on the outside. It belonged to the statue of a lady,
who was hierophant or priestess of Proserpine, and had
covered the altar of the goddess with silver. A well
in the village was perhaps that called Callichorus, where
the women of Eleusis were accustomed to dance in ho¬
nour of Ceres. A tradition prevails, that if the broken
statue be removed, the fertility of the land will cease.
Achmet Aga was fully possessed with this superstition,
and declined permitting us to dig or measure there,
until I had overcome his scruples by a present of a
handsome snuff-box containing several zechins or pieces
of gold.”
ELEUTHERIA, a festival celebrated at Plataia
in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or “ the assertor of
liberty,” by delegates from almest all the cities of
Greece. Its institution originated in this: After the
victory obtained by the Grecians under Pausanias over
Mardonius the Persian general, in the country of Pla-
ttea, an altar and statue were erected to Jupiter Eleu¬
therius, who had freed the Greeks from the tyranny
of the barbariaas. It was further agreed upon in a
general assembly, by the advice of Aristides the Athe¬
nian, that deputies should be sent every fifth year,
from the different cities of Greece, to celebrate Eleu-
theria, festivals of liberty. The Plataeans celebrated
also an anniversary festival in memory of those who had
lost their lives in that famous battle. The celebration
was thus : At break of day a procession was made with
a trumpeter at the head, sounding a signal for battle.
After him followed chariots loaded with myrrh, gar¬
lands, and a black bull, and certain free young men,
as no signs of servility were to appear during the so¬
lemnity, because they in whose honour the festival was
instituted had died in the defence of their country.
They carried libations of wine and milk in large-eared
vessels with jars of oil, and precious ointments. Last
of all appeared the chief magistrate, who, though not
permitted at other times to touch iron, or wear gar¬
ments of any colour but white, yet appeared clad in
purple, and taking a water-pot out of the citv-cham-
ber, proceeded through the middle of the town, with
a sword irf his hand, towards the sepulchres. There
he drew water from a neighbouring spring, and washed
Tol. VIII. Part I. "
17 ] E L G
and anointed the monuments, after which he sacrificed Eleuiheria
a bull upon a pile of wood, invoking Jupiter and infer- (J
nal Mercury, and inviting to the entertainment the Elginshire,
souls of those happy heroes who had perished in the '“-“’v-”-'
defence of their country. After this he filled a bowl
with wine, saying, I drink to those who lost their lives
in the defence of the liberties of Greece. There was
also a festival of the same name observed by the Sami¬
ans in honour of the god of love. Slaves, also, when
they obtained their liberty, kept a holiday, which they
called Eleutheria.
ELF, a term now almost obsolete, formerly used to
denote a fairy or hobgoblin ; an imaginary being,
the creature of ignorance, superstition, and craft. See
Fairy.
ELF-Arrows, in Natural History, a name given to
the flints anciently fashioned into arrow-heads, and still
found fossil in Scotland, America, and several other
parts of the world : they are believed by the vulgar to
be shot by fairies, and that cattle are sometimes killed
by them.
ELGIN, the capital of the county of Moray in
Scotland, and formerly a bishop’s see, is situated on
the river Lossie, about six.miles north from the Spey,
in W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 57. 40. Mr Pennant
says, it is a good town, and has many of the houses
built over piazzas; but, excepting its great cattle-
fairs, has little trade. It is principally remarkable
for its ecclesiastical antiquities. The cathedral, now
in ruins, has been formerly a very magnificent pile.
The west door is very elegant and richly ornamented.
The choir is very beautiful, and has a fine and light
gallery running round it; and at the east end are
two rows of narrow windows in an excellent Go¬
thic taste. The chapter-house is an octagon ; the
roof supported by a fine single column, with neat car¬
vings of coats of arms round the capital. There is
still a great tower on each side of this cathedral ; but
that in the centre, with the spire and whole roof, are
fallen in ; and form most awful fragments, mixed
with the battered monuments of knights and prelates.
Boethius says, that Duncan, who was killed by Mac¬
beth at Inverness, lies buried here. The place is also
crowded with a number of modern tomb-stones. 
The cathedral was founded by Andrew de Moray, in
1224, 011 a P‘ece of land granted by Alexander II. ;
and his remains were deposited in the choir, under a
tomb of blue marble, in 1244. The great tower was
built principally by John Innes bishop of this see, as
appears by the inscription cut on one of the great pil¬
lars : “ Hie Jacet in Xto, pater et dominus, Dominus
Johannes de Innes, Inijus ecclesiae Episcopus ;—quihoc
notabile opus incepit et per septennium sedificavit.”
Elgin is a royal borough. Population of the town anti
parish 4602.
ELGINSHIRE, is the middle district of the an¬
cient county of Moray. It is bounded on the north by
that branch of the German ocean called the Moray
Frith; on the east and south-east by Banff-shire ; on
the south-west, by Inverness-shire ; and on the west by
the counties of Inverness and Nairn. It extends about
42 miles in length, and its average breadth is about 20.
Ihe southern part is rocky and mountainous, called
the district of Braemoray, which is occupied with ex-
G tensive
Elginshire,
Eli.
ELI [ i
tensive forests. The lower parts, towards the north,
are rich and fertile; but might easily be rendered more
productive. The principal rivers are, the Spey, iind-
horne, and Lassie; all of which abound with salmon.
It contains two royal boroughs, viz. .Elgin, the county
town, and Forres; and several considerable towns, as
Grantown, Garmouth, Lossiemouth, &c. The principal
seats are Gordon-castle, the seat of the duke of Gordon ;
Castle Grant, the seat of Sir James Grant •, Altyre, the
seat of Colonel Gumming, &c. Morayshire abounds
with many remains of antiquity \ the principal of which
are the magnificent cathedral of Elgin, the priory of
Pluscardine near the town of Elgin, the bishop’s palace
at Spynie, the castles of Lochindorb, Dunphail, and the
dun of Belugas, in the parish of Edenkeilhe. The
ancient Scottish historians, particularly Fordun and
Buchanan, give accounts of the Danes landing, in
Moray, about 1008, when Malcolm II. marched against
them,' and was defeated near Forres: after this they
brought over their wives and children, and were in
possession of the country for some time; until they were
finally expelled by that monarch, after the victories
gained over them at Luncarty near Perth, at Barrie in
the county of Angus, and at Mortlach in the county
of. Banff. There are many monuments of that nation ;
the most remarkable of which is Sweno^s^stone ovpillar,
on the road from Nairn and Forres, in the. parish of
Bafford. Except freestone, limestone, and marl, no
mineral substance of value has been discovered.
. Population
J. (U'lSflCS* 17 Cc,
i Alves 1691
Birnie 525
Dallas 700
Drainy lI74
5 Duffus j679
Duthil i785
Dyke and Moy 1826
Edenkeillie I443
Elgin 6306
20 Forres J993
Kinloss H91
Knockandow 1267
Halford 1313
Rothes I94°
-25 St Andrews U32
Speymouth 994
Spynie 865
18 Urquhart 1110
28,934
Population in 1811, 28,108
Population in
1790—179S.
1III
402
888
1040
1800
mo
1529
1800
4534
2987
1031
1500
1072
1500
777
1347
602
1050
26,080
ELI, high priest of the Israelites, and judge over
them for forty years, was descended from Ithamar, a
junior branch of the house of Aaron, and. seems to have
blended the priestly with the judicial character in the
year 1156 before the commencement of the Christian
iera. It appears that the Jews were in a state of sub¬
jection or vassalage to the Philistines during the greater
part of Eli’s administration, and, what may at first ap¬
pear singular, he contributed to the degeneracy of his
countrymen, although his own piety and goodness were
8 ] ELI
unquestionably great. He did not exert his magisterial £];
authority in the exemplary punishment of vice, and |]
even permitted his own sons with impunity to perpe- Elijah,
tratethe most atrocious acts of impiety and debauchery.
This want of firmness, to give it no worse a name, was
very reprehensible in one who filled such an important
office, and peculiarly so in a man who was himself a
saint. , .
The celebrated Samson made his appearance during
the administration of Eli, taking part in the manage¬
ment of public affairs for about 20 years, by whose
astonishing deeds the independent spirit of that people
was tin some measure revived. The circumstances at¬
tending the death of Samson, which proved so calami¬
tous to the nobility of the Philistines, might have in¬
duced the Jews to throw off the yoke; but they did
not possess a sufficient degree of virtue and public spirit
for such an exertion. Eli at this period was very far
advanced in years, and, if possible, still more negligent
in the discharge of his duty as a chief magistrate, al¬
lowing- his two sons, Hophni and Phineas, to proceed
to tlie°most extravagant height of impiety and debauch¬
ery, whose example had a most powerful influence on
the manners of the people. He was far from being un¬
acquainted with their conduct, but he reproved them
with such gentleness as was highly reprehensible, and
but ill calculated to produce any change on the beha¬
viour of his sons.
The deity was so justly offended with this deportment
of Eli, that a sacred seer was commissioned to upbraid
him for his ingratitude and want of resolution. Young
Samuel likewise was favoured with a vision of the ap¬
proaching ruin of Eli’s family, which he related to the
otherwise venerable old man, on being solemnly ad¬
jured not to conceal a single circumstance. When
Eli heard the declaration of the young prophet, being
fully convinced that his conduct had been highly re¬
prehensible, he exclaimed, <4 It is the Lord ; let him
do what seemeth him good.” Soon after this the Is¬
raelites sustained a considerable loss in attempting to
procure their emancipation, carrying the ark of God
into their camp to animate the people, and intimidate
their enemies ; but the ark was captured by the Philis¬
tines, and Hophni and Phineas were slain. This in¬
telligence having been brought to Eli, he no sooner
heard that the ark of God was taken, than he fell back¬
wards from bis seat, broke his neck, and died in the
98th year of his age.
ELIAS, the prophet, memorable for having escaped
the common catastrophe of mankind; being taken up
alive into heaven, in a fiery chariot, about 895 B. C.
See the Bible.
ELIJAH, who is sometimes denominated Elias, was
one of the most distinguished of the Jewish prophets,
and surnamed the Tishbite, probably from the district
in which he was born. He began his prophetic office
about 920 years before Christ, in the reign of wicked
Abab, by whom the Sidonian idolatry was introduced
among the Israelites. The prophet was commissioned
to appear before this impious prince, and threaten the
country with a long drought as a punishment for his
crimes. The indignation of Ahab was so great against
the prophet for this prediction, that he resolved to
punish him in a signal manner; but Elijah withdrew to
a.
ELI t 19 3 ELI
Elijah. a secret place from his fury, at the divine command,
—v—' where he was sustained in a miraculous manner. He
was afterwards ordered to go to Sarepta, in the terri¬
tory of Sidon, where a miraculous interposition of hea¬
ven, in the house of an indigent widow, sustained him
for some time, whose son the prophet restored to
life.
When the three years of famine, occasioned by the
drought, were expired, the prophet was ordered to ap¬
pear before the king, and exhort him to that genuine
repentance which an interposition of the deity so very
remarkable unquestionably demanded. He had an in¬
terview with Obadiah, the governor of the king’s house,
who was a religious man, and had frequently screened
many from the vengeance of Jezebel the queen, at the
hazard of his own life. Fired with undaunted forti¬
tude, the prophet said to Obadiah, “ Go, tell thy lord,
behold Elijah is here.” The good man’s regard for
the prophet was so great, that he was afraid to deliver
this message, since he knew that Ahab had used every
effort to discover the prophet’s retreat. The king was
informed of his coming j and the first interview was dis-
tinguished by invectives on the part of the intrepid pro¬
phet and the proud sovereign, the former giving a pro¬
mise of rain on the following terms. The priests of
the Sidonian gods, and an assembly of the people of Is¬
rael, were to meet on Mount Carmel, where the prophet
Elijah intended to give an incontestable proof of the al¬
mighty power of the God of Israel, and the total in¬
significance of the Sidonian divinities. For a detailed
account of this memorable experiment, we must refer
our readers to the book of Kings, as an abridgement of
such a beautiful narration would do it manifest injury.
It produced the fullest conviction in the minds of the
Israelites, that Jehovah alone was entitled to adora¬
tion; and the priests of Baal were instantaneously put
to death, as the most abominable perverters of the di¬
vine law.
This was followed by abundance of rain, in answer
to the devout prayers of the prophet; but his glorious
triumph over idolatry so exasperated Jezebel, that she
resolved to murder the prophet, to avoid whose rage he
fled into the wilderness, till the deity again employed
him in the honourable, but often hazardous, duties of a
prophet. He afterwards foretold that Hazael should
be king of Syria, Jehu king over Israel ; and he ap¬
pointed Elisha the son of Shaphat to be his own succes¬
sor. He denounced dreadful judgments against Ahab
and his wicked queen Jezebel; but those which re¬
spected the king were not executed during his life, on
account of the genuine repentance which he discovered.
The successor of Ahab having been confined to bed in
consequence of an accident, the god of Ekron was con¬
sulted relative to his recovery, which induced the pro¬
phet to declare that he should assuredly die. The king
being informed that it was Elijah who dared to send
such a message, he dispatched a captain and 50 men
to force him into the royal presence j but they were
destroyed by fire from heaven, and a second company
shared the same fate. A third company confessed the
visible interference of heaven in the prophet’s behalf,
and the captain throwing himself on the mercy of Eli¬
jah, went with him to the king. In the royal presence
he undauntedly repeated the same denunciation against
the idolatrous monarch, which was very soon accom¬
plished j and not long after this the holy prophet, at £1^;
the divine command, divided asunder the waves of Jor- (|
dan, dropped his prophetic mantle to the astonished Elis.
Elisha, took the flaming chariot commissioned for his
reception, and rode in majesty to heaven.
ELIQUATION, in Chemistry, an operation by
which a more fusible substance is separated from one
that is less so, by means of a heat sufficiently intense to
melt the former, but not the latter. Thus an alloy of
copper and lead may be separated by a heat capable of
melting the latter, but not the former.
ELIS. See Elea.
Elis, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the dis¬
trict of that name in Peloponnesus, situated on the Pe¬
ncils, which ran through it. It was the country of
Phaedo the philosopher, scholar of Socrates, and friend
of Plato , who inscribes with his name the dialogue on
the immortality of the soul. Pyrrho also was of this
city, at the head of the sect called after him Pyr-
rhonists.
The city of Elis owed its origin to an union of small
towns after the Persian war. Jt was not encompassed
immediately with a wall $ for it had the care of the
temple at Olympia, and its territory was solemnly con¬
secrated to Jupiter. To invade or not protect it was
deemed impiety ; and armies, if marching through,
delivered up their weapons, which, on their quitting it,
were restored. Amid warring states the city enjoyed
repose, was resorted to by strangers, and flourished.
The region round about it was called code or fallow,
from the inequalities. The country was reckoned fer¬
tile, and particularly fit for the raising of flax. This,
which grew nowhere else in Greece, equalled the pro¬
duce of Judaea in fineness, but was not so yellow. Elis
was a school, as it were, for Olympia, which was dis¬
tant 37 miles. The athletic exercises were performed
there, before the more solemn trial, in a gymnasium, by
which the Peneus ran. The helanodics or praefects of
the games paired the rival combatants by lot, in an area
called Plethrum or The Acre. Within the wall grew
lofty plane trees; and in the court, which was called
the Xystus, were separate courses made for the foot
races. A smaller court was called the Quadrangle.
The prsefects, when chosen, resided for ten months in a
building erected for their use, to be instructed in the
duties of their office. They attended before sunrise
to preside at the races j and again at noon, the time
appointed for the pentathlum or five sports. The horses
were trained in the agora or market-place, which was
called the Hippodrome. In the gymnasium were altars
and a cenotaph of Achilles. The women, besides other
rites, beat their bosoms in honour of this hero, on a
fixed day towards sunset. There also was the town-
hall, in which extemporary harangues were spoken and
compositions recited. It was hung round with buck¬
lers for ornaments. A way led from it to the baths
through the Street of Silence; and another to the mar¬
ket-place, which was planned with streets between por¬
ticoes of the Doric order adorned with altars and images.
Among the temples, one had a circular peristyle or co¬
lonnade *, but the image had been removed and the roof
was fallen in the time of Pausanias. The theatre was
ancient, as was also a temple of Bacchus, one of the
deities principally adored at Elis. Minerva had a temple
in the citadel, with an image of ivory and gold, made
C 2 (it
E L I
Ei;s (it was said) by Phidias. At the gate leading to Olym-
[| pia was the monument of a person, who was buried, as
Elizabeth. an oracle had commanded, neither within nor without
j.|ie rp|ie structures of Elis, Dr Chandler ob¬
serves, seem to have been raised with materials far less
elegant and durable than the produce of the Ionian and
Attic quarries. The ruins are oi brick, and not con¬
siderable, consisting of pieces of ordinary wall, and an
octagon building with niches, which, it is supposed, was
the temple, with a circular peristyle. These stand de¬
tached from each other, ranging in a vale southward
from the wide bed of the river Peneus 5 which, by the
margin, has several large stones, perhaps relicks ot the
gymnasium. The citadel was on a hill, which has on
the top some remnants of a wall.
ELISHA the prophet, famous for the miracles he
performed, died about 830 P- C. See the Hible.
ELISION, in Grammar, the cutting off or sup¬
pressing a vowel at the end of a word, for the sake
of sound or measure, the next word beginning with a
vowel.
Elisions are pretty frequently met with in English
poetry, but more frequently in the Latin, French,
&c. They chiefly consist in suppressions of the a, e,
and z, though an elision suppresses any of the other
vowels.
ELIXATION, in Pharmacy, the extracting the
virtues of ingredients by boiling or stewing.
ELIXIR, in Medicine, a compound tincture ex¬
tracted from many efficacious ingredients. Hence the
difference between a tincture and an elixir seems to be
this, that a tincture is drawn from one ingredient,
sometimes with an addition of another to open it and
to dispose it to yield to the menstruum *, whereas an
elixir is a tincture extracted from several ingredients
at the same time.
ELIZABETH, queen of England, daughter of
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was born at Green¬
wich, September 7. 1533. According to the humour
of the times, she was early instructed in the learned
languages, first by Grindal, who died when she was
about 17, and afterwards by the celebrated Roger A-
scham. She acquired likewise considerable knowledge
of the Italian, Spanish, and French languages. Dr
Grindal was also her preceptor in divinity, which she
is said to have studied with uncommon application and
industry. That Elizabeth became a Protestant, and
her sister Mary a Papist, was the effect of that cause
which determines the religion of all mankind ; namely,
the opinion of those by whom they were educated :
and this difference of opinion, in their tutors, is not
at all surprising, when we recollect, that their father
Harry was of both religions, or of neither.
But the studies of Elizabeth were not confined mere¬
ly to languages and theology : she wras also instructed
in the political history of the ancients j and was so
well skilled in music, as to sing and play “ artfully and
sweetly.”
After the short reign of her brother Edward, our
heroine being then about 20 years of age, her fov-
brand sister acceding to the cx-own, Elizabeth experien¬
ced a considerable degree of persecution, so as to be
not a little apprehensive of a violent death. She was
accused of nobody knows what \ imprisoned ; and, we
are told, inhumanly ti’eated. At last, by the interces-
E L I
sion of King Philip of Spain, she was set at liberty ; Elizabeth,
which she continued to enjoy, till, on the death of her
pious sister, she, on the 17th of November 1558, as¬
cended the throne of England. Her political history
as a queen, is universally known and admired*: but* See
her attention to the government of her kingdom did
not totally suspend her pursuit of learning. Ascham, ;
in his Schoolmaster, tells us, that, about the year 1 563,
five years after her accession, she being then at Wind¬
sor, besides her perfect readiness in Latin, Italian,
French, and Spanish, she read more Greek in one day
than some prebendaries of that church did read Latin
in a whole week, (p. 21.)—She employed Sir John
Fortescue to read to her Thucydides, Xenophon, Po¬
lybius, Euripides, .ZEscbines, and Sophocles. (Pallard,
p. 219.). That the Latin language was familiar to her,
is evident from her speech to the university of Oxford,
when she was near sixty ; also from her spirited answer
to the Popish ambassador in the year 159®' And that
she was also skilled in the art of poetry, appears not
only from the several scraps which have been preserved,
but likewise from the testimony of a contemporary wri¬
ter, Puttenham, in his Art of Engl. Poetry (a very
scarce book). These are his words : “ But, last in re-
“ cital, and first in degree, is the queen, whose learn-
“ ed, delicate, noble muse, easily surmounteth all the
“ rest, for sense, sweetness, or subtility, be it in ode,
“ elegy, epigram, or any other kind of poem,” &c. In
this author are to be found only a specimen of 16 verses
of her English poetry. “ But,” says Mr Walpole, “ a
“ greater instance of her genius, and that too in La-
“ tin, was her extempore reply to an insolent prohibi-
“ tion delivered to her from Philip II. by his ambassa-
“ dor, in this tetrastic.
Te veto ne pergas hello defendere Belgas:
Quse Dracus eripuit, nunc restituantur oportet:
Quas pater evertit, jubeo te condere cellas :
Religio papse fac restituatur ad unguem.
“ She instantly answered him, with as much spirit
as she used to return his invasions ;
Ad Gnecas, bone rex, fient mandata kalendas.”
Being earnestly pressed by a Romish priest, during
his persecution, to declare her opinion concerning the
real presence of Christ’s body in the wafer, she an*
swered,
Christ was the word that spake it y
He took the bread, and brake it:
And what that word did make it,
That I believe and take it.—Fuller'1 s Holy State.
She gave the characters of four knights of Nottingr
hamshire in the following distich:
Gervase the Gentle, Stanhope the stout,
Markham the lion, and Sutton the lout. Walp. Cat.
Coming into a grammar-school, she characterized
three classic authors in this hexameter :
Persius a crab-staff j bawdy Martial; Ovid a fine wag.
Full. Worth, of Warw. 126.
Sir
C 20 ]
ELI [
ibcih. Sir Walter Raleigh having wrote on a window,
Fain would I climh, yet fear I to fall 5
She immediately wrote under it,
If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all.
IForth. of Devonsh. 261.
, Doubtless, she was a woman of singular capacity and
extraordinary acquirements : and if we could fonret
the story of the Scottish Mary, and of her favourite
Essex, together with the burning of a few Anabaptists j
in short, could we forbear to contemplate her character
through the medium of religion and morality, we might
pronounce her the most illustrious of illustrious women.
See further the articles England, Mary, and Scot¬
land. She died in her palace at Richmond, the 24th
ot March 1602, aged 70, having reigned 44 years ;
and was interred in the chapel of Henry VII. in
Westminster Abbey. Her successor James erected a
magnificent monument to her memory.—She wrote,
1. The Mirror, or Glass of the Sinful Soul. This was
translated out of French verse into English prose,
when she was eleven years old. It was dedicated to
Queen Catharine Parr. Probably it was never printed ;
but the dedication and preface are preserved in the
Syllogc epistolanim, in Hearne’s edition of Livii Foro-
Juliensis, p. 161. 2. Prayers and Meditations, &c.
Dedicated to her father, dated at Hatfield, 1545.
Manuscript, in the royal library. 3. A Dialogue out
of Xenophon, in Greek, between Hiero a King, yet
some time a private person, and Simonides a Poet, as
touching the life of the Prince and Private Man. First
printed from a manuscript in her majesty’s own hand¬
writing, in the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1743. 4.
Two Orations of Isocrates, translated into Latin. 5.
Latin Oration at Cambridge. Preserved in the king’s
library: also in Hollinshed’s Chron. p. 1206. j and in
Fuller’s Hist, of Cambr. p. 138. 6. Latin Oration at
Oxford. See Wood’s Hist, and Antiq. of Oxf. lib. i.
p. 289. also in Dr Jebb’s Append, to his Life of Mary
Queen of Scots. 7. A Comment on Plato. 8. Boethius
de consolatione philosophies, translated into English
anno 1593. 9. Sallust de hello Jugurthtno, translated
into English anno 1590. 10. A play of Euripides,
translated into Latin, (Cat. of Royal Auth.). 11. A
Prayer for the use of her fleet in the great expedition in
3596. 12. Part of Horace’s Art of Poetry, translated
into English anno 1598. 13. Plutarch de curiositate,
translated into English. 14. Letters on various occa¬
sions to different persons : several speeches to her parlia¬
ment j and a number of other pieces.
21 ] ELL
Elizabeth Petrowna, (daughter of Peter the Elizabeth
Great), the last empress of Russia, distinguished her-
selt by her signal clemency. She made a vow that no Elliot,
person should be put to death in her reign, and she v
strictly observed it. The example was followed, and
confirmed by law, under the august sovereign of Russia,
Catharine II. Elizabeth died in 1762, in the 21st
year of her reign and 5 2d of her age.
ELK, in Zoology. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
ELL, {ulna,') a measure which obtains, under dif¬
ferent denominations, in most countries, whereby cloths,
stuff's, linens, silks, &c. are usually measured } answer¬
ing nearly to the yard of England, the canna of Italy,
the vara of Spain, the palm of Sicily, &c.
Servius will have the ell to be the space contained
between the two hands when stretched forth ; but Sue¬
tonius makes it only the cubit.
The ells most frequently used with us are the English
and Flemish.j the former containing three feet nine
inches, or one yard and a quarter-, the latter only
27 inches, or three quarters of a yard j so that the
ell English is to the Flemish ell as five to three. la
Scotland, the ell contains 37 English inches.
M. Ricard, in his Treatise of Commerce, reduces the
ells thus : 100 ells of Amsterdam are equal to 98^ of
Brabant, Antwerp, and Brussels; to 58^ of England
and France ; to 120 of Hamburgh, Francfort, Leipsic,
and Cologne; 125 of Breslaw ; 110 of Bergen and
Drontheim ; and 117 of Stockholm.
ELLIOT, the Right Honourable George Augustus, .
Lord Heathfield, was the youngest son of the late Sir
Gilbert Elliot, Baronet,of Stobbs (a) in Roxburghshire; -
and was born about the year 1718. He received the
first rudiments of his education under a private tutor :
and at an early time of life was sent to the university
of Leyden, where he made considerable progress in
classical learning, and spoke with fluency and elegance
the German and French languages. Being designed
for a military life, he was sent from thence to the cele¬
brated Ecole Boyale du Genie Militaire, conducted by
the great \auban at La Fere in Picardy ; where he laid
the foundation of what he so conspicuously exhibited at
the defence of Gibraltar. He completed his military
course on the continent by a tour, for the purpose of
seeing in practice what he had studied in theory. Prussia .
was the model for discipline, and he continued some
time as a volunteer in that service.
Mr Elliot returned in the 17th year of his age to -
his native country, Scotland ; and was the same year,
I735> introduced by his father Sir Gilbert to Lieu¬
tenant-Colonel Peers of the 23d regiment of foot, then
lying at Edinburgh, as a youth anxious to bear arms
for
(a) The ancient and honourable family of Elliot of Stobbs, as well as the collateral branch of Elliot of Minto >
iti the same county, and of Elliot of Port-Elliot in Cornwall, are originally from Normandy. Their ancestor,
Mr Aliott, came over with William the Conqueror, and held a distinguished rank in his army. There is a tra-
ditionaiy anecdote in the family relating to an honourable distinction in their coat, which, as it corresponds with
history, bears the probability of truth. When William set foot on English land, he slipped and fell on the
earth. He sprung up, and exclaimed that it was a happy omen—he had embraced the country of which he was
to become the lord. Upon this Aliott drew his sword, and swore by the honour of a soldier, that he would main¬
tain, at the hazard of his blood, the right ot his lord to the. sovereignty of the earth which he had embraced. On
the event ot his conquest, King William added to the arms of Aliott, which was a baton or, on a field azure, an i
arm and sword as a crest, with the motto, Per saxa, per igijes, for titer et rede.,.
ELL [22
Elliot, for bis king and country. He was accordingly entered
—"v as a volunteer in that regiment, where he continued for
a year or more. From the 23d regiment he went into
the engineer corps at Woolwich, and made great pro¬
gress "in that study, until his uncle Colonel Elliot
brought him in his"adjutant of the second troop of
horse grenadiers. With these troops he went upon
service to Germany, and w'as with them in a variety of
actions. At the battle of Dettingen he was wounded.
In this regiment he bought the rank of captain and
major, and afterwards purchased the lieutenant-colonel¬
cy from Colonel Brewerton, who succeeded to his
uncle. On arriving at this rank, he resigned his com¬
mission as an engineer, which he had enjoyed along
with his other rank, and in which service he had been
actively employed very much to the advantage of his
country. He received the instructions of the famous
engineer Belhdor, and made himself completely master
of the science of gunnery. Had he not so disinterest¬
edly' resigned his rank in the engineer department,^ he
would long before his death, by regular progression,
have been at the head of that corps. Soon after this
he was appointed aid-de-camp to George II. and was
distinguished for his military skill and .discipline. In
the year 1759, he quitted the second troop of horse
grenadier guards, being selected to raise, form, and
discipline, the first regiment of light horse, called af¬
ter him Elliot's. As soon as they were raised and
formed, lie was appointed to the command of the ca¬
valry in the expedition on the coasts of I ranee, with
the rank of brigadier-general. After this he passed
into Germany, where he was employed on the staff,
and greatly distinguished himself in a variety of move¬
ments j where his regiment displayed a strictness of dis¬
cipline, an activity and enterprise, which gained them
signal honour : and indeed they have been the pattern
regiment both in regard to discipline and appointment,
to the many light dragoon troops that have been since
raised in our service. From Germany he Avas recalled
fer the purpose of being employed as second in com¬
mand in the memorable expedition against the Ha-
vannah j the circumstances of which conquest are well
known.
On the peace, his gallant regiment Avas revieAved by
the king, when they presented to his majesty the stand¬
ards Avhich they had taken from the enemy. Gratified
Avith their fine discipline and high character, the king
asked General Elliot Avhat mark of his favour he could
bestow on his regiment equal to their merit ? He an¬
swered that his regiment would be proud if his ma¬
jesty should think, that, by their services, they Ayere
entitled to the distinction of Royals. It Avas according¬
ly made a royal regiment, with this flattering title,
“ The 15th, or King's Koyal Regiment of Light Dra¬
goons.” At the same time the king expressed a desire
to confer some honour on the general himself; but the
latter declared, that the honour and satisfaction of his
majesty’s approbation of his services Avas his best reward.
During the peace he was not idle. His great ta¬
lents in the various branches of the military art gave
him ample employment. In the year 1775, he Avas
appointed to succeed General A’Court as command¬
er in chief of the forces in Ireland ; but did not con¬
tinue long in this station, not even long enough to un¬
pack all his trunks; for finding that interferences were
] ELL
made by petty authority derogatory of his oAvn, he re¬
sisted the practice Avith becoming spirit; and not choos-
ing to disturb the government of the sister kingdom
on a matter personal to himself, he solicited to be re¬
called. He accordingly Avas so, and appointed to the
command of Gibraltar in a fortunate hour for the safety
of that important fortress. The system of his life, as
Avell as his education, peculiarly qualified him for this
trust. He Avas perhaps the most abstemious man of the
age ; neither indulging himself in animal food or Avine.
He never slept more than four hours at a time ; so that
he Avas up later and earlier than most other men. He
so inured himself to habits of hardiness, that the things
which are difficult and painful to other men, Avere to
him his daily practice, and rendered pleasant by use.
It could not be easy to starve such a man into a sur¬
render, nor possible to surprise him. The example of
the commander in chief in a besieged garrison has the
most persuasive efficacy in forming the manners of a
soldiery. Like him his brave folloAvers came to regu¬
late their lives by the most strict rules of discipline, be¬
fore there arose a necessity for so doing; and severe ex¬
ercise, with short diet, became habitual to them by their
OAvn choice. The military system of discipline Avhich
he introduced, and the preparations Avhich he made for
his defence, Avere contrived Avith so much judgment,
and executed with so much address, that he Avas able
Avith a handful of men to preserve his post against an
attack, the constancy of which, eA'en Avithout the vi¬
gour, had been sufficient to exhaust any common set
of men. Collected within himself, he in no instance
destroyed, by premature attacks, the labours which
Avould cost the enemy time, patience, and expence to
complete ; he deliberately observed their approaches,
and seized on the proper moment, Avith the keenest
perspection, in Avhich to make his attack Avith suc¬
cess. He never spent his ammunition in useless pa¬
rade or in unimportant attacks. He never relaxed
from his discipline by the appearance of security, nor
hazarded the lives of his garrison by wild experiments.
By a cool and temperate demeanour, he maintained his
station for three years of constant investment, in Avhich
all the powers of Spain were employed. All the eyes
of Europe were on this garrison ; and his conduct has
justly exalted him to the most elevated rank in the mi¬
litary annals of the day. On his return to England,
the gratitude of the British senate was as forward as
the public voice in giving him that distinguished mark
his merit deserved. Both houses of parliament voted
an unanimous address of thanks to the general. The
king conferred on him the honour of Knight of the
Bath, with a pension during his own and a second life
of his own appointment; and on June 14. 1787, his
majesty advanced him to the peerage, by the title of
Lord Heathjield, Baron Gibraltar, permitting him to
take, in addition to his family arms, the arms of the
fortress he had so bravely defended, to perpetuate to
futurity his noble conduct.
His lordship died on the 9th of July 1790, at his
chateau at Aix-la-Chapelle, of a second stroke of the
palsy, after having for some weeks preceding enjoy¬
ed tolerable good health and an unusual Aoav of spi¬
rits. His death happened two days before he was to
have set out for Leghorn on his way to Gibraltar; of
Avhich place he was once more appointed to the de¬
fence,
Elliot.
ELM
[
Elliot fence,, in the view of an approaching war. He mar-
j| ried Anne, daughter of Sir Francis Drake of Devon-
Elmacinus. gjiire j and had by her (who died in 1769) Francis-
* Augustus, now Lord Heathfield, lieutenant-colonel of
the 6th regiment of horse.
ELLIPOMACROSTYLA, an old term in Natu¬
ral History, from the Greek, sAAjtois imperfect, ****§05
long, and roXot a column; which expresses an imper¬
fect crystal with a long column.
ELLIPOPACHYSTYLA, an old term in Natu¬
ral History, derived from the Greek, and expresing a
crystal of the imperfect kind with a thick column.
ELLIPSIS, in Geometry, a curve line returning
into itself, and produced from the section of a cone by
a plane cutting both its sides, but not parallel to the
base. See Conic Sections.
Ellipsis, in Grammar, a figure of syntax, where¬
in one or more words are not expressed j and from this
deficiency it has got the name ellipsis.
ELLIPTIC, or Elliptical, something belonging
to an ellipsis.
Elliptic Turning, a method of giving a piece of
wood an elliptic figure. See Supplement.
ELLIPTOGRAPH, an instrument for drawing
ellipses. See Supplement.
ELLISIA, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria class j and in the natural method ranking under
the 28th order, Luridce. See Botany Index.
ELLYS, Dr Anthony, who w'as born in 1693,
and educated at Clarehall, Cambridge, after rising
through many inferior degrees of dignity in the church
of England, was, in 1752, promoted to the see of St
David’s. He died at Gloucester in 1761, and is men¬
tioned here only for the sake of his works, which are
less known than they should in the present time of no¬
vel opinions. They are, besides occasional sermons,
I. A Plea for the Sacramental Test, as a just security
to the Church established, and very conducive to the
welfare of the State. 2. Remarks on Hume’s Essay
on Miracles. 3, Tracts on the Liberty spiritual and
temporal of Protestants in England, addressed to J. N.
Esq. at Aix-la-Chapelle 5 the first part of which was
printed in 1763, the second in 1765. In these tracts,,
as the editors of them truly observe, he “ discovers not
only fine parts, extensive knowledge, and sound judge¬
ment, but a heart overflowing with benevolence and can¬
dour, and a most Christian temper ^ for he always thought
a person, though on the right side of the question, with
principles of persecution, to be a worse man than he that
was on the wrong.” This amiable and respectable wri¬
ter affords in his own conduct a proof that a man may
be steadily attached to a party, without wishing to en¬
croach upon the rights of others.
ELM. See Ulmus, Botany Index.
ELMACINUS, George, author of a History of
the Saracens, was born in Egypt towards the middle of
the 13th century. His history comes down from Ma¬
homet to the year of the Hegira 512, answering to
the year of our Lord 1134; in which he sets down
year by year, in a very concise manner, whatever re¬
gards the Saracen empire, intermixed with some pas¬
sages relating to the eastern Christians. His abilities
must have been considerable 5 since, though he profes¬
sed Christianity, he held an office of trust near the per¬
sons of the Mahometan princes. He was son to Yaser
2
23 ] E L P
A1 Amid, secretary to the council of war under the Elmaeinus
sultans of Egypt for 45 years j and in 1238, when his j!
father died, succeeded him in his place. His history -plpfdnston.
of the Saracens was translated from Arabic into Latin
by Erpinius: and printed in these two languages in
folio, at Leyden, in 1625. Erpinius died before the
publication j but Golius took care of it, and added a
preface. It was dedicated by Erpinius’s widow to Dr
Andrews, bishop of Winchester.
ELOCUTION. See Oratory, Part III.
ELOGY, a praise or panegyric bestowed on any
person or thing, in consideration of its merit. The
beauty of elogy consists in an expressive brevity. Eu-
logiums should not have so much as one epithet, pro¬
perly so called, nor two words synonymous : they should
strictly adhere to truth j for extravagant and improbable
elogies rather lessen the character of the person or thing
they would extol.
ELOHI, Eloi, or Elohim, in scripture, one of the
names of God. But it is to be observed, that angels,
princes, great men, judges, and even false gods, are
sometimes called by this name. The sequel of the dis¬
course is what assists us in judging rightly concerning
the true meaning of this word. It is the same as Eloha.
One is the singular, the other the plural. Neverthe¬
less Elohim is often construed in the singular number,
particularly when the true God is spoken of: but when
false gods are spoken of, it is construed rather in the
plural.
ELOINED, in Law, signifies restrained or hinder¬
ed from doing something : thus it is said, that if those
within age be eloined, so that they cannot sue person¬
ally, their next friend shall sue for them.
ELONGATION, in Astronomy, the digression or
recess of a planet from the sun, with respect to an
eye placed on our earth. The term is chiefly used in
speaking of Venus or Mercury, the arch of a great
circle intercepted between either of these planets and
the sun being called the elongation of that planet from
the sun.
Elongation, in Surgery, is an imperfect luxation,
occasioned by the stretching or lengthening of the liga¬
ments of any part.
ELOPEMENT, in Laiu, is where a married woman
departs from her husband, and cohabits with an adul¬
terer in which case the husband is not obliged to al¬
low her any alimony out of her estate, nor is he charge¬
able for necessaries for her of any kind. However, the
bare advertising a wife in the gazette, or other public
paper, is not a legal notice to persons in general not
to trust her j though a personal notice given by the
husband to particular persons is said to be good. An
action lies, and large damages may be recovered, a-
gainst a person for carrying away and detaining another
man’s wife.
ELOQUENCE, the art of speaking well, so as to
affect and persuade. See Oratory.
ELPHINSTON, William, a Scotch prelate and
statesman of considerable eminence, who flourished in the
end of the 15th and commencement of the 16th cen¬
tury, was born at Glasgow in the year 1431. At the
university of this city he received his education, and in
the learning which distinguished that period he made
extraordinary proficiency. His studies being com¬
pleted, he went over to France, to make himself master
of; 1
ELS [24
Eluliiuston of ^ie c>v*l an|l canon law in the university of Paris,
11 where he afterwards became a professor, and for the
Elsimburg. space of six years acquired considerable reputation in
' *—the discharge of his duty. On his return to Scotland,
1 he entered into holy orders, was soon appointed official
of Glasgow, and afterwards of St Andrews. He was ad¬
mitted a member of the king’s council; and on a mis¬
understanding taking place between James III. of Scot¬
land and Louis XI. of France, his powerful mediation
at the latter court, in conjunction with the bishop of
Dunkeld and the earl of Buchan, effected an amicable
reconciliation. As Elphinston on this occasion display¬
ed such prudence and eloquence, the king was so grate¬
ful for his meritorious services, that he rewarded him
with the see of Ross, from which he was translated to
the diocese of Aberdeen about the year 1484, and also
appointed to the high office of chancellor of the king¬
dom, which he managed with so much moderation and
equity, that all parties esteemed and admired him.
‘When the civil wars broke out between James and the
discontented nobility, Bishop Elphinston appears to
have declined all interference with public affairs of a
-political nature, and confined himself to the discharge
• of his ministei’ial duties. But when James IV. ascend¬
ed the throne, his abilities as a statesman were again
called forth, and he was chosen ambassador to the em¬
peror Maximilian, in order to bring about a marriage
alliance between his royal master and the emperor’s
daughter $ but she had been previously promised .to
another. Yet the bishop’s mission was not without its
salutary effects, as he was the mean of terminating an
enmity which had long existed between the Dutch and
Scots. This he conducted in such a masterly manner,
that James never undertook any thing of importance,
without first procuring the sanction of his approbation.
He was equally the zealous patron of learning } and it
is generally believed that the establishment of a univer¬
sity at Aberdeen was entirely owing to his influence
with the Pope, from whom he obtained a bull for that
purpose *, and by his exertions was King’s college un¬
dertaken and completed. He bequeathed, at the time
of his decease, large sums of money for its support.
He terminated his mortal career in 1514, about 83
years of age, at which advanced period his constitution¬
al vigour was very little impaired, and all the faculties
of his mind w^re in full force j but the serious losses at
the memorable battle of Flowden had broken his heart.
He wrote a history of his native country, which is
among the manuscripts of Sir Thomas Fairfax, in the
Bodleian library at Oxford.
EDSHEMTER, Adam, a celebrated painter, born
at Francfort on the Maine, in 1574. He was first a
disciple of'Philip Uffenbach, a German ; but his desire
of improvement carrying him to Rome, he soon became
a most excellent artist in landscapes, history, and night-
pieces, with small figures. His works are but few ;
and the great pains he bestowed in finishing them rai¬
sed their prices so high, that they are hardly anywhere
to be found but in the cabinets of princes. He was
of a melancholy turn, and sunk under the embarrass¬
ments of his circumstances in 1610. James Ernest
Thomas of Landau was his disciple ; and imitated his
style so nicely, that their performances are not easily
distinguished.
.ELSIMBURG, a port town of Sweden, in the
3
3
E L V
Elyas.
province of Gothland, and territory of Schonen, seated Elsimbtn-
on the side of the Sound, over against Elsinore. It was ||
formerly a fortress belonging to the Danes ; but all the
fortifications w'ere demolished in 1679, and there is —
only one tower of a castle which remains undemolished.
It now belongs to Sweden. E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat.
56. 2.
ELSINORE, or ElsinEUR, a port town of Den¬
mark, seated on the Sound, in the isle of Zealand. E.
Long. 13. 23. N. Lat. 56. O.—It was a small village,
containing a few fishermen’s huts, until 1445, when it
was made a staple town by Eric of Pomerania •, who
conferred upon the new settlers considerable immuni¬
ties, and built a castle for their defence. From that
period it gradually increased in size and wealth, and
is now the most commercial place in Denmark next to
Copenhagen. It contains about 7000 inhabitants, a-
mongst whom are a considerable number of foreign
merchants, and the consuls of the principal nations
trading to the Baltic. The passage of the Sound is
guarded by the fortress of Cronborg, which is situated
upon the edge of a peninsular promontory, the nearest
point of land from the opposite coast of Sweden. It
is strongly fortified towards the shore by ditches, ba¬
stions, and regular entrenchments ; and towards the
sea by several batteries, mounted with 60 cannon, the
largest whereof are 48 pounders. Every vessel, as it
passes, lowers her top-sails, and pays a toll at Elsinore.
It is generally asserted, that this fortress guards the
Sound ; and that all the ships must, on account of the
shoal waters and currents, steer so near the batteries
as to be exposed to their fire in case of refusal. This,
however, is a mistaken notion. On account indeed of
the numerous and opposite currents in the Sound, the
safest passage lies near the fortress 5 but the water in
any part is of sufficient depth for vessels to keep at a
distance from the batteries, and the largest ships can
even sail close to the coast of Sweden. The constant
discharge, however, of the toll, is not so much owing
to the strength of the fortress as to a compliance with
the public law of Europe. Many disputes have arisen
concerning the right by which the crown of Denmark
imposes such a duty. The kings of Sweden, in parti¬
cular, claiming an equal title to the free passage of
the Strait, were for some time exempted by treatv
from paying it 5 but in 1720, Frederic I. agreed that
all Swedish vessels should for the future be subject to
the usual imposts. All vessels, beside a small duty, are
rated at 1^ per cent, of their cargoes, except the Eng¬
lish, French, Dutch, and Swedish, which pay only
one per cent, j and in return the crown takes the charge
of constructing light-houses, and erecting signals to
mark the shoals and rocks, from the Categate to the
entrance into the Baltic. The tolls of the Sound, and
of the two Belts, supply an annual revenue of 120,0001.
or according to others 150,000!.
ELVAS, a large town, and one of the best and
most important in Portugal, seated in the province of
Alentejo, a few miles from the frontiers of Estrema-
dura in Spain. It is built on a mountain, and is
strongly fortified with works of free-stone. The streets
of the town are handsome, and the houses neat 5 and
there is a cistern so large, that it will hold water
enough to supply the whole town six months. The
water is conveyed to it by a magnificent aqueduct,
three
ELY [ 25 ] ELY
three miles in length, sustained in some places by four
|| or five high arches, one upon another. It was bom-
Kty" barded by the French and Spaniards in 1706, but
’-'v without effect. It has generally a garrison of 1000
men. The king founded an academy here, in 1733,
for young gentlemen. W. Long. 7. 28. N. Lat. 38.
39-
ELUDING, the act of evading or rendering a
thing vain and of no effect } a dexterous getting clear,
or escaping out of an affair, difficulty, embarrassment,
or the like. We say, to elude a proposition, &c. The
design of chicanery is, to elude the force of the laws :
This doctor has not resolved the difficulty, but eluded
it. Alexander, says the historian, in cutting the Gor¬
dian knot, either eluded the oracle or fulfilled it : Ille
uequicquatn luctatus cum latentibus nodis. Nihil, inquit,
interest, quomodo solvatur; gladioque ruptis omnibus
loris, oruculi sortem vel eludit vel implevit.
ELVELA, a genus of plants belonging to the
crvptogamia class, and order of fungi. The fungus is
turbinated, or like an inverted cone. - See Botany
Index.
ELUL, in ancient chronology, the 12th month of
the Jewish civil year, and the sixth of the ecclesiasti¬
cal : it consisted of only 29 days, and answered pretty
nearly to our August.
ELUTRIATION, in Chemistry, an operation per¬
formed by washing solid substances with water, stirring
them well together, and hastily pouring off the liquid,
while the lighter part remains suspended in it, that it
may thereby be separated from the heavier pajt. By
this operation metallic ores are separated from earth,
atones, and other unmetallic particles adhering to
them.
ELY, a city and bishop’s see of Cambridgeshire,
situated about 12 miles north of Cambridge. E. Long.
O. 51. N. Lat. 52. 24. It is a county of itself, in¬
cluding the territory around ; and has a judge who de¬
termines all causes civil and criminal within its limits.
The church hath undergone various alterations since it
was first established by Etheldra, the wife of Egfride,
king of Northumberland, who founded a religious
house here, and planted it with virgins, and became
the first abbess of it herself. The Danes entirely
ruined this establishment \ then Etbelwald, the 27th
bishop of Winchester, rebuilt the monastery, and filled
it with monks ; to whom King Edgar, and many
succeeding monarchs, bestowed many privileges, and
great grants of land 5 so that this abbey became in
process of time the best of any in England. Richard,
the nth abbot, wishing to free himself of the bishop
of Lincoln, within whose diocese his monastery was
situated, and not liking so powerful a superior, he made
great interest with King Henry I. to get Ely erected
into a bishopric $ and spared neither purse nor prayers
to bring this about. He even brought the bishop of
Lincoln to consent to it, by giving him and his succes¬
sors the manors of Bugden, Biggleswade, and Spald¬
ing, which belonged to the abbey, in lieu of his ju¬
risdiction ; but he lived not to taste the sweets of his
industry and ambition, he dying before his abbey was
erected into a see. His successor was the first bishop
ol Ely : but the great privileges the bishop enjoved
were almost wholly taken away, or much restricted, by
the act of parliament, 27th Henry VIII. regarding
Vol. VIII. Part 1. i
the restoring to the crown the ancient royalties : So, Ely
instead of being palatine of the isle of Ely, the bishop S|
and his temporal steward were by that act declared to Elydaio.
be from thenceforth justices of the peace in the said v
island. This diocese contains all Cambridgeshire, and
the isle of Ely, excepting Iselham, which belongs to
the see of Rochester, and 15 other parishes, that are
in the diocese of Norwich j but it has a parish in Nor¬
folk, viz. Emneth. The number of parishes in this
diocese are 141, whereof 75 are impropriate. It hath
but one archdeacon, viz. of Ely. It is valued in
the king’s books at 2134I. 18s. 5d. The clergy’s
tenth amounting to the sum of 384I. 14s. p^d. The
bishopric is computed to be worth annually 8000I.
The church is dedicated to St Ethelred. The build¬
ing, as it now appears, has been the work of several
of its bishops. The west parts were rebuilt by Bishop
Ridal ; the choir and lanthern were begun by Bishop
Norwold, and finished by Bishop Frodsham. This see
hath given two saints and two cardinals to the church
of Rome ; and to the English nation nine lord chan¬
cellors, seven lord treasurers, one lord privy seal, one
chancellor of the exchequer, one chancellor to the uni¬
versity of Oxford, two masters of the rolls, and three
almoners. To this cathedral belong a bishop, a dean,
an archdeacon, eight prebendaries, with vicars, lav-
clerks, choristers, a schoolmaster, usher, and 28 king’s
scholars.
ELYMAIS, the capital city of the land of Elam,
or the ancient Persia. We are told (1 Mac. vi. 1.)
that Antiochus Epiphanes, having understood that
there were very great treasures lodged in a temple at
Elymais, determined to go and plunder it : but the
citizens getting intelligence of his design, made an
insurrection, forced him out of the city, and obliged
him to fly. The author of the second book of Macca¬
bees (ix. 2.) calls this city Perscpolis, in all proba¬
bility because formerly it was the capital of Persia ;
for it is known from other accounts, that Persepolis
and Elymais were two very different cities, the lat¬
ter situated upon the Eula;us, the former upon the
Araxis.
ELYMUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the fourth order, Grumina. See Botany
Index.
ELYOT, Sir Thomas, a gentleman of eminent
learning into the 16th century, was educated at Oxford,
travelled into foreign countries, and upon his return
was introduced to court. His learning recommended
him to Henry VIII. who conferred the honour of
knighthood on him, and employed him in several em¬
bassies : particularly in 1532, to Rome, about the di¬
vorce of Queen Catharine, and afterwards to Charles
V. about 1536. He wrote, The Castle of Health, the
Governor, Banquet of Sapience, Of the Education of
Children, He rebus memorabilibus Angliep, anil other
books ; and was highly esteemed by all his learned con¬
temporaries.
ELYSIUM (EAv«ef), in the ancient theology, or
rather mythology, a place in the inferi or lower world,
furnished with fields, meads, agreeable woods, groves,
shades, rivers, &c. whither the souls of good people
were supposed to go after this life.
Orpheus, Hercules, and iEneas, were supposed to
D have
Elysium,
Elaevirs.
E L Z [ 26 ] E M B
have descended into Elysium in their life time, and to
have returned again ; (Virg. lib. vi. ver. 638 Sec.).
Tibullus (lib. i. eleg. 3.) gives us fine descriptions of
the Elysian fields.
Virgil opposes Elysium to Tartarus; which was
the place where the wicked underwent their punish¬
ment.
Hie locus est, partes ubi se via fmdit in ambas :
Dexter a, quee Ditis magni sub mccnia tendit:
Hac iter Elysium nobis: at Iccva malorum
Exercet pocnas, et ad impia Tartara mittit.
He assigns Elysium to those who died for their coun¬
try, to those of pure lives, to truly inspired poets, to the
inventors of arts, and to all who have done good to
mankind.
Some authors take the fable of Elysium to have been
borrowed from the Ehoenicians j as imagining the name
Elysium formed from the Phoenician ala’Z, or vbs? a-
lats, or obit, alas, “ to rejoice,” or “ to be in joy the
letter a being only changed into e, as we find done in
many other names ; as in Enaktm for Anakirn, &c.
On which footing, Elysian fields should signify the
same thing as a place of pleasure ; or
   Locos Icetos, et anmna vireta
Fortunatorum nemorum, sedesque bcatas. Virg.
Others derive the word from the Greek solvo, “ I
deliver, I let loose or disengage because here men’s
souls are freed or disencumbered from the fetters of
the body. Beroaldus, and Hornius (Hist. Philosoph.
lib. iii. cap. 2.) take the place to have derived its name
from Eliza, one of the first persons who came into
Greece after the deluge, and the author and father of
the iEtolians.
The Elysian fields were, according to some, in the
Fortunate islands on the coast of Africa, in the Atlan¬
tic. Others place them in the island of Leuce ; and, ac¬
cording to the authority of Virgil, they were situated
in Italy. According to Lucian, they were near the
moon } or in the centre of the earth, if we believe Plu¬
tarch. Olaus Worm!us contends that it was in Sweden
the Elysian fields were placed.
ELZEVIRS, celebrated printers at Amsterdam
and Leyden, who greatly adorned the republic of let¬
ters with many beautiful editions of the best authors of
antiquity. They fell somewhat below the Stephenses
in point of learning, as well as in their editions of Greek
and Hebrew authors ; but as to the choice of good
books, they seem to have equalled, and in the neatness
and elegance of their small characters, greatly to have
exceeded them. Their Virgil, Terence, and Greek
Testament, have been reckoned their masterpieces •, and
are indeed so very fine, that they justly gained them
the reputation of being the first printers in Europe.
There were five of these Elzevirs, namely, Lewis, Bo-
naventure, Abraham, Lewis, and Haniel. Lewis began
to be famous at Leyden in 1595, and was remarkable
for being the first who observed the distinction between
the v consonant and u vowel, which had been recom¬
mended by Ramus and other writers long before, but
never regarded. Daniel died in 1680 or 1681 } and
though he left children who carried on the business,
passes nevertheless for the last of his family who excel¬
led in it. The Elzevirs have printed several catalogues
of their editions ; but the last, published by Daniel Elzevirs
is considerably enlarged, and abc
It was fprinted at Amsterdam, 1
vided into seven volumes.
EMANATION, the act of flowing or proceeding
from some spurce or origin. Such is the emanation of
light from the sun 5 or that of efiluvia from odorous,
&c. bodies; of wisdom from God, &c.—-The word is
formed of the Latin e, “ out of,” and manure, “ to flow
or stream.”
Emanation is also used for the thing that pro¬
ceeds, as well as the act of proceeding. The power
given a judge is an emanation from the regal power j
the reasonable soul is an emanation from the Divinity.
EMANCIPATION, in the Roman law, the set¬
ting free a son from the subjection of a father j so
that whatever moveables he acquires belongs in pro¬
perty to him, and not his father, as before emancipa¬
tion.
Emancipation puts the son in a capacity of mana¬
ging his own affairs, and of marrying without his fa¬
ther’s consent, though a minor. Emancipation differs
from manumission, as the latter was the act of a master
in favour of a slave, whereas the former was that of a
father in favour of his son.
There were two kinds of emancipation : the one ta¬
cit, which was by the son’s being promoted to some
dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying j in
all which cases he became his own master of course.
The other, express $ where the father declared before
a judge, that he emancipated his son. In performing
this, the father was first to sell his son imaginarily to
another, whom they called paterfidudarius, father in
trust 5 of whom being bought back again by the natu¬
ral father, he manumitted him before the judge by a
verbal declaration.
Emancipation formerly obtained in France ivith re¬
gard to minors or pupils, who were hereby set at liber¬
ty to manage their own effects, without the advice or
direction of their parents or tutors.
EMARGINATED, among botanists. See Bo¬
tany Index.
EMASCULATION, the act of castrating or de¬
priving a male of those parts which characterize his sex.
See Castration and Eunuch.
EMAUS, Emmaus, or Ammaus, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a village, 60 stadia to the north-west of Jeru¬
salem, or about seven miles: it afterwards became a
town and a Roman colony, Nicopolis, (Jerome). Re¬
land has another Emmaus towards Lydda, 22 miles
from Jerusalem, (Itinerary) j a third, near Tiberias.
EMBALMING, is the opening a dead body, ta¬
king out the intestines, and filling the space with odo¬
riferous and desiccative drugs and spices, to prevent
it putrefying. The Egyptians excelled all other na¬
tions in the art of preserving bodies from corruption j
for some that they have embalmed upwards of 2000
years ago, remain whole to this day, and are often
brought into other countries as great curiosities. Their
manner of embalming was thus: they scooped the
brain with an iron scoop out at the nostrils, and threw
in medicaments to fill up the vacuum : they also took
out the entrails, and having filled the body with myrrh,
cassia, and other spices, except frankincense, proper to
dry up the humours, they pickled it in nitre, where it
. lay
mnds with new books. [J
674, in l2mo, and di- Embalm¬
ing-
"*V
E M B [ 27 ] E M B
Embalming laY soaking for 70 days. The body was then wrapped
|i up in bandages of fine linen and gums, to make it stick
Embargo. lj^e glue j and so was delivered to the kindred of the
~ ’ deceased, entire in all its features, the very hairs of
the eyelids being preserved. They used to keep the
bodies of their ancestors, thus embalmed, in little houses
magnificently adorned, and took great pleasure in be¬
holding them, alive as it were, without any change in
their size, features, or complexion. The Egyptians
also embalmed birds, &c. The prices for embalming
were difi’erent; the highest was a talent, the next 20
minae, and so decreasing to a very small matter : but
they who had not wherewithal to answer this expence,
contented themselves with infusing, by means of a
syringe, through the fundament, a certain liquor ex¬
tracted from the cedar $ and, leaving it there, wrap¬
ped up the body in salt of nitre : the oil thus preyed
upon the intestines, so that when they took it out, the
intestines came away with it, dried, and not in the
least putrified : the body being enclosed in nitre, grew
dry, and nothing remained besides the'skin glued upon
the bones.
The method of embalming used by the modern E-
gyptians, according to Maillet, is to wash the body se¬
veral times with rose-water, which, he elsewhere ob¬
serves, is more fragrant in that country than with us j
they afterwards perfume it with incense, aloes, and a
quantity of other odours, of which they are by no
means sparing j and then they bury the body in a
winding-sheet, made partly of silk and partly of cot¬
ton, and moistened, as is supposed, with some sweet-
scented water or liquid perfume, though Maillet uses
only the term moistened; this they cover with another
cloth of unmixed cotton, to which they add one of the
richest suits of clothes of the deceased. The expence,
he says, on these occasions, is very great, though no¬
thing like what the genuine embalming cost in former
times.
EMBANKMENT, a mound or wall of earth, or
some other material, used as a defence against inun¬
dations. See Supplement.
EMBARCADERO, in commerce, a Spanish term,
much used along the coasts of America. It signifies a
place which serves some other considerable city farther
within land, for a port or place of shipping, i. e. of em¬
barking and disembarking commodities. Thus Calao
is the embarcadero of Lima. • There are some em-
barcaderos 50 leagues from the city they serve in that
capacity.
EMBARGO, in commerce, an arrest on ships or
merchandise, by public authority j or a prohibition of
state, commonly on foreign ships, in time of war, to pre¬
vent their going out of port, sometimes to prevent their
coming in, and sometimes both, for a limited time.
The king may lay embargoes on ships, or employ
those of his subjects, in time of danger, for the service
and defence of the nation; but they must not be for
the private advantage of a particular trader or com¬
pany ; and therefore a warrant to stay a single ship is
no legal embargo. No inference can be made from
embargoes which are only in war-time ; and are a pro¬
hibition by advice of council, and not at prosecution of
parties. If goods be laden on board, and after an em¬
bargo or restraint from the prince or state comes forth,
and then the master of the ship breaks ground, or en¬
deavours to sail, if any damage accrues, he must he re- Embargo
sponsible for the same ; the reason is, because his freight II
is due, and must be paid, even though the goods be Emblem,
seized as contraband. v
EMBARRASS, (Embarrassment'), a French term,
though now naturalized ; denoting a difficulty or obsta¬
cle which perplexes or confounds a person, &c.
EMBASSADOR. See Ambassador.
EMBASSY, the office or function of an Ambassa¬
dor.
EMBDEN, a port-town and city of Germany, ca¬
pital of a county of the same name, now in possession of
the king of Prussia. It is situated at the mouth of the
river Ens. E. Long. 6. 45. N. Lat. 53. 50.
EMBER-weeks, are those wherein the ember or
embring days fall.
In the laws of King Alfred, and those of Canute,
those days are cn\\e& ymbren, that is, circular days,
from whence the word was probably corrupted into
ember~days: by the canonists they are called quatuor
anni tempora, the four cardinal seasons, on which the
circle of the year turns : and hence Henshaw takes the
word to have been formed, viz. by corruption from
temper, of tempora.
The ember-days are, the Wednesday, Friday, and
Saturday, after Quadragesima Sunday, after Whit¬
sunday, after Holy-rood day in September, and after
St Lucia’s day in December: which four times answer
well enough to the four quarters of the year, Spring,
Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
Mr Somner thinks they were originally fasts, insti¬
tuted to beg God’s blessing on the fruits of the earth.
Agreeable to which, Skinner supposes the word ember
taken from the ashes, embers, then strewed on the head.
These ember-weeks, are now chiefly taken notice of,
on account of the ordination of priests and deacons;
because the canon appoints the Sundays next succeeding
the ember-weeks, for the solemn times of ordination :
Though the bishops' if they please, may ordain on any
Sunday or holiday.
EMBERIZA, a genus of birds belonging to the or¬
der of passeres. See Ornithology Index.
EMBLEM, a kind of painted aenigma, which, re¬
presenting some obvious history, with reflections under¬
neath, instructs us in some moral truth or other matter
of knowledge. See Devise, ./Enigma, &c.
Such is that very significant image of Scaevola hold¬
ing his hand in the fire ; with the words, Agere et pati
fortiter Rotnanum est, “ To do and suffer courageously
is Roman.”
The word is pure Greek, formed of the verb
Aio, “ to cast in, to insert.” Suetonius relates, that
Tiberius made the word be erased out of the decree of
the Roman senate, because borrowed from another lan¬
guage.
The emblem is somewhat plainer and more obvious
than the aenigma. Gale defines emblem an ingenious
picture, representing one thing to the eye, and another
to the understanding.
The Greeks also gave the name Emblems, e^^fcetln,
to inlayed or mosaic works, and even to all kinds of
ornaments of vases, moveables, garments, &c. And
the Latins used emhlema in the same sense. Accordingly,
Cicero reproaching Verres with the statues and fine
wrought works he had plundered from the Sicilians,
D 2 calls
E M B
Emblem calls the ornament fixed thereto (and which on occa-
11 sion might be separated from them) emblcmata. Add,
Xmbroi- autljor3 frequently compare the fig-tires and
ery~ . ornaments of discourse to these embtemnta. ilnis, an
ancient Latin poet praising an orator, says, that all his
words were ranged like the pieces in mosaic .
Quam lepide compostut tessevulaa omtics^
At tc pavimenti, attpue emblemate vevnuculato.
With us emblem ordinarily signifies no more than a
painting, basso-relievo, or other representation, intend¬
ing to hold forth some moral or political instruction.
What distinguishes an emblem from a devise is, that
the words of an emblem have a full complete sense of
themselves; nay, all the sense and signification which
they have, together with the figure. But there is a yet
further difference between emblem and devise : for a
devise is a symbol appropriated to some person, or that
expresses something which concerns him particularly ;
whereas an emblem is a symbol that regards all the
world alike.
These differences will be more apparent, from com¬
paring the emblem above quoted, with the devise of a
candle lighted, and the words Juvando consunioi ^ X
waste myself in doing good.” See DevisIl.
EMBOLISMUS, E^CoA^af, in Chronology, signi¬
fies “ intercalation.” The word is formed of tp&tXXuy,
“ to insert.”
As the Greeks made use of the lunar year, which is
only 354 days; in order to bring it to the solar, which
is 365 days, they had every two or three years an em¬
bolism, i. e. they added a 13th lunar month every two
or three years, which additional month they called em-
boMtnaus, e^iSeAiftaias, because inserted, or intercalated.
EMBOSSING, or ImbossiNG, in Architecture and
Sculpture, the forming or fashioning works in relievo,
whether cut with a chissel or otherwise.
Embossing is a kind of sculpture, vvherein the figure
sticks out from the plane whereon it is cut : and ac¬
cording as the figures are more or less prominent, they
are said to be in alto, mezzo, or basso relievo; or high,
mean, or low relief. See Enchasing.
EMBOTHBIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetrandria class. See Botany Index.
EMBRASURE, in Architecture, the enlargement
made of the aperture of a door or window on the inside
of the wall; its use being to give the greater play for
the opening of the door or casement, or to admit the
more light.
EMBROCATION, in Surgery bdharmacy, wn.
external kind of remedy, which consists in an irrigation
of the part affected, with some proper liquor, as oils,
spirits, &c. by means of a woollen or linen cloth, or a
sponge, dipped in the same.
EMBROIDERY, a work in gold, or silver, or silk
thread, wrought by the needle upon the cloth, stuffs, or
muslin, into various figures. In embroidering stuffs,
the work is performed in a kind of loom ; because the
more the piece is stretched, the easier it is worked.
As to muslin, they spread it upon a pattern ready de¬
signed ; and sometimes, before it is stretched upon the
pattern, it is starched, to make it more easy to handle.
Embroidery on the loom is less tedious than the other,
in which, while they work flowers, all the threads of
the muslin, both lengthwise and breadthwise must be
[ 28 ] E M E
continually counted ; but, on the other hand, this last Embroidery
is much richer in points, and susceptible of greater va- D
riety. Cloths too much milled are scarce susceptible
of this ornament, and in effect we seldom see them em¬
broidered. The thinnest muslins are left for this pur¬
pose ; and they are embroidered to the greatest per¬
fection in Saxony ; in other parts of Europe, how¬
ever, they embroider very prettily, and especially in
France.
There are several kinds of embroidery : as, 1. Em¬
broidery on the stamp ; where the figures are raised and
rounded, having cotton or parchment put under them
to support them. 2. Low embroidery ; where the gold
and silver lie low upon the sketch, and are stitched with
silk of the same colour. 3. Guimped embroidery : this
is performed either in gold or silver; they first make
a sketch upon the cloth,, then put on cut vellum, and
afterwards sew on the gold and silver with silk thread :
on this kind of embroidery they often put gold and sil¬
ver cord, tinsel, and spangles. 4. Embroidery on both
sides; that which appears on both sides ot the stuff.
4. Plain embroidery ; where the figures are flat and
even, without cords, spangles, or other ornaments.
By stat. 22 Geo. II. c. 36. no foreign embroidery,,
or gold and silver brocade, shall be imported, upon
pain of being forfeited and burnt, and penalty of look
for each piece. No person shall sell, or expose to sale,
any foreign embroidery, gold and silver thread, lace,
fringe, brocade, or make up the same into any garment,
on pain of having it forfeited and burnt, and penally
of look All such embroidery, &c. may be seized
and burnt ; and the mercer, See. in whose custody it
was found, shall forfeit look
EMBRUN, or Ambrun, a city of Dauphiny, in
France, near the confines of Piedmont. E. Long. 6. 6.
N. Lat. 44. 35.
EMBRYO, in Vhysiology, the first rudiments of an
animal in the womb, before the several members are
distinctly formed ; after which period it is denominated
a fetus. See Generation and Fetus.
EMERALD, a precious stone belonging to the
genus of siliceous earth. The word is derived, ac¬
cording to some, from the French esmaramk, and that
from the Latin smaragdus, signifying the same thing ;
by others it is said to be derived from the Italian snie-
raldo, or the Arabian %omorrad. According to Cron-
stedt the emerald is the softest of all the precious stones,
though other naturalists place it the next after the dia¬
mond in this respect. It is perhaps the most beautiful
of all the gems, and, according to Wallerius, when
heated in the fire, changes its colour to a deep blue,
and becomes phosphorescent ; but recovers its green
colour when cold. When pulverized it has a white ap¬
pearance, and, with borax, melts to a very thin and
colourless glass. It becomes electric by being rubbed,
and some have the property of the tourmalin, viz. of
being electrified by heat, and in that state attracting
ashes or other light substances ; though the emeralds
are less powerful than the tourmalin, and after having
attracted the ashes, they retain them without any signs
of repulsion.
Pliny mentions twelve different kinds of these pre¬
cious stones; though it appears, from the vast size of
some of them, that they must have been only certain
kinds of green spar, or other green stone, which at that
time
E M E [ 29 ] E M E
Emerald, time went under the name of emerald among the an-
cients. The true emerald is found only in very small
crystals, from the size of TT^-th of an inch in diameter
to that of a walnut. Theophrastus, however, mentions
one four cubits long and three broad ; likewise an obe¬
lisk composed of only four emeralds, the whole length
being 40 cubits, and the breadth from four to two.
Engestroom informs us, that the emeralds, in their
rough or native state, consist of hexagonal columns
mostly truncated at both ends $ and that he had some
in his possession, which in a gentle heat became
colourless, but in a strong heat white and opaque,
without any mark of fusion. Brunick distinguishes
them into two classes. 1. The pale green emerald,
which comes from the east and from Peru, the figure
being that of an hexagonal truncated prism, and the
basis a vein of white quartz. 2. The dark green eme¬
rald, which is also columnar, but very dark coloured,
striped longitudinally, and has little transparency. The
points are generally broken off longitudinally, though
Davila mentions one resembling a blunt triangular py¬
ramid ; and in the imperial cabinet at Vienna there is
one with a five-sided pyramid. These are the emeralds
which become electrical by heat j though all of them
do not $ and those which do so cannot be known but
by actual experiment. The finest specimen of the
former kind of emeralds is to be seen in the treasury of
the holy chapel of Loretto, containing upwards of
100 of these precious stones great and small. A fel¬
low to this was made by art, and both were presents to
the king of Sicily, designed to represent two Mount
Calvaries.
Emeralds are distinguished by the jewellers into two
kinds the oriental and occidental. The true oriental
emerald is very scarce, and at present only found in the
kingdom of Cambay. So great indeed is the scarcrty
of them, that an opinion prevailed that there are no
oriental emeralds. This opinion is adopted, among
others, by Mr Bruce ; who informs us, that he made an
excursion to the island of emeralds in the lied sea, and
endeavours to show that there never were any emeralds
hut what came from America, and that those said to
have been found in the East Indies were imported from
that continent. It is probable, indeed, that in former
times any kind of crystal tinged of a green colour might
be called an emerald^ and hence the green cockle spar
brought from Egypt may have obtained the name of
mother of emeralds; hut of late some emeralds have
been brought from Cambay into Italy, which greatly
excelled those of America. The best emeralds of the
western continent come from Peru, and are called ori¬
ental by the jewellers : some are found in Europe,
principally in the duchy of Silesia in Germany.
Rough Emeralds.—Those of the first and coarsest
sort, called plasmes, for grinding, are worth 27 shillings
sterling the marc, or 8 ounces. The demi-morillons, 81.
sterling per mare. Good morillons, which are only lit¬
tle pieces, but of fine colour, from 13I. to 15I. per marc.
Emeralds, larger than morillons, and called of the third
colour or sort^ are valued at from 50I. to 60I. the marc.
Emeralds, called of the second sort, which are in larger
and finer pieces than the preceding, are worth from
t0 751* per marc. Lastly, those of the first co¬
lour, otherwise called wgres cartes, are worth from
nol. to Il jl.
L.
o
1
2
3
4
7
*5
*9
23
33
Emerson.
Emeralds ready cut, or polished and not cut, being FEoierabb
of good stone, and a fne colour, are worth—
Those weighing one carat, or four grains
Those of two carats  
Those of three carats *   ■— .   
Those of four carats ,
Those of five carats -
Those of six carats      
Those of seven carats ■ _____
Those of eight carats ——. .
Those of nine carats —_ -
Those of ten carats  
To counterfeit Emeralds: Take of natural crystal,
four ounces of red lead, four ounces } verdigris,
forty-eight grains j crocus martis, prepared with vi¬
negar, eight grains : let the whole be finely pulverized
and silted : put this into a crucible, leaving one inch
empty : lute it well, and put it into a potter’s furnace,
and let it stand there as long as they do their pots.
When cold, break the crucible j and you will find a
matter of a fine emerald colour, which, after it is cqt
and set in gold, will surpass in beauty an oriental eme¬
rald.
EMERSION, in Physics, the rising of any solid
above the surface of a fluid specifically heavier than
itseil, into which it had been violently immerged or
thrust.
It is one of the known laws of hydrostatics, that a
lighter solid being forced down into a heavier fluid,
immediately endeavours to emerge j and that with a
force or moment equal to the excess of weight of a
quantity of the fluid above that of an equal bulk of
the solid. I bus, if a solid be immerged in a fluid of
double its specific gravity, it will emerge again till half
its bulk or body be above the surface of the fluid.
Emersion, m Astronomy, is when the sun, moon, or
other planet, begins to re-appear, after its having been
eclipsed, or hid by the interposition of the moon, earth,
or other body.
The difference of longitude is sometimes found bv
observing the immersions and emersions of the first of
Jupiter’s satellites. I he immersions are observed from
the time of Jupiter’s being in conjunction with the sun
to his opposition ; and the emersions, from the opposi¬
tion to the conjunction j which two intervals are usual¬
ly six months a-piece, and divide the year between them.
But when Jupiter is in conjunction with the sun, aud
15 days before and afterwards, there is nothing to be
observed ; the planet, with his satellites, being then lost
in the light of the sun.
Emersion is also used when a star before hid by the
sun, as being too near him, begins to re-appear and to
get out of his rays.
EMERSON, WTlliam, an eminent mathemati¬
cian, was born in June 1701, at Hurworth, a village
about three miles south of Darlington 5 at least it is
certain that he resided here from his childhood. His
father Dudley Emerson was a tolerable proficient in
mathematics; and without his hooks and instrpctiqns,
perhaps his own genius (most eminently fitted for ma¬
thematical disquisitions) would have never been un¬
folded. He was instructed in the learned languages
by a young clergyman, then curate of Hurworth, who
was
E M E [ 3° 1 E M E
Emerson, was boarded at his father’s house. In the earlier part
“V—' of his life he attempted to teach a lew scholars : but
whether from his concise method (lor he was not hap¬
py in explaining his ideas), or the warmth of his natu¬
ral temper, he made no progress in his school : he
therefore soon left it off; and satisfied with a moderate
competence left him by his parents, he devoted himself
to a studious retirement. Towards the close of the year
1781 (being sensible of his approaching dissolution),
he disposed of the whole of his mathematical library to
a bookseller at York*, and on May loth 1782, he died
of a lingering and painful disorder at his native village,
aged near 81 years.
Mr Emerson in his person was rather short, but
strong and well made, with an open countenance and
ruddy complexion. He was exceedingly singular in
his dress. He had but one coat, which he always
wore open before, except the lower button 5 no waist¬
coat ; his shirt quite the reverse of one in common use,
no opening before, but buttoned close at the collar be¬
hind j a kind of flaxen wig which had not a crooked
hair in it, and probably had never been tortured with
a comb from the time of its being made. He always
walked up to London when he had any thing to pub¬
lish, revising sheet by sheet himself.—Trusting no eyes
but his own, was always a favourite maxim with him.
He never advanced any mathematical proposition that
he had not first tried in practice, constantly making all
the different parts himself on a small scale, so that his
house was filled with all kinds of mechanical instru¬
ments together or disjointed. He would frequently
stand up to his middle in water while fishing, a diver¬
sion he was remarkably fond of. He used to study
incessantly for some time, and then for relaxation take
a ramble to any pot-alehouse where he could get any
body to drink with and talk to. The duke of Manches¬
ter was highly pleased with his company, and used of¬
ten to come to him in the fields and accompany him
home, but could never persuade him to get into a car¬
riage. On these occasions he would sometimes exclaim,
“ Damn your whim-wham ! I had rather walk.” He
was a married man 5 and his wife used to spin on an
old-fashioned wheel, whereof a very accurate drawing
is given in his Mechanics. He was deeply skilled in the
science of music, the theory of sounds, and the various
scales both ancient and modern, but was a very poor
performer.
The following is a list of Mr Emerson’s works.
I. The Doctrine of Fluxions. 2. The Projection of
the Sphere, orthographic, stereographic, and gnomo-
nical. 3. The Elements of Trigonometry. 4. The
Principles of Mechanics. 5. A Treatise of Naviga¬
tion on the Sea. 6. A Treatise of Algebra, in two
books. 7. The Arithmetic of Infinites, and the Diffe¬
rential Method, illustrated by Examples. 8. Mecha¬
nics *, or the Doctrine of Motion. 9. The Elements
of Optics, in four books. 10. A System of Astronomy,
II. The Laws of Centripetal and Centrifugal Force.
12. The Mathematical Principles of Geography. 13.
Tracts, 8vo. 14. Cyclomathesis ; or an easy Introduc¬
tion to the several branches of the Mathematics. 15.
A short comment on Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia *, to
which is added, A Defence of Sir Isaac against the ob¬
jections that have been made to several Parts of his
Works. 16. A Miscellaneous Treatise, containing se- Emerson,
veral Mathematical Subjects, 8vo, 1776. Emery.
EMERY, in Natural History, a rich iron ore found v~—-1
in large masses of no determinate shape or size, extreme¬
ly hard, and very heavy. It is usually of a dusky-
brownish red on the surface ; but when broken, is of a
fine bright iron-gray, but not without some tinge of
redness j and is spangled all over with shining specks,
which are small flakes of a foliaceous talc, highly im¬
pregnated with iron. It is also sometimes very red, and
then usually contains veins of gold. It makes no effer¬
vescence with any of the acid menstruums j and is
found in some of the Greek islands, in Tuscany, and
some parts of Germany.
Dr Lewis is of opinion, that some kinds of emery
may contain the metal called platina, and on this sub¬
ject has the following curious observations. “ Alonso
Barba mentions a substance called chumpi; which is a
hard stone of the emery kind, participating of iron, of
a gray colour, shining a little, very hard to work, be¬
cause it resists the fire much, found in Potosi, Chocaya,
and other places, along with blackish and reddish ores
that yield gold. If platina is really found in large
masses, either generally or only now and then, one
might reasonably expect those masses to be such as are
here described.
“ Of the same kind perhaps also is the mineral men¬
tioned by several authors under the name of Spanish
emery, smiris Hispanicus, which should seem, from the
accounts given of it, to be no other than platina or its
matrix. The smiris is said to be found in the gold
mines, and its exportation prohibited $ to contain films
or veins of native gold ; to be in great request among
the alchemists ; to have been sometimes used for the
adulteration of gold *, to stand, equally with the noble
metal, cupellation, quartation, antimony, and the regal
cement $ and to be separable from it by amalgamation
with mercury, which throws out the smiris and retains
the gold j properties strongly characteristic of platina,
and which do not belong to any known substance be¬
sides. This debasement of gold per extractum smiridis
Hispamci is mentioned by Becher in his Minera arena-
ria, and several times hinted at in his Physica subterra-
nea. Both Becher and Stahl indeed call the substance
which the gold receives from the emery an earth,
whereas platina is undoubtedly a metal } but this does
not at all invalidate our supposition, for they give the
name of earth also to the substance which copper re¬
ceives from calamine in being made into brass, which
is now known to be metallic.
“ From these observations I have been led to sus¬
pect, that the European emeries likewise might pos¬
sibly participate of platina. If this was certain, it
would account satisfactorily for the use which some of
the alchemists are said to have made of emeries and
other ferruginous ores *, and we should no longer
doubt, or wonder, that by treating gold with these
kinds of minerals, they obtained a permanent augmen¬
tation ; but this augmentation, though it resisted lead,
antimony, aquafortis, and the regal cement, was sepa¬
rable, as Becher owns it was, by quicksilver *, and that,
when it exceeded certain limits, it rendered the gold
pale and brittle.
“ If emery contains platina, I imagined it might
be
EMI [ 3i ] EMM
be discoverable by boiling the powdered mineral in
melted lead, and afterwards working off the lead upon
a test or cupel. The experiment was made with eight
ounces of the finest powder of common emery, and the
same quantity of lead ; which were covered with black
flux to prevent the scorification of the lead, and urged
with a strong fire for two or three hours. The lead
became hard, rigid, of a dark colour, and a granulated
texture, as if it had really imbibed some platina from
the emery ; but in cupellation it worked almost entirely
off, leaving only a head about the size of a small pin’s
head, which was probably no other than silver contain¬
ed in the lead.
“ I repeated the experiment with some variation,
thinking to obtain a more perfect i-esolution of the
emery by vitrifying it with the lead. Two ounces of
fine emery and six ounces of minium were well mixed
together, and urged with a strong fire, in a close cru¬
cible, for an hour: they melted into a uniform dark
brownish glass. The glass was powdered, mixed with
four ounces of fixt alkaline salt and some powdered
charcoal, and put into a fresh crucible, with some com¬
mon salt on the surface : The fire was pretty strongly
excited : but the fusion was not so perfect as could be
wished, and only about two ounces of lead were found
revived. This lead had suffered nearly the same change
as that in the foregoing experiment *, and like it, gave
no appearance of platina on being cupelled.
“ It seems to follow from these experiments, that
the emery employed in them contained no platina j but
as it is not to be supposed that all emeries are of one
composition, other sorts may deserve to be submitted
to the same trials. Platina may therefore possibly be
found in some European ores, though there is not the
least footstep of it in other parcels of the same kind of
ore.”
EMETICS, medicines that induce vomiting. See
Materia Medica Index.
EMIGRATION, the act of leaving one country to
settle in another. See Supplement.
EMIMS, ancient inhabitants of the land of Canaan
beyond Jordan, who were defeated by Chedorlaomer
and his allies, Gen. xiv. 5. Moses tells us, that they
• were beaten in Shaveh Kirjathaim, which was in the
country of Sihon conquered from the Moabites, Josh,
xiii. 19.—21. The Emims were a warlike people, of
a gigantic stature, great and many, and tall as the A-
nakims.
EMINENCE, in Geography, a little hillock or as¬
cent above the level of the adjoining champaign.
Eminence is also a title of honour given to cardi¬
nals. The decree of the Pope, whereby it was appoint¬
ed that the cardinals should be addressed under the qua¬
lity of eminence, bears date the loth of January 1630.
They then laid aside the titles of illustrissimi and reve¬
re ndissimi, which they had borne before.
The grand master of Malta is likewise addressed un¬
der the quality of eminence. The Popes John VlIJ.
and Gregory VII. gave the same title to the kings of
France. The emperors have likewise borne it.
Faminentissimus, the superlative of- eminent, has of
late been attributed to the cardinals.
EMIR, a title of dignity among the Turks, signi¬
fying a prince.
This title was first given to the caliphs j but when
they assumed the title of Sultans, that of emir remain¬
ed to their children ; as that of Coesar among the Ro¬
mans. At length the title came to be attributed to
all who were judged to descend from Mahomet by his
daughter Fatimah, and who wear the green turban in¬
stead of the white. The Turks make an observation,
that the emirs, before their fortieth year, are men of
the greatest gravity, learning, and wisdom ; but after
this, if they are not great fools, they discover some
signs of levity and stupidity. This is interpreted by
the Turks as a sort of divine impulse in token of their
birth and sanctity. I he lurks also call the vizirs,
bashaws, or governors of provinces, by this name.
EMISSARY, in a political sense, a person employ¬
ed by another to sound the opinions of people, spread
certain reports, or act as a spy over other people’s
actions.
Emissary Vessels, in Anatomy, the same with those
more commonly called Excretory.
EMISSION, in Medicine, a term used chiefly to
denote the ejaculation of the semen or seed in the act
of coition. See Coition and Generation.
EMMANUEL, or Immanuel, a Hebrew word,
which signifies ‘ God with us.’ Isaiah (viii. 14.), in
that celebrated prophecy, wherein he declares to Ahaz
the birth of the Messiah, who was to be born of a vir¬
gin, says, I his child shall be called, and really be, Em¬
manuel, that is, God with vs. The same prophet (viii.
8.) repeats the same thing, while he is speaking of the
enemy’s army, which, like a torrent, was to overflow
Judea. ‘ Hie stretching out of his wings shall fill the
breadth of thy land, O Emmanuel.’ The evangelist
Matthew (i. 23.) informs us, that this prophecy was
accomplished in the birth of Christ, born of the virgin
Mary, in whom the two natures divine and human
were united, and so in this sense, he was really Emma¬
nuel, or ‘ God with us.’
EMMERICK, a rich fortified town of Germany,
in the circle of Westphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It
carries on a good trade with the Dutch, and both
1 rotestants and Catholics have the free exercise of their
religion. The streets are neat and regular, and the
houses tolerably built. It was taken by the French in
167a, but not retained. Since 1815 it has been sub¬
ject to the king of Prussia. It is seated near the
Rhine. E. Long. 5. 29. N. Lat. 52. 5.
EMMIUS, Ubbo, born at Gretha in East Fries¬
land in 1547, was a very learned professor, and chosen
rector of the college of Norden in 1579. This semi¬
nary flourished exceedingly under his care ; and de¬
clined as visibly after he was ejected, in 1587, for re¬
fusing to subscribe the Confession of Augsburg. The
year after, he was made rector of the college of Leer ;
and when the city of Groningen confederated with the
United 1 rovinces, the magistrates appointed him rec¬
tor of that college : which employment he filled with the
highest repute near 20 years 5 until the college being
erected into an university, he was the first rector, and
one of the chief ornaments of it by his lectures, till
his infirmities prevented his public appearance. His
wisdom was equal to his learning ; so that the gover¬
nor of Friesland and Groningen often consulted him,
and seldom failed to follow his advice. He wrote
Veins
3
EMO [32] EMO
flmiflia* Vctus Gracia Ulustrata, 3 vols; Decades Rerum Fre-
|j sicanim; and many other valuable works. He died
K«<wr- in 1625. .
» ' EMMENAGOGUES, Epfxvxyvyx, m Medicine,
such remedies as promote the menstrual discharge.
They are thus called from “ in,” (w “ month,” xyx
duco, “ I lead,” because their natural periods of flowing
are once a-month.
EMOLLIENTS, in Medicine and Pharmacy, are
such remedies as sheath and soften the asperity of the
humours, and relax and supple the solids at the same
time.
EMOLUMENT is properly applied to the profits
arising daily from an office or employ. Ihe word is
formed of the Latin emolumentum, which, according to
some, primarily signifies the profits redounding to the
miller from his mill ; of molo, molere, “ to grind.”—-
The patent, or other instrument, whereby a person is
preferred to an office, gives him a right to enjoy all
the duties, honours, profits, and emoluments belonging
thereto.—Emolument is also used, in a somewhat great¬
er latitude, for profit or advantage in the general.
EMOTION and Passion, in the human mind, are
* FAem. of thus distinguished by a celebrated writer*. An inter-
eriticism, nai raolion or agitation of the mind, when it passeth
vo!. i. p.45.liway wit|VOnt desire, is denominated an emotion: when
desire follows, the motion or agitation is denominated
a passion. A fine face, for example, raiseth in me a
pleasant feeling : if that feeling vanish without produ¬
cing any effect, it is in proper language an emotion ;
but if the feeling, by reiterated views of the object, be¬
comes sufficiently strong to occasion desire, it loses its
name of emotion, and acquires that of passion. The
same holds in all the other passions. The painful feel¬
ing raised in a spectator by a slight injury done to a
Btranger, being accompanied with.no desire of revenge,
is termed an emotion ; but that injury raiseth in the
stranger a stronger emotion, which being accompanied
with desire of revenge, is a passion. External expres¬
sions of distress produce in the spectator a painful feel¬
ing, which being sometimes so slight as to pass away
without any effect, is an emotion ; but if the feeling
■be so strong as to prompt desire of affording relief, it
is a passion, and is termed pity. Envy is emulation in
excess : if the exaltation of a competitor be barely
disagreeable, the painful feeling is an emotion j if it
produce desire to depress him, it is a passion. See
Passion.
EMOUY, or Hia MEN, an island and port of
China, under the jurisdiction of the province of I'O-
K’ltN.
The port is properly but an anchoring-place for
ships, inclosed on one side by the island from which it
takes its name, and on the other by the main-land:
but it is so extensive, that it can contain several thou¬
sands of vessels j and the depth of its water is so great,
that the largest ships may lie close to the shore without
danger.
In the beginning of the present century it was
much frequented by European vessels ; but few visit
it at present, as all the trade is carried on at Canton.
The emperor keeps here a garrison of 6 or 7000 men,
commanded by a Chinese general. In entering this
road, a large rock must be doubled which stands at the
mouth of it, and divides it almost as the Mingant di-
4
vides the harbour of .Brest. 11ns rock is visible,
rises several feet above the surface of the water.
The island of Emouy is particularly celebrated on
account of the magnificence of its principal paged,
consecrated to the deity Fo. This temple is situated
in a plain, terminated on one side by the sea, and on
the other by a lofty mountain. Before it the sea,
flowing through different channels, forms a large sheet
of water, which is bordered with turf of the most beau¬
tiful verdure. The front of this edifice is 180 feet in
length, and its gate is adorned with figures in relief,
which are the usual ornaments of the Chinese archi¬
tecture. On entering, you find a vast portico, with
an altar in the middle, on which is placed a gigantic
statue of gilt brass, representing the god Fo, sitting
cross-legged. Four other statues are placed at the
corners of this portico, which are 18 feet high, al¬
though they represent people sitting. Each of these
statues is formed from a single block of stone. They
bear in their hands different symbols which mark their
attributes, as formerly in Athens and Rome the trident
and caduceus distinguished Neptune and Mercury.
One holds a serpent in his arms, which is twisted round
its body in several folds ; the second has a bent bow
and a quiver ; the two others present, one a kind of
battle-axe, and the other a guitar, or some instrument of
■the same kind.
After crossing this portico, you enter a square
outer court, paved with large gray stones, the least
of which is ten feet in length and four in breadth.
At the four sides of this court arise four pavilions,
which terminate in domes, and have a communica¬
tion with one another by means of a gallery which rims
quite round it. One of these contains a bell ten feet
in diameter; the wooden-work which supports this
heavy mass cannot be sufficiently admired. In tbe
other is kept a drum of an enormous size, which the
bonzes use to proclaim the days ot new and lull moon.
It must be observed, that the clappers of the Chinese
bells are on the outside, and made of wood in the form
of a mallet. The two other pavilions contain the or¬
naments of the temple, and often serve to lodge travel¬
lers, whom the bonzes are obliged to receive. In the
middle of this court is a large tower, which stands by
itself, and terminates also in a dome, to which you
ascend by a beautiful stone stair-case that winds round
it. This dome contains a temple remarkably neat*,
the ceiling is ornamented with mosaic work, and the
walls are covered with stone figures in relief, represent¬
ing animals and monsters. The pillars which support
the roof of this edifice are of wood varnished •, and on
festivals are ornamented with small flags of different
colours. The pavement of the temple is formed of
little shells, and its different compartments present
birds, butterflies, flowers, &c.
The bonzes continually burn incense upon the altar,
and keep the lamps lighted, which hang from the
ceiling of the temple. At one extremity of the altar
stands a brazen urn, which when struck sends forth a
mournful sound : on the opposite side is a hollow' ma¬
chine of wood, of an oval form, used for the same pur¬
pose, which is to accompany with its sound their voices
when they sing in praise of the tutelary idol of the paged.
The god Poussa is placed on the middle of this altar,
on a flower of gilt brass, which serves as a base, and
holds
E M P
£mW< k°^s ^ y°ung child in his arms 5 several idols, which
Empale- are no doubt subaltern deities, are ranged around him,
meat, and show by their attitudes their respect and venera-
tion.
The bonzes have traced out on the walls of this
temple several hieroglyphical characters in praise of
Poussa ; there is also to be seen an historical or allegori¬
cal painting in fresco, which represents a burning lake,
in which several men appear to be swimming, some car¬
ried by monsters, others surrounded by dragons and
winged serpents. In the middle of the gulf rises a
steep rock, on the top of which the god is seated, hold¬
ing in his arms a child, who seems to call out to those
who are in the flames of the lake ; but an old man,
with hanging ears and horns on his head, prevents them
from climbing to the summit of the rock, and threatens
to drive them back with a large club. The bonzes are
at a loss what answer to give, when any questions are
asked them concerning this painting. Behind the al¬
tar is a kind of library, containing books which treat
of the worship of idols.
On descending from this dome you cross the court,
and enter a kind of gallery, the walls of which are
lined with boards j it contains 24 statues of gilt brass,
representing the same number of philosophers, ancient
disciples of Confucius. At the end of this gallery
you find a large hall, which is the refectory of the
bonzes ; and after having traversed a spacious apart¬
ment, you at length enter the temple of Fo, to which
there is an ascent by a large stone staircase. It is orna¬
mented with vases full of artificial flowers (a work
in which the Chinese excel) ; and here also are found
the same kind of musical instruments as those mention¬
ed before. The statue of the god is not to be seen
but through a piece of black gauze, which forms a
kind of veil or curtain before the altar. The rest of the
pagod consists of several large chambers, exceedingly
neat, but badly disposed; the gardens and pleasure
grounds are on the declivity of the mountain j and a
number of delightful grottoes are cut out in the rock,
which afford an agreeable shelter from the excessive
heat of the sun.
There are several other pagods in the isle of Emouy ;
among which is one called T/ie Pagod ofthe Ten Thou¬
sand Stones, because it is built on the brow of a moun¬
tain where there is a like number of little rocks, under
which the bonzes have formed grottoes and very plea¬
sant covered seats. A certain rural simplicity reigns
here, which captivates and delights.
Strangers are received by these bonzes with great
politeness, and may freely enter their temples ; but
they must not attempt to gratify their curiosity fully,
nor to enter those apartments into which they are not
introduced, especially if they are accompanied by sus¬
picious persons ; for the bonzes, who are forbid under
pain of severe punishment to have any intercourse with
women, and who often keep them in private, might,
from fear of being discovered, revenge themselves for
too impertinent a curiosity.
EMPALEMENT, an ancient kind of punishment,
which consisted in thrusting a stake up the fundament.
The word comes from the French empaler, or the Ita¬
lian tmpalare; or rather, they are all alike derived
fiom the Latin palus, “ a stake,” and the preposition
tn, “ in or into.” We find mention of empaling in Ju-
Yot. VIII. Part I. 5 i
E M P
venal. It was frequently practised in the time of Ne- Etll|,a|e.
ro, and continues to be so in Turkey. nient ~
Empalement of a Flower, the same with Calyx. i!
EMPANNELLING. See Impanelling. Emperor.
EMPARLANCE. See Imparlance.
EMPEDOCLES, a celebrated philosopher and poet,
was born at Agrigentum, a city in Sicily. He followed
the Pythagorean philosophy, and admitted the metem¬
psychosis. He constantly appeared with a crown of gold
on his head ; to maintain, by this outward pomp, the
reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordi¬
nary man. It et Aristotle says, that he was a great lover
of liberty, extremely averse to state and command, and
that he even refused a kingdom that was offered him.
His principal work was a Treatise in verse on the Na¬
ture and Principles of Things. Aristotle, Lucretius,
and ad the ancients, make the most magnificent elogi-
ums on his poetry and eloquence.
He taught rhetoric j and often alleviated the anxie¬
ties ol his mind, as well as the pains of his body, with
music. It is reported, that his curiosity to visit the
flames of the crater of AEtna proved fatal to him.
oome- maintain that he wished it to he believed that he
was a god ; and that his death might be unknown, be
threw himseli into the crater and perished in the flames.
His expectations, however, were frustrated j and the
volcano, by throwing up one of his sandals, discovered
to the world that Empedocles had perished by fire.
Others report that he lived to an extreme old age; and
that lie was drowned in the sea about 440 years before
the Christian era.
EMPEROR, {Imperator), among the ancient Ro¬
mans, signified a general of an army, who, for some ex¬
traordinary-success, had been complimented with this
appellation. Thus Augustus, having obtained no less
than twenty famous victories, was as often saluted with
the title emperor, and Titus was denominated emperor
by his army after the reduction of Jerusalem.
Afterwards it came to denominate an absolute mo¬
narch or supreme commander of an empire. In this
sense Julius Caesar was called emperor : the same title
descended with the dignity to Octavius Augustus,
Tiberius, and Caligula j and afterwards it became
elective.
In strictness, the title emperor does not, and cannot,
add any thing to the rights of sovereignty : its effect
is only to give precedence and pre-eminence above
other sovereigns j and as such, it raises those invested
with it to the summit of all human greatness.
It is disputed, whether or not emperors have the
power of disposing of the regal title. It is true, they
have sometimes taken upon them to erect kingdoms ;
and thus it is that Bohemia and Poland are said to
have been raised to the dignity: thus also, the empe¬
ror Charles the Bald, in the year 877, gave Provence
to Boson, putting the diadem on his head, and decree¬
ing him to be called “ king,” ut morepriscorum impera-
torum regibus videretur dominari. Add, that the em¬
peror Leopold erected the ducal Prussia into a kingdom
in favour of the elector of Brandenburg; and though se¬
veral of the kings of Europe refused for some time to
acknowledge him in that capacity, yet by the treaty of
Utrecht in 1712 they all came in.
In the east, the title and quality of emperor are
more frequent than they are among us $ thus, the so-
E vereign
[ 33 1
E M P [ 34 ] E M P
Emperor.
vereign princes of China, Japan, Mogul, Persia, &e. are
all emperors of China, Japan, &c. In the year
the czar of Muscovy assumed the title ol emperor of all
Russia, and procured himself to be recognized as such
by most of the princes and states of Europe.
In the West, the title has been a long time restrain¬
ed to the emperors ot Germany. Jlie first who bore
it was Charlemagne, who had the title of emperor con¬
ferred on him by Pope Leo III. though he had all the
power before. The imperial prerogatives were for¬
merly much more extensive than they are at present.
At the close of the Saxon race, A. D. 1024, they ex¬
ercised the right of conferring all the ecclesiastical be¬
nefices in Germany $ of receiving the revenues ot them
during a vacancy ; of succeeding to the effects of in¬
testate ecclesiastics j of confirming or annulling the
elections of the popes ; of assembling councils, and of
appointing them to decide concerning the affairs of
the church-, of conferring the title of king on their
vassals-, of granting vacant fiefs*, of receiving the re¬
venues of the empire -, of governing Italy as its pro¬
per sovereigns ; of erecting free cities, and establishing
fairs in them 5 of assembling the diets of the empire,
and fixing the time of their duration j of coining mo¬
ney, and conferring the same privilege on the states
of the empire j and of administering both high and low
justice within the territories of the different states :
but in the year 1437, they were reduced to the right
of conferring all dignities and titles, except the privi¬
lege of being a state of the empire; of precesprimaries,
or of appointing once during their reign a dignitary
in each chapter or religious house ; of granting dis¬
pensations with respect to the age of majority; of
erecting cities, and conferring the privilege of coining
money, of calling the meetings of the diet, and pre¬
siding in them.
To which some have added, I. That all the princes
and states of Germany are obliged to do them homage,
and swear fidelity to them. 2. That they, or their
generals, have a right to command the forces of all
the princes of the empire when united together. 3.
That they receive a kind of tribute from all the prin¬
ces and states of the empire, for carrying on a war
which concerns the whole empire, which is called the
Roman month. For the rest, there is not a foot of
land or territory annexed to his title : but ever since
the reign of Charles IV. the emperors have depended
entirely on iheir hereditary dominions as the only
source of their power, and even of their subsistence.
See Diet and ELECTORS.
The kings of France were anciently also called em¬
perors, at the time when they reigned with their sons,
whom they associated-to the crown. Thus Hugh Ca¬
pet, having associated his son Robert, took the title
of emperor, and Robert that of king ; under which
titles they are mentioned in the History of the Coun¬
cil of Rheims, by Gerbert, Sec. King Robert is also
called emperor of the French by Hejgau of Fleury.
Louis le Gros, upon associating his son, did the same.
In the First Register of the King’s Charters, fol. 166,
are found letters of Louis le Gros, dated in 1116, in
favour of Raymond bishop of Maguelonne, wherein he
styles himself, Ludovicus, T)ei ordinante providentia,
Francorum imperator augustus. The kings of England
had likewise anciently the title of emperors, as ap¬
pears from a charter of King Edgar: Ego Edgarus An- Emperor
glorum has ileus, otnniumque regum insufarum oceani il
qiue Britanniam circumjacent, fyc. imperator et domi- , EmP‘re-
nus.
EMPETRUM, Berry-bearing Heath; a genus
of plants belonging to the monoecia class. In the na¬
tural method this genus is ranked by Linnaeus under
the 54th order, Miscellanece. See Botany Index.
EMPHASIS, in Rhetoric, a particular stress «f
the voice and action, laid on such parts or words of the
oration as the orator wants to inforce upon his au¬
dience. See Declamation ; Oratory, Part IV.;
and Reading.
EMPHYSEMA, in Surgery, a windy tumor, ge¬
nerally occasioned by a fracture of the ribs, and form¬
ed by the air insinuating itself, by a small wound, be¬
tween the skin and muscles, into the substance of the
cellular or adipose membrane, spreading itself after¬
wards up to the neck, head, belly, and other parts, much
after the manner in which butchers blow up their veal.
EMPIRE {imperiuin), in political geography, a
large extent of land, under the jurisdiction or govern¬
ment of an emperor.
In ancient history we read of four great monarchies
or empires, viz. that of the Babylonians, Chaldeans,
and Assyrians; that of the Medes and Persians; that
of the Greeks ; and that of the Romans. The first
subsisted from the time of Nimrod, who founded it in
the year of the world 1800, according to the compu¬
tation of Usher, to Sardanapalus their last king in 3257,
and consequently lasted above 1450 years. The empire
of the Medes commenced under Arbaces, in the year of
the world 3257, and was united to that of the Baby¬
lonians and Persians under Cyrus, in 3468, and it
closed with the death of Darius Codomannus in 3674.
The Grecian empire lasted only during the reign of
Alexander the Great, beginning in the year of the world
3674, and terminating with the death of this conque¬
ror in 3681, his conquests being divided among his
captains. The Roman empire commenced with Julius
Caesar, when he was made perpetual dictator, in the
year of the city 708, and of the world 3956, 48 years
before Christ. The seat of the empire was removed to
Byzantium by Constantine, in the year of our Lord
334 ; the east and west were then united under the title
of the Roman empire, till the Romans proclaimed Char¬
lemagne emperor, A. D. 800. From this epocha the
east and west formed two separate empires ; that of the
east, governed by Greek emperors, commenced A. D.
302 : and being gradually weakened, terminated under
Constantine Palseologus in 1453. The western empire
was afterwards known hy the appellation of the empire,
or German empire.
Antiquaries distinguish between the medals of the
upper, and lower or has, empire.—The curious only
value those of the upper empire, which commences
with Csesar or Augustus, and ends in the year of
Christ 260. The lower empire comprehends near
1200 years, reckoning down to the destruction of Con¬
stantinople in 1433.—They usually distinguish two
ages, or periods, of the lower empire : the first begin¬
ning where the upper ends, viz. with Aurelian, and
ending with Anastasius, including 200 years; the se¬
cond beginning with Anastasius, and ending with the
Palseologi, which includes 1000 years.
Empire,
E M P [35
Empire Empire, or The empire, used absolutely and with-
y out any addition, signifies the empire of Germany :
Emporium, called also, in juridical acts and laws, The holy Roman
' empire. It had its beginning with the ninth century ;
Charlemagne being created first emperor by Pope Leo
III. who put the crown on his head in St Peter’s church
on Christ mas-day in the year 800.
Authors are at a loss under what form of govern¬
ment to range the empire. Some of them maintain it
to be a monarchical state, because all the members
thereof are obliged to ask the investiture of their states
of the emperor, and to take an oath of fidelity to him.
Others consider it as a republic, or aristocratic state, be¬
cause the emperor cannot resolve or determine any thing
without the concurring suffrages of the princes. It is
added, that if they require investiture from, and swear
fealty to him, it is only as head of the republic, and in
the name of the republic, and not in his own ; just as at
Venice every thing is transacted in name of the doge.
Others will have the empire to be a monarcho-aristo-
cratic state, i. e. a mixture of monarchy and aristocra¬
cy } because, though the emperor in many cases seems
to act sovereignly, yet his decrees and resolves have no
force, in case the state refuse to confirm them. Lastly,
it has been called an aristo-democratic state, because
the diet, wherein the sovereignty is lodged, is composed
of princes and the deputies of the cities and is di¬
vided into three orders or bodies, called colleges, viz.
the college of electors, the college of princes, and the
college of cities.
We say, diet of the empire, circles of the empire,
fiefs of the empire, princes of the empire, estates of the
empire, members of the empire, capitulations of the
empire. See Diet, Circle, Prince, Capitula¬
tion, &c.
The states or estates of the empire are of two kinds,
mediate and immediate. The immediate states are those
who hold immediately of the empire : Whereof, again,
there are two kinds j the first, such as have seats and
voices in the imperial diet; the second, such as have
none. The mediate states are those who hold of the
immediate.
The states which now compose the empire are, The
princes of the empire, the counts of the empire, the
free barons of the empire, the prelates of the empire,
the princesses or abbesses of the empire, the nobles of
the empire, and the imperial cities.
EMPIRIC, an appellation given to those physicians
who conduct themselves wholly by their own experience,
without studying physic in a regular way. Some even
use the term, in a still worse sense, for a quack who pre¬
scribes at random, without being at all acquainted with
the principles of the art.
EMPIS, a genus of insects belonging to the order
Diptera. See Entomology Index.
EMPLASTER. See Plaster.
EMPORIiE, a double city of the Hither Spain,
near the Pyrenees •, separated by a wall j one part oc¬
cupied by the Greeks of Phocaea, whence originally
are the Massilienses; the other, by native Spaniards, to
whom was added by Augustus a Roman colony. Now
Ampurias, in Catalonia. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 42.
I5*
EMPORIUM, in Medicine, is often used for the
common sensory in the brain. See Brain.
] ENA
Emporium, in Ancient Geography, two cities near Bmporiura
Placentia \ one well fortified, and guarded by a strong H
garrison, at which Hannibal met a repulse : the other, Enamel.
Hannibal took and plundered. Now thought to be ' v
Pont-Nura, in the duchy of Placentia.
EMPRESS, the spouse of an emperor, or a woman
who governs an empire. See EMPEROR.
EMPROSPHOTONOS, a species of convulsion,
wherein the head bends forward.
EMPY/EMA, in Medicine, a disorder wherein pu¬
rulent matter is contained in the thorax or breast, after
an inflammation and suppuration of the lungs and pleu¬
ra. See Medicine Index.
EMPYREAL AIR. So Dr Higgins denominates
that which Dr Priestley calls dephlogisticated air, and
other philosophers vital or pure air.
EMPYREUM, a term used by divines for the high¬
est heaven, where the blessed enjoy the beatific vision.
I he word is formed of w, and jire, because of its
splendour.
EMPYREUMA, in Chemistry, signifies a very dis¬
agreeable smell produced from burnt oils. It is of¬
ten perceived in distillations of animal as well as ve¬
getable substances, when they are exposed to a quick
fire.
EMRODS. See Hemorrhoids.
EMULATION, a generous ardour kindled by the
praise worthy examples of others, which impels us to
imitate, to rival, and, if possible, to excel them. This
passion involves in it esteem of the person whose attain¬
ments or conduct we emulate, of the qualities and ac¬
tions in which we emulate him, and a desire of resem¬
blance, together with a joy springing from the hope of
success. 1 he word comes originally from the Greek
ttfttiAAa;, dispute, contest; whence the Latin etmulus, and
thence our emulation.
Plato observes of emulation, that it is the daughter
of envy ; if so, there is a great difference between the
mother and the offspring ; the one is a virtue and the
other a vice. Emulation admires great actions, and
strives to imitate them ; envy refuses them the praises
that are their due; emulation is generous, and only
thinks of surpassing a rival; envy is low, and only seeks
to lessen him. Perhaps, therefore, it would be more
just to suppose emulation the daughter of admiration j
admiration, however, is a principal ingredient in the
composition of it.
EMULGENT, or renal, arteries, those which
supply the kidneys with blood ; being sometimes single,
sometimes double, on each side. See Anatomy Index.
EMULSION, a soft liquid remedy, of a colour and
consistence resembling milk. See Pharmacy.
EMUNCTORY, in Anatomy, a general term for
all those parts which serve to carry off the excrementi-
tious parts of the blood and other humours of the body.
Such more especially are the kidneys, bladder, and
most of the glands.
EN ALL AGE, in Grammar, is when one word is
substituted for another of the same part of speech : A
substantive for an adjective ; as exercitus victor, for
victoriosus; scelus, for scelestus: A primitive for a de¬
rivative ; as Dardana arma, Dardania: An active
for a passive ; as nox humida ccelo precipitat, for pree-
cipitatur, &c.
ENAMEL, in general, is a vitrified matter betwixt
E 2 the
ENA [ 36 ] ENA
Enamel,
Enamei-
llPU[.
the parts of which is dispersed some unvitrified matter:
hence enamel ought to have all the properties ot glass
except transparency.
Enamels have for their basis a pure crystal glass or
frit, ground up with a fine calx ot lead and tin pre¬
pared for the purpose, with the addition usually ot
white salt of tartar, 't hese ingredients baked together
are the matter of all enamels, which are made by
adding colours of this or that kind of powder to this
matter, and melting or incorporating thepi together in
a furnace.
For white enamel, Neri (De At'te Vitriar.') directs
only manganese to be added to the matter which con¬
stitutes the basis. For azure, zaffer mixed with calx
of brass. For green, calx of brass with scales of iron,
or with crocus martis. For black, zaffer with man¬
ganese or with crocus martis j or manganese with tartar.
For red, manganese, or calx of copper and red tartar.
For purple, manganese with calx of brass. For yellow,
tartar and manganese. And for violet-coloured en¬
amel, manganese with thrice-calcined brass.
In making these enamels, the following general cau¬
tions are necessary to be observed. I. That the pots
must be glazed with white glass, and must be such as
will bear the tire. 2. That the matter of enamels must
be very nicely mixed with the colours. 3. When the
enamel is good, and the colour well incorporated, it
must be taken from the fire with a pair of tongs. 4.
The general way of making the coloured enamel is this :
Powder, sift, and grind, all the colours very nicely,
and first mix them with one another, and then with the
common matter of enamels : then set them in pots in a
furnace 5 and when they are well mixed and incorpo¬
rated, cast them into water; and when dry, set them
in a furnace again to melt 5 and when melted, take a
proof of it. If too deep-coloured, add more of the
common matter of enamels 5 and if too pale, add more
of the colours.
Enamels are used either in counterfeiting or imita¬
ting precious stones, in painting in enamel; or by en¬
amel lers, jewellers, and goldsmiths, in gold, silver,
and other metals. The two first kinds are usually pre¬
pared by the workmen themselves, who are employed
in these arts. That used by jewellers, &c. is brought
to us chiefly from Venice or Holland, in little cakes of
different sizes, commonly about four inches diameter,
having the mark of the maker struck upon it with a
puncheon. It pays is. 7y^d. the pound on impor¬
tation, and draws back is. jTs^d. at the rate of 4s.
per pound.
ENAMELLING, the art of laying enamel upon
metals, as gold, silver, copper, &c. and of melting it at
the fire, or of making divers curious works in it at a
lamp. It signifies also to paint in enamel.
The method of painting in Enamel. This is per¬
formed on plates of gold or silver, and most commonly
of copper, enamelled with the white enamel j whereon
they paint with colours which are melted in the fire,
where they take a brightness and lustre like that of
glass. This painting is the most prized of all for its
peculiar brightness and vivacity, which is very per¬
manent, the force of its colours not being effaced or
sullied with time as in other painting, and continuing
always as fresh as when it came out of the workmen’s
hands. It is usual in miniature j it being the more
2
difficult the larger it is, by reason of certain accidents Enaniel-
it is liable to in Jthe operation. Enamelling should ling,
only be practised on plates of gold, the other metals
being less pure : copper, for instance, scales with the
application, and yields fumes; and silver turns the
yellow white. Nor must the plate be m ade flat; for
in such case the enamel cracks ; to avoid which, they
usually forge them a little round or oval, and not too
thick. The plate being well and evenly forged, they
usually begin the operation by laying on a couch of
white enan^el (as we observed above) on both sides,
which prevents the metal from swelling and blistering ;
and this first layer serves for the ground of all the other
colours. The plate being thus prepared, they begin at
first by drawing out exactly the subject to be painted
with red vitriol, mixed with oil of spike, marking all
parts of the design very lightly with a small pencil.
After this, the colours (which are to be before ground
with water in a mortar of agate extremely fine, and
mixed with oil of spike somewhat thick) are to he laid
on, observing the mixtures and colours that agree to the
different parts of the subject; for which it is necessary
to understand painting in miniature. But here the
workman must he very cautious of the good or had
qualities of the oil of spike he employs to mix his colours
with, for it is very subject to adulterations.
Great care must likewise betaken, that the least dust
imaginable come not to your colours while you are ei-
\her painting or grinding them ; for the least speck,
when it is worked up with it, and when the work
comes to be put into the reverberatory to be made red-
hot, will leave a hole, and so deface the work.
When the colours are all laid, the painting must he
gently dried over a slow fire to evaporate the oil, and
the colours afterwards melted to incorporate them with
the enamel, making the plate red hot in a fire like what
the enamellers use. Afterwards that part of the paint¬
ing must be passed over again which the fire hath any
thing effaced, strengthening the shade and colours, and
committing it again to the fire, observing the same me¬
thod as before, which is to be repeated till the work he
finished.
Method of Enamelling by the Lamp. Most en¬
amelled works are wrought at the fire of a lamp, in
which, instead of oil, they put melted horse-grease,
which they called caballine oil. The lamp, which is
of copper, or white iron, consists of two pieces ; in one
of which is a kind of oval plate, six inches long, and two
high, in which they put the oil and the cotton. The
other part, called the box, in which the lamp is inclosed,
serves only to receive the oil which boils over by the
force of the fire. This lamp, or, where several artists
work together, two or three more lamps are placed on
a table of proper height. Under the table, about the
middle of its height, is a double pair of organ-bellows,
which one of the workmen moves up and down with
his foot to quicken the flame of the lamps, which are
by this means excited to an incredible degree of vehe¬
mence. Grooves made with a gauge in the upper part of
the table, and covered with parchment, convey the wind
of the bellows to a pipe of glass before each lamp ; and
that the enamellers may not be incommoded with the
heat of the lamp, every pipe is covered at six inches di¬
stance with a little tin plate, fixed into the table by a
wooden handle. When the works do not require a long
blast,
E N C t 37 ] E N C
JT.rsamel- blast, they only use a glass pipe, into which they blow
tins with their mouth.
11 . It is incredible to what a degree of fineness and de-
PaintiniT ^‘cacy threads of enamel may be drawn at the
. -v—- ■ lamp. Those wliich are used in making false tufts of
feathers are so fine, that they may be wound on the
reel like silk or thread. The fictitious jets of all co¬
lours, used in embroideries, are also made of enamel;
and that with so much art, that every small piece hath
its hole to pass the thread through wherewith it is
sewed. These holes are made by blowing them in¬
to long pieces ; which they afterwards cut with a pro¬
per tool.
It is seldom that the Venetian or Dutch enamels are
used alone; they commonly melt them in an iron ladle,
with an equal part of glass or crystal; and when the
two matters are in perfect fusion, they draw it out into
threads of different sizes, according to the nature of
the work. They take it out of the ladle while liquid,
with two pieces of broken tobacco-pipes, which they
extend from each other at arm’s length. If the thread
is required still longer, then another workman holds
one end, and continues to draw it out, while the first
holds the enamel to the flame. Those threads, when
cold, are cut into what lengths the workman thinks
fit, but commonly from 10 to 12 inches: and as they
are all round, if they are required to be flat, they must
be drawn through a pair of pinchers while yet hot.
They have also another iron instrument in form of
pinchers, to draw out the enamel by the lamp when it
is to be worked and disposed in figures. Lastly, they
have glass tubes of various sizes, serving to blow the
enamel into various figures, and preserve the necessary
vacancies therein ; as also to spare the stuff, and form
the contours. When the enameller is at work, he sits
before the lamp with his foot on the step that moves on
the bellows ; and holding in his left hand the work to
be enamelled, or the brass or iron wires the figures are
to be formed on, he directs with his right the enamel
thread, which he holds to the flame with a management
and patience equally surprising. There are few things
they cannot make or represent with enamel : and some
figures are as well finished, as if done by the most skil¬
ful carvers.
ENARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a species of Diar-
THROSIS.
ENCiENIA, the name of three several festivals ce¬
lebrated by the Jews in memory of the dedication, or
rather purification, of the temple by Judas Maccabce-
us, Solomon, and Zorobbabel. TLhis term is likewise
used in church history for the dedication of Christian
churches.
ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a Camp.
ENCANTHIS, in Surgery, a tubercle arising either
from the caruncula lachrymalis, or from the adjacent
red skin ; sometimes so large, as to obstruct not only
the puncta lachrymalia, but also part of the sight or
pupil itself. See Surgery.
ENCAUSTIC and Encaustum, the same with
enamelling and enamel. See Enamelling and Ena¬
mel.
Encaustic Painting, a method of painting made use
of by the ancients, in which wax was employed to give
a gloss to their colours, and to preserve them from the
injuries of the air.
This ancient art, after having been long lost, was Encaustic
restored by Count Caylus, a member of the Academy Panuinp.
ol Inscriptions in France ; and the method of painting v~
m wax was announced to the Academy of Painting
ami Belles Lettres in the year 1753 ; though M.
Bachelier, the author of a treatise De I'Histoire et du
Secret cle la Peinture en Cirv, had actually painted a
picture in wax in 1749; and he was the first who
communicated to the public the method of performing
the operation of inustion, which is the principal cha¬
racteristic of the encaustic painting. The Count kept
his method a secret for some time, contenting himself
with exhibiting a picture at the Louvre in 1754, re¬
presenting the head of Minerva, painted in the man¬
ner of the ancients, which excited the curiosity of the
public, and was very much admired. In the interval of
suspense, several attempts were made to recover the an¬
cient method of painting. The first scheme adopted
was that of melting wax and oil of turpentine toge¬
ther, and using this composition as a vehicle for mix¬
ing and laying on the colours. But this method did
not explain Pliny’s meaning, as the wax is not burnt in
this way of managing it. In another attempt, which
was much more agreeable to the historian’s description
of encaustic painting, the wax was melted with strong
lixivium of salt of tartar, and with this the colours
were ground. When the picture was finished, it was
gradually presented to the fire, so as to melt the wax ;
which was thus diffused through all the particles of
the colours, so that they were fixed to the ground,
and secured from the access of air or moisture. But
the method of Count Caylus is much more simple: the
cloth or wood which he designed for the basis of his
picture, is waxed over, by only rubbing it simply with
a piece of bees-wax ; the wood or cloth, stretched on
a frame, being held horizontally over, or perpendicu¬
larly before a fire, at such a distance, that the wax
might gradually melt, whilst it is rubbed on, diffuse
itself, penetrate the body, and fill the interstices of the
texture of the cloth, which, when cool, is fit to
paint upon ; but as water colours, or those that are
mixed up with common water, will not adhere to the
wax, the whole picture is to be first rubbed over
with Spanish chalk or white, and then the colours are
applied to it; when the picture is dry, it is put near
the fire, whereby the wax melts, and absorbs all the
colours.
Mr J. II. Muntz, in a treatise on this subject, has
proposed several improvements in the art of encaustic
painting. When the painting is on cloth, he directs
it to be prepared by stretching it on a frame, and rub¬
bing one side several times over with a piece of bees¬
wax, or virgin wax, till it is covered with a coat of
wax of considerable thickness. In fine linen, this is
the only operation necessary previous to painting;
but coarse cloth must be rubbed gently on the unwax¬
ed side with a pumice-stone, to take oil all those knots
which would prevent the free and accurate working
of the pencil. Then the subject is to be painted on the
unwaxed side with colours prepared and tempered with
water; and when the picture is finished, it must be
brought near the fire, that the wax may melt and fix
the colours. This method, however, can only be ap¬
plied to cloth or paper, through the substance of
which the wax may pass j but in wood, stone, metals,
or
E N C
[ 38 ]
E N C
Encavutic or plaster, the former method of Count Caylus must be
Painting, observed.
' Mr Muntz has also discovered a method of forming
grounds for painting with crayons, and fixing these, as
well as water-colours employed with the pencil. On
the unwaxed side of a linen cloth, stretched and waxed
as before, lay an even and thick coat of the colour pro-
* per for the ground j having prepared this colour by
mixing some proper pigment with an equal quantity
of chalk, and tempering them with water. When the
colour is dry, bring the picture to the fire, that the
wax may melt, pass through the cloth, and fix the
ground. An additional quantity of wax may be ap¬
plied to the back of the picture, if that which was
first rubbed on should not be sufficient for the body of
colour ; but as this must be laid on without heat, the
wax should be dissolved in oil of turpentine, and ap¬
plied with a brush, and the canvas be again exposed to
the fire, that the fresh supply of wax may pass through
the cloth, and be absorbed by the colour 5 and thus a
firm and good body will be formed for working on
with the crayons. If cloth and paper are joined to¬
gether, the cloth must be first fixed to the straining
frame, and then the paper must be pasted to it with
a composition of paste made with wheaten flour, or
starch and water, and about a twelfth part of its weight
of common turpentine. The turpentine must be add¬
ed to the paste when it is almost sufficiently boiled,
and the composition well stirred, and left to simmer
over the fire for five or six minutes : let wax be dissol¬
ved in oil of turpentine to the consistence of a thin
paste : and when the cloth and paper are dry, let them
be held near a fire *, and with a brush lay a coat of the
wax and turpentine on both sides the joined cloth and
paper, in such a degree of thickness, that both surfaces
may shine throughout without any appearance of dull
spots. Then expose the cloth to the fire, or to the
sun 5 by which means the oil will evaporate, and the
wax become solid, and be fit to receive any com¬
position of colour for a ground, which is to be laid
on as above directed in the case of cloth without
paper.
Almost all the colours that are used in oil-painting
may be also applied in the encaustic method. Mr
Muntz objects, indeed, to brown, light pink, and un¬
burnt terra di Sienna; because these, on account of
their gummy or stony texture, will not admit such a
cohesion with the wax as will properly fix them ; but
other colours which cannot be admitted in oil-painting,
as red lead, red orpiment, crystals of verdegris, and
red precipitate of mercury, may be used here. The
crayons used in encaustic painting are the same with
those used in the common way of crayon painting, ex¬
cepting those that in their composition are too tena¬
cious $ and the method of using them is the same in
both cases.
The encaustic painting has many peculiar advan¬
tages : though the colours have not the natural varnish
or shining which they acquire with oil, they have all
the strength of paintings in oil, and all the airiness
of water-colours, without partaking of the apparent
character or defects of either: they may be looked at
in any light and in any situation, without any false
glare: the colours are firm, and will bear washing j and
a picture, after having been smoked, and then exposed
to the dew, becomes as clean as if it had been but just
painted. It may also be retouched at pleasure with¬
out any detriment to the colours ; for the new colours
will unite with the old ones, without spots, as is the
case in common size painting; nor is it necessary to
rub the places to be touched with oil as in oil pictures;
it is not liable to crack, and easily repaired, if it should
chance to suffer any injury. The duration of this
painting is also a very material advantage ; the colours
are not liable to fade and change ; no damp can affect
them, nor any corrosive substance injure them ; nor
can the colour fall off in shivers from the canvas.
However, notwithstanding all these and other advan¬
tages enumerated by the Abbe Mazeas and Mr Muntz,
this art has not yet been much practised. Many of
these properties belong to a much higher species of en¬
caustic painting afterwards discovered in England, the
colours of which are fixed by a very intense heat; nor
are the colours or grounds on which they are laid
liable to be dissolved or corroded by any chemical men¬
struum, nor like the glassy colours of enamel, to rurt
out of the drawing on the fire. What this method
consists in will appear from the following account com¬
municated in a letter from Josiah Colebrook to the
earl of Macclesfield, president of the Royal Society in
“ The art of painting with burnt wax (says he)
has long been lost to the world. The use of it to paint¬
ers in the infancy of the art of painting was of the
utmost consequence. Drying oil being unknown, they
had nothing to preserve their colours entire from the
injury of damps and the heat of the sun : a varnish of
some sort was therefore necessary ; but they being un¬
acquainted with distilled spirits, could not, as we now
do, dissolve gums to make a transparent coat for their
pictures : this invention therefore of burnt wax supplied
that defect to them ; and with this manner of painting
the chambers and other rooms in their houses were
furnished : this Pliny calls encaustum, and we encaustic
painting.
“ The following experiments, which I have the ho¬
nour to lay before your Lordship and the Society,
were occasioned by the extract of a letter from the
Abbe Mazeas, translated by Dr Parsons, and published
in the second part of the 49th volume of the Phi¬
losophical Transactions, N° 100. concerning the ancient
method of painting with burnt wax, revived by Count
Caylus.
“ The count’s method was, 1. To rub the cloth or
board designed for the picture simply over with bees¬
wax. 2. To lay on the colours mixed with common
water : but as the colours will not adhere to the wax,
the whole picture was first rubbed over with (a) Spa¬
nish
Enoaustii
Pain ting
(a) “ Spanish chalk is called by Dr Parsons, in a note, Spanish white. This is a better kind of whitening
than the common, and was the only white that had the name of Spanish annexed to it that I could procure,
though I inquired for it at most if not all the colour shops in town.
4 “ My
E N C
Enciustic wish chalk, and then the colours are used. 3. When
Painting, the picture is dry it is put near the fire, whereby the
wax melts, and absorbs all the colours.
“ Exp. 1. A piece of oak board was rubbed over
with bees-wax, first against the grain of the wood, and
then with the grain, to fill up all the pores that re¬
mained after it had been planed, and afterwards was
rubbed over with as much dry Spanish white as could
be made to stick on it. This, on being painted (the co¬
lours mixed with water only), so clogged the pencil,
and mixed so unequally with the ground, that it was
impossible to make an even outline, but what was so
much thicker in one part than another, that it would
not bear so much as the name of painting j neither
had it any appearance of a picture. However, to pur¬
sue the experiment, this was put at a distance from the
fire, on the hearth, and the wax melted by slow de¬
grees : but the Spanish white (though laid as smooth
as so soft a body would admit, before the colour was
laid on), on melting the wax into it, was not sufficient
to hide the grain of the wood, nor show the'colours by
a proper whiteness of the ground j the wax, in rubbing
on the board, was unavoidably thicker in some parts
than in others, and the Spanish white the same : on
this I suspected there must be some mistake in the Spa¬
nish white, and made the inquiry mentioned in the
note (a).
“ To obviate the inequality of the ground in the
first experiment. ^
“ Exp. 2. A piece of old wainscot (oak-board) ^th
of an inch thick; which, having been part of an old
drawer, was not likely to shrink on being brought near
the fire : this was smoothed with a fish skin; made quite
warm before the fire ; and then, with a brush dipped
in white wax, melted in an earthen pipkin, smeared all
over, and applied to the fire again. That the wax might
be equally thick in all parts of the board, a ground
was laid (on the waxed board) with levigated chalk
mixed with gum-water (viz. gum-arabic dissolved in
water) : When it was dry, I painted it with a kind of
landscape ; and pursuing the method laid down by Count
Caylus, brought it gradually to the fire. I fixed the
picture on a fire screen, which would preserve the heat
and communicate it to the back part of the board. This
was placed first at the distance of three feet from the
fire, and brought forwards by slow degrees, till it came
within one foot of the fire, which made the wax swell
and bloat up the picture ; but as the chalk did not ab¬
sorb the wax, the picture fell from the board and left it
quite bare.
“ Exp. 3. I mixed three parts white wax, and one
part white resin, hoping the tenacity of the resin might
preserve the picture. This wTas laid on a board heated
with a brush as in the former; and the ground was
chalk prepared as before. This was placed horizontal¬
ly on an iron box, charged with a hot heater, shift¬
ing it from time to time, that the wax and resin might
penetrate, the chalk ; and hoping from this position,
that the ground, bloated by melting the wax, would
E N C
subside into its proper place; but this, like the other, Encatmic
came from the board, and would not at all adhere. Fainting.
“ Exp. 4. Prepared chalk four drams, white wax,v—'
white resin, of each a dram, burnt alabaster half a dram,
were all powdered together and sifted, mixed with spi¬
rit of molasses instead of water, and put for a ground
on a board smeared with wax and resin, as in Exp. 3.
This was also placed horizontally on a box-iron as the
former: the picture blistered, and was cracked all
over; and though removed from the box-iron to an
oven moderately heated (in the same horizontal posi¬
tion), it would not subside, nor become smooth.
When it was cold, I took an iron spatula made warm,
and moved it gently over the surface of the picture,
as if I were to spread a plaster. (This thought oc¬
curred, from the board being prepared with wax and
resin, and the ground having the same materials in its
composition, the force of the spatula might make them
unite). This succeeded so well, as to reduce the sur¬
face to a tolerable degree of smoothness ; but as the
ground was broke off in many places, I repaired it
with flake white, mixed up with the yolk of an egg
and milk, and repainted it with molasses spirit (instead
of water), and then put it into an oven with a mode¬
rate degree of heat. In this I found the colours fixed,
but darker than when it was at first painted ; and it
would bear being washed with water, not rubbed with
a wet cloth.
“ Exp. 5. A board (that had been used in a former
experiment) was smeared with wax and resin, of each,
equal parts ; was wetted with molasses spirit, to make
whitening (or Spanish white) mixed with gum water
adhere. This, when dry, was scraped with a knife,
to make it equally thick in all places. It was put into
a warm oven, to make the varnish incorporate partly
with the whitening before it was painted ; and it had
only a small degree of heat ; water was only used to ■
mix the colours. This was again put into an oven
with a greater degree of heat ; but it flaked off from
the board : whether it might be owing to the board’s
having had a second coat of varnish (the first having
been scraped and melted off), and that the unctuous-
parts of the wax had so entered its pores, that it would
not retain a second varnish, I cannot tell.
“ Exp. 6. Having miscarried in these trials, 1 took
a new board, planed smooth, but not polished either
with a fish skin or rushes : I warmed it, and smeared it
with wax only; then took cimoha (tobacco-pipe clay)
divested of its sand, by being dissolved in water and
poured off, leaving the coarse heavy parts behind. Af¬
ter this was dried and powdered, I mixed it with a
small quantity of the yolk of an egg and cow’s milk,
and made a ground with this on the waxed board : this-
I was induced to try, by knowing that the yolk of an
egg will dissolve almost all unctuous substances, and
make them incorporate with water; and I apprehend¬
ed, that a ground thus prepared, would adhere so much
the more firmly to the board than the former had done,
as to prevent its flaking off. The milk, I thought,.
might
t 39 ]
My friend M. da Costa showed me a piece of Spanish chalk in his collection, which seemed more like CJMO-
Lia (tobacco pipe-clay), and was the reason of my using that in one of the experiments.
E N C [ 40 ] E N C
Encaustic might answer two purposes; first, by uniting the ground
Painting, with the wax ; and secondly, by answering the end ot
1   'f' sixe or gum-water, and prevent the colours from sink¬
ing too deep into the ground, or running one into an¬
other. When the ground was near dry, I smoothed it
with a pallet knife, and washed with milk and egg where
I had occasion to make it smooth and even : when dry
] painted it, mixing the colours with common water ;
this, on being placed horizontally in an oven only warm
enough to melt the wax, flaked from the board ; but
held so much better together than any of the former,
that I pasted part of it on paper.
“ 7. Flake-white (or the purest sort of white-
lead) mixed with egg and milk, crumbled to pieces in
the oven, put on the waxed board, as in the last expe¬
riment.
“ The bad success which had attended all the former
experiments, led me to consider of what use the wax was
in this kind of painting : and it occurred to me, that
it was only as a varnish to preserve the colours from
fading.
“ In order to try this :
“ Exp. 8. I took what the brick-layers call fine
stuff, or putty (B) : to this I added a small quantity of
burnt alabaster, to make it dry : this it soon did in the
open air ; but before I put on any colours, I dried it
gently by the fire, lest the colours should run. When
it was painted, I warmed it gradually by the fire (to
prevent the ground from cracking) till it was very hot.
I then took white wax three parts, white resin one
part; melted them in an earthen pipkin, and with a
brush spread them all over the painted board, and kept
it close to the fire in a perpendicular situation, that
what wax and resin the plaster would not absorb might
drop off. When it was cold, I found the colours were
not altered, either from the heat of the fire, or passing
the brush over them. I then rubbed it with a soft li-
neH cloth, and thereby procured a kind of gloss, which
I afterwards increased by rubbing it with a hard
brush ; which was so far from scratching or leaving any
marks on the picture, that it became more smooth and
polished by it.
“ After I had made all the foregoing expex-iments, in
conversation with my honoured and learned friend Dr
Kidby, a fellow of this society, I said I had been try¬
ing to find out what the encaustic painting of the an¬
cients was. Upon which he told me, that there was a
passage in Vitruvius de Architectura relative to that
kind of painting : and was so good as to transcribe it
for me from the 7th book, chap. p. De minii ternpe-
ratura. Vitruvius’s words are : At si quis subtilior
fuerit, et voluerit expolitionem miniaceam suum colorem
retincre, cum paries expolitus et aridus fuerit, tunc ceram
Punicam liqucfaclam igni, paulo oleo temper atom, seta in. Eii<mu&U«
ducat, deinde postea carbonibus inferreo vase compositis, faulting..
earn ceram apprime cum pariete, calefaciendo sudore co- ' * "
{rat. fiiatque utpereequetur, deinde cum candela linteisque
puris subigat, utisigna marmorea nuda cur ant ur. Hcec
autem xavrif Grace dicitur. Xta obstans cerce Punicce
lorica non patitur, nec iunce splendorem, nec solis radios
lambendo eripere ex his pohtionibus colorem.
“ Which I thus translate: ‘ But if any one is more
wary, and would have the polishing [painting] with
vermilion hold its colour, when the wall is painted and
dry, let him take Carthaginian [Barbary] wax, melt¬
ed with a little oil, and rub it on the wall with a hair-
pencil ; and afterwards let him put live coals into an
iron vessel [chafing-dish], and hold it close to the wax,
when the wall, by being heated, begins to sweat; then
let it be made smooth : afterwards let him rub it with
a (c) candle and (d) clean linen rags, in the same man¬
ner as they do the naked marble statues. This the
Greeks call The coat of Carthaginian wax
(thus put on) is so strong, that it neither suffers tha
moon by night, nor the sun-beams by day, to destroy
the colour.’
“ Being satisfied, from this passage in Vitruvius, that
the manner of using wax in Exp. 8. was right, I was
now to find if the wax-varnish, thus burnt into the pic¬
ture, would bear washing. But here I was a little dis¬
appointed ; for rubbing one corner with a wet linen
cloth, some of the colour came off; but washing it
with a soft hair-pencil dipped in water, and letting it
dry without wiping, the colour stood very well.
“ A board painted, as in Exp. 8. was hung in the
most smoky part of a chimney for a day, and exposed
to the open air in a very foggy night. In the morning
the board was seemingly wet through, and the water
ran oft’ the picture. This was suffered to dry without
wiping : and the picture had not suffered at all from
the smoke or the dew, either in the ground or the co¬
lours ; but when dry, by rubbing it, first with a soft
cloth, and afterwards with a brush, it recovered its for¬
mer gloss.
“ Suspecting that some tallow might have been mix¬
ed with the white wax I had used, which might cause
the colours to come off on being rubbed with a wet
cloth, I took yellow wax which had been melted from
the honeycomb in a private family, and consequently
not at all adulterated : to three parts of this I added
one part resin, and melted them together.
tc Exp. 9. Spanish white, mixed with fish glue, was
put for a ground on a board, and painted with water¬
colours only. The board was made warm ; and then
the wax and resin were put on with a brush, and kept
close to the fire till the picture had imbibed all the
varnish,
(g) “ Putty is lime slaked, and while warm, dissolved in water, and strained through a sieve.
(c) “ The account of the method of polishing [painting] walls coloured with vermilion, gave me great satis¬
faction, as it proved the method I had taken in experiment 8. (which I had tried before I saw or knew of this
passage in Vitruvius) was right. The use of the candle, as I apprehend, was to melt the wax on the walls where
by accident the brush had put on too much, or afford wax where the brush had not put on enough, or had left
any part bare.
(d) “ The rubbing the wail with a linen cloth, while warm, will do very well where there is only one colour
to be preserved ; but where there are many, as in a landscape, it will be apt to take off some, or render the co¬
louring rather faint; which I found by wiping the wax off from a painting while it was hot,
E N C
[
Encaustic varnish, and looked dry. When it was cold, I rub-
Painting. bed it first with a linen cloth, and then polished it with
'“‘"'v a hard brush.
“ In these experiments I found great difficulties with
regard to colours. Many water colours being made
from the juices of plants, have some degree of an acid
in them j and these when painted on an alkaline
ground, as chalk, whitening, cimolia, and plaster, are
totally changed in their colours, and from green be¬
come brown j which contributes much to make the
experiments tedious. I would therefore advise the use
of mineral or metallic colours for this sort of painting,
as most likely to preserve their colour: for although l
neutralized Spanish white, by fermenting it with vine¬
gar, and afterwards washed it very well with water, it
did not succeed to my wish.
“ These experiments, and this passage from Vitru¬
vius, will in some measure explain the obscurity of part
of that passage in Pliny, which Dr Parsons, in his learn¬
ed comment on the encaustic painting with wax, seems
to despair of.
“ Ceris pingere, was one species of encaustic paint¬
ing. wustum, may be translated, “ forced in
by the means of fire ; burnt in for whatever is forced
in by the help of fire can be rendered into Latin by no
other significant word that I know of but inustum. If
this is allowed me, and I think I have the authority of
Vitruvius (a writer in the Augustan age) for it, who
seems to have wrote from his own knowledge, and not
like Pliny, who copied from others much more than he
knew himself, the difficulty with regard to this kind of
painting, is solved, and the encaustic with burnt wax
recovered to the public.
“What he means by the next kind he mentions,
in ebore cestro id est viriculo, I will not attempt to ex¬
plain at present.
“ The ship-painting is more easily accounted for, the
practice being in part continued to this time ; and is
what is corruptly called bt'eaming, for brenning or
burning.
“ This is done by reeds set on fire, and held under
the side of a ship till it is quite hot j then resin, tallow,
tar, and brimstone, melted together, and put on with
a hair brush while the planks remain hot, make such
a kind of paint as Pliny describes: which, he says, nec
sole, nec sale ventisque corrumpitur. As they were ig-
norant. of the use of oil painting, they mixed that co¬
lour with the wax, &c. which they intended for each
particular part of the ship, and put it on in the manner
above described.
In the pictures painted for these experiments, and
now laid before your lordship and the society, I hope
neither the design of the landscape, nor the execution
of it, will be so much taken into consideration as the
varnish (which was the thing wanted in this inquiry) :
ana I think that will evince, that the encaustic paint¬
ing with burnt wax is fully restored by these experi¬
ments ; and though not a new invention, yet having
been lost for so many ages, and now applied further,
and to other purposes, than it was by Vitruvius (who
confined it to vermilion only), may also amount to a new
discovery, the use of which may be a means of pre¬
serving many curious drawings to posterity 5 for this
kind of painting may be on paper, cloth, or any other
substance that will admit a ground to be laid on it. The
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
41 ] E N C
process is very simple, and is not attended with the dis- Encaust’c
agreeable smell unavoidable in oil-painting, nor with Painting,
some inconveniences inseparable from that art; and as \^
there is no substance we know more durable than wax,
:t hath the greatest probability of being lasting.”
Still, however, there seem to have been some defects
or inconveniences attending these and other subsequent
attempts; for we find the ancient or some similar me¬
thod of painting in wax remaining a desideratum up¬
wards of 25 years after the publication of the preceding
experiments; when in 1787 a method was communi¬
cated to the Society of Arts by Miss Greenland, for
which she was rewarded with a prize. The ground
of her information she received at Florence, through
the acquaintance of an amateur of painting, who pro¬
cured her the satisfaction of seeing some paintings in
the ancient Grecian style, executed by Signora Pa-
renti, a professor at that place, who had been instructed
by a Jesuit at Pavia, the person who made the farthest
discoveries in that art. _ Miss Greenland’s friend know¬
ing she was fond of painting, informed her what were
the materials the paintress used, but could not tell her
the proportions of the composition ; however, from her
anxiety to succeed in such an acquisition, she made va¬
rious experiments, and at last obtained such a sufficient
knowledge of the quantities of the diflerent ingredients
as to begin and finish a picture, which she afterwards
presented to the Society for their inspection.
Her method is as follows : “Take an ounce of white
wax, and the same weight of gum mastich powdered.
Put the wax in a glazed earthen vessel over a very slow
fire ; and when it is quite dissolved, strew in the mastich,
a little at a time, stirring the wax continually until the
whole quantity of gum is perfectly melted and incor¬
porated : then throw the paste into cold water, and
when it is hard, take it out of the water, wipe it dry,
and beat it in one of Mr Wedgwood’s mortars, obser¬
ving to pound it at first in a linen cloth to absorb some
drops of water that will remain in the paste, and would
prevent the possibility of reducing it to a powder, which
must be so fine as to pass through a thick gauze. It
should be pounded in a cold place and but a little while
at a time, as after long beating the friction will in a de¬
gree soften the wrax and gum, and instead of their be¬
coming a powder they will return to a paste.
“ Make some strong gum-arabic water ; and when
you paint, take a little of the powder, some colour, and
mix them together with the gum-water. Light colours
require but a small quantity of the powder, but more of
it must be put in proportion to the body and darkness of
the colours; and to black there should be almost as
much of the powder as colour.
“ Having mixed the colours, and no more than can
be used before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as
is practised in painting with water-colours, a ground on
the wood being first painted of some proper colour pre¬
pared in the same manner as is described for the pic¬
ture ; walnut-tree and oak are the sdrts of wood com¬
monly made use of in Italy for this purpose. The paint¬
ing should be very highly finished ; otherwise, when
varnished, the tints \vitl not appear united.
“ When the painting is quite dry, with rather a
hard brush, passing it one way, varnish it with white
wax, which is put into an earthen vessel, and kept melt¬
ed over a very slow fire till the picture is varnished, ta-
F king
E N C [ 42 ] END
Encaustic king great care the wax does not boil. Afterwards
fainting hold the picture before a fire, near enough to melt the
II . wax, but not make it run ; and when the varnish is en-
In-Ilasing cojj anij ru|j jt gently with a linen cloth.
Should the varnish blister, warm the picture again very
slowly, and the bubbles will subside. When the picture
is dirty, it need only be washed with cold water.”
The opinion given by the society upon the above is :
The method made use of by Miss Greenland provides
against all inconveniences } and the brilliancy of the
colours in the picture painted by her, and exhibited to
the Society, fully justifies the opinion, that the art of
painting in wax, as above described, highly merited
the reward of a gold pallet voted to her on this occa*
sion.
ENCEINTE, in Fortification, is the wall or ram¬
part which surrounds a place, sometimes composed of
bastions or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or
stone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is some¬
times only flanked by round or square towers, which
is called a Roman wall.
ENCEPHALI, in Medicine, worms generated in
the head, where they cause so great a pain as some¬
times to occasion distraction.
The encephali are very rare j but there are some dis¬
eases wherein they swarm : from whence we are told
pestilential fevers have wholly arisen. Upon the dis¬
section of one who died of this fever, a little, short,
red worm was found in the head, which malmsey wine,
wherein horse-raddish had bee« boiled, could alone de¬
stroy. This medicine was afterwards tried on the sick,
most of whom it cured.
The like worms have also been taken out by tre¬
panning, and the patient cured. Those worms that
generate in the nose, ears, and teeth, are also called en¬
cephali.
ENCHANTER, a person supposed to practise en¬
chantment or fascination. See Fascination, Witch¬
craft, &c.
Enchanter's Nightshade. See Circle a, Botany
Index.
ENCHASING, Inciiasing, or Chasing, the art
of enriching and beautifying gold, silver, and other
metal-work, by some design or figures represented there¬
on in low relievo.
Enchasing is practised only on hollow thin works,
as rvalch-cases, cane-heads, tweezer-cases, or the like.
It is performed by punching or driving out the metal,
to form a figure, from withinside, so as to stand out
prominent from the plane or surface of the metal. In
order to this, they provide a number of fine steel blocks
or puncheons of divers sizes j and the design being
drawn on the surface of the metal, they apply the in¬
side upon the heads or tops of these blocks, directly
under the lines or parts of the figures •, then, with a
fine hammer, striking on the metal, sustained by the
block, the metal yields, and the block makes an in¬
denture or cavity on the inside, corresponding to which
there is a prominence on the outside, which is to stand
for that part of the figure.
Thus the workman proceeds to chase and finish all
the parts by the successive application of the block and
hammer to the several parts of the design. And it is
wonderful to consider with what beauty and justness,
by this simple piece of mechanism, the artists in this
kind will represent foliages, grotesques, animals, hi- Enchasing
stones (5*0#
ENCLITICA, in Grammar, particles which are so
closely united with other words as to seem part of them,
as in virunique, &c,—There are three enclitic particles
in Latin, viz. qne, ne, ve.
ENCRATITES, in church-history, heretics who
appeared towards the end of the second century : they
were called Encratites, or Continentes, because they glo¬
ried in abstaining from marriage and the use of wine
and animal food.
ENCURECK, in Natural History, a venomous in¬
sect found in Persia, and said to be a kind of tarantu¬
la. According to Olearius, as quoted by Mr Boyle, it
neither stings nor bites ; but lets fall its venom like a
drop of water, which causes insufferable pain in the
part for a time, and afterwards so profound a sleep,
that, as report says, nothing can awake the patient ex¬
cept crushing one of the creatures on the part affected.
It is nevertheless said, that the sheep eat these insects
without damage.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA, a term nearly synonymous
with Cyclopedia ; but adopted in preference to it
in denominating the present work, as being more definite
and of better authority. According to an observation
of the late learned printer Mr Bowyer, the preposition
EN makes the meaning of the word more precise.
For Cyclopaedia may denote “ the instruction OF a
circle,” as Cyropcedia is “ the instruction of Cyrus,”
whereas in ENcyclopcedia, the preposition determines the
word to be from the dative of cyclus, “ instruction in
a circle.” And Vossuis, in his book De vitiis sermonis,
has observed, “ That Cyclopaedia is used by some au¬
thors, but Encyclopcedia by the best.”
ENDEMIC, or Endemical, Diseases, those to
which the inhabitants of particular countries are sub¬
ject more than others, on account of the air, water,
situation, and manner of living.
ENDIVE. See Cichorium, Botany and Gar¬
dening Index.
ENDLESS, something without an end : thus au¬
thors mention endless rolls, the endless screw, &c.
ENDOR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Galilee,
four miles to the south of Mount Tabor, in the tribe of
Manasseh, where the Pythoness was consulted by Saul :
at this day, says Jerome, a large village.
ENDORSED, in Heraldry, an ordinary, containing
the eighth part of a pale, which Leigh says is only
used when a pale is between two of them.
Endorsed, in Heraldry, is said of things borne
back to back, more usually called Adosse,
ENDORSEMENT, in Law and Commerce. See
Indorsement.
ENDOWMENT, in Law, denotes the settling a
dower on a woman •, though sometimes it is used figu¬
ratively, for settling a provision upon a parson, on the
building of a church j or the severing a sufficient por¬
tion of tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appro¬
priated.
' ENDYMION, in fabulous history, a shepherd, son
of AEtblius and Calyce.. It is said that he required of
Jupiter to grant to him to be always young, and to
sleep as much as he would •, whence came the proverb
of Endymionissomnum dormire, to express a long sleep.
Diana saw him naked as he slept on Mount Latmos;
rind
E N F
Endyimon »nd was SD struck wIt,‘ J118 beauty, that she came down
j; from heaven every night to enjoy his company. En-
Enfield, dymion married Chromia daughter of Itonus ; by whom
‘ 1 be had three sons Paeon, Epeus, and ^Eolus,* and a
daughter called Eurydice. The fable of Endymion’s
amours with Diana, or the moon, arose from his know¬
ledge of astronomy 5 and as he passed the night on some
high mountain to observe the heavenly bodies, it came
to be reported that he was courted by the moon. Some
suppose that there were two of that name; the son
of a king of Elis, and the shepherd or astronomer
of Caria. The people ot Heraclea maintained that
Endymion died on Mount Latmos j and the Eleans
pretended to show his tomb at Olympia in Pelopon¬
nesus.
ENEMY, in Law, an alien or foreigner, who pub¬
licly invades the kingdom.
ENERGUMENS, in church-history, persons sup¬
posed to be possessed by the devil, concerning whom
there were many regulations among the primitive Chris¬
tians. They were denied baptism and the eucharistj
at least, this was the practice of some churches : and
though they were under the care of exorcists, yet it was
thought a becoming act of charity to let them have
the public prayers of the church, at which they were
permitted to be present. See Exorcism.
ENERGY, a term of Greek origin, signifying the
power, virtue, or efficacy of a thing. It is also used,
figuratively, to denote emphasis of speech.
ENERVATING, the act of destroying the force,
use, or office, of the nerves, either by cutting them,
by weakening them with debauchery, or by some other
violence.
Excess of wine, and other strong, hot, spirituous
liquors, enervate or weaken the nerves. When they
would render a horse useless, they enervate him, or cut
his nerves.
ENFANS Perdus, the same with forlorn hope.
See Forlorn.
ENFIELD, William, LL. D. an elegant and
very justly admired writer, was born in the year 1741,
at Sudbury. His original destination was for the sacred
office of the ministry, and he was educated among the
protestant dissenters at Daventry, where the high polish
which he gave to his compositions, distinguished him
from many of his contemporaries. The congregation
of Benn’s-garden of Liverpool made choice of him for
their minister in the year 1763, when he was not more
than 22 years of age; and in this situation he was
soon taken notice of as an amiable member of society,
and an engaging preacher. While he resided in Liver¬
pool, he published two volumes of sermons, i2mo, as
well as a collection of hymns and family prayers, which
met with a very favourable reception. In the year
1770, he was appointed tutor and lecturer in the belles
lettres at Warrington academy, which he filled for
some years with general approbation and unwearied
diligence. He was the compiler of many useful books,
among the most popular of which we may rank his
Speaker, ’ composed of pieces of recitation from the
best and most approved English authors. At the be¬
ginning of this collection there is an excellent essay on
elocution. The Preacher’s Directory; the English
Preacher, a collection of sermons in 9 vols l2mo, from
She most celebrated authors; Biographical Sermons on
C 43 3
E N F
the principal characters in the Old and New Testament, Enfie!d
with a number of single sermons on particular ccca- (j
sions, were also the productions of his pen. The con- Enfine.
troversy relative to. literary property also engaged his ’ * 
attention, and on this he wrote a quarto pamphlet. Fie
likewise published, in one volume 4to, Institutes of
ISiatural 1 hilosophy, theoretical and experimental ; and
during the time of his residence at Warrington, as
teacher in the academy, the university of Edinburgh
conferred on him the degree of LL. D. When that
academy was dissolved in 1783, Dr Enfield continued
tor two years at Warrington in the capacity of a private
tutor, after which he was chosen pastor of the Octarron
meeting-house at Norwich, in the year 1785. He°at
length gave up his private tuition, and entirely devoted
ns time to literary labours, and the peculiar duties of
his pastoral charge. About this time he lost his eldest
son, who had been appointed to the office of town-clerk
of Nottingham. This event would have been productive
of very serious effects on his health and spirits, had it
not been for the consolation ol religion and philosophy,
which are sufficient to support the human mind under
the pressure of the severest calamities. He undertook
and executed the laborious task of abridging Brucker’#
History of Philosophy, which in 1791 he published in
2 vols 4to. It has been allowed that the tenets of the
different sects of philosophers were never before exhi¬
bited to the world with such perspicuity and elegance :
qualifications for which Dr Enfield was undoubtedly
eminent. He contributed largely to the Biographical
Dictionary, published under the inspection of Dr Aiken
and others.
An unsuspected distemper hastened the termination
of his useful life, and on the 3d of November 1797, he
expired in the 57^ year of his age. The general love
of mankind which Dr Enfield possessed, falls to the lot
of few ; nor does it often'happen that an individual dies
so universally lamented. It was essential to him to be
amiable in every station and condition of life. His
posthumous sermons, in 3 vols 8vo, had a very numer¬
ous list of subscribers, a strong proof of the estimation
in which he was held by all who knew him, either per¬
sonally or by report. In these discourses he treats
chiefly on moral topics, which he discusses with the
nicest discrimination, and in a train of the most pleasing
and manly eloquence.
ENFILADE, in the art of war, is used in speak¬
ing of trenches, or other places, which may be scoured
by the enemy’s shot along their whole length. In con¬
ducting the approaches at a siege, care must be taken
that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work of
the place.
ENFINE', formerly Antinoe, a city of Egypt,
built by Adrian in honour of his favourite Antinous.
It is situated towards the middle of the Said, or Upper
Egypt, and still contains several stately monuments ef
antiquity. In ancient times this city was very magni¬
ficent. It was about half a league in circumference,
having two principal streets 45 feet wide, intersecting
each other at right angles, and running through its
whole length. The others were more narrow, but
equally straight;. the two largest having gates at each
end,, part of which still remain. According to the
Nubian geographer, it was called the city of the Magi,
because Pharaoh is said to have caused the magicians
F 3 come
E N F [ 44 1 ENG
Euiine come from thence to his court. Near it were the ruins
H of Abydus, where thei'e was an oracle of the god Besa,
Enfran- one 0f j|ie most ancient in Egypt, and which was still
cinsement; famous jn t|ie tjme 0f Constantins j and hence some
"v " " have derived the appellation just mentioned, the neigh¬
bouring people coming in crowds to consult the oracle.
The ruins of the gates are the most beautiful pieces
of architecture to be met with in this place. The
handsomest has three vaulted entries j the middle one
being 40 feet in height, 22 wide, and 20 thick j the
other two smaller. Each of the facades of this edifice
is ornamented with four pilasters in has relief, with
Corinthian capitals, the acanthus leaves of which have
a considerable projection. It was surrounded by eight
Corinthian columns, of which only one now remains,
but the pedestals of the rest are still entire. Besides
these, there are heaps of rubbish in different parts of
the town, apparently the remains of ancient temples
or palaces. All these seem to have been bordered by
a colonnade, forming a portico on each side, where the
inhabitants might walk secure from the heat of the
sun. One of the squares was ornamented with four
large Corinthian pillars, three of which are destroyed
all but the bases. The fourth is quite entire, about
50 feet high, and the shaft composed of several stones.
The pedestal has a Greek inscription, pretty much de¬
faced, dedicating it to the emperor Alexander Severus,
to whom the senate of Alexandria had already dedi¬
cated the famous column mentioned under that article.
These four other columns were therefore probably rai¬
sed in honour of that emperor after his victories over
the Persians j for the foliage of the oak, with which
the first stone of the shaft is decorated, was a sign of
victory among the Romans. Towards the end of the
fourth century the city was peopled by Christians 5 and
Palladius assures us, that there were at that place 12
convents of virgins, and several others inhabited by
monks. In the convents there are still several Coptic
monasteries possessed by monks equally miserable and
ignorant. The Nubian geographer informs us, that
the city was surrounded by a well cultivated country,
abounding in fruits and harvests j but these have now
given place to sands and barren deserts. The ruins of
Abydus above mentioned are still to be seen near this
place.
ENFRANCHISEMENT, in Law, the incorpora¬
ting a person into any society or body-politic.
ENGASTRIMYTHI, in Pagan theology, the Engastri-
Pythias, or priestesses of Apollo, who delivered ora- mythi
cles from within, without any action of the mouth or H
g Engineer,
The ancient philosophers, &c. are divided upon the
subject of the engastrimythi. Hippocrates mentions
it as a disease. Others will have it a kind of divina¬
tion. Others attribute it to the operation or possession
of an evil spirit. And others to art and mechanism.
M. Scottus maintains that the engastrimythi of the
ancients were poets, who, when the priests could not
speak, supplied the defect by explaining in verse what
Apollo dictated in the cavity of the bason on the sacred
tripod.
ENGENDERING, a term sometimes used for the
act of producing or forming any thing : thus meteors
are said to be engendered in the middle region of the
atmosphere, and worms in the belly.
ENGINE, in Mechanics, is a compound machine,
made of one or more mechanical powers, as levers, pul¬
leys, screws, &c. in order to raise, cast, or sustain any
weight, or produce any effect which could not be easily
effected otherwise. The word is formed of the French
engin, from the Latin ingenium, “ wit 5” by reason of
the ingenuity required in the contrivance of engines to
augment the effect of moving powers.
Engine far Extinguishing Fires. See Hydrody¬
namics Index.
PUc-EngiNe, one contrived for driving piles. See
PiLE-Engine.
Steam-ENGINE, a machine to raise water by fire, or
rather by the force of water turned into steam. See
Steam-Engine.
ENGINEER, in the military art, an able expert
man, who, by a perfect knowledge in mathematics,
delineates upon paper, or marks upon the ground, all
sorts of forts, and other works proper for offence and
defence. He should understand the art of fortifica¬
tion, so as to be able not only to discover the defects
of a place, but to find a remedy proper for them ; as
also how to make an attack upon, as well as to defend,
the place. Engineers, therefore, besides being inge¬
nious, should be brave in proportion. When at a, siege,
the engineers have narrowly surveyed the place, they
ai-e to make their report to the general, by acquainting
him which part they judge the weakest, and where ap¬
proaches may be made with most success.
ENGLAND.
England. Tj’NGLAND, the southern division of the island of
l‘l 1 v Great Britain. Including Wales, it is of a trian¬
gular form, and lies between the 50th and 55th degrees
of north latitude, extending about 400 miles in length
from south to north, and in some places it is 3PO
miles in breadth. It is bounded by Scotland on the
north by the English channel on the south, di¬
viding it from France ; by the German sea on the
east ; and on the west by St George’s or the Irish
1 channel.
Whence At what time the island of Britain was peopled is
peopled. uncertain ) nor do we know whether the southern or
northern parts were first inhabited. We have no ac-
3
counts that can be depended upon before the arrival of
Julius Caesar, and it is certain he found the southern
parts full of people of a very warlike disposition.
These people, according to Caesar, were a colony of
the Gauls j and this opinion is embraced by most of
the ancient as well as modern writers. It is chiefly
founded on the agreement observed by the Romans
between the two nations in their customs, manners,
language, religion, government, way of fighting, &c.
The more northern inhabitants, according to Taci¬
tus, came from Germany. This he infers from the
make of their limbs $ but Ceesar simply calls them Abo-
ngenes.
Ensdamh
England,
ENGLAND.
England. England, including the principality of Wales, when
u—J first invaded by the Romans, was divided into 17 petty
states. 1. The Danmonii, called also-DwrawomV and
Inhabit^ Donmonii, inhabiting the counties of Cornwall and De¬
ferent na- vonshire. 2. The Durotriges, who inhabited the tract
tions. now called T)orsetshire. 3. The Belgas possessed
Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire. 4. The
Attrebatii, or inhabitants of Berkshire. 5. The Regni,
whose country bordered on that of the Attrebatii, and
comprehended Surrey, Sussex, and part of the sea-coast
of Hampshire. 6. The Cantii, inhabiting the county
now called Kent. 7. The Dobuni are placed by Pto¬
lemy on the north side of the Thames, near its head,
in the counties of Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire.
8. The Cattieuchlani, Calyeuchlani, Cattidudani, or
Cathichidani, inhabited Buckinghamshire, Bedford¬
shire, and Hertfordshire. 9. The Trinobantes, who pos¬
sessed the counties of Essex and Middlesex. 10. The
Iceni, whose country comprehended Suffolk, Norfolk,
Cambridge, and Huntingdonshire. These are by
Ptolemy called Simeni, and by others Tigeni. Camden
is of opinion, that they were the same whom Ctesar
calls Cenomagnu 11. The Coritani, whose country
comprehended Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Rut¬
landshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, and Derby¬
shire. 12. The Cornavii possessed Warwickshire,
Worcestershire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Cheshire.
13. The Silures inhabited the counties of Radnorshire,
Brecknockshire, Glamorganshire, with Herefordshire
and Monmouthshire. 14. The Demetas inhabited part
of Caermarthenshire, Pembrokeshire, and Cardigan¬
shire. 15. The country of the Ordovices comprehend¬
ed Montgomeryshire, Merionethshire, Caernarvonshire,
Denbighshire, and Flintshire. 16. The Brigantes
possessed the counties of Yorkshire, the bishopric of
Durham, Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland.
17. The county of Northumberland was held by the
Ottadini, Ottadeni, or Ottalini. Their country, ac¬
cording to some, reached from the Tyne to the river
Forth ; though the most common opinion is, that it
reached only to the Tweed.
The above-mentioned names of these nations are
plainly Roman, but the etymology of them is not ea¬
sily ascertained. Some attempt to derive them from
words in the old British language ; but as this subject
at best must be very obscure and uncertain, we shall
3 not enter into it.
Julius Ck- Bafore the time of Julius Caesar, the Romans had
takeT?1' SGaf.cely any kll°wledge of Britain ; but that conqueror
expedition Il.aving subd,jei1 most of tbe Gallic nations on the oppo-
jiuto Bri- 6*te side °f fl16 channel, began to think of extending
tain. his conquests by the reduction of Britain. The motive
for this expedition, ascribed to him by Seutonius, was
a desire of enriching himself with the British pearls,
which were then very much esteemed. The pretence,
however, which he made use of in order to justify his
invasion was, that the Britons had sent assistance to
the Gauls during his wars with them.
Caesar undertook his first expedition against Britain
when the summer was already far spent, and therefore
he did not expect to finish the conquest of the country
that campaign. Fie thought, however, that it would
be a considerable advantage to view the island, and
learn something of the manners and customs of the na-..
tives $ after which he could more easily take such mea-
45
sures as would ensure a permanent conquest on his re- England,
turn. Having marched all his forces into the country
of the Morini, now the province of Picardy, from
whence was the shortest passage into Britain j he or¬
dered at the same time, all the vessels that lay in the
neighbouring ports, and a fleet which he had built the
year before for an expedition against the Morini, to
attend him. Hie Britons, alarmed at his preparations,
sent ambassadors with offers of submission $ but Csesar,
though he received them with great kindness, did not
abandon his intended scheme of an invasion. He
waited till the arrival of C. Volusenus, whom be had
sent out with a single galley to make discoveries on
the coast. Volusenus did not think proper to land 5
but, having made what observations he could, returned
after five days absence, and Caesar immediately set sail
lor Britain. His force consisted of two legions, em¬
barked on board 80 transports; and he appointed 18,
more which lay wind-bound about eight miles off', to
convey over the cavalry ; but these last orders were too
slowly executed, which occasioned some difficulty in his
landing. ^
T.he Britons at this time, according to Caesar and Manners,
other Roman historians, were very numerous, and had cust0,ns’
their country well stocked with cattle. Their houses of the
resembled those of the Gauls; and they used copper Bntons-
or iron plates weighed by a certain standard instead of
money. Their towns were a confused parcels of huts
placed at a small distance from one another, generally
in the middle of a wood, to which all the avenues were
slightly guarded with ramparts of earth, or with trees.
All the nations were in a state of the most wretched
barbarism, even when compared with the barbarous
Gauls on the continent. The use of clothes was scarce¬
ly known in the island. Only the inhabitants of the
southern coast covered their nakedness with the skins
of wild beasts ; and this rather to avoid giving offence
to the strangers who came to trade with them, than .
out of any principle of decency. It was a general
custom among the Britons to paint their bodies with ,
the juice of woad: but whether this was designed as
ornament, or for any other purpose, is not known.
I hey shaved their beards all except their upper lip,
and wore long hair. “I hey also had their wives in
common, a custom which made them detestable to all ,
other nations.
Jhe arms of the Britons were a sword, a short
lance, and a shield. Breast-plates and helmets they
looked upon rather to be incumbrances, and therefore
made no use of them. '1 hey usually fought in chariots,
some of which were armed with scythes at. the wheels j
they were fierce and cruel, and exceedingly blood¬
thirsty. When driven to distress, they could subsist
themselves even on the bark and roots of trees ; and
Dio Cassius tells us, that they had ready, on all occa¬
sions, a certain kind of food, of which, if they took
but the quantity of a bean, they were not troubled with
hunger or thirst for a considerable time after. The
southern.nations, however, were somewhat more civili- .
zed ; and the Cantii, or. inhabitants of Kent, more so
than any of the rest.
AH the British nations at this time were very brave
and resolute, owing to the continual dissensions among
themselves. They proved therefore very formidable
enemies to the Romans j butthe same dissensions which
had •
ENGLAND.
rland.
X'fiey oj)-
pose Cue.
ear’s laud-
6
They are
defeated
and sue for
peace.
Their
treachery.
had taught them the art of war, also prevented them
from uniting in the defence of their country. As soon
as they perceived Caesar’s fleet approaching, a number
of cavalry and chariots were dispatched to oppose his
landing, while a considerable body of infantry hasten¬
ed after. What chiefly embarrassed the Romans in
their attempt to land, was the largeness of their ships,
which required a considerable depth of water. I he
soldiers, therefore, were obliged to leap into the sea
while loaded with their armour ; and at the same time
to encounter the enemy, who were quite disengaged,
as they either stood on dry ground, or waded but
a little way into the water. Caesar perceiving this
disadvantage, ordered his galleys to advance, with their
broadsides towards the shore, in order to drive the
Britons from the water-side with their slings and ar¬
rows. On this the Britons, surprised at the galleys, a
sort of shipping they had never before seen, began to
give ground. The fight, however, continued for some
time, greatly to the disadvantage of the Romans j till
at last Caesar, observing the distress of his men, caused
several boats to be manned, and sent them to the as¬
sistance of those who were most exposed to the enemy’s
assault. The Romans then soon got the better of the
undisciplined barbarians, however brave, and made
good their landing; but they were unable to pursue
the enemy for want of cavalry, which had not yet ar¬
rived.
The Britons were so disheartened with this bad suc¬
cess, that they immediately sent ambassadors to sue for
peace ; which was granted, on condition of their deli¬
vering a certain number of hostages for their fidelity.
Part of these they brought immediately ; and promised
to return in a few days with the rest, who, they said,
lived at some distance. But, in the mean time, the
18 transports which carried Ceesar’s cavalry, being
driven back by a violent storm, and the fleet which
lay in the road being greatly damaged by the same,
the Britons thought proper to break their engage¬
ments. Having therefore privately assembled their
forces, they fell unexpectedly on the seventh legion
while at a distance from the rest and busied in fora¬
ging. Caesar being apprised of their danger, hasten¬
ed to their assistance with two cohorts, and at last re¬
pulsed the enemy. This, however, proved only a
temporary deliverance ; for the Britons, thinking it
would be possible for them to cut off all the Romans
at once, dispatched messengers to inform several of the
neighbouring nations of the weakness of the enemy’s
forces, and the happy opportunity that oflered itself
of destroying all these invaders at one blow. On this,
they drew together a great body of horse and foot,
which boldly advanced to the Roman entrenchments.
But Caesar came out to meet them; and the undisci¬
plined Britons being by no means able to cope with
the Romans, were put to flight with great slaughter.
Having burnt several towns and villages, the victors
returned to their camp, where they were soon follow¬
ed by new deputies from the Britons. Caesar being
in want of horse, and afraid lest another storm should
destroy the remainder of his fleet, granted them peace
on condition of their sending him double the number
of hostages into Gaul which they had before promised.
The same night he set sail, and soon arrived safe in
Gaul.
The Britons no sooner perceived the Romans gone, England,
than, as before, they broke through their engage- ^
ments. Of all the states who had promised to send
hostages, only two performed their promises; and this
neglect so provoked Caesar, that he determined to re- g
turn the year following with a far greater force. Ha-fresar re.
ving, therefore, caused his old vessels to be refitted,turn*,
and a great many new ones to be built, he arrived off
the coast of Britain with a fleet of 600 ships and 28
galleys. The Britons made no opposition to his land¬
ing ; but Caesar, getting intelligence that an army was
assembled at no great distance, marched in quest of
them. He found them encamped on the banks of a
river, supposed to be the Stour, about 12 miles distant
from the place where he had landed. They attempted
to oppose his passage ; but being briskly attacked by the
Roman cavalry, they were obliged to retire into a wood,
all the avenues of which were blocked up by trees cut
down for that purpose. This fortification, however,
proved insufficient to protect them. The seventh le-^
gion having cast themselves into a testudo, and thrown Britons,
up a mount against their works, drove them from their
asylum; but as the day was far spent, a pursuit was
not thought advisable.
Next morning Csesar, with the greatest part of his
army, which he divided into three bodies, marched
out in quest of the enemy. But when he was already
come in sight of their rear, he was overtaken by mes¬
sengers, who informed him, that his fleet was greatly
damaged by a violent storm which had happened the
preceding night. This put an end to the pursuit for
that time; but Caesar having employed all the carpen¬
ters he had with him, and sent for others from Gaul, in
order to repair the damage, resolved to prevent misfor¬
tunes of this kind for the future. He therefore drew
all his ships ashore, and enclosed them within the forti¬
fications of his camp. This arduous undertaking em¬
ployed his whole camp for 10 days ; after which he
again set out in quest of the enemy.
The Britons had made the best use they could of
the respite afforded them by the storm. They were
headed by Cassibelaunus king of the Trinobantes. He
had formerly made war upon his neighbours ; and ha¬
ving rendered himself terrible to them, was looked up¬
on to be the most proper person for leading them on
against the common enemy; and as several states had
now joined their forces, the British army was very nu¬
merous. Their cavalry and chariots attacked the Ro¬
man army while on their march ; but were repulsed with
loss, and driven into the woods. The Romans pursued
them too eagerly, and thus lost some of their own men;
which encouraged the Britons to make another fierce
attack; but in this also they were finally unsuccessful,
and obliged to retire, though their loss seems not to
have been great.
Next day the Britons suddenly attacked the Roman
legions as they were foraging; but meeting with a vi¬
gorous resistance, they soon betook themselves to flight.
The Romans pursued them so closely, that having nei¬
ther time to rally nor get down from their chariots ac¬
cording to custom, great numbers of them were cut in
pieces ; and this overthrow had such an effect upon tb«
auxiliaries of Cassibelaunus, that all of them abandon¬
ed him; nor did the Britons ever afterwards engage
Ctesar with united forces. Csesar, pursuing his victory,
marched
ENGLAND.
England, marched towards the Thames, with a design to cross
•—^ / that river, and enter the territories of the Trinobantes.
10 _ The river was fordable only at one place, and that not
jeTdie0™'* wl'^10Ul 8reat difficulty ; but when he came to it, he
Thame*. the enemy’s forces drawn up in a considerable
body on the opposite bank, which was fortified with
sharp stakes. They had likewise driven many stakes
of the same kind into the bottom of the river, the tops
of which were covered with water. These stakes are
visible to this day at a place called Walton in Surry.
They are made of oak 5 and though they have been so
long in the water, are as hard as Brazil, and as black
as jet j and have sometimes been pulled out in order to
, t make knife handles of them.
Gives the Caesar was not at all dismayed at these difficulties,
Britons fre-which he had intelligence of by prisoners and desert-
throw*?Ter"eiS* He ordered .the cavalry to enter first, and the
foot to follow. His orders were obeyed, and the sol¬
diers advanced with such resolution, that though the
infantry were up to the chin in water, the enemy, un¬
able to sustain their assault, abandoned the bank and
fled. After this defeat, Cassibelaunus himself despair¬
ed of success, and therefore dismissed all his forces ex¬
cept about 4000 chariots, with which he observed the
motions of the Romans, harassing them by cutting off
straggling parties, &c. This, however, was not suffi¬
cient to keep up the spirits of his countrymen. On
the contrary, they deposed him from the kingdom, and
chose Mandubratius, whose father had been murdered
by Cassibelaunus, who thereupon usurped the kingdom.
The young prince had fled to Caesar, who gave him
protection 5 and the Trinobantes now offered to submit
to the conqueror, provided he would give them Man¬
dubratius for their king.
Caesar readily complied with the request of the Tri¬
nobantes upon their sending him 40 hostages ; and the
submission of the Trinobantes was soon followed by
that of other states and tribes; for each of the 17 na¬
tions already mentioned was composed of several differ¬
ent tribes, of which no particular account can be given.
—Caesar next marched to Verulamium, or Canterbury,
which was Cassibelaunus’s capital, and which he still
kept possession of \ but though the place was strongly
fortified both by nature and art, the Britons were un¬
able to bear the assault of the Romans, and therefore
soon fled out at one. of the avenues. Many were taken
as they attempted to make their escape, and many more
cut in pieces.
After this loss, Cassibelaunus, as his last resource,
found means to draw into confederacy with him four
kings, of the Cantii. But though Caesar gives them
the title of kings, it is probable that they were only
petty princes, tributary to the king of that nation.
Their names were Cingetorix, Corvilius, Taximagu-
lus, and Segonax. These, having raised what forces
they could, attacked the camp where the ships were
laid up : but the Romans having made a sally, repul¬
sed them with great slaughter, and then returned to
their trenches without any loss j after which, Cassibe¬
launus thought proper to submit to the conqueror. As
the summer was already far spent, Caesar hearkened to
jus proposals. A peace was concluded on the follow¬
ing terms, viz. that the Britons should pay an annual
tribute to the Romans, that Cassibelaunus should leave
Mandubratius in peaceable possession of his dominions, EnalancL
that he should not molest the Trinobantes, and that he '——
should deliver a certain number of hostages. These 12
terms being agreed to, Caesar set sail with his whole1*’6
fleet from Britain, to which he never returned. alfo' ctfcu
Such is the account given by Caesar himself of fils'1 ^
two expeditions into Britain } but other authors have
spoken very doubtfully of his victories in this island.
Dio Cassius, tells us, that the Britons utterly defeated
the.Roman infantry, but were at last put in disorder by
then cavalry. Horace and Tibullus, in many parts of
their works, speak of the Britons as a people not yet
conquered. Tacitus says, that Caesar rather showed
the Romans the way to Britain, than put them in pos¬
session of it $ and Lucan tells us plainly, that Caesar
turned his back to the Britons and fled. This last,
however, considering the consummate military genius
of Caesar, is by no means probable. That he left
Britain, during the winter, was, in all probability, to
prevent insurrections among the Gauls, which might
very readily have happened : and that he did not return
to finish his conquest can be no wonder, seeing his am¬
bition would certainly be more gratified by being call¬
ed emperor of Rome, than conqueror of Britain.
I he departure of Julius Caesar, which happened
about 53 years before Christ, left the Britons without
any fear of a foreign enemy. We are not, therefore,
to imagine, that they would regard their promises of
paying tribute ; nor was it probably demanded for a
good number of years afterwards. Augustus, however,
when he had got himself fully established on the throne,
j1 ad twice a design of invading Britain and forcing the
inhabitants to pay the tribute promised to Julius Caesar.
Both times, however, he was prevented by revolts in
different provinces in the empire, so that the Britons
still continued to enjoy their liberty. They thought
proper, however, to court the favour of the Romans as
much as they could by pretended submissions; but, in
the reign of Claudius, the Romans set about reducing
them to subjection in good earnest. The occasion of
this war is related by Dio Cassius as follows. “ Cu-Whj the
nobellinus, the third in succession from Cassibelaunus,war w^h
being dead, his two sons, Togodumnus and Carac-lhe Roma,ls
tacus, succeeded to the throne j but whether they "das I'cne'v‘
reigned jointly or separately, is not known. In their6
reign one Bercius, of whom we also know very little,
being driven out of the island for attempting to raise a
sedition, fled with some of his partisans to Rome, and
persuaded Claudius to make war on his countrymen.
The Britons, on the other hand, resented the beha¬
viour of Claudius in receiving these vagabonds, and
therefore prohibited all intercourse with the Romans.
A much smaller offence than this would have been suf¬
ficient at any time to provoke that haughty nation to
declare war. An army was therefore immediately or¬
dered into Britain, under the command of Plautius prse-
tor in Gaul. The soldiers at first refused to embark,
from a superstitious notion, that they were going to be
sent without the compass of the world j and this mu¬
tiny being related to the Britons, they did not make
the necessary preparations for their own defence. The
Roman soldiers were soon brought to a sense of their
duty ; and set out from three different ports, in order
to land in three different places of Britain at once.
Being
48 ENGL
England. Being driven back by contrary winds, their fears
"V—began to return $ but they resumed their courage on
the appearance of a meteor shooting from the east,
which they imagined was sent from heaven to direct
their course. They landed without opposition ; and
the Britons, not having drawn together a sufficient
army, kept in small bodies behind their marshes, and
in woods, in order to spin out the war till winter j
which they thought Plautius, as Csesar had done, would
pass in Gaul.
H The Roman general marched first in quest of the
tonsdeie'u *wo ^nSs Togodumnus and Caractacus j both of whom
ed. he found out, and defeated one after another. He then
reduced part of the Dobuni, at that time subject to the
Cattieuchlani j and leaving a garrison to keep them
in awe, he advanced to a river where the Britons lay
carelessly encamped, supposing that the Romans could
not pass it without a bridge. But the Germans in the
Roman army had been accustomed to swim across the
strongest currents with their heavy armour. They there¬
fore passed the river first 5 and having, according to
their orders, fallen only upon the enemy’s horses which
drew their chariots, these formidable machines were
rendered entirely useless $ and the Britons were put to
flight as soon as another part of the forces could pass
the river.
The Britons were not disheartened with this defeat,
but engaged the Romans next day with great bravery.
Victory continued long doubtful ; but at length the
Romans prevailed, and the Britons were forced to be¬
take themselves to flight. This battle is thought to
have been fought on the banks of the Severn. From
thence the Britons fled to the mouth of the Thames.
They were closely pursued by the Romans; but the
latter being unacquainted with the flats and shallows
of the river, were often in great danger. The Ger¬
mans, however, crossed by swimming as before, and
the rest on a bridge somewhat farther up the river; so
that the Britons were in a short time surrounded on all
sides,- and great numbers of them cut in pieces. Many
of the Romans, also, pursuing the fugitives with too
great eagerness, were lost in the marshes.—In one of
these battles Togodumnus was killed; but the Britons
were so far from being disheartened, that they showed
more eagerness than ever to oppose the Romans, in
order to revenge his death. Plautius, therefore, did not
think proper to penetrate farther into the country, but
contented himself with putting garrisons in the places
he had already conquered. He then wrote to the em¬
peror himself; who no sooner received an account of
bis success, than he set out for Britain ; where, having
landed after a short voyage, he joined Plautius on the
banks of the Thames.
r5 Soon after the arrival of Claudius, the Romans
Claudius passed the Thames, attacked the British army, and to-
BritfUn'11 ta% de*eate^ ^le consequence of this was the
taking of CunobelinuS’s capital, and the submission of
several of the neighbouring states. The emperor,
however, did not make a long stay in the island, but
left Plautius to pursue his conquests. This he did with
such success, that on his return to Rome, he was met
without the gates by the emperor himself, who, at his
solemn entry, gave him the right hand.—The Bri¬
tons seem to have made a very obstinate resistance to
;the Roman arms about this time. Vespasian, who was
AND.
afterwards emperor, is said to have fought 30 battles England,
with them ; and the exploits of Titus bis son are also ' " y——J
much celebrated by the Roman historians.
In the ninth year of Claudius, P. Ostorius Scapula
was sent into Britain. By far the greater part of the
17 nations formerly mentioned were at this time un¬
conquered. Some of these had broken into the Ro¬
man territories ; but Ostorius falling unexpectedly up-
pon them, put great numbers to the sword, and dispersed
the rest. To prevent them for the future from making
inroads into the territories of the Romans or their al¬
lies, be built several forts on the Severn, the Avon,
and the Nen, reducing the country south of these ri¬
vers to a Roman province. This so highly oflended
the Iceni, that, being joined by the neighbouring na¬
tions, they raised a considerable army, and encamped
in an advantageous situation, in order to prevent the
Romans from penetrating farther into the island. O-
storius, however, soon advanced against them. The
Romans, as usual, got the victory, and the enemy were
pursued with great slaughter. The Roman general
then, having quelled an insurrection among the Bri- 16
gantes, led his army against the Silures. They were Caractacus
headed by their king Caractacus, a most renowned
warrior. He showed his military talents by choosing pi.isoner>
a very advantageous place for engaging the enemy. Ta¬
citus tells us, “ it was on the ridge of an exceeding steep
mountain: and where the sides of it were inclining
and accessible, he reared walls of stone for a rampart.
At the foot of the mountain flowed a river dangerous
to be forded, and an army of men guarded his en¬
trenchments.” This hill is thought to be one called
Caer-Caradoc in Shropshire, situated near the conflux
of the rivers Colun and Teme, and where the remains
of ancient entrenchments are still visible.—On the ap¬
proach of the enemy, Caractacus drew up his troops in
order of battle, animating them with the following
speech, according to Tacitus. “ That from this day,
and this battle, they must date their liberty rescued,
or their slavery for every established. He then invoked
the shades of those heroes who had expelled Caesar the
dictator ; those brave men by whose valour they still
enjoyed freedom from Roman tribute and taxes, and
by which their wives and children were as yet pre¬
served from prostitution.” The whole army then took
a solemn oath either to conquer or die, and prepared
for the charge with the most tex’rible shouts. Ostorius
was somewhat dismayed W'hen he considered the un¬
common fierceness of the enemy, and the other difficul¬
ties which he had to encounter. He led on his men,
however, to the charge ; and the Romans were at¬
tended with their usual good fortune. The Britons
were put to flight. Vast numbers fell on the field of
battle and in the pursuit, and many more were taken
prisoners. Among the latter were the wife, the daugh¬
ter, and the brothers of Caractacus. The unfortunate
prince himself fled to Cartismundua queen of the Bri-
gantes, by whom he was delivered up to the Roman
general, who sent him in chains to Rome. Caractacus
bore his misfortunes with magnanimity ; and when he
came before the emperor, addressed him in the follow- jy
ing terms. “ If my moderation in prosperity, O His speech
Claudius! had been as conspicuous as my birth and t0 ^Ro'
fortune, I should now have entered this city as a friend, nian eHll>e
and not as a prisoner; nor would you have disdained lor'
the
ENGLAND.
England, the friendship of a prince descended from such illustri- him for their defence.
v——v-—' ous ancestors, and governing so many nations. My
present condition, I own, is to you honourable, to me
humiliating. I was lately possessed of subjects, horses,
arms, and riches. Can you be surprised that I endea¬
voured to preserve them ? If you Romans have a de¬
sire to arrive at universal monarchy, must all nations,
to gratify you, tamely submit to servitude ? If I had
submitted without a struggle, how much would it have
diminished the lustre of my fall, and of your victory ?
And now, if you resolve to put me to death, my story
will soon be buried in oblivion ; but if you think pro¬
per to preserve my life, I shall remain a lasting monu¬
ment of your clemency.”—1 his speech had such an ef¬
fect upon Claudius, that he immediately pardoned Ca-
ractacus and his whole family, and commanded them to
be set at liberty.
"^"he Silures, notwithstanding this terrible blow, con¬
tinued the war with great vigour, and gained consi¬
derable advantages over the Romans ; which so much
affected Ostorius, that he died of grief. He was suc¬
ceeded by A. Didius, who restrained the incursions of
the Silures, but was not able to restore Cartismundua
queen of the Brigantes, who had been deposed by her
subjects. Didius was succeeded by Veranius, and he by
i3 Suetonius Paulinus, who reduced the island of Angle-
tteneralre- SEY, as related under that article. But while Paulinus
Ilritoiu. Was emPloyed in the conquest of this island, he was
alarmed by the news of an almost universal revolt among
those nations which had submitted to the Romans.
The Britons, though conquered, had still a desire of
returning to their former state of independence; and
the Roman yoke became every day more unsupportable
to them, through the insolence and oppressions of the
Roman soldiers. The Britons had been long discon¬
tented, and were already in a very proper disposition
for a revolt, when an event happened which kindled
these discontents into an open flame. Prasutagus king
of the Iceni, a prince renowned for opulence and gran¬
deur, had by his last will, left the Roman emperor,
joint-heir with his two daughters, in hopes of obtain-
mg his favour and protection by so great an obligation.
But the event turned out very different. No sooner
was he dead, than his houses and possessions were all
plundered by the Roman soldiers. The queen Boadicea
remonstrated against this injustice ; but, instead of ob¬
taining any redress, she herself was publicly whipped,
her daughters ravished, and all the relations of the late
king reduced to slavery. The whole country also was
plundered, and all the chiefs of the Iceni deprived of
their possessions. *
Boadicea was a woman of too haughty a spirit tamely
to bear such indignities. She therefore persuaded the
Iceni to take up arms, which they very readily did.
I hen, being joined by the Trinobantes, and some other
nations, they poured like a torrent on the Roman co-
lonies.. Every thing was destroyed with fire and sword.
1 he ninth legion, which had been left for the defence
oi the country under Petilius Cerealis, was defeated,
the m antry totally cut in pieces, and the commander
htmselt with the cavalry escaped with the utmost diffi-
cuJty. Suetonius, alarmed at this news, immediately
left Anglesey, and marched with the greatest expedi¬
tion to London. The inhabitants were overjoyed at
his arrival, and used their utmost endeavours to detain
Vol. VIII. Part I. t
But he refused to stay, and in
a short time left the place, notwithstanding the intrea¬
ties of^the inhabitants. The whole city lamented his
departure j and they had reason. Suetonius was scarce Tflcy <*«-
gone, when Boadicea with her Britons entered, and ^‘o:r
put all they found in it to the sword. None were taken itoamt,.
prisoners, nor was any sex or age spared, and many
were tortured in the most cruel manner. Seventy thou¬
sand persons are said to have perished on this occasion
at London and other Roman colonies.
The Britons, now elated with success, assembled
from all quarters in great numbers, so that Boadicea’s
army soon amounted to 230,000 men. They despised
the Romans j and became so confident of victory, that
they brought their wives and children along with them
in waggons to be spectators of the destruction of their
enemies. The event was what might naturally have
been expected from such ill-judged confidence.' The They are
Britons were overthrown with most terrible slaughter, utterly de-
no fewer than 80,000 being killed in the battle andt'caU‘1*
pursuit j while the Romans had not above 400 killed,
and not many more wounded. Boadicea, not able to
survive so great a calamity, put an end to her life by
poison. 1
By this overthrow the Britons, who had once been
subdued, were thoroughly prevented from raising any
more insurrections, and even those who bad not yet
submitted to the Roman yoke seemed to be intimida¬
ted from making incursions into their dominions. No¬
thing remarkable therefore happened for some time.
In the time of Vespasian, Petilius Cerealis being ap¬
pointed governor of Britain, attacked the Briganfes,
defeated them in several battles, and reduced great part
of their country. He was succeeded by Julius Fronti-
nus ; who not only maintained the conquests of his pre¬
decessor, hut reduced entirely the warlike nation of
the Silures. Frontinus was succeeded by the celebrated
Cneius Julius Agricola, who completed the conquest of
all the southern Britons.
Just before the arrival of Agricola, the Ordovices Britain
had cut in pieces a band of horse stationed on their conquered
confines, after which the whole nation had taken arms. AgA-
The summer was pretty far spent, and the Romanco!a-
army was quite separated and dispersed, the soldiers
having assured themselves of rest for the remaining part
of the year. Agricola, however, was no sooner landed,
than, having drawn together his legions, he marched’
against the enemy without delay. The Britons kept
upon the ridges of the mountains; but Agricola led
them in person up the ascents. The Roman* were
victorious; and such a terrible slaughter was made of
the Britons, that almost the whole nation of Ordo-
vices was cut off. Without giving the enemy time to
recover from the terror which this overthrow had oc¬
casioned, Agricola resolved upon the immediate reduc¬
tion of Anglesey, which had been lost by the revolt of
Boadicea. Being destitute of ships, he detached a
chosen body of auxiliaries who knew the fords, an<l
accustomed to manage their arms and horses ia
the water. The Britons, who had expected a fleet and
transports, were so terrified by the appearance of the
Roman forces on their island, that they immediately
submitted, and Anglesey was once more restored to the
Romans.
With the conquest of Anglesey ended the first cam-
paign
i; o ENGL
England, paign of Agricola; and he employed the winter in re-
—-v—^ conciling the Britons to the Homan yoke. In this he
met with such success, through his wise and equitable
conduct, that the Britons, barbarous as they were, be¬
gan to prefer a life of security and peace, to that inde¬
pendency which they had formerly enjoyed, and which
continually exposed them to the tumults and calamities
of war. The succeeding campaigns of Agricola were
attended with equal success ; he not only subdued the
i 8 nations inhabiting England, but carried the Roman
arms almost to the extremity of Scotland. He also
caused his fleet to sail round the island, and discovered
the Orcades, or Orkney islands, which had before been
unknown to the rest of the world. His expedition took
him up about six years, and was completed in the year
of Christ 84.
Had this commander been continued in Britain, it
is probable that both Scotland and England would
have been permanently subdued ; but he was recalled
by Domitian in the year 85, and we are then almost
totally in the dark "about the British affairs till the
reign of the emperor Adrian. During this interval
the^ Caledonians had taken arms, and not only refu¬
sed subjection to the Roman power themselves, but
ravaged the territories of the Britons who continued
faithful to them. Adrian, for what reason is not
well known, abandoned to them the whole tract lying
between the Tyne and the Forth. At the same time,
in order to restrain them from making incursions into
the Roman territories, he built a wall 80 miles in
length from the river Eden in Cumberland to the
* See A- Tyne in Northumberland *. He was succeeded by
drian. * Antoninus Pius, in whose reign the Brigantes re¬
volted ; and the Caledonians, having in several places
broken down the wall built by Adrian, began anew
to ravage the Roman territories. Against them the
emperor sent Lollius Urbicus, who reduced the Bri¬
gantes ; and having defeated the northern nations,
confined them within narrower bounds by a new
t See /4n<o-wall i-, extending probably between the friths of
ninus's Forth and Clyde. From the time ol Antoninus to
Wall. tjiat 0f Sevcrus, the Roman dominions in Britain
continued to be much infested by the inroads ol the
northern nations. That emperor divided Britain into
two governments, the southern and northern; but
the governor of the northern division was so harassed
by continual incursions of the Caledonians, that he was
at length obliged to purchase a peace with money.
The Caledonians kept the treaty for 15 years; after
which, breaking into the Roman territories anew, they
committed terrible ravages. Virius Lupus the gover¬
nor, not being in a condition to withstand them, ac¬
quainted the emperor with his distress, intreating him
,2 to send powerful and speedy supplies. Upon this Se-
KxpecHtion verus resolved to put an end to the perpetual incursions
of Severns 0f the enemy, by making a complete conquest of their
into Bii- country; for which purpose he set out for Britain, to-
tSIU‘ gether with his two sons Caracalla and Geta, at the
head of a numerous army. The Caledonians no sooner
heard of his arrival, than they sent ambassadors, offer¬
ing to conclude a peace upon honourable terms. But
these the emperor detained till lie was ready to take the
field, and then dismissed them without granting their
request.
As soon as the season was fit for action, Severus
AND.
marched into the territories of the Caledonians, where England,
he put all to fire and sword. He advanced even to the v——v-—
most northerly parts of the island; and though no
battle was fought in this expedition, yet through the
continual ambuscades of the enemy, and the inhospi¬
table nature of the country, he is said to have lost
50,000 men. At last the Caledonians were obliged to
sue for peace ; which was granted them on condition
of their yielding part of their country and delivering
up their arms. After this the emperor returned to
York, leaving his son Caracalla to command the army,
and finish the new wall which had been begun between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. But the emperor be¬
ing taken ill at York, the Caledonians no sooner heard
of his indisposition, than they again took up arms. This
provoked Severus to such a degree, that he commanded
his son Caracalla to enter their country anew with the
whole army, and to put all he met to the sword without
distinction of sex or age. Before these orders, however,
could be put in execution, his two sons, having conclud¬
ed a shameful peace with the Caledonians, returned to
Rome. _ ,
A long chasm now takes place in the history of the
Roman dominions in Britain. In the beginning of
Dioclesian’s reign, Carausius a native of Gaul, passing
over into Britain, took upon him the title of emperor,
and was acknowledged by all the troops quartered here.
He was, however, killed in a battle with one of Con-
stantius’s officers, after he had enjoyed the sovereignty
for six or seven years. Constantine the Great began
his reign in this island ; and returned soon after he had
left it, probably with a design to put a stop to the daily
incursions of the Caledonians. He altered the division
of that part of Britain subject to the Romans. Severus
had divided it only into two provinces; but Constan¬
tine increased the number to three, viz. Britannia Fri-
ma, Britannia Secunda, and Maxima Csesariensis; and
this last was afterwards divided into two, viz. Maxima
Cajsariensis and Flavia Caesariensis. The removal of the
imperial seat from Rome to Constantinople, which hap¬
pened in the reign of Constantine, gave the northern
nations an opportunity of making frequent incursions
into the Roman provinces ; the emperor having carried
with him, first into Gaul, and then into the East, not
only most of the Roman troops, hut likewise the flower
of the British youth.
About the latter end of the reign of Constantins son
to Constantine the Great, the government of the pro¬
vince of Britain, and other western parts of the em¬
pire, was committed to Julian, afterwards called the
apostate. While he was in winter quarters at Paris,
he was informed that the Scots and Piets, about this
time first distinguished by these names, had broken in¬
to the Roman territories and committed everywhere
dreadful ravages. Against them Julian dispatched a
body of troops under the command of Lupicinius. He
embarked from Boulogne in the depth of winter, but was
no sooner arrived at London than he was recalled ;
the enemy having probably found means to appease
Julian by their submissions. Till the reign of Yalen-
tinian I. these nations still continued to infest the Ro¬
man territories in Britain, and had now reduced the
country to a most deplorable condition, by their conti¬
nual ravages. Valentinian sent against them Theodo¬
sius, father to the emperor of that name. That gene-
ENG
Eit ’land. ral having divided his forces into several bodies, advan-
i v ced against the enemy, who were roving up and down
the country. The Scots and Piets were obliged to
yield to the superior valour and discipline of the Ro¬
mans. Great numbers were cut in pieces ; they were
forced to abandon all the booty and prisoners they had
taken, and to retire beyond the friths of Forth and
Clyde. Theodosius then entered London in triumph,
and restored that city to its former splendour, which
had suffered greatly by the former incursions of the
northern Britons. To restrain them from breaking
anew into the provinces, Theodosius built several forts
or castles between the two friths ; and having thus re¬
covered all the country between Adrian’s wall and the
friths of Forth and Clyde, he formed of it a fifth pro¬
vince, which he called Valentia.
Though Britain was now reduced to a state of tem¬
porary tranquillity, yet as the Roman empire was daily
declining, it is not to be supposed that sufficient care
could be taken to secure such a distant province. In
the reign of the emperor Honorius, the provincial
Britons found themselves annoyed not only by the
Scots and Piets, but also by the depredations of the
Saxons, who began to commit ravages on the sea-coasts.
By the care, however, of Stilicho, prime minister to
Honorius, matters were once more settled, and a par¬
ticular officer was appointed to guard the coast against
the attempts of the Saxons, with the title of Comes li-
mitis Saxonici. But, not long after, the empire being
overrun by barbarians, most of the Roman troops
quartered in Britain were recalled, and the country
^ left quite open to the attacks of the Scots and Piets.
The Bri- Upon this the provincials expecting no more assistance
tons choose from Honorius, resolved to set up an emperor of their
an emperor0wn. Accordingly they invested with the imperial
°wa C!* dignity one Mark, an officer of great credit among
them. Him they murdered in a few days, and placed
on the throne one Gratian a native of Britain. After
a reign of four months, Gratian underwent the fate
of his predecessor *, and was succeeded by Constati-
tine, a common soldier, who was chosen merely for the
sake of his name. He seems, however, to have been
a man of some knowledge and experience in war. He
drove the Scots and Piets beyond the limits of the
Roman territories j but being elated with this success,
he would now be satisfied with nothing less than the
conquest of the whole Roman empire. He therefore
passed over into Gaul •, and took with him not only
the few Roman forces that had been left, but such of
the provincial Britons as were most accustomed to
arms. That unhappy people, being now left entirely
defenceless, were harassed in the most cruel manner bv
their enemies ; who broke into the country, and de¬
stroyed all with fire and sword. In this miserable situ¬
ation they continued from the year 407, when the
usurper Constantine passed over into Gaul, till the year
410. Having during the last three years frequently
implored assistance from Rome without receiving any,
they now resolved to withdraw their allegiance from
an empire which was no longer able to protect them.
Honorius himself applauded their conduct; and ad¬
vised them by letters to provide for their own safety,
which was in effect an implicit resignation of the so¬
vereignty of the island.
The provincial Britons now regained their liberty j
land. 5(
but they had lost the martial spirit which had at first Endand.
rendered them so formidable to the Romans. They 1   
seem, however, to have met with some success in their
first enterprises j for Zosimus tells us, that they deli¬
vered their cities from the insult of an haughty ene- a4
my. But being at last overpowered, they were again Implore the
obliged to have recourse to the Roman emperor, toHSS’*tance
whom they promised a most perfect submission, pro- 1 t^ie
vided they were delivered from the hands of their"a1'
merciless and implacable enemies. Honorius, touched
with compassion, sent a legion to their relie f. The
Roman forces landed in Britain unexpectedly j and ha¬
ving destroyed great numbers of the Scots and Piets,
they drove them beyond the friths of Forth and Dun-
britton. After this they advised the natives to build
a wall on the isthmus from sea to sea, and to reassume
their courage, and defend themselves from their ene¬
mies by their own valour. The Romans then quitted
the country ; being obliged to return, in order to re¬
pulse those barbarians who had broken into the empire
from all quarters.
The Britons immediately set about building the wall,
as they had been desired, with great alacrity. But as
it was constructed only of turf, the Scots and Piets
soon broke it down in several places; and, pouring in
upon the defenceless and effeminate provincials, com¬
mitted more cruel ravages than ever. At last, after
very many and grievous calamities, the latter sent am-Send*am,
bassadors once more to Rome. These appeared with bassadors a
their garments rent and dust on their heads j and at second time
last prevailed on the emperor, by their earnest intrea-t0 ^oate-
ties, to send another legion to their relief. The troops
arrived in Britain before the enemy had the least know¬
ledge of their having set sail. They were therefore
quite unprepared for an attack, and roving up and
down the country in the utmost disorder. The Ro¬
mans made a terrible havock among them, and drove
the remainder into their own country. As Honorius
had sent them not with any ambitious view of retain¬
ing the island in subjection, but merely out of com¬
passion to the unhappy provincials, the Romans told
them, they had now no farther assistance to expect
from them. They informed them, that the legion
must immediately return to the continent, to protect
the empire from the barbarians, who had extended
their ravages almost to every part of it; and therefore,
that they must now take their last farewel of Britain,
and totally abandon the island. After this declaration
Gallio, the commander of the Roman troops, exhort¬
ed the provincials to defend themselves, by fighting
bravely for their country, wives, and children, and
what ought to be dearer than life itself, their liberty 5
telling them, at the same time, that their enemies were
no stronger than themselves, provided they would but
lay aside their fears, and exert their ancient courage
and resolution. That they might the better withstand
the attacks of the enemy, he advised them to build a
wall, not of turf, but of stone ; offering to assist them
with his soldiers, and to direct them himself in the
execution. Upon this the Britons immediately fell to
work } and with the assistance of the Romans, finished
it in a short time, though it was no less than eight
feet thick, and twelve feet in height. It is thought
to have been built on the same place where Severus’s
wall formerly stood. Towers were also built at con-
O * venient
52
£sje,!aiid.
ENGLAND.
s<S
Briton !i-
mally aban-
cloned by
ihe Ro-
Uui-A%.
a7
Britons mi¬
serably ha¬
rassed by
the Scots
and i'iets.
*8
Implore the
assistance
of the Ro-
inaas.
t9
They at
last re¬
pulse their
enetuiet.
venient distances on the east coast, to prevent the de¬
scents of the Saxons and other barbarians that came
from Germany. Gallio employed the rest ot his time
in teaching the provincials the art of war. He left
them patterns of the Roman weapons, which he also
taught them to make; and after many encouraging
exhortations, he took his last farewel ot Britain, to
which the Romans never returned. There is a great
disagreement among chronologers as to the year in
which the Romans finally abandoned Britain ; some
placing it in 422 ; others in 423, or 426; and some in
431’ 435> or 437* „ , „
The final departure of the Romans was no sooner
known to the Scots and Piets, than they poured in
upon the provincial Britons from all quarters, like hun¬
gry wolves breaking into a sheep-fold. When the Scots
approached the new-built wall, they found it complete¬
ly finished, and guarded by great numbers of armed
men. But so little had the provincial Britons profited
by the military instructions of the Romans, that in¬
stead of placing proper guards and centinels, and re¬
lieving one another by turns, their whole number had
staid several days and nights upon the ramparts without
intermission. Being therefore quite benumbed and
wearied out, they were able to make but very little re¬
sistance. Many were pulled down with hooks from
the battlements and dashed in pieces. T-he rest were
driven from their stations with showers of darts and
arrows. They betook themselves to flight; but that
could not save them. The Scots and Piets pursued
them close, made a dreadful havock among the fugi¬
tives, and took possession of the frontier towns, which
they found deserted by the inhabitants. As they now
met with no more opposition, they overran the whole
country, putting every thing to fire and sword. Their
ravages soon occasioned a famine ; and this was follow¬
ed by a kind of civil war. The provincials, unable to
support themselves, were obliged to plunder each other
of the little the common enemy had left them. The
whole country at last became so incapable of support¬
ing those who were left in it, that many fled into the
woods, in order to subsist themselves there by hunting.
In this extremity of distress they had once more re¬
course to the Romans; and wrote in the most mourn¬
ful style that can possibly be imagined to Aetius, who
was then consul the third time. Their letter they di¬
rected thus ; “ The groans of the Britons to the con-
kuI Aetius.” The contents of this letter were answer-
able to the direction. “ The barbarians (say they)
drive us to the sea; the sea drives us back to the bar¬
barians ; between which we have only the choice of
two deaths, either to be swallowed up by the waves, or
to be cruelly massacred by the enemy.”
To this letter the Reman general gave no satisfac¬
tory answer, and the provincials were thereupon reduced
to despair. Great numbers of them fled over to Ar¬
morica, where they settled along with others who had
formerly gone over with an usurper called-MfmVwws;
while others submitted to the Scots and Piets. Some,
however, more resolute than the rest, had once more
recourse to arms. They sallied out in parties from the
woods and caves where they had been obliged to hide
themselves, and, falling unexpectedly on the enemy,
cut great numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the
rest to retire. Having thus obtained some respite,
30
they began again to cultivate their lands ; which, ha- England,
ving lain fallow for a long time, now produced all ——y~—-
sorts of corn in the greatest plenty. This plenty, ac¬
cording to the historian Gildas, occasioned the most
consummate wickedness and corruption of manners
among all ranks of men. The clergy, says he, who
should hare reclaimed the laity by their example,
proved the ringleaders in every vice ; being addicted
to drunkenness, contention, envy, &c.— It is possible,
however, that this description might be exaggerated by
Gildas, who was himself a monk. But, however this
was, the Britons had not long ^njoyed peace, when
they were alarmed by a report that the Scots and
Piets were about to return with a far greater force
than before, utterly to extirpate the name of their
southern neighbours, and seize upon the country forAre again
themselves. This report threw them into a terrible ^eatensd ,
consternation ; and to add to the rest of their misf°r" I
tunes, they were now visited by a dreadful plague,
which raged with such violence, that the living were
scarce sufficient to bury the dead. The contagion no
sooner ceased, than they found their country invaded
by the Scots and Piets, who destroyed every thing with
fire and sword ; so that the provincials were soon re¬
duced to the same miserable state they had formerly
been in.
At this time the chief, if not the only, king of the
southern division of Britain, was one Vortigern. He
is said to have been a cruel, debauched tyrant, regard¬
less of the public welfare, and totally incapable of pro¬
moting it. Being now roused from his insensibility,
however, by a sense of his own danger, he summoned
a council of the chief men of the nation, in order to
deliberate about the proper means for delivering the
country from those calamities under which it groaned.
In this council the most pernicious measure was adopt¬
ed that could possibly have been resolved on ; namely, They r«
to invite to their assistance the Saxons, a people famous*o!»e to
for their piracies and cruelty, and justly dreaded by^^the
the Britons themselves*. This fatal expedient be- * get
ing agreed upon, ambassadors were immediately dis-OTJ,t
patched into Germany with advantageous proposals to
the Saxons in case they would come over to their as¬
sistance.
The British ambassadors soon arrived in Germany,
and, according to Witichind, a Saxon historian of the
ninth century, made the following speech before an as¬
sembly of the Saxons.—“ Illustrious Saxons, the fame
of your victories having reached our ears, the distres¬
sed Britons, harassed by the continual inroads of a
neighbouring enemy, send us to implore your assist¬
ance. We have a fertile and spacious country, which
we are commanded to submit to you. We have hi¬
therto lived under the protection of the Roman em¬
pire ; but our ancient masters having abandoned us,
we know no nation more powerful than you, and bet¬
ter able to protect us. We therefore recur to your
valour. Forsake us not in our distress, and we shall
readily submit to what terms you yourselves shall think
fit to prescribe to us.”—If this abject and shameful
speech was really made, it must give us a very strange
idea of the national spirit of the provincial Britons at
that time. It is, however, probable that the whole is
a fiction, designed only to excuse the perfidious treat¬
ment which these Britons afterwards received from the
Saxons,
di
England.
33
jsbJ Piets.
ENGL
Saxons. The most respectable even of the Saxon hi-
' storlans make no mention of such a speech $ and it is
certain, that when the Saxons themselves wanted to
quarrel with the Britons, they never insisted upon the
promise made by the British ambassadors ; which they
most certainly would have done, had any such promise
ever been made.
The British ambassadors were very favourably recei¬
ved by the Saxons. The latter embraced their propo¬
sal with joy ; and the rather, because their soothsayers
foretold that they should plunder their British allies for
150 years, and reign over them for twice that time.
Three long ships, in the Saxon language called chiules,
were therefore fitted out, under the conduct of Hen-
gist and Horsa. These were two brothers much cele¬
brated both for their valour and nobility. They were
sons of Witigifil, said to be great-grandson to the
Saxon god Woden ; a circumstance which added much
to their authority. Having embarked about 1600
men on board their three vessels, the two brothers ar-
the Saxonsrjve(} Jn the isle of Thanet, in the year 449 .or 450.
They were received by the inhabitants with the great-
and defeat est demonstrations of joy : the isle in which they had
the. Scots landed was immediately *tppointed for their habitation ;
and a league was concluded, in virtue of which the
Saxons were to defend the provincial Britons against
all foreign enemies, and the provincials were to allow
the Saxons pay and maintenance, besides the place al¬
lotted them for their abode. Soon after their arrival,
King Vortigern led them against the northern nations,
who had'lately broke into the kingdom, and advanced
as far as Stanford in the county of Lincolnshire. Here
a battle was fought, in which the Scots and Piets
were utterly defeated, and obliged to relinquish their
booty.
Vortigern was so highly pleased with the behaviour
of his new allies, that he bestowed large possessions in
the country they had newly delivered, upon the two
commanders Hengist and Horsa. It is said, that, even
at this time, Hengist was taken with the wealth and
fertility of the country; and at the same time obser¬
ving the inhabitants to be quite enervated with luxury,
began to entertain hopes of conquering part of it. He
therefore, with Vortigern’s consent, invited over some
more of his countrymen ; giving them notice at the
same time of the fruitfulness of the country, the effemi¬
nacy of the inhabitants, and how easily a conquest might
be effected.
The Saxons readily complied with the invitation j
and, in 452, as many more arrived in 17 vessels, as,
with those already in Britain, made up an army of
5000 men. Along with these, according to Nennius,
came over Ilowena the daughter of Hengist. Vorti¬
gern fell in love with this lady j and in order to obtain
her in marriage, divorced his lawful wife. Hengist
pretended to be averse to the match ; but Vortigern
obtained his consent by investing him with the sove¬
reignty of Kent. The Saxon historians, indeed, make
no mention of Ilowena ; but rather insinuate, that
their countrymen made themselves masters of Kent by
force of arms. It seems most probable, however, that
"V ortigern had as yet continued in friendship with the
Saxons, and even put more confidence in them than in
his own subjects. For, not long after the arrival of
this first reinforcement, Hengist obtained leave to send
34
N«w tup.
plies of
Saxon-, ar¬
rive.
AND. 53
for a second, in order, as was pretended, to defend England.
the king from the attempts of his rebellious subjects, as  v—..
well as of the Scots and Piets. Those embarked in 40
ships, under the command of Octa and Ebusa, the son
and nephew, or, according to some, the brother and
nephew of Hengist. They landed at the Orkney
islands; and having ravaged them, as well as all the
northern coasts of Scotland, they conquered several
places beyond the Frith, and at last obtained leave to
settle in Northumberland.
I he pretence made lor this settlement was, that the
Saxons under Octa and Ebusa might defend the nor¬
thern frontiers of the kingdom, as those under Hengist
and Horsa did the southern parts. Many more Saxons
were, under various pretences, invited over ; till at last
the countries from which they came were in a manner
depopulated. And now their numbers being greatly
increased, the Saxons began to quarrel with the natives.
They demanded larger allowances of corn and other They quar-
provisions j threatening to lay waste the whole country rel with the
il their demands were not complied with. The Bri-BriteBS-
tons, instead of complying with these demands, desired
them to return home, since their numbers exceeded
what they were able to maintain. Upon this the Sax¬
ons concluded a peace with the Scots and Piets j and,
turning their arms against the unhappy provincials,
overran the whole country. The Saxons committed
everywhere the greatest cruelties. All buildings, whe¬
ther public or private, they levelled with the ground.
I he cities were pillaged and burnt j and the people
massacred without distinction of sex or age, and that
in such numbers, that the living scarce sufficed to bury
the dead. Some ot those who escaped the general
slaughter, took refuge among inaccessible rocks and
mountains; but there great numbers perished with
hunger, or were forced to surrender themselves as slaves
to their enemies. Some crossed the sea, and settled ei¬
ther in Holland or in Armorica, now the province of
Britanny in France.
.Vortigern, we are told by Nennius, was so far from
being reclaimed by these calamities, that he added in¬
cest to his other crimes, and married his own daugh¬
ter. At last, his own subjects, provoked at his enor¬
mous wickedness, and the partiality he showed to the
Saxons, deposed him, and raised his son Vortimer to
the throne. He was a young man of great valour, They are
and willingly undertook the defence of his distressed defeated
country. He first fell upon the Saxons with wbatan^ driven
troops he could assemble, and drove them into the isle°.utbY Vc”“
of Thanet. Here they were besieged, till, being rein-11^'*
forced by fresh supplies from Germany, they opened
themselves a way through the British troops. Vorti¬
mer, however, was not yet disheartened. He enga¬
ged the Saxons on the banks of the Derwent in Kent,
where he obtained a complete victory, and cut in pie¬
ces great numbers of the enemy. Another battle was
fought at Aylesford in Kent. Some ascribe the victo¬
ry at this time to the Saxons, and some to the Bri¬
tons. It is certain, however, that Horsa the brother
of Hengist was killed in this engagement.. He is said
to have been buried at a place in the neighbourhood,
which from him obtained the name of Horsted.—A
third battle was fought, in which the victory was un¬
certain, as is also the place where it happened. The
lourth battle, however, according to Nennius proved
decisive
36
They re¬
turn and
defeat the
Britons,
and erect
kingdom
in Kent.
37
Treachery
of the Sax
ons.
ENGL
decisive in favour of the Britons. Vortiraer engaged
his enemies, according to some, at Folkstonej accord¬
ing to others, at a place called Stonor, in the isle of
Thanet. The Saxons were defeated with great slaugh¬
ter, and driven back tQ their ships. So complete is
the victory said to have been, that the Saxons quitted
the island*, without making any attempt upon it for
five years afterwards. These battles, however, rest
entirely upon the credit of Nennius, and the historians
who have followed him. They are taken notice of
neither by Gildas nor Bede. The former only ac¬
quaints us, that the Saxons retired. This, by most
historians, is understood of their returning home}
though it is possible he might mean no more, than that,
after they had laid waste the country, they retired into
the territories allotted them by Vortigern, in Kent and
Northumberland.
Vortimer is said to have died after a reign of six
vears. On his death-bed, he desired his servants to
bury him near the place where the Saxons used to
land ; being persuaded, that the virtue of his hones
would effectually prevent them from ever touching the
British shore. This command, however, was neglect¬
ed ; and Vortimer was buried at Lincoln, according
to some, or London, according to others. Hengist
was no sooner informed of his death, than he invaded
Britain anew with a numerous body of Saxons. He
xwas opposed by Vortigern, who had been restored to
the throne after the death of his son Vortimer. Seve¬
ral battles were fought on this occasion j but at last the
provincials being overthrown at a place called C^tccon-
ford, with the loss of 4000 men, were obliged to aban¬
don Kent to their enemies, and retire to London. This
happened about the year 458 or 459 ; and from this
time most historians date the erection of the first Saxon
kingdom in Britain, viz. that of Kent. Hengist as¬
sumed the title of and chose Esk his son foi ms
colleague.
The Britons under Vortigern still continued the war.
Hengist finding himself unable to gain a decisive ad¬
vantage over them in the field, had recourse to treach¬
ery. He pretended to be desirous of concluding a
peace with the British monarch, and of renewing his
ancient friendship with him ; and therefore required an
interview. To this Vortigern readily consented, and
accepted of an entertainment prepared for him by Hen¬
gist. The king was attended by 300 nobility all un¬
armed 5 but the Saxons had concealed daggers below
their garments. The British nobility were all treach¬
erously massacred in the height of their mirth , Vorti¬
gern himself was taken and put in fetters ; nor could
his liberty be procured, but by ceding to the Saxons
those provinces now called Essex, Sussex, and J^'hddle-
sex. Thus the Saxons got such a footing in Britain, that
they could never afterwards be expelled. Vortigern,
after being set at liberty, is said to have retired to a
vast wilderness near the fall of the Wye in Radnorshire,
where he was some time after consumed by lightning,
together with a city called Kaer Gourtigern which he
had built in that place.
On the retreat of Vortigern, the command of the
British forces devolved upon Aurelius Ambrosius, or
as Gildas calls him, Ambrosius Aurelianus. He was a
Roman, and perhaps the last that remained in the island.
He is said to have gained several victories over the
3
AND.
Saxons. Notwithstanding this, however, they still con- England,
tinned to gain ground ; and in the year 491, the foun-
dation of a second Saxon kingdom was laid in Britain.^
This at first comprehended only the county of Sussex,^”
but soon after extended over most of the counties lying kingdom,
south of the Humber. It was called the kingdom of
the South Saxons.
The German nations being now informed of the
good success which had attended the Saxons in Bri¬
tain, new adventurers daily flocked over to share the
good fortune of the others. They were chiefly com¬
posed of three nations, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes.
All these passed under the common appellation some¬
times of Saxons, sometimes of Angles. I hey spoke the
same language, and agreed very much in their customs
and institutions, so that all of them were naturally led
to combine against the natives. Hie most active of
these adventurers was Cerdic a Saxon, said to be the
tenth in descent from W oden. He landed with his
son Cenric, and as many men as he could convey
in five ships, at Yarmouth in Norfolk. I he provin¬
cials immediately attacked them with great vigour ;
but after a short engagement, they were totally de¬
feated. Many other battles were fought, the event of
which was always favourable to the Saxons, so that
the Britons were forced to abandon their sea-coasts to
them.
In 497, Porta, another Saxon, with his two sons,
Bleda and Magla, arrived at Portsmouth, so called, as
some imagine, from this chieltain. Hie provincials,
under the command of a young prince a native of the
country, attempted to oppose the landing of the Saxons :
but his army was defeated with great slaughter, and
he himself killed in the engagement •, after which Porta
made himself master of all the neighbouring country.
The progress of Cerdic, however, alarmed the Britons ^
more than that of all the other Saxon princes. AboutKazaleod
the year 508, therefore, Nazaleod, styled, by Henry |>f
Huntingdon, the greatest of all the British kings, assem-^™
bled almost the whole strength of the provincial Britons
in order to drive him out of the island. Cerdic, on the
other hand, took care to strengthen himself by procu¬
ring assistance from all the Saxons already in the island.
He then advanced against the Britons, commanding
the right wing himself, and his son Cenric the left.
As the two armies drew near each other, Nazaleod
perceived the enemy’s right wing to be much strong¬
er than the left. He therefore attacked it with the
flower of his army ; and after an obstinate resistance,
obliged Cerdic to save himself by flight. Being too
eager in the pursuit, however, Cenric fell upon his rear,
and the battle was renewed with great vigour. The
British army was at last entirely defeated^ and 5000
men, among whom was Nazaleod himself, were left
dead on the spot.
Who succeeded Nazaleod in the kingdom of Britain,
is not known. The Welsh annals leave an interreg¬
num of about six years, after which they place the be¬
ginning of the reign of Arthur, the most renowned
4°
gnnimg u! cue .eg., ‘ > rWhether
British prince mentioned in history. 1 he fi18toi7 ot sucti a per-
Ti'r~ "   A  4. L . -» , r. r. .■» 1 O l \ 1 O O < I fl _ .w
— r ; —- i r fit , suen a pc.-
King Arthur is so much obscured by tables, and many son as j^ng
absurd, romantic, and ridiculous stories, that some have Arthur c-vei
supposed that no such person ever existed. On this sub-existed,
ject Milton gives the following reasons against the ex¬
istence of King Arthur: I. He is not mentioned by
Gildas,
England. Gildas, or any British historian except Nennius, who
——v—is allowed on all hands to have been a very Credulous
writer, and to have published a great many fables.
2. Though William of Malmesbury and Henry of
Huntingdon have both related his exploits, yet the lat¬
ter took all he wrote from Nennius ; and the former,
either from the same fabulous writer, or some monkish
legends in the abbey of Glastenbury ; for both these
writers flourished several centuries after King Arthur.
3. In the pretended history of Geoffroy of Monmouth,
such contradictions occur concerning this monarch’s
victories in France, Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Italy,
&c. as must cause us to look upon him as a hero alto¬
gether fabulous and romantic.
In answer to this it has been said, 1. That his not
being mentioned by Gildas cannot seem strange to us,
seeing it was not that author’s design to write an exact
history of his country, but only to give a short account
of the causes of its ruin by the Scots, Piets, and Saxons.
He had also a particular system to support, namely,
That the ruin of the Britons was owing to the judge¬
ments of God upon them for their wickedness. He
lies therefore under a great temptation to conceal the
successes of the Britons, and to relate only their mis¬
fortunes. 2. Though Nennius was a credulous writer,
it is unreasonable to think that the whole history of
King Arthur was an invention of his. It is more pro¬
bable that he copied it from other more ancient au¬
thors, or took it from the common tradition of his
countrymen. That the Saxon annals make no mention
of this king is not to be wondered at, seeing it is natural
to think that they would wish to conceal the many de¬
feats he gave their nation. 3. The most convincing
proof of the existence of King Arthur is, that this tomb
was discovered at Glasteubury in Somersetshire, and
his coffin dug up in the reign of Henry II. with the
following inscription upon it in Gothic characters :
“ Hie jacet sepultus inclytus rex Arturius in insula
Avalonia.” We are told that on his body were plain¬
ly to he seen the marks of 10 wounds, only one of which
seemed to be mortal.
This renowned prince is said to have defeated the
Saxons under Cerdic in 12 pitched battles. The last
of these was fought on Badon-hill, supposed to be
Bansdown .near Bath 5 in winch the Saxons received
such a terrible overthrow, that for many years they
gave the Britons no further molestation. As new sup¬
plies of Saxons, however, were continually flocking
over, a third and fourth kingdom of them were soon
formed, 1 he third kingdom comprehended the coun¬
ties of Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire, Hampshire,
.and Berkshire; to which was afterwards added Corn¬
wall. This was called the kingdom of the West Saxons.
The other kingdom, which was called the kingdom of
the East Saxons, comprehended Essex, Middlesex, and
part of Hertfordshire.
In the year 542, happened the death of the great
King Arthur, said to have been killed in battle with a
tieacherous kinsman of his own. live years after*
wards was erected the Saxon kingdom of Noi’thum-
berland. It extended, however, much farther than the-
present bounds of that country ; for it comprehended
all Yorkshire, Lancashire, Durham, Cumberland, West¬
moreland, and Northumberland, with part of Scotland,
as far as the frith of Forth. Between the Saxon
41
His-eic.
itloiu.
4*
"wo other
’axon king
oms erec-
ed.
ENGLAND.
kings frequent contentions now arose ; by which
means the Britons enjoyed an uninterrupted tranquil¬
lity for at least 44 years. This interval, however, ac¬
cording to Gildas, they employed only in corrupting
their manners more and more, till at last they were
roused from their security by the setting up of a sixth
Saxon kingdom, called the kingdom of the East Angles.
It was founded in 573, and comprehended the coun¬
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and the Isle
of Lly. The Saxons once more attacked the Britons,
and overthrew them in many battles. The war was
continued for ten years ; after which, another Saxon
kingdom called Mercia was set up. It comprehended
17 counties ; viz. Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester,
Warwick, Leicester, Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln,
Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford,
Nottingham, Derby, Shropshire, Cheshire, and part of
Hertfordshire.
J he provincial Britons were now confined within very The^Bri-
narrow bounds. However, before they entirely gave uptons defeat
the best part of their country to their enemies, they oncelhe Saj,011*>
more resolved to try the event of a battle. At this
time they were assisted by the Angles, who were jea-retire into
ions of the overgrown power of the West Saxons. Wales.
I he battle was fought in Wiltshire, at Woden’s Bearth,
a place near the ditch called Wansdike or Wodensdike;
which runs through the middle of the county. The
battle was very obstinate and bloody; but at last the
Saxons were entirely defeated, and almost their whole
army cut off. The victory, however, proved of little
service to the Britons : for being greatly inferior in
number to the Saxons, and harassed by them on the
one side, and by the Scots and Piets on the other, they
were daily more and more confined ; and at last obliged
to take refuge among the craggy and mountainous
places in the west of the island, where their ene¬
mies could not pursue them. At first they possessed all
that country beyond the rivers Dee and Severn, which
anciently divided Cambria, or Wales, from England ;
the towns which stand on the eastern banks of these
rivers having mostly been built in order to restrain the
incursions of the WTelsh. But the English, having
passed the Severn, by degrees seized on the country
lying between that river and the Wye. Nay, in for¬
mer times, some parts of Flintshire and Denbighshire
were subject to the kings of Mercia: for Uffa, the
most powerful king of that country, caused a deep
ditch to be drawn, and a high wall built, as a hairier
between his dominions and the territories of the Welsh
from the mouth of the Dee, a little above Flint-castle,
to the mouth of the Wye. This ditch is still to
be seen in several places ; and is called by the Welsh
Clandh Ufa, or the Ditch of Ufla. The inhabitants
ol the towns on the east side of this ditch are called
by the same people Guyr y Mers; that is, the men of
Mercia.
Thus, after a violent contest of near 150 years, the Account of
baxons entirely subdued the Britons whom they had tl*6 heptar-
come to defend, and had erected seven independent®^*
kingdoms in England, now commonly denominated the
Saxon Heptarchy. By these conquerors the country
was now^ reduced to a degree of barbarity almost as
great as it had been in when first invaded by the Ro¬
mans. The provincial Britons, during their subjection
to that people, had made considerable advances in ci-
vilization..
5S ENGL
Kngtaiul. vllization. They had built 28 considerable cities, be-
y~.. ./ sides a number of villages and country-seats $ but now
these were all levelled with the ground, the native inha¬
bitants who remained in England were reduced to the
most abject slavery, and every art and science totally
extinguished among them.
Before these fierce conquerors could be civilized in
any degree, it was necessary that all the seven king¬
doms should be reduced under one head ; for as long
as they remained independent, their continual wars with
each other still kept them in the same state of barbarity
and ignorance.
The history of these seven kingdoms affords no event
that can be in the least interesting. It consists only
of a detail of their quarrels for the sovereignty. This
was at last obtained by Egbert king of the West
Saxons, or Wessex, in 827. Before this time, Chri¬
stianity had been introduced in almost all the king¬
doms of the heptarchy ; and however much corrupted
it might be by coming through the impure channel of
the church of Rome, and misunderstood through the
ignorance of those who received it, it had consider¬
ably softened the barbarous manners of the Saxons.
It had also opened a communication between Bri¬
tain and the more polite parts of Europe, so that
there was now some hope of the introduction of arts
and sciences into this country. Another effect was
that, by the ridiculous notions of preserving inviolable
chastity even between married people, the royal fami¬
lies of most of the kingdoms were totally extinct;
and the people, being in a state of anarchy, were ready
to submit to the first who assumed any authority over
them.
All these things contributed to the success of Eg¬
bert in uniting the heptarchy under his own dominion.
He was one of the royal family of Wessex; and a nearer
heir than Brithric, who had been raised to the king¬
dom in 784. As Egbert was a prince of great ac¬
complishments, Brithric, knowing that he had a better
title to the crown than himself, began to look upon
bim with a very jealous eye. Young Egbert, sensible
of his danger, privately withdrew to France ; where he
was well received by Charlemagne, the reigning mo¬
narch. The French were reckoned at this period the
most valiant and polite people in Europe ; so that this
exile proved of great service to Egbert.
He continued at the court of France till he was re¬
called by the nobility to take possession of the king¬
dom of Wessex. This recal was occasioned by the
following accident. Brithric the king of Wessex had
married Eadburga, natural daughter of Offa king ol
Mercia ; a woman infamous for cruelty and inconti¬
nence. Having great influence over her husband, she
often persuaded him to destroy such of the nobility as
were obnoxious to her ; and where this expedient failed,
she herself had not scrupled to become their execu¬
tioner. She had mixed a cup of poison for a young
nobleman, who had acquired a great share of her hus¬
band’s friendship ; but, unfortunately, the king drank
of the fatal potion along with his favourite, and soon
after expired. By this and other crimes Eadburga
became so odious to the people, that she was forced to
% into France, while Egbert was at the same time re¬
called, as above mentioned.
Egbert ascended the throne of Wessex in the year
'♦
AND.
799. He was the sole descendant of those conquerors England,^
who first invaded Britain, and who derived their pedigree v——v——
from the god Woden. But though this circumstance
might have given him great advantages in attempting
to subdue the neighbouring kingdoms, Egbert for
some time gave them no disturbance ; but turned his
arms against the Britons, who had retired into Corn¬
wall, whom he defeated in several battles. He was
recalled from his conquests in that country, by hearing
that Bernulf king of Mercia had invaded his domi¬
nions. Egbert quickly led his army against the inva¬
ders, whom he totally defeated at Eilendun in Wilt¬
shire. He then entered their kingdom on the side of
Oxfordshire with an army, and at the same time sent
his eldest son Ethelwolf with another into Kent. The
young prince expelled Baldred the tributary king of
Kent, and soon made himself master of the country.
The kingdom of Essex was conquered with equal ease ;
and the East Angles, who had been reduced under
subjection by the Mercians, joyfully put themselves
under the protection of Egbert. Bernulf himself
marched against them, but was defeated and killed ;
and Ludecan his successor met with the same fate two
years after.
These misfortunes greatly facilitated the reduction
of Mercia. Egbert soon penetrated into the very heart
of the Mercian territories, and gained an easy victory
over a dispirited and divided people ; but in order to
engage them to submit with the less reluctance, he al¬
lowed Wiglef, their countryman, to retain the title of
king, whilst he himself exercised the real power of a
sovereign. Northumberland was at present in a state
of anarchy : and this tempted Egbert to carry his vic¬
torious arms into that kingdom also. The inhabi¬
tants, being desirous of living under a settled form of
government, readily submitted, and owned him for
their sovereign. To them, however, he likewise al¬
lowed the power of electing a king; who paid him a
tribute, and was dependent on him.
Egbert became sole master of England about the Egbert Uie
year 827. A favourite opportunity was now offered first king of
to the Anglo-Saxons of becoming a civilized people,
as they were at peace among themselves, and seemed
free from any danger of a foreign invasion. But this
flattering prospect was soon overcast. Five years after
Egbert had established his new monarchy, the Hanes
landed in the isle of Shepey, plundered it, and then ^
made their escape with safety. Encouraged by this Danisb ia,
success, next year they landed from a fleet of 35 ships, varioa.
They were encountered by Egbert at Charmouth in
Dorsetshire. The battle was obstinate and bloody.
Great numbers of the Danes were killed, but the rest
made good their retreat to their ships. They next en¬
tered into an alliance with the Britons of Cornwall; and
landing two years after in that country, they made an
irruption into Devonshire. Egbert met them at Hen-
gesdown, and totally defeated them; but before he
had time to form any regular plan for the defence of the
kingdom, he died, and left the government to his son
Ethelwolf. 47
The new king was weak and superstitious. He be* Ethelwo*
gan with dividing the kingdom, which had so lately
been united, with his son Athelstan. To the young
prince he gave the counties of Essex, Kent, and Sussex.
But though this division might have been productive
of
ENGL
England. or consequences at another time, the fear of the
<   ' Danes kept every thing quiet for the present. These
A. D. 853. barbarians had some how or other conceived such hopes
of enriching themselves by the plunder of England,
that they scarce ever failed of paying it an annual visit.
The English historians tell us,‘ that they met with
many severe repulses and defeats ; but on the whole it
appears that they had gained ground ; for in 851 a
body of them took up their winter-quarters in Eng¬
land. Next year they received a strong reinforcement
of their countrymen in 350 vessels; and advancing from
the isle of Thanet, where they had stationed them¬
selves, they burnt the cities of London and Canter¬
bury. Having next put to flight Brichtric the go¬
vernor of Mercia, they marched into the heart of Surry,
laying waste the whole country through which they
passed.
Ethel wolf, though naturally little fitted for military
enterprises, was now obliged to take the field. He
marched against the Danes at the head of the West
Saxons, and gained an indecisive and bloody victory
over his enemies. The Danes still maintained their
settlement in the isle of Thanet. They were attacked
by Ealher and Huda, governors of Kent and Surry :
both of whom they defeated and killed. Afterwards
they removed to the isle of Shepey, where they took
up their winter-quarters, with a design to extend their
ravages the next year.
T-he deplorable state of the kingdom did not hinder
Ethelwolf from making a pilgrimage to Rome, whither
he carried his fourth and favourite son Alfred, then
only six years ot age. He passed a twelvemonth in that
city; made presents to the principal ecclesiastics there;
and made a grant of 300 mancuses (a silver coin about
- the weight ol our half-crown) annually to the see of
Rome. One-third of this was to support the lamps of
St Peter’s, another those of St Paul’s, and the third
was for the Pope himself. In his return to England,
Ethelwolf married Judith, daughter of the emperor
Charles the Bald ; but when he landed, he found him¬
self deprived of his kingdom by his son Ethelbald.
That prince assumed the government of Athelstan’s
dominions, who was lately dead ; and, with many oT
Ethelwolf s nobles, formed a design of excluding him
fiom the thjone altogether, on account of his weaknesses
and superstitions. Ethelwolf, however, delivered the
people from the calamities of a civil war, by dividing
the kingdom with his son. He gave to Ethelbald the
government of the western, and reserved to himself that
01 t a eastern, part of the kingdom. Immediately after
this, he summoned the states of the whole kingdom,
and conferred on the clergy a perpetual donation of
tithes, for which they had long contended, and which
had been the subject of their sermons for several
centuries.
I his concession was deemed so meritorious by the
English, that they now thought themselves sure of the
favour ot heaven ; and therefore neglected to use the
natural means for their safety which they might have
done. They even agreed, that notwithstanding the
desperate situation of affairs at present, the revenues
of the church should be exempted from all burdens,
though imposed for the immediate security and defence
of the nation. Ethelwolf died two years after he
had made the above-mentioned grant, and left the '
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
A. D S66.
AND.
kingdom to his two eldest sons Ethelbald and Ethel-
bert. Both these princes died in a few years, and left
the kingdom to Ethered their brother, in the vear
86£, . 48
The whole course of Ethered’s reign was disturbed Etbercd.
by the irruptions of the Danes. The king defended
himselfagainst them with great bravery, being seconded
,n 0,1 his military enterprises by his younger brother
Alfred, who afterwards ascended the throne. In this
reign, the Danes first landed among the East Angles.
That people treacherously entered into an alliance
with the common enemy ; and furnished them with
horses, which enabled them to make an irruption into
Northumberland. There they seized upon the city of
York. Osbricht and iElla, two Northumbrian princes
who attempted to rescue the city, were defeated and
killed. Encouraged by this success, the Danes pe¬
netrated into the kingdom of Mercia, took up their
winter-quarters at Nottingham, and thus threatened
the kingdom with a final subjection. From this post,
however, they were dislodged by Ethered and Alfred,
who forced them to retire into Northumberland. Their
restless and savage disposition, however, did not suffer
them to continue long in one place. They broke into
East Anglia; defeated and took prisoner Edmund the
tributary king of that country, whom they afterwards
murdered ; and committed everywhere the most bar¬
barous ravages. In 871, they advanced to Reading,
fioin whence they infested the neighbouring country
by their incursions. '1 he Mercians, desirous of reco¬
vering their independency, refused to join Ethered with
their forces ; so that he was obliged to march against
the Danes, attended only by the AVest Saxons, who
were his hereditary subjects. Several actions ensued,
in which the Danes are said to have been unsuccessful;
but being continually reinforced from their own coun¬
try, they became every day more and more formidable
to the English. During the confusion and distress in
which the nation was now necessarily involved, King
Ethered died of a wound he had received in an action
with the Danes ; and left to his brother Alfred the
kingdom almost totally subdued by a foreign power. .
Alfred, who may properly be called the founder of Alfred the
the English monarchy, ascended the throne in the year^reat*
871, being then only 22 years of age. His great vir¬
tues and shining talents saved his country from ruin,
which seemed almost unavoidable. His expoits against
the Danes, his dangers and distresses, are related under
the article Alfred. Having settled the nation in a
much better manner than could have been expected, he
died in 901, leaving the kingdom to his second son
Edward the Elder.
1 he beginning of this monarch’s reign was disturbed Edward the
by those intestine commotions from which the wise and Eider,
politic Alfred had taken so much pains to free the na¬
tion. Ethelwald, son to King Ethelbert, Alfred’s
elder brother, claimed a right to the throne. Having
armed his partisans, he took possession of Winburne,
where he seemed determined to hold out to the last
extremity. On the approach of Edward, however,
with a powerful army, lie first fled into Normandy, and
afterwards into Northumberland. He hoped to find
the Northumbrians ready to join him, as most of them
were Danes, lately subdued by Alfred, and very im¬
patient of peace. The event did not disappoint his ex-
H pectations.
ENGLAND.
58
England, pectations. The Northumbrians declared for him j and
v 1—/ Ethelwald having thus connected himselt with the l)a-
A. D. 901. tribes, went heyond sea, whence he returned with
a great body of these banditti. On his return, he was
joined by the Danes of East Anglia and Mercia. E-
thelwald, at the head of the rebels, made an irruption
into the counties of Gloucester, Oxford, and Wilts j
and having ravaged the country, retired with his booty
before the king could approach him. Edward, how¬
ever, took care to revenge himself, by conducting his
forces into East Anglia, and ravaging it in like man¬
ner. He then gave orders to retire j but the Kent¬
ish men, greedy of more plunder, staid behind, and
took up. their quarters at Bury. Here they were as¬
saulted by the Danes; but the Kentish men made such
an obstinate defence, that though their enemies gained
the victory, it was bought by the loss of their bravest
men, and, among the rest, of the usurper Ethelwald
himself.
The king, now freed from the attempts of so dan¬
gerous a rival, concluded an advantageous peace with
the East Angles. He next set about reducing the
Northumbrians; and for this purpose equipped a fleet,
lioping that thus, they would be induced to remain at
home to defend their own country, without attempting
to invade his territories. He was disappointed in his
expectations. The Northumbrians were more eager
to plunder their neighbours than to secure themselves.
Imagining that the whole of Edward’s forces were em¬
barked on board his fleet, they entered his territories
with all the troops they could raise. The king, how¬
ever, was better prepared for them than they had ex¬
pected. He attacked them on their return at Tetenhall
in the county of Stafford, put them to flight, recovered
all the booty, and pursued them with great slaughter
into their own country.
The rest of Edward’s reign was a scene of continued
and successful action against the Northumbrians, East
Angles, the Danes of Mercia, and those who came
from their native country in order to invade England.
He put his kingdom in a good posture of defence, by
fortifying the towns of Chester, Eddesbury, Warwick,
Cherbury, Buckingham, Towcester, Maldon, Hun¬
tingdon, and Colchester. He vanquished Thurketijl
a Danish chieftain, and obliged him to retire with his
followers into France. He subdued the East Angli-
ans, Northumbrians, and several tribes ot the Britons j
and even obliged the Scots to make submissions. He
died in 925, and was succeeded by Athelstan his natu-
j 1 ral son.
Atkelstan. This prince, notwithstanding his illegitimate birth,
ascended the throne without much opposition, as the
legitimate children of Edward were too young to rule
a nation so much liable both to foreign invasions and
domestic troubles as England at present was. One Al¬
fred, however, a nobleman of considerable power, en¬
tered into a conspiracy against him. It is said, that this
nobleman was seized upon strong suspicions, but with¬
out any certain proof. He offered to swear to his
innocence before the pope ; and in those ages it was
supposed that none could take a false oath in presence
of such a sacred person, without being visited by an
immediate judgment from God. Alfred was accord¬
ingly conducted to Rome, and took the oath required
of him before Pope John. The words were ao sooner
3l '
pronounced, than he fell into convulsions, of which he England,
expired in three days. The king, fully convinced ofv—j
his guilt, confiscated his estate, and made a present of A* R- 925*
it to the monastery of Malmesbury.
This accident proved the means of establishing the
authority of Athelstan in England. But finding the
Northumbrians bore the English yoke with impatience,,
he gave Sithric, a Danish nobleman, the title of king
of Northumberland ; and in order to secure his friend¬
ship, gave him his own sister Ediths in marriage. This
was productive of bad consequences. Sithric died the
year after his marriage with Editha j upon which An-
laf and Godfrid, Sithric’s sons by a former marriage, as¬
sumed the sovereignty without waiting for Athelstan’s
consent. They were, however, soon obliged to yield
to the superior power of that monarch. I he former
fled to Ireland ; and the latter to Scotland, where he
was protected by Constantine king of that country.
The Scottish monarch was continually importuned by
Athelstan to deliver up his guest, and even threatened
with an invasion in case he did not comply. Constan¬
tine, detesting this treachery, advised Godfrid to make
his escape. He did so, turned pirate, and died soon
after. Athelstan, however, resenting this conduct of
Constantine, invaded his kingdom, and reduced him,
it is said, so low, that he was obliged to make the most
humble submissions. This, however, is denied by all
the Scottish historians..
Constantine, after the departure of Athelstan, enter¬
ed into a confederacy with Anlaf, who subsisted by his
piracies, and with some of the Welsh princes who Avere
alarmed at the increase of Athelstan’s povver. All these
confederates made an irruption into England at once j
but Athelstan meeting them at Brumsbury in Nor-Defeats his
thumberland, gave them a total overthrow. Anlafenemis*.
and Constantine made their escape with difficulty, lea¬
ving the greatest part of their men dead on the field
of battle. After this period, Athelstan enjoyed his
crown Avith tranquillity. He died in 94I> after a reign
of 16 years. He passed a remarkable law, for the en¬
couragement ot commerce: viz. that a merchant, who
had made three long sea voyages on his oavh account,
should be admitted to the rank of a thane or gentle¬
man. S3
Athelstan was succeeded by his brother Edmund.Edmvuid.
On his accession, he found the kingdom disturbed by
the restless Northumbrians, who watched for every op¬
portunity of rising in rebellion. They were, however,
soon reduced 5 and Edmund took care to ensure the
peace of the kingdom, by removing the Danes from
the towns of Mercia where they had been alloAved to
settle, because it was found that they took every oppor¬
tunity to introduce foreign Danes into the kingdom.
He also conquered Cumberland from the Britons. This
country, hoAveA'cr, he bestowed upon Malcolm king of
Scotland, upon condition that he should do homage for
it, and protect the north of England from all future in¬
cursions of the Danes., 54
Edmund was unfortunately murdered in Gloucester, Murdered
by one Leolf a notorious robber. This man had beenb- Eeolf.
formerly sentenced to banishment j yet had the bold¬
ness to enter the hall Avhere the king himself dined, and
to sit at table with his attendants. Edmund imme¬
diately ordered him to leave the room. The villain
lefused to obey 5 upon which the king leaped upon
ENGLAND.
England. l“m» an^ seized him by the hair. Leolf then drew
 ' a dagger, and gave the king a wound, of which he
A. D. 946. instantly died, A. D. 946, being the sixth year of his
55 reJgn'
Edred. As the children of Edmund were too young at the
time of his decease, his brother Edred succeeded to the
throne. The beginning of his reign, as well as those
of his predecessors, was disturbed by the rebellions and
incursions of the Northumbrian Danes, who looked
upon the succession of every new king to be a favour¬
able opportunity for shaking off the English yoke. On
the appearance of Edred with an army, however, they
immediately submitted : but before the king withdrew
his forces, he laid waste their territories as a punish-
(•6 ment for their offence. He was no sooner gone, than
Subdues the they rose in rebellion a second time. They were again
Norihnm- subdued ; and the king took effectual precautions
bfmas. against their future revolts, by placing English garri¬
sons in all their towns, and appointing an English go-
^ vernor to watch their motions, and suppress their in-
I Celibacy of surrections on the first appearance. In the reJgn of
tbe clerg-y. Edred, celibacy of the clergy began to be preached
introduced. Up under the patronage of St Dunstan. This man
had obtained such an ascendant over Edred, who was
naturally superstitious, that he not only directed him
in affairs of conscience, but in the most important mat¬
ters of state. He was placed at the head of the trea¬
sury $ and being thus possessed of great power at court,
he was enabled to accomplish the most arduous under¬
takings. He professed himself a partisan of the rigid
monastic rules j and having introduced celibacy among
the monks of Glasteabury and Abingdon, he endea¬
voured to render it universal among the clergy through¬
out the kingdom. The monks in a short time gene¬
rally embraced the pretended reformation $ after which
they inveighed bitterly against the vices and luxury of
the age. When other topics of defamation were want¬
ing, the marriages of clergymen became a sure object
of invective. Their wives received the appellation of
concubines or some other more opprobrious names. The
secular clergy, on the other hand, who were nume¬
rous and rich, defended themselves with vigour, and
endeavoured to retaliate upon their adversaries. The
people were thrown into the most violent ferments ;
but the monks, being patronised by King Edred, gain¬
ed ground greatly upon their opponents. Their pro¬
gress, however, was somewhat retarded by the king’s
death, which happened in 955, after a reign of nine
years. He left children ; but as they were infants,
his nephew Edwy, son to Edmund, was placed on the
sS throne.
I Edwy, The new king was not above 16 or 17 years of age
at the time of his accession. His reign is only re¬
markable for the tragical story of his queen Elgiva.
She was a princess of the royal blood, with whom
Edwy was deeply enamoured. She was his second or
third cousin, and therefore within the degrees of affinity
prohibited by the canon law. Edwy, however, heark¬
ening only to the dictates of his passion, married her,
contrary to the advice of the more dignified ecclesiastics.
The monks on this occasion were particularly violent j
and therefore Edwy determined not to second their
ambitious projects. He soon found reason to repent
his having provoked such dangerous enemies. On his
coronation day, while his nobility were indulging them-
59
selves in riotous mirth in a great hall where they had En^laud.
assembled, Edwy withdrew to another apartment to     
enjoy the company of his beloved queen and her mo- 955*
ther. Dunstan guessed the reason of his absence. With
unparalleled impudence, he burst into the queen’s apart¬
ment; and upbraiding Edwy with his lasciviousness, as
he termed it, pushed him back to the hall where the
nobles were assembled. The king determined to re¬
sent such a daring insult. He required from Dunstan
an account of his administration of the treasury during
the late reign. The monk, probably unable to give a
just account, refused to give any ; upon which Edwy
accused him of malversation in his office, and banished
him the kingdom.
This proved the worst step that could possibly have
been taken. Dunstan was no sooner gone than the
whole nation was in an uproar about his sanctity and
the king’s impiety. These clamours, as they had been
begun by the clergy, so they were kept up and in¬
creased by them, till at last they proceeded to the most
outrageous violence. Archbishop Odo sent a party of
soldiers to the palace. They seized the queen, and Tragical
bui’ned her face with a red-hot iron, in order to de-death of the
stroy her beauty by which she had enticed her husband; ^ueen-
after which they carried her by force into Ireland,
there to remain in perpetual exile. The king, finding
it in vain to resist, was obliged to consent to a divorce
from her, which was pronounced by Archbishop Odo.
A catastrophe still more dismal awaited Elgiva. She
had been cured of her wounds, and had even found
means to efface the scars with which her persecutors
had hoped to destroy her beauty. She then came to
England, with a design to return to the king, whom
she still considered as her husband. Unfortunately,
however, she was intercepted by a party of soldiers
sent for that purpose by the primate. Nothing but
her most cruel death could now satisfy that wretch and
his accomplices. She was hamstringed at Gloucester,
and expired in a few days.
The minds of the English were at this time so much
sunk in superstition, that the monstrous inhumanity
above mentioned was called a judgment from God
upon Edwy and his spouse for their dissolute life, i. e.
their love to each other. They even proceeded to re¬
bellion against their sovereign ; and having raised to the
throne Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, at that
time only 13 years of age, they soon put him in pos¬
session of Mercia, Northumberland, and East Anglia.
Edwy being thus confined to the southern counties,
Dunstan returned, and took upon him the government
of Edgar and his party ; but the death of Edwy soon
removed all difficulties, and gave Edgar peaceable pos¬
session of the government.
The reign of Edgar proved one of the most fortu- E(. '6o
nate mentioned in the ancient English history. He '
took the most effectual methods both for preventing
tumults at home and invasions from abroad. He
quartered a body of disciplined troops in the noi'th,
in order to repel the incursions of the Scots, and to
keep the Northumbrians in awe. He built a power¬
ful navy ; and that he might keep the seamen in the
practice of their duty, as well as pi’esent a formi¬
dable armament to his enemies, he commanded the
fleet from time to time to make the circuit of his
dominions.
H 2
The
6o
England.
ENGLAND.
The greatness of King Etlgar, which is very much
celebrated by the English historians, was owing to the
A. D. 955. harmony which reigned between him and his subjects $
and the reason of this good agreement was, that the
king sided with Dunstan and the monks, who had ac¬
quired a great ascendant over the people. He enabled
them to accomplish their favourite scheme of disposses-
ing the secular canons of all the monasteries j and he
consulted them not only in ecclesiastical but also in
civil affairs. On these accounts, he is celebrated by
the monkish writers with the highest praises} though
it is plain, from some of his actions, that he was a
man who could be bound neither by the ties of re¬
ligion nor humanity. He broke into a convent, and
61 carried off by force, and ravished, a nun called Edi-
His Hcenti- f]js spiritual instructor, Dunstan, for this of-
°us am°urs'fence, obliged the king, not to separate from his mis¬
tress, but to abstain from wearing his crown for seven
years !
Edgar, however, was not to be satisfied with one
mistress. He happened once to lodge at the house of
a nobleman who had a very beautiful daughter. Ed¬
gar, inflamed with desire at the sight of the young la¬
dy, without ceremony asked her mother to allow her
to pass a night with him. She promised compliance;
but secretly ordered a waiting-maid, named Eljleda, to
steal into the king’s bed when the company were gone,
and to retire before day-break. Edgar, however, de¬
tained her by force, till day-light discovered the de¬
ceit. His love was now transferred-to the waiting-
maid.; who became his favourite mistress, and main¬
tained a great ascendant over him till his marriage
6a with Elfrida.
His mar- The circumstances of this marriage were still more
riage with singular and criminal than those above mentioned. El-
Eltnda. fj-Ua was daughter and heiress to Olgar earl of De¬
vonshire. She was a person of such exquisite beauty,
that her fame was spread all over England, though she
had never been at court. Edgar’s curiosity was ex¬
cited by the accounts he had heard of her, and there¬
fore formed a design of marrying her. He communi¬
cated his intention to Earl Athelwold his favourite ;
and ordered him, on some pretence or other, to visit
the earl of Devonshire, and bring him a certain ac¬
count concerning Elfrida. Athelwold went as he was
desired ; but fell so deeply in love with the lady him¬
self, that he resolved to sacrifice his fidelity to his pas¬
sion. He returned to Edgar, and told him that El-
frida’s charms were by no means extraordinary, and
would have been totally overlooked in a woman of in¬
ferior station. After some time, however, turning the
conversation again upon Elfrida, he told the king that
he thought her parentage and fortune made her a very
advantageous match ; and therefore, if the king gave
his consent, he would make proposals to the earl of
Devonshire on his own behalf. Edgar consented, and
Athelwold was married to Elfrida. After his mar¬
riage, he used his utmost endeavours to keep his wife
from court, that Edgar might have no opportunity of
observing her beauty. The king, however, was soon
informed of the truth ; and told Athelwold, that he in¬
tended to pay him a visit in his castle, and be made
acquainted with his new-married wife. The earl could
make no objections ; only he desired a few hours to
prepare for the visit. He then confessed the whole
to Elfrida, and begged of her to appear before the England,
king as much to the disadvantage as possible. In- —y——
stead of this, she dressed herself to the greatest ad-A, D. 957.
vantage. Edgar immediately conceived a violent pas¬
sion for her ; and in order to gratify it, seduced Athel¬
wold into a wood under pretence of hunting, where he
stabbed him with his own hand, and afterwards married
his widow.
The reign of Edgar is remarkable among historians
for the encouragement he gave to foreigners to reside
at his court and throughout the. kingdom. These fo¬
reigners, it is said, corrupted the former simple man¬
ners of the nation. Of this simplicity, however, there
seems to be no great reason to boast ; seeing it could
not preserve them from treachery and cruelty, the
greatest of all vices : so that their acquaintance with
foreigners was certainly an advantage to the people, as
it tended to enlarge their views, and cure them of
those illiberal prejudices and rustic manners to which
islanders are often subject. Another remarkable inci- 63
dent is the extirpation of wolves from England. The Wolves ex-
king took great pleasure in hunting and destroying j;irPat^
these animals himself. At last he found that they had ^‘“6*
all taken shelter in the mountains and forests of Wales.
Upon this he changed the tribute imposed upon the
Welsh princes by Athelstan, into an annual tribute of
300 wolves heads ; and thus produced such diligence
in hunting them, that the animal has never since ap¬
peared in England.
Edgar died in 957, after a reign of 16 years. He Edward tbe
left a son named Edward, whom he had by his first martyr,
wife the daughter of Earl Ordmer ; and another, na¬
medby Elfrida. The mental qualifications of
this lady were by no means answerable to the beauty
of her person. She was ambitious, haughty, treache¬
rous, and cruel. The principal nobility, therefore,
were greatly averse from the succession of her son E-
thelred, which would unavoidably throw too much
power into the hands of his mother, as he himself was
only seven years of age. Edward, afterwards surnamed
the Martyr, was therefore pitched upon : and was cer¬
tainly the most proper person, as he was 15 years of age,
and might soon be able to take the government into his
own hands. Elfrida opposed his advancement with all
her might: but Dunstan overcame every obstacle, by
anointing and crowning the young prince at Kingston ;
upon which the whole kingdom submitted without far¬
ther opposition.
The only remarkable occurrence in this reign was
the complete victory gained by the monks over the se¬
cular clergy, who were now totally expelled from the
convents. Though this had been pretty nearly ac¬
complished by Edgar, the secular clergy still had par¬
tisans in England who made considerable opposition : 65
but these were all silenced by the following miracles : Miracle* of
In one synod, Dunstan, finding the majority of votesSt I)un£lan’
against him, rose up, and declared that he had that
instant received from heaven a revelation in favour of
the monks. The whole assembly were so much overaw¬
ed by this intelligence, that they proceeded no farther
iii their deliberations. In another synod, a voice issued
from the crucifix, acquainting the members, that the
establishment of the monks was founded on the will of
heaven, and could not be opposed without impiety.
Buf the third miracle was still more alarming. In an¬
other
eng:
England, other synod the floor of the hall sunk, and great num-
^ v—" * bers of the members were killed or bruised by their
A. D. 98** fall. It was remarked that Dimstan had that day pre¬
vented the king from attending the synod, and that the
beam on which his own chair stood was the only one
which did not sink. These circumstances, instead of
making him suspected as the author of the miracle,
were regarded as proofs of the interposition of Provi¬
dence in his favour.
Edward lived four years after he was raised to the
throne, in perfect innocence and simplicity. Being in¬
capable of any treacherous intention himself, he sus¬
pected none in others. Though his stepmother had
opposed his succession, he had always behaved towards
her with the greatest respect ; and expressed on ail
occasions the most tender affection for his brother
Ethehed. Being one day hunting in the neighbour¬
hood of the castle where Elfrida resided, he paid her a
visit unattended by any of his retinue. After mounting
66 his horse with a design to return, he desired some li-
The king quor to be brought him. But while he was holding the
murdered, cup to his head, a servant of Elfrida stabbed him be¬
hind. Ihe king, finding himself wounded, clapped
spurs to his horse $. but soon becoming faint by the loss
of blood, he fell from the saddle, and his foot being
entangled in the stirrup, he was dragged along till he
expired. His body was found and privately interred
at Wereham by his servants. The English had such
compassion for this amiable prince, that they bestow¬
ed on him the appellation of Martyr, and even fan¬
cied that miracles were wrought at his tomb. Elfrida
built rrnnastenes, and submitted to many penances, in
order to atone for her guilt; but, even in that barba¬
rous age, she couid never regain the good opinion of the
67 Publ»C-
Ethelred. After the murder of Edward, his brother Ethelred
succeeded to the throne without opposition. As he
was a minor when he was raised to the throne, and,
even when he came to man’s estate, never discovered
any vigour or capacity of defending the kingdom against
invaders, the Hanes began to renew their incursions.
Before they durst attempt any thing of importance,
68 however, they first made a small incursion by way of
England ^ie year 981, they landed in Southampton
invaded ‘roni seven vessels ; and having ravaged the country,
and ruined they retired with impunity, carrying a great booty
Danes. al°ng Vvit,, them' In 987> tbey made a similar at¬
tempt on the west coast, and were attended with the
like success. Finding that matters were now in a fa¬
vourable situation for their enterprises, they landed in
Essex under the command of two chieftains; and, ha¬
ving defeated and killed Brithnot duke of that coun¬
ty, laid waste all the neighbouring provinces. In this
extremity, Ethelred, snrnamed, on account of his pre¬
posterous conduct, the Unready, bribed the enemy with
lo,oool. to depart the kingdom. This advice was
given by Siricius archbishop of Canterbury,, and some
of the degenerate nobility ; and was attended with the
success that might have been expected. The Hanes
appeared next year off the eastern coast. But, in the
mean time, the English had determined to assemble at
London a fleet capable of repulsing the enemy. This
failed of success through the treachery of Alfric duke
of Mercia. Having been formerly banished the king¬
dom, and found great difficulty in getting himself re¬
stored to his former dignity, he trusted thenceforth,
.AND. 61
not to his services or the affections of his countrymen, England.
but to the influence he had over his vassals, and to the ' v—
public calamities. These last he determined always5>g3-
to promote as far as he could : because in every revo¬
lution his assistance would be necessary, and conse¬
quently he must have received a continual accession of
power. The English had formed a plan for surround¬
ing and destroying the Banish fleet in the harbour;
but Alfric not only gave the enemy notice of this de¬
sign, but also deserted with his squadron the night be¬
fore the engagement. The English by this means pro¬
ved unsuccessful ; and Ethelred, in revenge, took Alf-
gar, Alfric’s son, and ordered his eyes to be put oute
This piece of cruelty could be productive of no good ef¬
fect. Alfric had become so powerful, that, notwith¬
standing his treachery, it was found impossible to de-,
prive him of the government of Mercia.
993> the Hanes under the command of Sweyn
their king, and the Norwegians conducted by Olave
king of that country, sailed up the Humber, and de¬
stroyed all around them. A powerful army was assem¬
bled to oppose these invaders; but through the treach¬
ery of the three leaders, all men of Banish extraction,
the English were totally defeated. Encouraged by
this success, the Hanes entered the Thames in 94 ves¬
sels, and laid siege to London. The inhabitants^
however, made such a brave defence, that the besie¬
gers were finally obliged to give over the attempt.
Out of revenge for this disappointment, they laid waste
Essex, Sussex, and Hampshire. In these counties they
procured horses;. by which means they were enabled
to penetrate into the more inland parts, and threaten¬
ed the kingdom with total subjection. Ethelred and
his nobles had now recourse to their former expedient.
They sent ambassadors to the two northern kings, to
whom they promised subsistence and tribute, provided
they would, for the present, put an end to their rava¬
ges, and soon after depart the kingdom. They agreed
to the terms, and peaceably took up their quarters at
Southampton. Olave even paid a visit to Ethelred,
and received the rite of confirmation from the English
bishops. The king also made him many presents ; and
Olave promised never more to infest the English terri¬
tories ; which promise it is said he afterwards religi¬
ously observed.
After the departure of Olave with his Norwegians,
Sweyn, though less scrupulous than the king of Nor¬
way, was obliged to leave the kingdom also. But this
shameful composition procured only a short relief to the
nation. The Hanes soon after appeared in the Severn ;
and having ravaged Wales as well as Cornwall and Be-
von, they sailed round, and, entering the mouth of
the Tamar, completed the ruin of these two counties.
Then, returning to the Bristol channel, and penetra¬
ting into the country by the Avon, they overran all?
that country, and carried fire and sword even into
Horsetshire. In 998, they changed the seat of war;
and, after ravaging the isle of Wight, they entered the
Thames and Medway, where they, laid siege to Ro¬
chester, and defeated the Kentish men in a great battle.
After this victory, the whole province of Kent was
made a scene of slaughter and devastation. The ex¬
tremity of these miseries forced the English into coun¬
sels for common defence both- by, sea and land :'but the
weakness of the king, the divisions among the nobi¬
lity, the treachery of some, the cowardice of others,.,
62
ENGLAND.
England, the want of concert in all, frustrated every endeavour;
*-—and their fleets and armies either came too late to at-
A. D. tlie enemy, or were repulsed with dishonour. The
English, therefore, devoid both of prudence and una¬
nimity in council, had recourse to the expedient which
by experience they had found to be inefiectual. ibey
offered the Danes a large sum if they would conclude
a peace and depart the kingdom. These ravagers con¬
tinually rose in their demands ; and now required the
payment of 24,000!. which the English submitted to
give. The departure of the Danes procured them a
temporary relief; which they enjoyed as if it was to
be perpetual, without making any effectual preparations
for giving them a more vigorous reception upon their
next return.
Besides the receiving this sum, the Danes were at
present engaged by another motive to depart from
England. They were invited over by their country¬
men in Normandy, who at that time were hard pressed
by Robert king of France, and who found it difficult
to defend their settlements against him. It is probable
also, that Ethelred, observing the close connection of
all the Danes with one another, however they might
69 be divided in government or situation, was desirous of
Marriage procuring an alliance with that foi’midable people. For
of the king jjjjg pUrp0se, being at present a widower, he made his
^rinces^of addresses to Emma, sister to Richard II. duke of Nor-
Normand).mandy. He soon succeeded in his negotiations; the
princess came over to England, and was married to the
king in the year 1001.
Though the Danes had been for a long time esta¬
blished in England, and though the similarity of their
language with the Saxon had invited them to an early
coalition with the natives ; they had as yet found so
little example of civilized manners among the English,
that they retained all their ancient ferocity, and valued
themselves only on their national character of military
bravery. The English princes had been so well ac¬
quainted with their superiority in this respect, that A-
tbelstan and Edgar had been accustomed to keep in
pay large bodies of Danish troops, who were quarter¬
ed about the country, and committed many violences
upon the inhabitants. These mercenaries had attained
to such a height in luxury, according to the old Eng¬
lish writers, that they combed their hair once a-day,
bathed themselves once a-week, changed their clothes
frequently ; and by all these arts of effeminacy, as well
as by their military character, had rendered them¬
selves so agreeable to the fair sex, that they debauched
the wives and daughters of the English, and had dis¬
honoured many families. But what most provoked
the inhabitants was, that, instead of defending them
against invaders, they were always ready to betray
them to the foreign Danes, and to associate themselves England,
with every straggling party which came from that na¬
tion.
A. D. 1007.
The animosities between the native English and the Dang5 ntas
Danes, who inhabited among them, had from these sacred,
causes risen to a great height; when Ethelred, from
a policy commonly adopted by weak princes, took the
cruel resolution of massacring the Danes throughout
the kingdom. On the 13th of November 1002, secret
orders were dispatched to commence the execution
everywhere on the same day ; and the festival of St
Brice, which fell on a Sunday, the day on which the
Danes usually bathed themselves, was chosen for this
purpose. These cruel orders were executed with the
utmost exactness. No distinction was made betwixt
the innocent and the guilty; neither sex nor age was
spared ; nor were the cruel executioners satisfied with¬
out the tortures, as well as death of the unhappy victims.
Even Cunilda, sister to the king of Denmark, who had
married Earl Paling, and had embraced Christianity,
was, by the advice of Edric earl of Wilts, seized and
condemned to death by Ethelred, after seeing her hus¬
band and children butchered before her face. This
unhappy princess foretold, in the agonies of despair,
that her murder would soon be avenged by the total
ruin of the English nation (a). 1}
The prophecy of Gunilda was exactly fulfilled. In
1003, Sweyn and his Danes, who wanted only a pre-j^^
tence to renew their invasions, appeared off the western
coast, and threatened revenge for the slaughter of their
countrymen. The English took measures for repulsing
the enemy ; but these were defeated through the treach¬
ery first of Alfric, and then of Edric, a still greater
traitor, who had married the king’s daughter, and suc¬
ceeded Alfric in the command of the British armies.
The Danes therefore ravaged the whole country. Agri¬
culture was neglected, a famine ensued, and the king¬
dom was reduced to the utmost degree of misery. At
last the infamous expedient of buying a peace was re¬
curred to ; and the departure of the Danes was pur¬
chased, in 1007, at the expence of 30,000!.
The English endeavoured to employ this interval in
making preparations against the return of the Danes,
which they had reason soon to expect. A law was
made, ordering the proprietors of eight hides of land
to provide themselves of a horseman and a complete
suit of armour ; and those of 310 hides to equip a ship
for the defence of the kingdom. By this means a
formidable armament was raised. There were 243,600
hides in England ; consequently the ships equipped
must be 785. The cavalry was 30,450 men. All
hopes of success from this equipment, however, were
disappointed by the factions, animosities, and dissen¬
sions
(a) On the subject of this massacre, Mr Hume has the following observations : “ Almost all the ancient hi¬
storians speak of this massacre of the Danes as if it had been universal, and as if every individual of that nation
throughout England had been put to death. But the Danes were almost the sole inhabitants in the kingdoms
of Northumberland and East Anglia, and were very numerous in Mercia. This representation of the matter
was absolutely impossible. Great resistance must have been made, and violent wars ensued : which was not the
case. This account given by Wallingford, though he stands single, must be admitted as the only true one. We
are told that the name of lurdane, lord Dane, for an idle lazy fellow who lives at other people’s expence, came
from the conduct of the Danes who were put to death. But the English princes had been entirely masters for
several generations ; and only supported a military corps of that nation. It seems probable, therefore, that these
Danes only were put to death.”
ENGL
England, sions of the nobility. Eilric had caused his brother
--v—Brightric to advance an accusation of treason against
A. D, 1C13. Wolfnoth governor of Sussex, the father of the famous
Earl Godwin ; and that nobleman, knowing the power
and malice of his enemy, consulted his own safety by
deserting with 20 ships to the Danes. Brightric pur¬
sued him with a fleet of 80 sail ; but his ships being
shattered in a tempest, and stranded on the coast, he
was suddenly attacked by Wolfnoth, and all- his vessels
were burnt or otherwise destroyed. The treachery of
Edric frustrated every plan of future defence j and the
whole navy was at last scattered into the several harbours.
By these fatal miscarriages, the enemy had leisure
to overrun the whole kingdom. They had now got
such a footing, indeed, that they could hardly have
been expelled though the nation had been ever so una¬
nimous. But so far did mutual diffidence and dissen¬
sion prevail, that the governors of one province refu¬
sed to march to the assistance of another } and were at
last terrified from assembling their forces for the defence
of their own. At last the usual expedient was-tried.
A peace was bought with 48,000!. ; but this did not
procure even the usual temporary relief. The Danes,
knowing that they were now masters of the kingdom,
took the money, and continued their devastations.
They levied a new contribution of 8000I. on the
county of Kent alone 5 murdered the archbishop of
Canterbury, who had refused to countenance this exac¬
tion j and the English nobility submitted everywhere
72 to the Danish monarch, swearing allegiance to him, and
flies to y r h°stages for the*1* good behaviour. At last, E-
raandy, 0r ^ie^red himself, dreading equally the violence of the
enemy and the treachery of his own subjects, fled into
Normandy, whither he had already sent Queen Emma
and her two sons Alfred and Edward. The duke re¬
ceived his unhappy guests with a generosity which does
honour to his memory.
The flight of King Ethelred happened in the end of
the year 1013. He had not been above six weeks in
Normandy, when he heard of the death of Sweyn,
which happened at Gainsborough before he had time
to establish himself in his new dominions. At the same
time he received an invitation from the prelates and
nobility to resume the kingdom j expressing also their
hopes, that,-being now better taught by experience,
he would avoid those errors which had been so fatal to
, himself and his people. But the misconduct of Ethel-
abfi,fav-red was incurable j and, on his resuming the govern-
s ment, he behaved in the very same manner that he had
done before. His son-in-law Edric, notwithstanding
his repeated treasons, retained such influence at court,
that he instilled into the king jealousies of Sigefert and
Morcar, two of the chief nobles of Mercia. Edric en¬
ticed them into his house, where he murdered them j
while Ethelred partook of the infamy of this action, by
confiscating their estates, and confining the widow of
Sigefert in a convent. She was a woman of singular
beauty and merit j ami in a visit which was paid her,
during her confinement, by Prince Edmund the king’s
eldest son, she inspired him with so violent an affection,
that he released her from the convent, and soon after
married her without his father’s consent.
In the mean time, Canute, the son and successor of
Svveyn, proved an enemy no less terrible to the English
73
Returns
ever.
A N D. 63
than his father had been. He ravaged the eastern coast England.
with merciless fury j and put ashore all the English '   '
hostages at Sandwich, after having cut off their hands A* P- 10*^»
and noses. He was at last obliged, by the necessity of
his affairs, to return to Denmark. In a short time,
however, he returned, and continued his depredations
along the southern coast. He then broke into the
counties of Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset j where an
army was assembled against him under the command of
Prince Edmund and Duke Edric. The latter still con¬
tinued his perfidious machinations; and after endea¬
vouring in vain to get the prince into his power, found
means to dissipate the army, and then deserted to Ca¬
nute with 40 vessels.
Edmund was not disheartened by this treachery. He
again assembled his forces, and was in a condition to
give the enemy battle. Ethelred, however, had now
such frequent experience of the treachery of his sub¬
jects, that he had lost all confidence in them. He re¬
mained in London, pretending sickness, but in reality
from an apprehension that they intended to buy their
peace by delivering him into the hands of his enemies.
The army called aloud for their sovereign to march at
their head against the Danes; and on his refusal to
take the field, they were so discouraged, that all the
preparations which had been made became ineffectual
for the defence of the kingdom. Edmund, deprived
of all regular resources for the maintenance of the sol¬
diers, was obliged to commit similar ravages to those
practised by the Danes j and after making some fruit¬
less expeditions into the north, which had submitted
entirely to Canute’s power, he returned to London,
where he found every thing in confusion by the death
of the king. ^
Elhelred died in 1016, after an unhappy reign ofEdmund
35 years; and was succeeded by his eldest son Ed-I^on8'de di-
mund, surnamed Ironsideon account of his great strength yides
and valour. He possessed abilities sufficient to have t°j|”
saved his country from ruin, had he come sooner to the Danes>
throne ; but it was now too late. He bravely opposed
the Danes, however, notwithstanding every disadvan¬
tage ; till at last the nobility of both nations obliged
their kings to come to a compromise, and divide the
kingdom between them by treaty. Canute reserved to
himself, Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumberland,
which he had entirely subdued. The southern parts
wrere left to Edmund. This prince survived the treaty
only about a month ; being murdered at Oxford by two
of his chamberlains, accomplices of Edric. ^
After the death of Edmund, nothing was left for Canute*
the English but submission to Canute. The least scru¬
pulous of mankind, however, dare not at all times
openly commit injustice. Canute, therefore, before he
seized the dominions of Edwin and Edward, the two
sons of Edmund, suborned some of the nobility to de¬
pose, that, in the last treaty with Edmund, it had
been verbally agreed, that, in case of Edmund’s death,
Canute should either be successor to his dominions, or
tutor to his children ; for historians differ with regard
to this particular. This evidence, supported by the
great power of Canute, was sufficient to get him elect¬
ed king of England. Immediately after his accession
to the throne, he sent the two sons of Edmund to the
court of Sweden, on pretence of being there educated ;
but.
6+
ENGLAND.
England, but charged the king to put them to death as soon as
»■ i i\—,they arrived. The Swedish monarch did not comply
A. D. 1030. with this request j but sent them to Solomon king of
Hungary, to be educated in his court. The elder,
Edwin, was afterwards married to Solomon’s sister :
but he dying without issue, that prince gave bis sister-
in-law, Agatha, daughter of the emperor Henry II.
in marriage to Edward, the younger brother j and
she bore him Edgar Atheling; Margaret, afterwards
queen of Scotland; and Christina, who retired into a
convent.
Canute was obliged at first to make great concessions
to the nobility : but he afterwards put to death many
of those in whom he could not put confidence ; and,
among the rest, the traitor Edric himself, who was pub-
75 licly executed, and his body thrown into the Thames.
Marries In order to prevent any danger from the Normans,
Ethelred’s who had threatened him with an invasion, he married
widow. Emma the widow of Ethelred, and who now came
over from Normandy ; promising that he would leave
the children he should have by that marrige heirs to
the crown after his decease. The English were at first
displeased with Emma for marrying the mortal enemy
of her former husband $ but at the same time were glad
to find at court a sovereign to whom they were accus¬
tomed, and who had already formed connections with
them : and thus Canute, besides securing by his mar¬
riage the alliance with Normandy, gradually acqui¬
red by the same means the confidence of his own
people.
The most remarkable transaction in this prince’s
reign, besides those mentioned under the article Ca¬
nute, is his expedition to Scotland against Malcolm
king of that country, whom he forced to do homage
for the county of Cumberland, which the Scots at that
time possessed. After this enterprise, Canute passed
four years in peace, and died at Shaftsbury $ leaving
three sons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. Sweyn,
whom he had by his first marriage with Alfwen,
daughter of the earl of Hampshire, was crowned in
Norway $ Hardicanute, whom Emma had born, was
in possession of Denmark j and Harold, who was of
the same marriage with Sweyn, was at that time in
England.
Harold succeeded to the crown of England ; though
it had been stipulated that Emma’s son, Hardicanute,
should be heir to that kingdom. This advantage Ha¬
rold obtained by being on the spot, and getting pos¬
session of his father’s treasures, while Hardicanute was
at a distance. As Hardicanute, however, was sup¬
ported by Earl Godwin, a civil war was likely to en¬
sue, when a compi-omise was made ; by which it was
agreed, that Harold should enjoy London, and all the
provinces north of the Thames, while the possession of
the south should remain to'Hardicanute : and till that
prince should appear and take possession of his domi¬
nions, Emma fixed her residence at Winchester, and
His treaeh-ru'et* 1,er son’s P31-1, Harold reigned four years j du-
ery and "ring which time the only memorable action he per¬
formed was a most infamous piece of treachery.—Al¬
fred and Edward, the two sons of Emma by Ethelred,
paid a visit to theii' mother in England. But, in the
mean time, Earl Godwin being gained over by Harold,
a plan was laid for the destruction of the two princes.
Alfred was accordingly invited to London by Harold,
3
77
Harold.
cruelty.
with many professions of friendship ; but when he had England,
reached Guildford, he was set upon by Godwin’s vas- v—
sals : about 600 of his train were murdered in the most^*0,104i.
cruel manner 5 he himself was taken prisoner, his eyes
were put out, and he was conducted to the monastery
of Elv, where he died soon after. Edward and Em¬
ma, apprised of the fate which awaited them, fled be¬
yond sea, the former into Normandy, the latter into
Flanders ; while Harold took possession of all his bro¬
ther’s dominions without opposition. He died in April
I039-
Hardicanute succeeded his brother Harold without
opposition. His government was extremely violent
and tyrannical. However, it was but of short dura¬
tion. He died, in 1041, of a debauch at the mar¬
riage of a Danish lord. After his death, a favourable
opportunity was oflered to the English for shaking off
the Danish yoke. Sweyn, king of Norway, the el¬
dest son of Canute, was absent ; and as the two last
kings had died without issue, there appeared none of
that race whom the Danes could support as successor
to the throne. For this reason, the eyes of the nation
were naturally drawn towards Prince Edward, who
happened to be at court when the king died. There
were some reasons, however, to fear, that Edward’s suc¬
cession would be opposed by Earl Godwin,'who was by
far the most powerful nobleman in the kingdom. A
declared animosity subsisted between Edward and God¬
win, on account of the hand which the latter had in
the murder of his brother Alfred j and this was thought
to be an offence of so grievous a nature, that Edward
could never forgive it. But here their common friends
interposed j and representing the necessity iff their good
correspondence, obliged them to lay aside their animo¬
sities, and to concur in restoring liberty to their native
country. Godwin only stipulated, that Edward, as a
pledge of his sincere reconciliation, should promise to
marry his daughter Editha. This proposal was agreed Edward the
to ; Edward was crowned king of England, and married Confessor.
Editha as he had promised. The marriage, however,
proved rather a source of discord than otherwise be¬
tween the king and Godwin. Editha, though a very-
amiable woman, could never obtain the confidence and
affection of her husband. It is even said that during the
wdiole course of her life he abstained from all matrimonial
converse with her ; and this ridiculous behaviour was
highly celebrated by the monkish writers of the age, and
contributed to the king’s acquiring the title of Saint and
Confessor.
Though the neglect of his daughter could not fail
to awaken Godwin’s former enmity against King Ed¬
ward, it was necessary to choose a more popular ground
before he could vent his complaints against the king So
in a public manner. He therefore chose for his theme Variance of
the influence which the Normans had on the affairs of the king
government j and declared opposition took place be-au^ eal*
tween him and these favourites. In a short time, this^c^"ia'
animosity openly broke out with great violence. Eu¬
stace count of Boulogne having paid a visit to the king,
passed by Dover on his return. One of his train be¬
ing refused access to a lodging which bad been ap¬
pointed for him, attempted to make his way by force,
and wounded the master of the house in the contest.
The townsmen revenged this insult by the death of
the stranger j the count and his train took arms, and
murdered
ENGLAND.
%ng\at\A.
Si
Godwin
,4ies to
Fisadeii.
murdered the townsman in his own house. A tumult
ensued $ near 20 persons were killed on each side j and
A. D. 1041. Eustace being overpowered with numbers, was at last
obliged to fly. He complained to the king; who gave
orders to Earl Godwin, in whose government Hover
lay, to punish the inhabitants. But this nobleman re¬
fused to obey the command, and endeavoured to throw
the W’hole blame on Count Eustace and his followers.
The king was displeased ; and threatened to make him
feel the utmost effects of his resentment, in case he
finally refused to comply. Upon this, Godwin as¬
sembled a powerful army, on pretence of repressing
some disorders on the frontiers of Wales; but, instead
of this, marched directly to Gloucester, where the king
at that time was without any military force, as suspect¬
ing no danger.
Edward, perceiving his danger, applied to Siward
duke of Northumberland, and Leofrxc duke of Mercia,
two very powerful noblemen. They hastened to him
with such followers as they could assemble, issuing orders
at the same time for all the forces under their respec¬
tive governments to march without delay to the defence
of the king. Godwin, in the mean time, suffered him¬
self to be deceived by negotiations, till the king’s army
became so powerful, that he was not able to cope with
it. He was therefore obliged to fly with his family
to Flanders. Here he was protected by Baldwin earl
of that country, together with his three sons, Gurth,
Sweyn, and Tosti; the last of whom had married Bald¬
win’s daughter. Harold and Leofwin, two other sons
of Godwin, took shelter in Ireland.
After the flight of Earl Godwin, he was proceeded
against as a traitor by King Edward. His estates,
and those of his sons, were confiscated; his govern¬
ments given to others; Queen Editha was confined in
a monastery ; and the great power of this family,
which had become formidable to the crown itself, seem¬
ed to be totally overthrown. Godwin, however, soon
found means to retrieve his affairs. Having hired
some ships, and manned them with his followers, he
attempted to make a descent at Sandwich. The king,
informed of his preparations, equipped a fleet which
Godwin could not resist, and he therefore retreated into
the Flemish harbours. On his departure, the English
dismissed their armament. This Godwin had expected,
and therefore kept himself in readiness for the favour¬
able opportunity. He immediately put to sea, and
sailed to the isle of Wight, where he was joined by
Harold with a squadron which he had collected in Ire¬
land. Being thus master of the sea, Godwin entered
the harbours on the southern coast; seized all the ships ;
and being joined by great numbers of his former vas¬
sals, he sailed up the Thames, and appeared before
London.
The approach of such a formidable enemy threw
every thing into confusion. The king alone seemed re¬
solute to defend himself to the last extremity; but the
interposition of many of the nobility, together with the
submissions of Godwin himself, at last produced an ac¬
commodation. It was stipulated, that Godwin should
give hostages for his good behaviour, and that all the
foreigners should be banished the kingdom ; after
which, Edward, sensible that he had not power suf¬
ficient to detain the earl’s hostages in England, sent
Vol. VIII. Part I. +
Sz
Eeturns,
*nd is re¬
conciled
with the
kia&
them over to his kinsman the young duke of Nor-
mandy. < v- .
Soon after this reconciliation, Godwin died as he A. I). 1041.
was sitting at table with the king. He was succeed- S;5
ed in the government of Wessex, Sussex, Kent, and
Essex, and the office of steward of the household, a to the
place of great power, by his son Harold. The soncro«a-
was no less ambitious than his father had been ; and as
he was a man of much greater abilities, he became a
more dangerous enemy to Edward than even Godwin
bad been. Edward knew no better expedient to pre¬
vent the increase of Harold’s power, than by giving
him a rival. This was Algar son of Leofric duke of
Mercia, whom he invested with the government of East
Anglia, which had formerly belonged to Harold. The
latter, however, after some broils, finally got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and banished him the kingdom. Al¬
gar returned soon after, with an army of Norwegians,
with whom he invaded East Anglia; but his death in a
short time freed Harold from all further apprehensions
from that quarter. His power was still further increased
in a short time after by the accession of his brother Tosti
to the government of Northumberland; and Edward
now declining in years, and apprehensive that Harold
would attempt to usurp the crown after his death, re¬
solved to appoint a successor. He therefore sent a de¬
putation into Hungary, to invite over his nephew,
Edward, son to his elder brother, who was the only
remaining heir of the Saxon line. That prince ac¬
cordingly came over with his children, Edgar Athe-
ling, Margaret, and Christina ; but died a few days af¬
ter his arrival. His death threw the king into greater
perplexity than ever. Being resolved to exclude Ha-
rold if possible, he secretly cast his eye on his kins¬
man William duke of Normandy ; a person of whose
power, character, and capacity, he had justly a very
high opinion. This advice had formerly been given
him by Robert archbishop of Canterbury, who was
himself a Norman, and had been banished along with
the rest upon the return of Earl Godwin. But Edward
finding that the English would more easily acquiesce in
the restoration of the Saxon line, had in the mean
time invited his brother’s descendants from Hungary,
as already mentioned. The death of his nephew, and
the inexperience and unpromising qualities of young
Edgar, made him resume his former intentions in fa¬
vour of the duke of Normandy, though his aversion to
hazardous enterprises engaged him to postpone the
execution, and even to keep his purpose concealed
from all his ministers.
Harold in the mean time increased his popularity
by all possible means, in order to prepare his way for
being advanced to the throne after the death of Ed¬
ward, which now seemed to be fast approaching. lie
had no suspicion of the duke of Normandy as a rival;
but as he knew that a son and grandson of the Earl
Godwin were in the hands of that prince as hostages,
he feared that they might be made use of as checks
upon his ambition, in case lie attempted afterwards
to ascend the throne. He therefore prevailed upon
Edward to release these hostages unconditionally ; and
having obtained his consent, he set out for Norman¬
dy himself, attended by a numerous retinue. He was
driven by a tempest on the territory of Guy count of
I Fonthieu,
66 ENGL
England. Ponthieu, v?lio detained him prisoner, and demanded
v     an exorbitant sum for his ransom. Harold tound means
A. D. 1041. {o acqUaJnt William with his situation. The duke of
Normandy, desirous ot gaining Harold over to his
party, commanded Guy to restore his prisoner to his
liberty. Upon this Harold was immediately put into
the hands of the Norman ambassador, who conducted
him to Rouen. William received him with great de¬
monstrations of respect and friendship j but soon took
an opportunity of acquainting him with his pretensions
to the crown of""England, and asked his assistance iu
the execution of his scheme. Harold was surprised with
this declaration of the duke 5 but being entirely in his
power, he feigned a compliance with his desires, and
promised to second to the utmost of his ability the will
of King Edward. William, to secure him as much as
possible to his interest, promised him his daughter in
marriage, and required him to take an oath that he
would fulfil his promises. Harold readily complied j
but to make the oath more binding, William privately
conveyed under the altar where the oath was taken re-
licks of some of the most revered martyrs ; and when
Harold had taken the oath, he showed him the relicks,
and admonished him to observe religiously such a so¬
lemn engagement.
Harold was no sooner set at liberty, than he found
himself master of casuistry sufficient to excuse the
breaking of his oath, which had been extorted from
him, and which, if kept, might be attended with
the subjugation of bis country to a foreign power.
He continued to practise every art to increase his po¬
pularity ; and about this time, two accidents enabled
him to add much to that character which he had al¬
ready so well established. The Welsh had lor some
time made incursions into the English territories, and
had lately become so troublesome, that Harold thought
be could not do a more acceptable piece ot service to
the public, than undertake an expedition against these
invaders. Having therefor® prepared some light-armed
foot to pursue the natives into their fortresses, some
cavalry to scour the open country, and a squadron of
ships to attack the sea-coasts, he employed all these
forces against the enemy at once ; and thus reduced
them to such distress, that they were obliged to pur¬
chase peace by sending their prince’s head to Harold,
and submitting to the government of two Welsh noble¬
men appointed by Edward.
The other incident was no less honourable to Harold.
Tosti his brother had been created duke of Northum¬
berland j but being of a violent tyrannical temper,
be treated the inhabitants with such cruelty, that
they rose in rebellion against him, and drove him from
his government. Morcar and Edwin, two brothers,
grandsons of the great Duke Leofric, joined in the
insurrection j and the former being elected duke, ad¬
vanced with an army to oppose. Harold, who had
been commissioned by the king to reduce and punish
the Northumbrians. Before the armies engaged,
Morcar endeavoured to justify his conduct, and repre¬
sented to Harold, that Tosti had behaved in such a
manner, that no one, not even a brother, could defend
him without participating of the infamy of his con¬
duct : that the Northumbrians were willing to submit
to the king, but required a governor that would pay
AND.
some attention to their privileges •, and they trusted rugland.
that Harold would not defend in another that violent ’ * ‘~J
conduct from which his own government had al ways ^ 5C* •
kept at so great a distance. This speech was accom¬
panied by such a detail of well supported facts, that
Harold abandoned bis brother’s cause* and returning to
Edward, persuaded him to pardon the Northumbrians,
and confirm Morcar in his government. He even
married the sister of that nobleman * and by bis interest
procured Edwin the younger brother to be chosen
governor of Mercia. Tosti, in a rage, departed tha
kingdom, and took shelter in Flanders with Baldwin
his father in-law * while William of Normandy saw
that now he had nothing to expect from Harold, who
plainly intended to secure the crown for himself. M
Edward died in 1066, and was succeeded by Harold
with as little opposition as though he had been the ward
lawful heir. The very day after Edward’s death, he Confswer.
was anointed and crowned by the archbishop 0! ork.
The whole nation seemed joyfully to swear allegiance to
him. But he did not long enjoy the crown, to obtain
which he had taken so much pains, and which he seemed
to have such capacity for wearing. His brother losti,
provoked at his success, stirred up against him every
enemy he could have any influence with. 1 lie duke
of Normandy also w as enraged to the last degree at the
perfidy of Harold* but before he commenced hostilities,
he sent an embassy to England, upbraiding the king
with his breach of faith, and summoning him to resign
the kingdom immediately. Harold replied, that the
oath, with which he was reproached, had been extorted,
by the well grounded feaf of violence, and for that
reason could never be regarded as obligatory : that he
never had any commission either from the late king or
the states of England, who alone could dispose ot the
crown, to make any tender ot the succession to the
duke of Normandy * and if he, a private person, had
assumed so much authority, and had even voluntarily
sworn to support the duke’s pretensions, the oath was
unlawful, and it was his duty to take the first opportu¬
nity of breaking it: that he had obtained the crown by
the unanimous suflrages of the people 5 and should show
himself totally unworthy of their favour, did he not
strenuously maintain those liberties with which they
had entrusted him * and that the duke, it he made any
attempt by force of arms, should experience the power
of an united nation, conducted by a prince, who, sen¬
sible of the obligations imposed on him by bis royal
dignity, was determined, that the same moment should
put a period to his life and to his government.
This answer was accoiding to William’s expecta¬
tions * and therefore he had already made preparations
for invading England. He was encouraged and assist¬
ed in this enterprise by Howel count of Brittany, Bald¬
win earl of Flanders, the emperor Henry IV. and Pope
Alexander II. The latter declared Harold a perjured
usurper* denounced excommunication against him and
his adherents 5 and the more to encourage William in
his enterprises, sent him a consecrated banner, and a
ring with one of St Peter’s hairs in it. Thus he was
enabled to assemble a fleet of 3000 vessels, on board of
which were embarked 60,000 men, chosen from among
those numerous supplies which were sent him from all
quarters. Many eminent personages were enlisted un*
ENGLAND.
Defeat! the
Daut's.
Znjhnt.' Jer Ijjg JjqnnerS!> The most celebrated xvere Eustace
A. D. totftf.count of Boulogne, Aimeri de Tliouars, Hugh d’E-
staples, William d’Evreux, Geoft'roy de Rotrou, Ro¬
ger de Beaumont, William de Warenne, Roger de
Montgomeri, Hugh de Grantmesnil, Charles Martel,
and GeofTroy Gifford.
In order to embarrass the affairs of Harold the more
effectually, William also excited Tosti, in concert with
Halfager king of Norway, to infest the English coasts.
These two having collected a fleet of 350 ships, sailed up
the Humber, and disembarked their troops, who began
to commit great depredations. They were opposed by
Morcar earl or duke (b) of Northumberland, and Ed¬
win earl of Mercia, who were defeated. Harold, on
the news of this invasion, assembled a considerable ar¬
my, engaged the enemy at Standford, and after a
bloody battle entirely defeated them. Tosti and Hal¬
fager were killed in the action, and all the fleet fell into
the hands of the victors j but Harold generously allowed
Olave the son of Halfager to depart with 20 vessels.
The king of England had scarce time to rejoice on
account of the victory, when news were brought him
that the Normans were landed in Sussex. Harold’s
victory had considerably weakened his army. He lost
many of his bravest officers and soldiers in the action ;
and he disgusted the rest, by refusing to distribute the
Danish spoils among them. He hastened, however,
by quick marches, to repel this new invader j but
though he was reinforced at London and other places
with fresh troops, he found himself weakened by the
desertion of his old soldiers, who, from fatigue and dis¬
content, secretly withdrew from their colours. Gurth,
the brother of Harold, a man of great conduct as well
as bravery, became apprehensive of the event; and en¬
treated the king to avoid a general engagement for
some time, or at least not to hazard his person. But
though this advice was in itself evidently proper, and
^ enforced by all the arguments which Gurth could sug-
is defeated &est» Harold continued deaf to every thing that could
aad killed be said. Accordingly, on the 14th of October 1066,
br William the two armies engaged near Hastings, a town of Sus-
of Norman-gex. After a most obstinate and bloody battle f, the
t^ee [In- English were entirely defeated, Harold and his two
brothers killed, and William left master of the kingdom
of England.
Nothing could exceed the terror of the English up¬
on the news of the defeat and death of Harold. As
soon as William passed the Thames at Wallingford,
Stigand, the primate, made submissions to him in the
name of the clergy ; and before he became within sight
of London, all the chief nobility, and even Edgar A-
theling himself, who, being the rightful heir to the
Wiiiiamthe ^lrone» just before been declared king, came and
Ciuiqueror. submitted to the conqueror. William very readily ac¬
cepted of the crown upon the terms that were offered
him ; which were, that he should govern according to
the established customs of the country. He could in¬
deed have made what terms he pleased ; but, though
really a conqueror, he chose rather to be thought an
elected king. For this reason he was crowned at West¬
minster by the archbishop of York, and took the oath
administered to the former kings of England ; namely,
that he would protect and defend the church, observe
the laws of the realm, and govern the kingdom with
impartiality.
The English historians complain of the most grie¬
vous oppression by William anil his Normans. Whe¬
ther by his conduct the conqueror willingly gave the
English opportunities of rebelling against him, in or¬
der to have a pretence for oppressing them afterwards,
is not easy to say ; but it is certain that the beginning
of his reign cannot justly be blamed. The first disgust
against his government was excited among the clergy.
William could not avoid the rewarding of those nume¬
rous adventurers who had accompanied him in his ex¬
pedition. He first divided the lands of the English
barons who had opposed him, among his Norman ba¬
rons ; but as these were found insufficient, he quarter¬
ed the rest on the rich abbeys, of which there were
many in the kingdom, until some other opportunity of
providing for them offered itself.
Though this last step was highly resented by the
clergy, it gave very little offence to the laity. The
whole nation, however, was soon after disgusted, by
seeing all the real power of the kingdom placed in the
hands of the Normans. He disarmed the city of Lon¬
don, and other places which appeared most warlike and
populous, and quartered Norman soldiers wherever he
dreaded an insurrection. This was indeed acting as a
conqueror, and not as an elected king ; but the event
showed the necessity of such precautions. The king
having thus secured, as he imagined, England from any
danger of a revolt, determined to pay a visit to his
Norman dominions. He appointed his brother Odo,
bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Osborne, regents
in his absence ; and to secure himself yet farther, he
resolved to carry along with him such of the English
nobility as he put the least confidence in.
Having taken all these methods to ensure the tran¬
quillity of his new kingdom, William set sail for Nor¬
mandy in March 1067 5 h>s absence produced the
most fatal consequences. Discontents and murmurings
were multiplied everywhere ; secret conspiracies were
entered into against the government ; hostilities were
commenced in many places; and every thing seemed
to threaten a speedy revolution. William of Poictiers,
a Norman historian, throws the blame entirely on the
English. He calls them a fickle and mutinous race,
while he celebrates with the highest encomiums the
justice and lenity of Odo’s and Fitz-Osborne’s admini¬
stration. On the other hand, the English historians
tell us, that these governors took all opportunities of
oppressing the people, either with a view to provoke
them to rebellion, or in case they tamely submitted to
their impositions, to grow rich by plundering them.
Be this as it will, however, a secret conspiracy was
formed among the English for a general massacre of
the Normans, like what had formerly been made of the
Danes. This was prosecuted with so much animosity,
that the vassals of the earl Coxo put him to death
because he refused to head them in the enterprise. The
conspirators had already taken the resolution, and fix¬
ed the day for their intended massacre, which was to
be on Ash-Wednesday, during the time of divine ser-
I 2 vice,
A. D. 1066.
SB
The Eng¬
lish grie¬
vously op-
pre»s*d.
(b) Anciently these two titles were synonymous.
68
ENGL
Unhand, vice, when all the Normans would be unarmed as pe-
—v~"■ ■' nitents, according to the discipline ot the times. But
A R. 1067. tj)e presence of William disconcerted all their schemes.
Having got intelligence ol their bloody purpose, he
hastened over to England. Such of the conspirators as
had been more open in their rebellion, consulted their
safety by flight-, and this served to confirm the proofs
of an accusation against those who remained. From
this time the king not only lost all confidence in his
English subjects, but regarded them as inveterate and
irreconcileable enemies. He had already raised such a
number of fortresses in tbe country, that he no long-
ger dreaded the tumultuous or transient efforts of a
discontented multitude. He determined therefore to
treat them as a conquered nation. The first instance
of this treatment was his revival of the tax of Dane-
gelt, which had been imposed by the Danish con¬
querors, and was very odious to the people. This
produced great discontents, and even insurrections.
The inhabitants of Exeter and Cornwall revolted j but
were soon reduced, and obliged to implore the mercy
of the conqueror. A more dangerous rebellion hap¬
pened in the north j but this was also soon quashed,
and tbe English became sensible that their destruction
was intended. Their easy submission after the battle
of Hastings had inspired the Normans with contempt j
their commotions afterwards had rendered them ob¬
jects of hatred; and they were now deprived of every
expedient which could make them either regarded or
beloved by their sovereign. Many fled into foreign
countries; and among the rest Edgar Atheling him¬
self, who made his escape to Scotland, and carried
thither his two sisters Margaret and Christina. They
were well received by Malcolm, who soon after mar¬
ried Margaret the elder sister, and also received great
numbers of other exiles with the utmost kindness.
The English, though unable to make any resistance
openly, did not fail to gratify their resentment against
the Normans in a private manner. Seldom a day pas¬
sed, but the bodies of assassinated Normans were found
in the woods or highways, without any possibility of
bringing the perpetrators to justice. Thus, at length,
the conquerors themselves began again to wish for tran¬
quillity and security; and several of them, though
entrusted with great commands, desired to be dismis¬
sed the service. In order to prevent these desertions,
which William highly resented, he was obliged to
allure others to stay by the largeness of his bounties.
The consequences were, fresh exactions from the
English, and new insurrections on their part against
their cruel masters. The Norman power, however,
was too well founded to be now removed, and every
attempt of the English to regain their liberty served
only to rivet their chains the more firmly. The county
of Northumberland, which had been most active in these
insurrections, now suffex-ed most severely. The whole
of it was laid waste, the houses were burned, the in¬
struments of agriculture destroyed, and the inhabitants
forced to seek new places of abode. On this occasion
it is said, that above 100,000 persons perished either by
the sword or famine j and the country is supposed, even
to this day, to retain the marks of its ancient depopu¬
lation. The estates of all the English gentry were next
confiscated, and bestowed on the Normans. By this
means all the ancient and honourable families were re-
A N D.
duced to beggary; and the English found themselves England.
totally excluded from every road that led either to ho- < v »
nour or preferment. A. D. 107(5.
By proceeding in this manner, William at last broke ^.^9^
the spirit of the English nation, and received no far-;n^”‘^
ther trouble from them. In 1076, however, he found fatnny.
that the latter part of his life was likely to be unhap¬
py through dissensions in bis own family. He bad four
sons, Robert, Richard, William, and Henry, besides
several daughters. Robert, his eldest son, surnamed
Curthose, from the shortness of bis legs, was a prince
who inherited all the bravery and ambition of his fa¬
mily. He bad formerly been promised by his father
the government of the province of Maine in France,
and was also declared successor to the dukedom of Nor¬
mandy. He demanded from his father the fulfilment
of these pi-omises ; but William gave him a flat denial,
observing, that “ it was not his custom to throw oft'
his clothes till he went to bed.” Robert declared his
resentment ; and openly expressed his jealousy of his
two brothers William and Henry, (for Richard was
killed, in hunting, by a stag). An open rupture was
soon commenced. The two young princes one day
took it into their heads to throw water on their elder
brother as be passed through the court after leaving
their apartment. Robert construed this frolic into a.
studied indignity j and having these jealousies still far¬
ther inflamed by one of his favourites, he drew his
sword, and ran up stairs with an intent to take re¬
venge. The whole castle was quickly filled with tu¬
mult, and it was not without some difficulty that the
king himself was able to appease it. But he could not
allay the animosity which from that moment prevail¬
ed in his family. Robert, attended by sevei-al of his
confederates, withdrew to Rouen that very night, ho¬
ping to surprise the castle j but his design was defeat¬
ed by tbe governor. The popular character of tbe
prince, however, engaged all the young nobility ol
Normandy, as well as of Anjou and Brittany, to espouse
bis quarrel $ even his mother is supposed to have sup¬
ported him in his i-ebellion by secret remittances.
The unnatural contest continued for several years j and
William was at last obliged to have recourse to Eng¬
land for support against bis own son. Accoi’dingly,
he drew an army of Englishmen together j he led them
over to Normandy, where he soon compelled Robert
and his adherents to quit the field, and was quickly re¬
instated in all his dominions. Robert then took shel¬
ter in the castle of Gerberoy, which the king of France
had provided for him, where he was shortly after be¬
sieged by his father. As the garrison was strong, and
conscious of their treason, they made a gallant defence $
and many skirmishes and duels were fought under its
walls. In one of these the king and his son happen¬
ed to meet $ but being both concealed by their hel¬
mets, they attacked each other with mutual fury. The
young prince wounded his father in the arm, and threw
him from his horse. The next blow would probably
have put an end to his life, had he not called for as¬
sistance. Robert instantly recollected his father’s voice,
leaped from his horse, and raised him from the ground.
He pi’ostrated himself in his presence, asked pardon for
his offences, and promised for the future a strict ad¬
herence to Iiis duty. The king was not so easily ap¬
peased } and perhaps his resentment was heightened
by
ENGLAND.
England, hy the disgrace of being overcome. He therefore gave
v   his malediction to his son } and returned to his own
A. 1). 1081.camp on Robert’s horse, which he had assisted him to
mount. After some recollection, however, he was re*
conciled to Robert, and carried him with him into
F.ngland.
William returned in 1081 j and being now freed
from his enemies both at home and abroad, began to
have more leisure to atlend to his own domestic aflairs.
For this purpose the Doomsday-Book was composed
by bis order, of which an account is given under that
article. He reserved a very ample revenue for the
crown j and in the general distribution of land among
bis followers, kept possession of no fewer than 1400
manors in different parts of the country. No king of
England was ever so opulent; none was able to sup¬
port the splendour and magnificence of a court to such a
degree; none had so many places of trust and profit to
bestow $ and consequently none ever had such implicit
obedience paid to his commands. He delighted greatly
in hunting ; and to indulge himself in this with, the
greater freedom, he depopulated the county of Hamp¬
shire for 30 miles, turning out the inhabitants, destroy¬
ing all the villages, and making the wretched outcasts
no compensation for such an injury. In the time of the
Saxon kings, all noblemen without distinction had a
right to hunt in the royal forests j but William appro¬
priated all these to himself, and published very severe
laws to prohibit his subjects from enroaching on this
part of his prerogative. The killing of a boar, a deer,
or even a hare, was punished with the loss of the de¬
linquent’s eyes $ at the time when the killing of a man
might be atoned for by paying a moderate fine or com¬
position.
As the king’s wealth and power were so great, it
may reasonably be supposed that the riches of his mi¬
nisters were in proportion. Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
William’s brother, was become so rich, that he resol¬
ved to purchase the papacy. For this purpose, taking
the opportunity of the king’s absence, he equipped a
vessel in the isle of Wight, on board of which he sent
immense treasures, and prepared for his embarkation.
He was detained, however, by contrary winds •, and,
in the mean time, William being informed of his de¬
signs, resolved to prevent the exportation of so much
wealth from his dominions. Returning therefore from
Normandy, where he was at that time, he came to
England the very instant his brother was stepping on
board. He immediately ordered him to be made pri¬
soner : hut his attendants, respecting the bishop’s
ecclesiastical character, scrupled to execute his com¬
mands j so that the king was obliged to seize him with
his own hand. Odo appealed to the Pope : but the
king replied, that he did not seize him as bishop of
Bayeux, hut as earl of Kent j and, in that capacity, he
expected, and would have, an account of his admini-
tration. He was therefore sent prisoner to Nor¬
mandy j and, notwithstanding all the remonstrances
and threats of Pope Gregory, was detained in custody
co during the remainder of William’s reign.
Lhsath of Soon after this, William felt a severe blow in the
k* queen; death of Matilda his queen j and, almost at the same
time, received information of a general insurrection in
Maine, the nobility of which had always been averse fo
bis government. Upon his arrival on the continent, he
... 63
found that the insurgents had been secretly assisted and Englami.
excited by the king of France, who took all opportu- '—^-—1
nities of lessening the Norman power, by creating dis- A. I). 1087.
sensions among the nobles. His displeasure on this
account was very much increased, by notice he re¬
ceived of some railleries thrown out against him by
the Irench monarch. It seems that William, who
was become corpulent, had been detained in bed some
time by sickness j and Philip was heard to say, that
he only lay in of a big belly. This so provoked the
English monarch, that he sent him word, he would
soon be up, and would, at his churching, present such
a number of tapers as would set the kingdom of France
in a flame.
To perform this promise, he levied a powerful army j
and, entering the Isle of France, destroyed every thing
with fire and sword. He took the town of Mante, and
reduced it to ashes. But a period was soon put to the
conquests and to the life ol this great warrior by an 51
accident. His horse happening to put his fore feet and of the
on some hot ashes, plunged so violently, that the riderkinS'
was thrown forward, and bruised his belly on the pom¬
mel of the saddle. Being now in a bad habit of body,,
as well as somewhat advanced in years, he began to he
apprehensive of the consequences, and ordered himself
to he carried in a litter to the monastery of St Ger-
vaise. Finding his illness increase, and being sensible
of the approach of death, he discovered at last the va¬
nity of all human grandeur j and was struck with re¬
morse for those many cruelties and violences of which
he had been guilty. He endeavoured to make com¬
pensation by presents to churches and monasteries, and
gave orders for the liberation of several English noble¬
men. He was even prevailed upon, though not with¬
out reluctance, to release his brother Odo, against
whom he was very much incensed. He left Norman¬
dy and Maine to his eldest son Robert. He wrote
to Lanfranc the primate of England, desiring him to
crown William king of England. To Henry he be¬
queathed nothing hut the possessions of his mother Ma¬
tilda j but foretold, that one day he would surpass both
his brothers in power and opulence. He expired on
the 9th September 1087, in the 63d year of his age,
in the 21st of his reign over England, and 54th of that
over Normandy.
William, surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, was in William
Normandy at the time of his father’s illness. He no RuI«s*
sooner received the letter for Lanfranc, than, leaving
his father in the agonies of death, he set out for Eng¬
land ; where he arrived before intelligence of the de¬
cease of the Conqueror had reached that kingdom.
Being sensible that his brother Robert, as being the
eldest son, had a preferable title to himself, he used the
utmost dispatch in getting himself firmly established on
the throne. The English were so effectually subdued,
that they made no opposition ; but the Norman barons
were attached to Robert. This prince was brave,,
open, sincere, and generous j and even his predominant
fault of indolence was not disagreeable to those haughty
barons, who affected an almost total independence of
their sovereign. The king, on the other hand, was-
violent, haughty, and tyrannical. A powerful con¬
spiracy was therefore carried on against William; and
Odo, bishop of Bayeux, undertook to conduct it. Ma¬
ny of the most powerful nobility were concerned j and.
a«
*
70
ENGLAND.
Eagland.
A. D. copo.
53
Pro res a
lyraut.
H
Attempt*
the coa-
qaest of
^ormatidj.
as the conspirators expected to be in a short time sup¬
ported by powerful succours from Normandy, they re¬
tired to their castles, and put themselves in an offensive
posture.
William, sensible of his danger, engaged the English
on his side, by promising some mitigation of their hard¬
ships, and liberty to bunt in the royal forests. Robert,
in the mean time, through his natural indolence, ne¬
glected to give his allies proper assistance. The con¬
spirators were obliged to submit. Some of them were
pardoned ; but most of them confiscated, and their
estates bestowed on the barons who had continued faith¬
ful to the king.
"William, freed from this danger, thought no more of
his promises to the English. He proved a greater ty¬
rant than his father j and, after the death of Lanfranc,
who had been his preceptor, and kept him within some
bounds, he gave full scope to his violent and rapacious
disposition. Not content with oppressing the laity, he
invaded the privileges of the church *, which, in those
days, were held most sacred. He seized the tempora¬
lities of all the vacant bishoprics and abbeys, and open¬
ly put to sale those sees and abbeys which he thought
proper to dispose of.
These proceedings occasioned great murmurs among
the ecclesiastics, which were quickly spread through the
nation, but the terror of William’s authority preserved
the public tranquillity. In 1090, the king thought
himself strong enough to attempt the conquest of Nor¬
mandy, which at that time was in the greatest confusion
through the indolent and negligent administration of
Robert. Several of the barons had revolted, and these
revolts were encouraged by the king of France. Ro¬
bert also imagined he had reason to fear the intrigues of
his own brother Henry, whom for 3000 merks he had
put in possession of Cottentin, near a third part of the
duchy of Normandy. He therefore threw him into pri¬
son } but finding himself threatened with an invasion
from the king of England, he gave Henry his liberty,
and even made use of his assistance in suppressing the in¬
surrections of his rebellious subjects. William, however,
was no sooner landed in Normandy, than the nobility
on both sides interposed, and a treaty of peace was con¬
cluded. In this treaty Henry finding his interests en¬
tirely neglected, retired to St Michael’s Mount, a strong
fortress on the coast of Normandy, and infested the
neighbourhood with his incursions. He was besieged
by his two brothers, and obliged to capitulate in a short
timej after which, being deprived of all his dominions,
he wandered about for some time with very few attend¬
ants, and often in great poverty.
The peace with Robert was of no long duration. In
the interval some hostilities with Scotland succeeded,
and these terminated in the death of Malcolm king of
that country; after which new broils ensued with Nor¬
mandy. The rapacious temper of William prompted him
to encroach upon his brother’s territories, and the same
rapacity prompted him to use a very extraordinary ex¬
pedient in order to accomplish his designs. Having
gone over to Normandy to support his partisans, he or¬
dered an army of 20,000 men to be raised in England,
and conducted to the sea-coast as if they were to be im¬
mediately embarked : but when they came there, instead
of embarking, they were forced to pay the king ten shil¬
lings a man $ after which they were dismissed to their
4
several countries. With this money William engage England.
the king of France to depart from the protection of v—
Robert j and also bribed many of the Norman barons 1096
revolt. He was called from Normandy, however, by
an irruption of the Welsh ; and having repulsed them,
he was prevented from attempting other enterprises by
a conspiracy of his barons.
In 1096, however, the superstition of Robert put Purchase*
the king of England in possession of those dominions the duchy
which he had not been able to conquer by force of^01 ^0»00^
arms. The crusades were now commenced, and Ro¬
bert was desirous of undertaking an expedition into the
Holy Land. As money for this purpose was wanting,
he mortgaged»his dominions to his brother for 10,000
merks. The king raised the money bv violent extor¬
tions on his subjects ; forcing even the convents to melt
their plate, in order to furnish the quota demanded of
them. He was then put in possession of Normandy and
Maine 5 and Robert with a magnificent train set out for
the Holy Land.
After the death of Lanfranc, the king had retained
in his own hands the revenues of Canterbury, as he had
done those of many other bishoprics ; but falling into
a dangerous illness, he was seized with remorse 5 and
the clergy represented to him that he was in danger of
eternal perdition if he did not make atonement for those
impieties and sacrileges of which he had been guilty.
He therefore instantly resolved to supply the vacancy
of Canterbury ; he sent for Anselm, a Piedmontese by
birth, abbot of Bee in Normandy, who was much cele¬
brated for his piety and devotion. The abbot refused
the dignity with great earnestness ; fell on his knees,
wept, and intreated the king to change his purpose ;
and when he found him obstinate in forcing the pasto¬
ral staff' upon him, he kept his fist so hard clenched,
that it required the utmost violence of the bystanders
to open it, and force him to receive that ensign of
his spiritual dignity. William soon after recovered his
health, and with it his violence and rapacity. As he His qwirrei j
now spared the church no more ^han before, a quarrel w*.1^ 1 c
with Anselm soon ensued ; and this was the more dan- ‘
gerous to the king, on account of the great character
for piety which the primate had acquired by his zeal
against abuses of all kinds, particularly those of dress
and ornament.
At this time there was a mode which prevailed not
only in England, hut throughout Europe, both among
men and women, of giving an enormous length to their
shoes, drawing the toe to a sharp point, and affixing
to it the figure of a bird’s bill, or some such ornament,
which was turned upwards, and which was often sus¬
tained by gold or silver chains tied to the knee. The
ecclesiastics took exception at this ornament, which
they said w'as an attempt to belie the Scripture, where
it is affirmed, that no man can add a cubit to hi-s sta¬
ture 5 and they not only declaimed against it with ve¬
hemence, but assembled some synods, in which the fa¬
shion was absolutely condemned. Such, however, are
the contradictions in human nature, that all the influ¬
ence of the clergy, which at that time was sufficient
to send vast multitudes of people into Asia to butcher
one another, was not able to prevail against those long-
pointed shoes. The fashion, contrary to what bath
happened to almost all others, maintained its ground
for several centuries j and even Anselm found his en¬
deavours
ENGLAND.
* See An-
tthn,
97
Who leaves
the hing-
duM.
EoKlaed. rleavours against it ineffectual. He was more success-
ful in decrying the long haiy and curled locks then
'worn by the courtiers. He refused the ashes on Ash-
Wed nesday to such as were so accoutred j and his au¬
thority and eloquence had sucli influence, that the
young men universally abandoned that ornament, and
appeared in the cropt hair recommended to them by the
sermons of the primate. For this reformation Anselm
is highly celebrated by his historian Eadmer, who was
also his companion and secretary.
When William’s profaneness returned with his health,
he was engaged in almost perpetual contests with this
austere prelate *. These were pretty well settled,
when the king, who had undertaken an expedition into
Wales, required Anselm to furnish him with a certain
number of soldiers. The primate regarded this as an in¬
vasion of the rights of the church ; and therefore, though
he durst not refuse compliance, sent the men so mise¬
rably accoutred, that the king was exceedingly displea¬
sed, and threatened him with a prosecution. Anselm
demanded restitution of all his revenues which the
king had seized, and appealed to the pope. The quar¬
rel, however, ran so high, that the primate found it
dangerous to remain in England. He desired and ob¬
tained the king’s permission to retire beyond sea. His
temporalities were confiscated immediately on his de¬
parture j but Pope Urban received him as a martyr in
the cause of religion, and even threatened the king
with sentence of excommunication. William, howTever,
proceeded in his projects of ambition and violence,
without regarding the threats of the pope ; who he
knew was at that time too much engaged with the cru¬
sades to mind any oilier business. Though his ac¬
quisition of Maine and Normandy had brought him in¬
to perpetual contests with the haughty and turbulent
barons who inhabited those countries, and raised end¬
less tumults and insurrections j yet William seemed still
intent on extending his dominions either by purchase or
conquest. William earl of Poictiers and duke of Gui-
enne had resolved upon an expedition to the Holy Land;
and, for this purpose, had put himself at the head of a
vast multitude, consisting, according to some historians,
of 60,000 horse, and a much greater number of foot.
Like Robert of Normandy, he offered to mortgage
his dominions for money sufficient to conduct this mul¬
titude into Asia. The king accepted his offer j and
had prepared a fleet and army to take possession of
these dominions, when an unfortunate accident put an
end to his projects and his life. He was engaged in
hunting, the sole amusement, and indeed the principal
occupation, of princes in those rude times. Walter
Tyrrel, a French gentleman remarkable for his skill in
archery, attended him in this recreation, of which
the New Forest was the scene. William had dismount¬
ed after a chase j and Tyrrel, impatient to show his
dexterity, let fly an arrow at a stag which suddenly
started before him. The arrow glanced from a tree,
and struck the king to the heart. He instantly fell
down dead *, and Tyrrel, terrified at the accident,
clapt spurs to his horse, hastened to the sea-shore, and
embarked for France, where he joined the crusade that
was setting out from that country. This happened on
the 2d of August 1100, after the king had reigned
33 years, and lived about 40. His body was found in
71
9S
| of
I kie^.
the woods by the country-people, and buried without England.
ceremony at Winchester. 1 v '
After the death of William, the crown of right de-
volved to Robert bis eldest brother ; for William had
no legitimate children. But what Robert had for¬
merly lost by his indolence, he was again deprived of
by his absence at the holy war. Prince Henry was in r»
the forest with William Rufus at the time the latter Ednce
was killed. He no sooner heard the important news ^enry
than he hurried to Winchester, and secured the royal tba
tieasure. William de Rreteuil keeper of the treasure,
arrived almost the same instant, and opposed his pre¬
tensions ; telling him, that the treasure belonged to his
elder brother, who was now his sovereign, and for whom
lie was determined to keep it. But Henry, drawing
his sword, threatened him with instant death if he dared
to disobey him ; and others of the late king’s retinue,
who came every moment to Winchester, joining the
prince’s party, he was obliged to desist. Henry lost
110 time in fully accomplishing his purpose. In less
than three days he got himself crowned king of Eng¬
land by Maurice bishop ol London. Actual possession
supplied every deficiency of title ; and no one dared to
appear in defence of the absent prince. lre
1 he beginning of King Henry’s reign promised to charter
be favourable to the English liberty ; owing chiefly toin f,lvol,r of
his fear of his brother. To conciliate the affections
of his subjects, he passed a charter calculated to remove
many of the grievous oppressions which had been com¬
plained of during the reign of his father and brother-
lie promised, that at the death of any abbot or bi¬
shop, he never would seize the revenues of the see or
abbey during the vacancy, but would leave the whole
to be reaped by the successor ; and that he would ne¬
ver let to farm any ecclesiastical benefice, or dispose of
it for money. Io the laity he promised, that, upon
the death of any earl, baron, or military tenant, his
heir should he admitted to the possession of his estate,
on paying a just and lawful relief’, without being ex¬
posed to those enormous exactions which had been for¬
merly required. He remitted the wardship of mi.
nor.s ; and allowed guardians to be appointed, who
should be answerable for the trust. He promised not
to dispose of any heiress in marriage but by advice of
all the barons j and if any baron intended to give his
daughter, sister, niece, or kinswoman in marriage, it
should only be necessary for him to consult the king,
who promised to take no money for his consent, nor
even to refuse permission, unless the person to whom it
was proposed to marry her should happen to be his
enemy. He granted his barons and military tenant#
the power of bequeathing by will their money or per¬
sonal estates ; and if they neglected to make a will,
he promised that their heirs should succeed to thenu
He renounced the right of imposing moneyage, amt
ot levying taxes at pleasure, on the farms which the
barons kept in their own hands. He made some ge¬
neral professions of moderating fines ; he offered a par¬
don for all offences j and remitted all debts due to tire
crown. He also required, that the vassals of the ba¬
rons should enjoy the same privileges which he granted
to his own barons j and he promised a general confir-#<[ r
mation and observance of the laws of King Edward *.
lo give greater authenticity to these concessions, a
copjf
D. i ioo.
IOI
Quaifels
with the
piiiuate.
72 ENGL
England, copy of the charter was lodged in some abbey of each
v -v——' county.
King Henry, farther to increase his popularity, de¬
graded and committed to prison Ralph i lambard bi¬
shop of Durham, who had been the chief instrument
of oppression under his brother. He sent for Anselm
who was then at Lyons, inviting him to return and
take possession of his dignities. Anselm returned ; but
when Henry proposed to him to do the same homage
to him which he had done to his brother, the. king met
with an absolute refusal. During his exile, Anselm
had assisted at the council of Bari j where, besides fix¬
ing the controversy between the Greek and Latin
churches concerning the procession of the Holy Ghost,
the right of election to church-preferments was decla¬
red to belong to the clergy alone, and spiritual cen¬
sures were denounced against all ecclesiastics who did
homage to laymen for their sees and benefices, and on
I ^e.f. laymen who exacted it. The rite of homage f by
a t|ie feudal customs was, that the vassal should throw
himself on his knees, put his joined hands between
those of his superior, and should in that posture swear
fealty to him. But the council declared it execrable,
that pure hands, which could create God, and ofter
him up for the salvation of mankind, should be put, af¬
ter this humiliating manner, between profane hands,
which, besides being inured to rapine and bloodshed,
were employed day and night in impure purposes and
obscene contacts.’ To this decree therefore Anselm
appealed ; and declared, that so far from doing ho¬
mage for spiritual dignity, he would not even com¬
municate with any ecclesiastic who paid that submis¬
sion, or who accepted of investitures from laymen. Hen¬
ry durst not insist •, and therefore desired that the con¬
troversy might be suspended, and that messengers
might be sent to Rome to accommodate matters with
the" Pope, and to obtain his confirmation of the laws
and customs of England.
Henry now took another step which seemed capable
of confirming his claims to the crown without any dan¬
ger of a rival. The English remembered with regret
their Saxon monarchs, when they compared the liber¬
ty they enjoyed under them with the tyranny of the
Normans. Some descendants of that favourite line
still remained ; and among the rest, Matilda, the niece
of Edgar Atheliog. Upon her the king fixed his eyes
as a proper consort, by whose means the breach be¬
tween the Saxons and Normans might he cemented.
A difficulty, however, occurred, because she had been
educated in a nunnery. The affair was examined by
Anselm in a council of prelates and nobles summoned
at Lambeth. Matilda there proved, that she had put
on the veil, not with a design of entering into a reli¬
gious. life, but merely in imitation of a custom lamiliar
to the English ladies, who protected their chastity from
the brutal violence of the Normans by taking shelter
under that habit, which, amid the horrid licentiousness
of the times, was yet generally revered. The council,
sensible that even a princess had otherwise no security
101 . for her honour, admitted this reason as valid. They
MatildT68 pronounced that Matilda was still free to many j and
her nuptials with Henry were celebrated by Anselm
with great solemnity and pomp.
While Henry was thus rendering himself popular at
borne, his brother Robert, who had loitered away a
AND.
twelvemonth in Italy, where he married Sibylla daugh- En-laad.
ter of the count of Conversana, arrived in England, in 1—-v——<
nor, in order to put in his late and ineffectual claim A-D uo,<
to the crown. His fame, however, on account of
exploits he had performed in Palestine, was so great, England
that even yet he was joined by many noblemen of the ciaimed’jy
first rank, and the whole nation seemed prepossessed in Robert,
his favour. But Henry, having paid his court to An¬
selm, by his means retained the army in his interests,
and marched with them to Portsmouth, where Robert
had landed his forces a few days before. The armies
lay for some time in sight of each other 5 when an ac¬
commodation was effected through the mediation of
Anselm and other great men. By this treaty it was
agreed, that Robert should resign his pretensions to
England, and receive in lieu of them an annual pen¬
sion of 3000 marks ; and if either of the princes died
without issue, the other should succeed to his domi¬
nions j that the adherents of each should be pardoned,
and restored to all their possessions either in Normandy
or England ‘f and that neither Robert nor Henry
should thenceforth encourage, receive, or protect the
enemies of each other.
The two princes separated with mutual marks oi
friendship; but next year, Henry, under various pre¬
tences, confiscated the estates of almost all the noble¬
men, who had favoured his brother’s pretensions. Ro¬
bert, enraged at the fate of his friends, ventured to
come to England in order to remonstrate with his
brother in person. But he met with such a bad re¬
ception, that, apprehending his liberty to be in dan¬
ger, he was glad to make his escape by resigning his
pension. 104
This infringement of the treaty was followed the Normandy ;
ensuing year by an invasion of Normandy, at the desire invaded b]
of Robert’s own subjects, whom he was totally inca-He,iry* I
pable of governing *. The event of this war was the * See No? j;
defeat and captivity of Robert, who was henceforth
deprived not only of all his dominions, but of lus per¬
sonal liberty. He lived 28 years a prisoner, and died
in the castle of Cardiff in Glamorganshire. It is even
said by some, that he was deprived of his sight by a
red-hot copper bason applied to his eyes, and that King
Henry appeased his conscience by founding the mona¬
stery of Reading.
The conquest of Normandy was completed in *,
and next year the controversy between the king and pri¬
mate, concerning the investitures of clergymen and
their doing homage to princes, was resumed. The king
was very sensible that it was not his interest to quarrel
with such a powerful body as the clergy were at that
time ; and on the other hand, he fully understood the
necessity of guarding the prerogatives of the crown tQ.
from their encroachments. While, therefore, he avoid-Quairels
ed an open rupture with Anselm, he obstinately relu-with the
sed to give up the privileges which had been enjoyed PnnsBle‘
by his predecessors. On the first arrival ol Anseim,
the king had avoided the dispute in the manner already
mentioned. A messenger was dispatched to Rome, in
order to compromise matters with the Pope. The mes¬
senger returned with an absolute refusal to the king’s
demands. One of the reasons given by the pope on
this occasion was expressed in the following words;
“ It is monstrous that a son should pretend to beget
his father, or a man to create his God : priests are
called
ENGLAND.
Inland, called gdcts In scripture, as being the vicars of God :
1 and will you, by your abominable pretensions to grant
X. D. II07,tbem their investiture, assume the right of creating
them !” Henry was not yet convinced : but as he was
determined to avoid, or at least to delay, the coming
to any dangerous extremity with the church, he per¬
suaded Anselm, that by farther negotiation he should
be able to compound matters with the pope. Mes¬
sengers were therefore dispatched to Rome a second
time from the king ; and also from Anselm, who want¬
ed to be fully assured of the pope’s intentions. They
returned with letters wrote in the most arrogant and
positive manner, both to the king 'and primate. The
king suppressed the letter sent to himself j and persua¬
ded the three bishops, by whom it was sent, to assert,
upon their episcopal faith, that the pope had assured
them of his private good intentions towards King
Henry, and of his resolution not to resent any future
exertion of his prerogative in granting investitures ;
though lie himself scrupled to give this assurance under
his hand, lest other princes should copy the exarflple,
and assume a like privilege. Anselm’s two messen¬
gers, who were monks, affirmed that it was impossible
this story could have any foundation 3 hut their word
was not deemed equivalent to that of three bishops j
and the king, as if he had finally gained his cause, pro¬
ceeded to fill the sees of Hereford and Salisbury, and
to invest the new bishops in the usual manner. Anselm,
however, gave no credit to the assertions of the -king’s
messengers j and therefore refused not only to conse¬
crate them, but even to communicate with them ; and
the bishops themselves, finding they were become uni¬
versally odious, returned the ensigns of their spiritual
dignity.
The quarrel continued between the king and primate,
till the latter, sensible of his dangerous situation, desired
leave to make a journey to Rome, in order to lay the
case before the pope. This permission was easily
obtained 3 but no sooner was the primate gone, than
Henry confiscated all his revenues, and sent another
messenger to negotiate with the pope. The new mes¬
senger told his holiness, that his master would sooner
part with his crown than the right of granting investi¬
tures. “ And I (replied the pope) would rather lose
my head thaft allow him to retain it.” This quarrel
now became very dangerous to the king 3 as be was
threatened by the pope with excommunication, which
would have been attended with terrible consequences.
At last, however, a compromise was made in the fol¬
lowing manner. Before bishops took possession of their
dignities, they had formerly been accustomed to pass
through two ceremonials : They received, from the
hands of the sovereign, a ring and crosier as the symbols
ef their office, and this was called their investiture :
they also made those submissions to the prince, which
were required of the vassals by the rites of the feudal
law, and which received the name of homage. The
pope, therefore, was for the present contented with
Henry’s resigning his right of granting investitures, by
which the spiritual dignity was supposed to be con¬
ferred 3 and he allowed the bishops to do homage for
their temporal properties and privileges. After this,
the pope allowed Anselm to communicate with the
prelates who had already received investitures from the
crown 3 and he only required of them some submissions
Vox,. VIII. Part I. f
73
for their past conduct. He also granted to Anselm a England.
plenary power of remedying every disorder, which he ‘ v '
said might arise from the barbarousness of the country’.
About the same time the marriage of priests was pro¬
hibited 3 and even laymen were not allowed to marry
within the seventh degree of affinity. By this con¬
trivance the pope augmented the profits which he
reaped from granting dispensations, and likewise those
from divorces. For as the art of writing was then rare,
and parish-registers were not regularly kept, it was not
easy to ascertain the degrees of affinity even among
people of rank j and any man who had money to pay for
it, might obtain a divorce, on pretence that his wife
was more nearly related to him than was permitted by
the canons. A decree was also published, prohibiting
the clergy to wear long hair ; and the king, though he
would not resign his prerogatives to the church, verv
willingly cut his hair in the form which was required
of him, obliging all the courtiers at the same time to
follow his example.
Fiom the time of this compromise, which happened
in 1x07, to the year 1120, nothing remarkable hap¬
pened except some slight commotions m N^ormandy 1
but this year, Prince William, the king’s only son, .'og
was unfortunately drowned off the coast of Normandy ; v/di^
and Henry was so much affected, that he is said never drowned,
afterwards to have smiled or recovered hid wonted
cheerfulness. It is very doubtful, however, whether
the death of this prince was not an advantage to the
British nation, since he was often heard to express the
utmost hatred of the natives 3 insomuch that he had
threatened, that when he came to the throne, be
would make them draw the plough, and would turn
them into beasts of burden. These prepossessions he
inherited from his father; who, though he was wont,
when it might serve his purposes, to value himself on
his birth as a native of England, shewed, in the course
of his government, an extreme prejudice against that
people. All hopes of preferment to ecclesiastical as
well as civil dignities were denied to the English during
this whole reign 3 and any foreigner, however igno¬
rant or worthless, was sure to have the preference in
every competition. The charter formerly mentioned,
which the king granted at the beginning of his reign,’
was no more thought of; and the whole fell so much
into neglect and oblivion, that in the following cen¬
tury, when the barons, who had heard an obscure tra¬
dition of it, desired to make it the model of the ore at
charter which they exacted from King John, they could
only find one copy of it in the whole kingdom ; while
the grievances proposed to be redressed by it, continued
still in their full extent.
As Henry had now no legitimate children uxctj t
Matilda, whom in 1110 he had betrothed, though on-
ly eight years of age, to the emperor of Germany,
he was induced to marry a second time in hopes of
having sons. He made his addresses accordingly to
Adelais the daughter of Godfrey duke of Lovaine, and
niece to Pope Calixtus 3 a young princess of an amiable
person. But Adelais brought him no children: and
*n II35* king died in Normandy, from eating too i)e{l1,^7o{-
plentifully of lampreys 3 having lived 67 years, and Kin-
reigned 35. Henry.
By the will of King Henry, his daughter Matilda
became heiress of all bis dominions. She had been
K manied,
ENGLAND.
108
Stephen
usurps the
throne.
married, after her first husband’s death, to Geoffrey
Plantagenet, eldest son of the count of Anjou, by whom
A- ‘^S’she had a son named Henry; but as Geoffrey had given
umbrage to the king of England in several instances,
no notice was taken of him in the will. 1.116 nobility
had already sworn fealty to her; and the foremost to
show this mark of submission to the king’s will had been
Stephen, son of the count of Biois (who had married
Adela the daughter of William the Conqueror). He
had been married to Matilda, daughter and heiress of
Eustace count of Boulogne ; who brought him, besides
that feudal sovereignty of France, a vast property in
England, which in the distribution of lands had been
conferred by the Conqueror on the family of Boulogne.
By this marriage Stephen acquired a new connection
with the royal family of England : for Mary, his wife’s
mother, w'as sister to David the present king of Scot¬
land, and to Matilda the first wife of Henry and mother
of the empress. The king also, imagining that by the
aggrandizement of Stephen he strengthened the interest
of his own family, had enriched him with many pos¬
sessions ; but instead of this, it appeared by the event
that he had only put it more and more in his power to
usurp the throne.
No sooner was Henry dead, than Stephen hastened
from Normandy into England. Hie citizens of Dover
and Canterbury, apprised of his purpose, shut their
gates against him ; but when he arrived at London,
some of the lower class of people, instigated by, his
emissaries, immediately proclaimed him king. The
archbishop of Canterbury refused to give him the royal
unction ; but this difficulty wras got over by Stephen’s
brother, the bishop of Winchester. Hugh Bigod, stew¬
ard of the household, made oath before the primate,
that the late king, on his death-bed, had discovered a
dissatisfaction with his daughter Matilda, and had ex¬
pressed his intention of leaving the count of Boulogne
heir to all his dominions ; and the bishop either belie¬
ving, or pretending to believe, this testimony, gave
Stephen the royal unction. Very few of the nobility
attended his coronation ; but none opposed his usurpa¬
tion, however unjust or flagrant.
Stephen, in order to establish himself on the throne
as firmly as possible, passed a charter, in which he
made liberal promises to all ranks of men. To the
clergy he promised, that he would speedily fill all the
vacant benefices, and never would levy any of the rents
during the vacancy. To the nobility he gave liberty
to hunt in their own forests ; and to the people he pro¬
mised to remit the tax of danegelt, and to restore the
laws of Edward the Confessor. He seized the king’s
treasure at Winchester, amounting to ioo,oool.; with
part of which money he hired mercenary soldiers
from the continent; and with another part procured a
bull from the pope, confirming his title to the English
throne.
Matilda, in the mean time, endeavoured to recover
her just rights, of which Stephen had deprived her ; but
for some time she met with no success either in England
or Normandy. Her husband Geofirey himself was
obliged to conclude a peace with Stephen, on condition
of the king’s paying him during that time an annual
pension of 50C0I.
Robert earl of Gloucester was the first who shook the
power of Stephen. He was natural son to the late
king ; a man of great honour and ability, and was very England,
much attached to the interests of Matilda. When — '
Stephen usurped the throne, he offered to do him ho-^ JI39'
mage, and take the oath of fealty ; hut with an ex¬
press condition, that the king should maintain all his
stipulations, and never invade any of Robert’s rights
or dignities. With this condition Stephen was obliged
to comply, on account of the great power of that
nobleman, though be knew that it was meant only to
afford him a favourable opportunity of revolting when
occasion served. The clergy imitated Robert’s ex¬
ample ; and annexed to their oath of allegiance the
following condition, namely ; that they were only
bound as long as the king defended the ecclesiastical
liberties, and supported the discipline of the church. IC9
The barons, in return for their submission, exacted Distracted
terms of still more pernicious tendency. Many of them sl.ate of the
required to have the right of fortifying their castles,king on1,
and putting themselves in a posture of defence ; and
with this exorbitant demand the king was forced to
comply. All England was immediately filled with
these fortresses; which the noblemen garrisoned either
with their vassals, or with licentious soldiers, who
flocked to them from all quarters. The whole king¬
dom now became a scene of rapine and devastation.
Wars were carried on by the nobles in every quar¬
ter ; the barons even assumed the right of coining mo¬
ney, and of exercising, without appeal, every act of
jurisdiction ; and the inferior gentry, as well as the
people, finding no defence from the laws, during this
total dissolution of sovereign authority, were obliged,
for their immediate safety, to pay court to some neigh¬
bouring chieftain, and to purchase his protection, both
by submitting to his exactions, and by assisting him in
his rapine upon others.
In 1137, the earl of Gloucester having projected an
insurrection, retired beyond sea, sent the king a de¬
fiance, and solemnly renounced his allegiance. The next
year David king of Scotland appeared with an army
in defence of his niece’s title ; and penetrating into
Yorkshire, committed the greatest devastations. He
was defeated, however, with great slaughter, at North¬
allerton, by some of the northern barons, who had rai¬
sed a powerful army ; and this success so much over¬
awed the malecontents in England, that Stephen’s
power might have received some stability, had he not
unfortunately engaged himself in a contest with the
clergy. He had already seen the mischief arising from
the liberty lie had granted of fortifying so many
castles in different parts of the kingdom. He there¬
fore determined to abridge this liberty as much as pos¬
sible ; and for that purpose he began with the castles
erected by the clergy, who seemed to have (ess right
to these military securities than the barons. Taking
advantage therefore of a fray which had arisen at court
between the retinue of the bishop of Salisbury and the
earl of Brittany, he seized the bishops both of Salis¬
bury and Lincoln, threw them into prison, and oblh
ged them to deliver up the castles which they had late¬
ly erected. This produced such a violent commotion,
that the opportunity seemed favourable to the preten- II0
sions of Matilda. On the 22d of September 1139, she Matilda
landed in England with Robert earl of Gloucester, at-landsin
tended only by 140 knights ; but her partisans daily ^n5,an^'
increased, and she was soon in a condition to face
Stephen
ENG]
England. Stephen with equal forces in the field. Numberless
u- v »■-' encounters happened, the detail of which could afford
A. D. 1very little entertainment to the reader. War was
spread through every quarter; and the turbulent ba¬
rons having, in a great measure, shaken off all restraint
of government, and now obtained the sanction of
fighting in the cause ef their country, redoubled their
oppressions, tyrannies, and devastations. The castles
of the nobility became receptacles of licensed robbers j
who, sallying forth day and night, spoiled the open
country, plundered the villages, and even cities. They
tortured the captives to make them reveal their trea¬
sures, sold their persons to slavery, and set fire to the
houses, after they had pillaged them of every thing
valuable. In consequence of this destruction, the land
was left untilled ; the instruments of husbandry were
abandoned $ and a grievous famine reduced the nation
ni to the most deplorable state that can be imagined.
Stephen After a multitude of indecisive conflicts, a battle
and taken ensue<* seemed likely to ensure the public peace
prisoner. ^or some t'me* Stephen had marched his forces to .re¬
lieve the city of Lincoln ; the earl of Gloucester led a
body of troops to assist those of Matilda’s party, who
were besieging that place. The two armies engaged
on the 2d of February within sight of the city, and a
desperate battle ensued. At last Stephen’s army was
defeated. He himself was for some time left without
attendants $ and fought on foot in the midst of his
enemies, assaulted by multitudes, and resisting all their
efiorts with astonishing intrepidity. Being hemmed in
on every side, he forced a way for some time with his
battle-axe j but that breaking, he drew his sword, and
with it furiously assailed his antagonists for some time
longer. But at length the sword also flying in pieces,
he was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. He was
conducted to Gloucester j and though at first treated
with respect, he was in a short time, upon some suspi-
riJ cions, thrown into irons.
Matilda About a month alter, Matilda was crowned at Win-
zrowned. chester with great solemnity j but soon showed herself
totally incapable of governing such a turbulent nation.
She determined to repress the power of the nobles, who
had now left only the shadow of authority to their so¬
vereign. But being destitute of policy or prudence
sufficient to acpomplish so difficult an undertaking, a
conspiracy was soon formed against her, and the bishop
of Winchester detached a party of his friends and vas¬
sals to block up the city of London where the queen re¬
sided. At the same time measures were taken to insti¬
gate the Londoners to a revolt, and to seize the queen’s
person. Matilda, having timely notice of this con¬
spiracy, fled to Winchester. Here she was soon after
besieged by the bishop : but the town being distress¬
ed by famine, she with difficulty made her escape ;
while her brother the earl of Gloucester, endeavour¬
ing to follow, was taken prisoner, and exchanged for
^ Stephen.
tephea Matilda was now obliged to take shelter in Oxford,
stored, while Stephen reascended the throne. The civil war
broke out with redoubled fury. Many battles were
fought, and both parties were involved in many di¬
stresses. Matilda escaped from Oxford at a time when
the fields were covered with snow, by being dressed all
in white, with four knights her attendants dressed in
the same coloux-. Another time Stephen was surprised
.AND. 75
by the earl of Gloucester at Wilton, and made his England,
escape with the utmost difficulty. At last Matilda was -y——»
obliged to quit the kingdom ; and the death of the earl A- D. n54*
of Gloucester soon after seemed to give a fatal blow to
her interests. In n53, however, Prince Henry, Ma¬
tilda’s son by her second husband Geoffrey, came
over to England, in order once more to dispute Ste¬
phen’s pretensions to the crown. After some success
on his first landing, he was opposed by Stephen with
a powerful army, and matters seemed likely to come
to the decision of a general engagement. But while
the two armies continued within a quarter of a mile of
each other, a treaty was set on foot by the interposition
of William earl of Arundel, for terminating the dis¬
pute in an amicable manner. The death of Eustace,
Stephen’s son, whom he had designed for the throne,
which happened during the course of the treaty, facili¬
tated its conclusion. It was agreed, that Stephen
should reign during his life, and that justice should be
administered in his name ; that Henry, on Stephen’s
death, should succeed to the kingdom } and that Wil¬
liam, Stephen’s son, should inherit Boulogne and his
patrimonial estate. This treaty filled all Europe with,
joy and after the barons had sworn to it, Henry left
England, and Stephen returned to the peaceable enjov-
ment of his throne. His reign, however, was but of
short continuance ; his death happening on the 25th of His death.
October 1154.
Henry svas on the continent besieging a castle of one
of the mutinous barons, when news was brought him
of Stephen’s death. But, as he was sensible of the
goodness of his title, he did not abandon his enterprise
till the place was reduced. He then set out on his
journey, and was received in England with the utmost II5
joy. The first acts of his reign seemed to promise a Hen 17 IL
happy and prosperous administration. He instantly
dismissed the mercenary soldiers who had committed
the greatest disorders throughout the nation. He or¬
dered all the castles which had been erected since the
death of Henry I. to be demolished, except a few
which he retained in his own hands for the protection
of the kingdom. The adulterated coin which had been
struck during the reign of Stephen was cried down,
and new money struck of the right value and standard.
He resumed many of those benefactions which had
been made to churches and monasteries in the for¬
mer reigns. He gave charters to several towns,
by which the citizens claimed their freedom and
privileges independent of any superior but himself.
These charters were the ground-work of the English
liberty ; for thus a new order, namely, the more opu¬
lent of the people, began to claim a share in the ad¬
ministration, as well as the nobility and clergy. Thus
the feudal government was at first impaired j and li¬
berty began to be more equally diffused throughout the
nation.
Henry JI. on his accession to the English throne,
found himself possessed of very extensive dominions on
the continent. In the right of his father, he possessed
Anjou, louraine, and Maine *, in that of his mother,
Normandy j in that of his wife, Guienne, Poictou,
Xaintonge, Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and
the Limousin. Soon after, he annexed Brittany to
his other states, by marrying his son, who was yet
a child, to the heiress of Brittany, who was a child
K 2 also,
* See (Be¬
nefit of)
CUrgy.
I i 6
Monstrous
vs ickeduess
of tiio
olergy.
n?
Contests of
the kinir
with Lho-
Aias if Bec¬
het.
ENGL
also, and was already in possession of the superiority
over that province. These territories composed above a
third of the French monarchy, and were by far the most
opulent part of it ■, so that Henry, though vassal to the
king of France, was greatly superior to him in power j
and when England was added to all these, the 1 rench
king had great reason to apprehend some disaster to him¬
self and family. The king of England, however, re¬
sided at too great a distance to be able to employ this
formidable power with success against the French mo¬
narch. He soon became a kind cf stranger in his con¬
tinental dominions ) and his subjects there considered
their allegiance as more naturally due to their superior
lord, who lived in their neighbourhood, and who was
acknowledged to be the supreme head of their nation.
Their immediate lord was often at too great a distance
to protect them ; and a commotion in any part of Hen¬
ry’s extensive dominions gave great advantages against
him. The wise and vigorous administration of Henry,
however, counterbalanced in a great measure these dis¬
advantages-, and he maintained a surprising tranquillity
throughout his extensive dominions during the greatest
part of his reign.
Henry found no great difficulty in circumscribing
the power of the barons j but when he attempted to do
the same thing with the clergy, he met with the most
violent opposition. That body had carried their inde¬
pendence on the civil power so far, that now they
seemed to aim at nothing else than a liberty to commit
all manner of crimes with impunity. During the
reign of Stephen, they had extorted an immunity from
all but ecclesiastical penalties * j and that grant they
were resolved to maintain tor the future. It may ea¬
sily be supposed, that a law which thus screened their
wickedness, contributed to increase it and we accord¬
ingly find upon record, not less than loo murders com¬
mitted by men in holy orders, in the short period since
the king’s accession, not one of which was punished
even with degradation, while the bishops themselves
seemed to glory in this horrid indulgence. The king
did not make any attempts against them during the life
of Theobald archbishop of Canterbury, wbo was a man
of a mild character, and besides had great merit, be¬
cause, during the former reign, he had refused to put
the crown on the head of Eustace, Stephen’s son. He
died in 1162-, and the king, after his death, advanced
to the see of Canterbury Thomas a Becket, his chan¬
cellor, on whose compliance he thought he might en¬
tirely depend.
The new archbishop was the first man of English
pedigree, who, since the Norman conquest, had risen
to any considerable station"; Before Ins instalment 111
the see of Canterbury, Becket had been exceedingly
complaisant, good-humoured, and agreeable to his
master j and had also been accustomed to live very
freely. But no sooner was he invested with this high
dignity, than he totally altered his conduct, and put
on a|l those airs of affected and ostentatious humility
which could recommend him to the superstitious and
ignorant multitude in that age. The first step taken
by this hypocrite after his advancement, was to resign
the office of chancellor. This he did without con¬
sulting the king : the reason he gave was, that hence¬
forth he must detach himself from secular affairs, and
be solely employed in the duties of his sacred function 5
A N D.
but in reality that he might break off all connection England.
with Henry. As he knew that the king intended to ' v J
abridge the ecclesiastical power, he thought the bestA-5 3<5j
method would be to become himself the aggressor.
He therefore summoned the earl of Clare to surrender
the barony of Tunbridge ; which, ever since the Con¬
quest, had remained in the family of that nobleman ;
but which, as it had formerly belonged to the see of
Canterbury, the primate pretended that his predeces¬
sors were prohibited by the canons from alienating.—
William de Eynsford, a military tenant of the crown,
was patron of a living which belonged to a manor that
held of the archbishop of Canterbury 5 and Becket,
without regard to William’s right, presented, on a
new and illegal pretence, one Laurence to that living,
who was violently expelled by Eynsford. Upon this
Eynsford was excommunicated. He complained to
the king, that he, who held in capite of the crown,
should, contrary to the practice established by the Con¬
queror and maintained ever since by his successors, be
subjected to that terrible sentence, without the previ¬
ous consent of the sovereign. Henry, by a messenger,
commanded Becket to absolve Eynsford. The haughty
primate answered, that it belonged not to the king to
inform him whom he should absolve, and whom ex¬
communicate but, after all, be was obliged to com¬
ply with the king’s orders, though with the worst grata
imaginable.
As Henry perceived that the crown was now in dan¬
ger, through the superstition of the people, of falling
totally under the power of the clergy, he resolved to
exert himself to the utmost against their scandalous
usurpations. Among their other inventions to obtain
money, they had now inculcated the necessity of pe¬
nance as an atonement for sin ; and having again in¬
troduced the practice of paying them large sums as an
equivalent for these penances, the sins of the people had
thus become a revenue to the priests j and the king
computed, that, by this invention alone, they levied
more money upon bis subjects than what flowed by all
the funds and taxes into the royal exchequer. To ease
the people of so heavy and arbitrary an imposition, the
king required, that a civil officer of his appointment
should he present in all ecclesiastical courts, and should
for the future give his consent to every composition
made for spiritual offences. About this time also the
king had an opportunity of proceeding against the
clergy on another footing. A clerk in Worcester¬
shire, having debauched a gentleman’s daughter, mur¬
dered her father. The king required that the clerk
should be delivered up to the magistrate. Becket
pleaded the privilege of the church ; confined the cri¬
minal in the bishop’s prison, test he should be seized by
the king’s officers ; and maintained that no greater
punishment could be inflicted on him than degradation.
The king then required, that, immediately after he
was degraded, he should be tried by the civil powers j
but the primate asserted, that it was iniquitous to try
a man twice upon the same accusation, and for the same
crime. Upon this, Henry summoned an assembly of
all the prelates in England j and put to them this de¬
cisive question, Whether or not they were willing to
submit to the ancient laws and customs of the king¬
dom ? The bishops unanimously replied, that they
were willing, saving their (/ion order. The king was
provoked
ENGLAND.
En»Iand. provoked to the last degree at tins equivocal answer.
<—-v——' He left the assembly with evident marks of displeasure j
A.D. ii6j.and required the primate instantly to surrender the
castles of Eye and Berkham. The other prelates were
terrified •, hut Beeket continued inflexible : however,
he was at last prevailed upon, by the interposition of
Philip the pope’s legate and almoner, to retract the
saving clause, and promise without any reserve to ob¬
serve the ancient customs.
The king was not now to be satisfied with general
promises from the clergy: he was determined that
the ancient laws and customs should be defined, as
well as the privileges of the clergy. He therefore
summoned another great council ot the clergy and no¬
bility at Clarendon, to whom he submitted this im¬
portant affair. A number of regulations was there
drawn up, which were afterwards well known by the
title of the Constitutions of Clarendon. By these it was
enacted, that clergymen accused of any crime should
be tried in the civil courts ; that laymen should not be
tried in spiritual courts, except by legal and reputable
witnesses \ that the king should ultimately judge in ec¬
clesiastical and spiritual appeals j that the archbishops
and bishops should be regarded as baron6, and obliged
to contribute to the public expences like other persons
of their rank j that the goods forfeited to the king
should not be protected in churches or church yards by
the clergy j and that the sons of villeins should not take
orders without the consent of their lord. These, with
some othex-s of less consequence, to the number of 16,
were subscribed by all the bishops present, and even by
Becket himself j who, however, at first, showed some
reluctance.
Nothing now remained but to get the constitutions
ratified by the pope ; but in this the king was disap¬
pointed. The pope rejected them with the utmost in¬
dignation } and, out of 16, admitted only six, which
he thought were not important enough to deserve cen¬
sure.—Becket was now mortified to the highest de¬
gree. He retracted his consent to the constitutions,
redoubled his austerities, and even refused to execute
any part of his sacerdotal function till he had obtained
absolution from his holiness. Heniy, considering these
humilities as insults offered to himself, desired the pope
to send him a legate. He did so; but annexed a clause
to his commission, by which he was prohibited from
acting against the archbishop of Canterbury. The king
sent back the commission to the pope; and being now
exasperated beyond all patience, commenced furious
prosecutions against Becket. He first sued him for
some lands belonging to his primacy ; and Becket be¬
ing detained by sickness from coming into court, bis
non-attendance was construed into disrespect. The
primate afterwards defended his cause in person ; but
all his goods and chattels were confiscated, and the bi¬
shop of Winchester was obliged to pronounce the sen¬
tence. Another suit was commenced against him
tor 300I. which he had levied on the honours of
Eye and Berkham, and the primate agreed to give se-
curities for the payment of the sum. The next day a
third suit was commenced against him for 1000 maiks,
which the king had lent him upon some former oc¬
casion : and immediately following these, a still great¬
er demand was made ; namely, that Becket should
give an account of the money he had received and
77
expended during the time he was chancellor. The EnRiantl.
money was computed at no less than 40,000 marks; '-—-v—--'
and the primate, unable either to give an account, or ^
find securities, took the following extraordinary me¬
thod of evading the king’s designs. He arrayed him¬
self in his episcopal vestments ; and with the cross in
his hand, went forward to the palace. Having en¬
tered the royal apartments, he sat down, lidding up
the cross as his banner and protection. The king,
who sat in an inner apartment, ordered by proclama¬
tion all the prelates and nobility to attend him ; to
whom he loudly complained of Becket’s insolence.
The whole council joined in condemning this instance
of his unaccountable pride ; and determined to expo¬
stulate with him about his inconsistency concerning
the constitutions of Clarendon. But all their mes¬
sages, threats, and arguments, were in vain. Becket
put himself, in the most solemn manner, under the
protection of the supreme pontiff, and appealed to
him against any penalty which his iniquitous judges ,
might think proper to inflict. Then leaving the pa- Becket flies
lace, he asked the king’s immediate permission to quitt° tliecon-
Northampton ; but being refused, he secretly withdj-ew
in disguise, and at last found means to cross over to the
continent.
Becket was received with the greatest marks of
esteem, first by the king of France (who hated Henry
on account of his great power), and then by the pope,
whose cause he had so strenuously defended in England.
Henry at the same time sent ambassadors to the pope,
W’lio wei'e treated with coolness and contempt, while
Becket was honoured with the greatest maiks of di¬
stinction. These favours bestowed upon an exile and
a perjured traitor (for such had been Becket’s sen¬
tence of condemnation in England), irritated the king
to such a degree, that he resolved to throw off at once
all dependence upon the pope. He accordingly issued
out orders to his justiciaries ; inhibiting, under severe
penalties, all appeals to the pope or the archbishop;
and forbidding any of them to receive mandates from
them, or to apply to their authority. He declared it
treasonable to bring over from either of them any in¬
terdict upon the kingdom. ibis he made punishable
in secular clergymen by the loss of their livings, and
by castration ; in regulars, by the amputation of their
feet; and in laymen, by death. On the other hand,
the pope and the archbishop did not fail to issue forth
their fulminations in such a manner as to shake the
very foundation of the king’s authority. Becket ex¬
communicated by name all the king’s chief ministers
who had been concerned in sequestrating the revenues
ot his see, and all who obeyed or favoured the consti¬
tutions of Clarendon. He even threatened to excom¬
municate the king if he did not speedily repent ; and
had not the pope himself been threatened every day
with the machinations of an antipope, whose pretensions
he was afraid the king of England might support, the
sentence of excommunication would certainly have been
denounced.
At first, Henry paid little regard to these fulmina¬
tions ; but afterwards, when he found that his autho¬
rity over his subjects began to decline on that account,
and that his rivals on the continent were endeavouring
to disturb the tranquillity of his dominions, he began
sincerely to aKCOBcifiation. This the pope and
Becket
78 ENGLAND.
England. Becket also became desirous of, because they saw that
their utmost endeavours were insufficient to draw Heu-
\. D. ii62.ry?g in[0 a revolt against him. The treaty of
accommodation, however, was oiten broken oft, through
the extreme jealousy of each of the parties $ but at
length, by the mediation of the pope’s legate, all dif¬
ferences were adjusted, and Becket was reinstated in
119 the see of Canterbury.
Is restored, On the recovery of his dignity, the primate behaved
and be- with all bis usual arrogance. Instead of retiring
S^rVi^ly t0 d*ocese tv hen he landed in England, he
insolence, made a progress through Kent with all the splendour
and magnificence of a sovereign pontiff. As he ap¬
proached Southwark, the clergy, the laity, and all
ranks of people came forth to meet him, and celebra¬
ted his triumphant entry with hymns of joy. Being
thus confident of the support of the people, he resol¬
ved to make his enemies feel the severest effects of his
vengeance. He suspended the archbishop of York,
who had crowned Henry’s eldest son in his absence.
He excommunicated the bishops of London and Salis¬
bury, with some of the principal nobility and pre¬
lates who had assisted at the coronation. One man
he excommunicated for having spoken against him, and
another for having cut off the tail of one of his horses.
The excommunicated and degraded prelates immedi¬
ately made their complaints to the king ; and he ha¬
ving dropped some passionate expressions, intimating a
desire to have Becket’s life taken away, the supposed
will of the king was instantly accomplished *, nor could
the king’s express orders to the contrary arrive time
enough to hinder the execution of this fatal purpose,
no See Becket.
Griefofthe The king was thrown into the utmost consternation
king for his on hearing of Becket’s murder. He knew that the
dentil. private’s death would accomplish what his most vio¬
lent opposition during his life could never have done,
and therefore he gave himself up to sorrow : for three
days he even refused all nourishment j till at last his
courtiers were obliged to break in upon his solitude,
and induce him to acquiesce in an event which could
not possibly be recalled. The pope was with some
difficulty made sensible of the king’s innocence ; but
refused to grant him a pardon, except on condition
that he should make every future submission and per¬
form every injunction the holy see thought proper to
demand. When things were thus adjusted, the assas¬
sins who had murdered Becket were allowed to retire
in safety to the enjoyment of their former dignities j
and the king, with a view to divert the minds of the
people to a different object, undertook an expedition
into Ireland, and totally reduced that island. See Ire-
m LAND.
Dissensions king was scarcely freed from the v'ar with Ire-
m Henry’s ant} the dangerous controversy in which he had
1 J engaged with the church of Rome, when he found
himself involved in the most unnatural contests with
his children, to whom he had always behaved in the
most tender and affectionate manner. He had ordered
Henry his eldest son to be anointed king; and had
destined him for his successor in the kingdom of Eng¬
land, the duchy of Normandy, and the counties of
Anjou, Maine, and Touraine j territories which lay
contiguous, and which might thus easily lend their
assistance to one another. Richard his second son
was invested in the duchy of Guienne and county of England.
Poictou : Geoffrey, his third son, inherited, in right v  
of his wife, the duchy of Brittany : and the new con-A-D-1*73*
quest of Ireland was destined for the appendage of
John his fourth son, for whom he had negotiated a
marriage with Adelais the only daughter of Humbert
count of Savoy and Maurienne j and with whom he
was to receive as a dowry very considerable demesnes
in Piedmont, Savoy, Bresse, and Dauphiny. This
greatness of Henry’s family alarmed the king of
France j and he therefore excited young Prince Henry
to demand of his father, either the immediate resigna¬
tion of the crown of England, or the duchy of Nor¬
mandy. The king refused to comply with such an ex¬
travagant demand ; upon which the prince made his
escape to Paris, where he wras protected by the French
king. This happened in 1173; and the same year,
Queen Eleanor, finding that she was now grown very
disagreeable to the king, communicated her discontent
to her two younger children Geoffrey and Richard,
whom she engaged also to demand the territories as¬
signed them, and then fly to the court of France. The I22
queen herself was meditating an escape to the same Queen E-
court, and had put on man’s apparel for that purpose, leaner con-
when she was seized and confined by Henry’s order. ^nec^‘
The licentious barons in the mean time wished for a
change of government 5 hoping to have liberty, under
young and inexperienced princes, to commit those ra¬
pines and violences which they could not do with safety
when governed by such a prudent and vigilant king
as Henry. In the midst of this universal defection,
however, the English monarch still retained his usual
intrepidity, and prepared with as much vigour as pos¬
sible for the contest. As he could depend on the fi¬
delity of very few of his nobility, he was obliged to
enlist in his service a number of desperate ruffians call¬
ed Bt'abenfons, and sometimes Rouiiet's or Cottereaux,
though for what reason is not mentioned in history.
These banditti were very numerous during the times
of the feudal government, when many private wars
were carried on between the nobles j and 20,000 of
these, with a few forces furnished by his faithful ba¬
rons, composed the whole of Henry’s army on this oc¬
casion.
With this force the king of England totally over¬
threw the schemes of his enemies on the continent ;
hut being very desirous of putting an end to the war,
he this very year (1173) agreed to a conference with
the king of France. At this interview, Henry offer¬
ed his children the most advantageous terms. He ip-
sisted only on retaining the sovereign authority in all
his dominions. To Henry he offered half the revenues
of the crown of England, with some places of surety
in that kingdom ; or if he chose rather to reside in Nor¬
mandy, half the revenues of that duchy, with all those
of Anjou. He made a like offer to Richard in Gui¬
enne } he promised to resign all Brittany to Geoflrev \
and if these concessions were not deemed sufficient, he
agreed to add to them whatever the pope’s legates, who
were present, should require of him. The conference,
however, was broken off by the violence of the earl of
Leicester ; who not only reproached Henry in the most
indecent manner, hut even put his hand to his sword,
as if he intended to attempt some violence against
him.
In
1*3
Kins of
Scotland
defeated
and taken
prisoner.
1*4
Jwns him-
self Henry’!
■assaj.
'few dis-
■ nsions in
(enry’s fa-
»!y.
ENG
In the mean time, the most of the English nobility
united in opposition against their sovereign ; and an ir¬
ruption at this time by the king of Scotland assisted
their rebellious schemes. The earl of Leicester soon
after invaded Suffolk at the head of a body of Fle¬
mings j but they were repulsed with great slaughter,
and the earl himself was taken prisoner. Soon after,
William king of Scotland, who had been repulsed,
and agreed to a cessation of arms, broke the truce,
and invaded England with an army of 80,000 men,
committing the most terrible devastations. Henry in
the mean time, to reconcile himself thoroughly to the
church, performed the penances at the tomb of Tho¬
mas a Becket which he had formerly promised to do.
As soon as he came within sight of the church of Can¬
terbury, he alighted from his horse, walked barefoot
towards the town, and prostrated himself before the
shrine oi the saint. He remained a whole day in prayer
and fasting, watched the holy relics all night, made a
grant ot 50I. a year to the convent for a constant sup¬
ply of tapers to illuminate the shrine j and not satis¬
fied with these submissions, he assembled a chapter of
monks, disrobed himself before them, put a scourge
into each of their hands, and presented his bare shoul¬
ders to their strokes. Next day he received absolu¬
tion j and, departing for London, had the agreeable
news of the defeat and captivity of William king of
Scotland, which happened on the very day of his ab¬
solution.
This victory proved decisive in Henry’s favour. The
English barons who had revolted, or were preparing
for a revolt, instantly delivered up their castles to the
victor, and the kingdom was in a few weeks restored
to perfect tranquillity. Prince Henry, who was ready
to embark with a great army to join the English rebels,
abandoned all thoughts of the enterprise. Soon after
a treaty was concluded with the king of France ; in
which Henry granted his children much less advan¬
tageous terms than he had offered them before. The
principal were, some pensions for their support, castles
for their residence, and an indemnity to all their ad¬
herents. The greatest sufferer by this war was Wil¬
liam king of Scotland. He was compelled to sign a
5treaty, by which he obliged himself to do homage to
Henry for the -kingdom of Scotland. It was agreed,
that his barons and bishops should do the same j and
that the fortresses of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Boxburgh, and Jedburgh, should be delivered into
the hands of the conqueror till the articles were per¬
formed. This treaty was executed most punctually
and rigorously on the 10th of August 1175. The
king, barons, and prelates of Scotland, did homage
to Henry in the cathedral of York ; the greatest hu¬
miliation to which the Scottish nation had ever been
subjected.
Henry was now freed from all troubles, either at
home or abroad, for five years ; during which time he
made several salutary laws for the good of his king¬
dom. But, in 1180, the ambitious spirit of his chil¬
dren involved him in fresh calamities. Richard, who
had been invested by his father in the sovereignty of
Guienne, refused to do homage to his elder brother,
as King Henry had required him to do. Young Henry
and Geoffrey, uniting their arms, invaded their bro¬
ther’s dominions j and while the king was endeavour-
L A N D.
ing to compose their differences, he found himself con- England,
spired against by them all. The conspiracy, however, v~v-" 1 r
was defeated by the death of Prince Henry in 1183 A* 11-<*
He had retired to Martel, a castle near Turenne, where
he was seized with a fever ; and perceiving the ap¬
proaches of death, he was at last struck with remorse
for his undutiful behaviour tovvards his father. He
sent a messenger to the king, who was not far distant;
expressed his contrition for his faults; and intreated
the favour of a visit, that he might at least die with the
satisfaction of having received his forgiveness. The
king, who had so often experienced his son’s ingrati¬
tude and violence, apprehended that iiis sickness was
entirely a feint, and dared not trust himself in the
prince’s hands. But soon after, receiving certain in¬
telligence of his death, and proofs of his sincere re¬
pentance, the good old king was affected with the
deepest sorrow. He thrice fainted away; he accused
his own hard-heartedness in refusing the dying request
of his son ; and ho lamented that he had deprived the
prince of the last opportunity of making atonement for
his offences.
Prince Henry, who died in the 28th year of his age,
left no posterity. His brother Richard succeeded to
his dominions, and soon discovered as turbulent a spirit
as that which had actuated his brother. He refused
to give up Guienne, which Henry had designed for his
fourth son John; and even made preparations for car¬
rying on war against his father, and brother Geoffrey.
Henry sent for Eleanor his queen, the heiress of Gui¬
enne ; to whom Richard, either dreading an insurrec¬
tion in her favour, or out of a sense of duty, willingly
yielded up the territory, and retired peaceably to his
father’s court. This breach, however, was no sooner
made up, than Geoffrey demanded Anjou to be added
to bis dominions in Brittany. This the king refused ;
upon which he fled to the court of France, and pre¬
pared to levy an army against his father. Henry, how¬
ever, was freed from the danger which threatened him
from that quarter, by his son’s death, who was killed
in a tournament at Paris. The loss of this prince gave
few, except the king himself, any uneasiness ; for he
was universally hated, and went among the people by
the name of the Child of Perdition. The widow of
Geoffrey, soon after his decease, was delivered of a
son, who received the name of Arthur, and was invest¬
ed in the duchy of Brittany, under the guardianship of
his grandfather, who, as duke of Normandy, was also
superior lord ot that territory. Philip, as lord para¬
mount, disputed for some time his title to this ward¬
ship ; but was obliged to yield to the inclinations of
tbe Bretons, who preferred the government of Henry,
borne other causes inflamed the dissension between these
two monarchs, and Philip once more seduced Richard
from liis duty. Fie insisted, that his marriage with
Adelais, Philip’s sister, should be immediately com¬
pleted, and threatened to enforce his pretensions with
a formidable army. This occasioned another confe¬
rence between Gisors and Trie, the usual place of
meeting, under a vast elm that is said to have shaded
more than an acre. In the midst of this conference
the archbishop of Tyre appeared before the assembly
in the most miserable habit, and begged assistance
against the infidels, who, under Saladin, had almost to¬
tally expelled the Christians from Asia. His intelli¬
gence
8o ENGL
England, gence appeared so very dismal, that the kings of France
v v— and England laid aside their animosity. Both of them
^ 1 lS?'immediately took the cross; but Richard, who had
long wished to have all the glory of such an expedition
to himself, could not bear to have even his father for
a partner in his victories. He therefore entered into
a confederacy with the king of France; so that Henry
found himself at last obliged to give up all thoughts of
the crusade, in order to defend himself against this un¬
natural combination. The event of the war proved
very unfortunate for Henry, who lost several towns, and
narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy
himself. At last a treaty was concluded at the inter¬
cession of the duke of Burgundy, the count of Flan¬
ders, and the archbishop of Rheims ; but upon terms
very humiliating to the king of England. It was
agreed that Richard should marry the princess Adelais,
and be crowned king of England during the lifetime
of his father ; that Henry should pay 20,000 merks to
the king of France, as a compensation for the charges
of the war; that his own barons should engage to
make him observe this treaty, and in case of violating
it, to join Philip and Richard against him ; and that
all his vassals who had espoused the cause of Richard
His eic- ! should receive an indemnity for their offence. These
trewe grief termSj mortifying as they were, Henry bore with pa-
and death. tjence . |)llt w],en, upon receiving a list of the barons
that were to be pardoned, he found his own son John,
who was his favourite, among them, he could no longer
support his grief. He broke out into the most la¬
mentable expressions of despair *, cursed the day in
which he received his miserable being ; and bestowed
on his ungrateful children a malediction which he
could never afterwards be prevailed upon to retract.
Soon after, he fell into a lingering fever occasioned by
his grief; and of this he died on the 6th of July 1189,
in the 58th year of his age and 35th of his reign. His
natural son Geoffrey, who alone had behaved dutifully
towards him, attended his corpse to the nunnery of
Fontevrault, where it lay in state in the abbey-church.
Next day Richard, who came to visit the dead body of
his father, was struck with horror at the sight. At his
approach, the blood was seen to gush out at the mouth
and nostrils of the corpse ; and this accident was, by
the superstition of the times, interpreted as the most
dreadful rebuke. Richard could not endure the sight.
He exclaimed that he was his father’s murderer ; and
expressed a strong, though too late, sense of his unduti-
ful conduct.
Richard I. Richard succeeded to the throne without opposi¬
tion immediately after his father’s death ; and, on his
accession, set his mother Eleanor (who had been again
confined) at liberty. A romantic desire for strange
adventures, and an immoderate zeal for the external
rites of religion, were the ruling passions of the times.
Bv the first of these Richard was inflamed to the
highest degree, and therefore behaved as if the whole
design of his government had been to attempt the
recovery of the Holy Land from the Infidels. The
superstition of the people showed itself in a most vio-
^3 lent and tragical manner on the very day of the king’s
Massacre coronation. The Jews were the objects of universal
oltheJews.hatred, so that Richard had issued out orders forbid¬
ding any of them from appearing at his coronation.
But some of them bringing him large presents from
4
A N D.
their nation, presumed, notwithstanding these orders, England.
to approach the hall in which the king dined. Being ' v  
discovered, they were exposed to the insults and inju- Il®9*
ries of the bystanders ; in consequence ef which they
fled, and were pursued by the people. A report was
spread, that the king had given orders to massacre all
(he Jews. This supposed command was executed in
the most cruel manner. Multitudes were slaughtered
in the city of London ; and this example was followed
in most of the cities of England. Five hundred Jews
had retired into York castle for safety : but finding
themselves unable to defend the place, they murdered
their wives and children ; threw the dead bodies over
the wall against their enemies who attempted to scale
it ; and then, setting fire to the houses, perished in the
flames. The gentry in the neighbourhood, who were
all indebted to the Jews, ran to the cathedral where
their bonds were kept, and made a solemn bonfire of
them before the altar.
Richard immediately began to take measures for his Richard’s
expedition into Palestine. His father had left himPrePara'
100,000 marks; and this sum he augmented by all ex-!*®"*^or.
pedients he could think of, however pernicious to lheJlopaie_
public, or dangerous to the royal authority. He setstine.
up to sale the revenues and manors of the crown, and
several offices of the greatest trust and power. Liber¬
ties, charters, castles, were given to the best bidders.
His friends warned him of the danger attending this
venality ; but be told them he would sell the city of
London itself, if he could find a purchaser. Nume¬
rous exactions were also practised upon all ranks and
stations ; menaces, promises, and expostulations, were
used to fright the timid, and allure the avaricious. A
zealous preacher of those times was emboldened to re¬
monstrate against the king’s conduct; and advised him
to part with his three daughters, which were pride,
avarice, and sensuality. To this Richard readily re¬
plied, “ You counsel right, my friend ; and I have al¬
ready provided husbands for them all. I will dispose of
my pride to the templars ; my avarice to the monks 5
and as for mv sensuality, the clergy shall share that
among them.” At length the king having got toge¬
ther a sufficient supply for his undertaking, and
even sold his superiority over Scotland for a mode¬
rate sum, set out for the Holy Land ; whither he
was impelled by repeated messages from the king of
France, who was ready to embark on the same enter¬
prise.
An account of Richard’s exploits in this expedition
is given under the articles Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus,
&c.—Having at last concluded a truce with Saladin,
he set out on his return for England. He was, how¬
ever, at a loss how to proceed. He durst not return
by the way he came, as this would put him in the
power of the king of France, between whom and the
king of England an irreconcileable enmity had taken
place. No way therefore was left but by going more
to the north ; for which reason he took shipping for
Italy, but was wrecked near Aquileia. From thence
he travelled towards Ragusa, and resolved to make his
way through Germany in the habit of a pilgrim. ButTak*j0p,j.
his expences and liberalities having betrayed him, not-SOner on his
withstanding this disguise, he was arrested by Leopold retuia,
duke of Austria, who commanded him to be loaded
with shackles. This prince had served under Richard
at
ENGLAND.
England.at the siege of Acre (the ancient Ptolemais), where
1 y—' having received some disgust, he took this base me-
A. D. riSp-thod of revenging himself. Henry VI. emperor of
Germany, was then equally an enemy to Kichard, on
account of his having married Berengaria the daughter
of Tancred king of Sicily. He therefore required the
royal captive to be delivered up to him, and stipulated
a large sum of money to the duke as a reward for his
service.
The kingdom of England in the mean time was in
great confusion. Richard had left it under the direc¬
tion of Hugh bishop of Durham, and Longchamp bi¬
shop of Ely. The tempers of these prelates being
very different, an animosity between them soon took
place. Loiigchamp at last arrested his colleague, and
obliged him to resign his power in order to obtain his
liberty. The king, by many letters, commanded
Longchamp to replace his coadjutor, but to no pur¬
pose. When the situation of the king became uncer¬
tain, Longchamp tyrannized to such a degree, that
John the king’s brother thought proper to oppose
him. He then left the kingdom ; and upon this the
archbishop of Rouen was made justiciary in his room.
The king of France being informed of these dissensions,
strove to increase them as much as possible ; and had
even almost prevailed upon John to throw off his allegi¬
ance, by promising to put him in possession of all
X31 Richard’s continental dominions.
Treachery When the English first received the news of Ri-
of John the chard’s captivity, a general indignation was excited
ther,S ll°" ^iroug^ t^ie> whole nation. The greatest, and almost
the only traitor in the kingdom, was the king’s own
brother John. On the very first invitation from the
court of France, he went abroad and held a consulta¬
tion with Philip, the object of which was the perpe¬
tual ruin and captivity of his unhappy brother. He
promised to deliver into Philip’s hands a great part of
Normandy ; and, in return, he received the investi¬
ture of all Richard’s transmarine dominions : it is even
said, that he did homage to the French king for the
crown of England.
In consequence of this treaty, Philip invaded Nor¬
mandy, and made considerable progress in the conquest
of it. He was, however, at last repulsed by the earl
of Leicester, who was now returned from the Ploly
Land; and a truce was concluded, on condition of pay¬
ing the French king 20,000 merks, and putting four
castles into his hands by w'ay of security for the pay¬
ment.—John, who had come over to England, met
with still less success in his enterprises. He was only
able to make himself master of the castles of Windsor
and Wallingford j but when he came to London, and
demanded the kingdom as heir to his brother, of whose
death he pretended to have received certain intelli¬
gence, he was rejected by all the barons, and measures
Were taken to oppose and subdue him. The defence
of the kingdom was so well provided for, that John,
after some fruitless efforts, was obliged to conclude a
truce with his opponents ; and, before the expiration of
it, he thought proper to retire to France, where he
openly acknowledged his alliance with Philip.
. , All the eftorts ot Richard’s enemies proved ineffec¬
tual to detain him in captivity. He was brought be¬
fore the diet of the empire at Worms, where the em¬
peror Henry brought against him a charge of many
v Vol. VIIL Part I. +
crimes and misdemeanours : hut to this the king replied England.
with so much spirit and eloquence, that the German '— 1
princes exclaimed loudly against the conduct of theD* 1199-
emperor } the pope threatened him with excommuni¬
cation ; and Henry, who had hearkened to the propo¬
sals ot the king of France and Prince John, found that
it would be impossible for him to execute his and their
base purposes, and detain the king of England any
longer in captivity. He therefore concluded a treaty
with him tor his ransom; and agreed to restore him to
his liberty for 150,000 merks, about ioo,oool. of
our money, of which 100,000 merks were to be paid
immediately, and 67 hostages delivered for the re¬
mainder.
Ihe money for the king’s ransom was most cheer-Richard re-
fully raised by the English. The churches and mona-Ieas!d.from
steries melted down their plate to the amount 0fcaPtivitT-
30,000 merks j the bishops, abbots, and monks, paid
a fourth part ot their yearly rent; the parochial clergy
contributed a tenth part of their tithes j and the requi¬
site sum being thus collected, Queen Eleanor and Wal¬
ter archbishop of Rouen’set out with it for Germa¬
ny, paid the money to the emperor and duke of Au¬
stria at Mentz, delivered them hostages for the re¬
mainder, and freed Richard from his captivity. His
escape was very critical. - Henry had been detected in
the assassination of the bishop of Liege, and in an at¬
tempt of the like nature on the duke of Louvaine ;
and finding himself extremely obnoxious to the Ger¬
man princes on account of these odious practices, he
had determined to seek support from an alliance with
the French king, and to detain Richard in perpetual
captivity, notwithstanding the sum he had already re¬
ceived tor Ins ransom. He therefore gave orders that
Richard should be pursued and arrested 5 but the
king making all imaginable haste, had already em¬
barked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and was out of
sight of land when the emperor’s messengers reached
Antwerp. The king of France no sooner heard of
Richard’s deliverance, than he wrote to John his con¬
federate in these terms : “ Take care of yourself: the
devil is broke loose.”
Jhe king ot England returned from captivity on Returns to
the 20th ot March 1194, and was received with the^nS*aBd-
.utmost joy by his subjects. He had been but one day
landed, when his treacherous brother John came to
make his submission. At the intercession of Queen'
Eleanor he was received into favour. “ I forgive him
(said the king), and hope I shall as easily forget his
offences as he will my pardon.” Richard was impa¬
tient to revenge himself on the king of France, and
therefore instantly made war upon him. But though
both kings were inflamed with the most violent resent¬
ment against each other, they tound it impossible to
engage their powerful barons heartily in their cause.
Ihe wan, therefore, produced no remarkable event;
and, in 119was concluded;by a truce for five years.
On some slight occasion it was ready to break out
anew, when the pope’s legate interposed, and a treaty
was about to be concluded. Hing Richard in the
mean time was wounded by an arrow at the siege of
Chains, a castle of Limoges. The wound was not in His death,
itself dangerous ; but being unskilfully treated, a mor¬
tification ensued, and the king expired on the 6th of
April 1199, ^ie I0th vear of his reiern and 42d of
L his
ENGLAND.
England, his a^e. By Ilia will he left the kingdom to his bro*
■-v... i t|)er John, but distributed a fourth part ot his treasure
A. I). no5*among Iha servants.
T( Inline John succeeded to the crown ot England without
eeeds to the opposition, but soon found his a flairs embarrassed on
crown. the continent. The king of France, who, during the
life of King Richard, had always supported the pre¬
tensions of John, now gave a like support to the claims
of Prince Arthur the son of Geofl'rey, who, though
only 12 years of age, promised to be deserving of the
kingdom. But in this matter the king of France
showed so much regard to his own interest, that Con-
stantia, the mother of the young prince, thinking that
her ally designed to keep for himself the provinces
which he pretended to conquer for Arthur, submitted
herself and her son to John, who detained them in
Mans ; and thus became undisputed master of the whole
136 empire.
His bad new king was Weak, tyrannical, cruel, and
qnalities. treac[jerous< Jn short, he seemed to be endowed with
almost every bad quality that can fall to the share of
man. H is conduct, therefore, soon rendered him uni¬
versally odious. Imagining himself now secure on the
side of France, he indulged his passion for Isabella,
the daughter and heiress of the count of Angouleme,
with whom he was much enamoured. His queen, the
heiress of the family of Gloucester, was still alive 5 and
Isabella was married to the count de la Marche, though,
by reason of her youth, the marriage had not been con¬
summated. John persuaded the count de Angouleme
to carry off his daughter from her husband 5 at the
same time that he procured, under some pretence or
other, a divorce from the queen. Thus he incurred the
displeasure of the pope, and also of the count de la
Marche, and a powerful confederacy was formed against
him.
xls John had neither courage nor policy sufficient to
keep his barons in awe, he took a method for that pur¬
pose equally base and cruel. I his was by hiring a set of
ruffians, whom he called his champions, to fight duels
with them, in cases where they required to clear them¬
selves from any charge by fighting a duel, according to
the custom of those times. Thus he proposed to get
rid of his refractory barons $ but they, despising op¬
ponents who were so far below their rank, refused to
fight with them, and a dangerous combination was form¬
ed among the barons against him.
,. The murder of Prince Arthur rendered John stiU
l'* roore generally detested. The young prince with his
1 ’ mother had fled to the court of France, where they were
received with the greatest kindness, and found their
interest more vigorously supported than before. Their
enterprises were attended with considerable success,
when Arthur himself had the misfortune to be taken
prisoner. All the other captives were sent to England j
but the prince was shut up in the castle of Falaise, and
from that time was never heard of. It was universally
believed that John had murdered him with his own
hand ; and this inflamed the general resentment against
him to such a degree, that he soon after lost all his
French provinces. In 1205, the duchy of ^Normandy
itself was also conquered by Philip, and John was forced
to fly with disgrace to England.
The king was resolved to wreak his vengeance upon
She barons, who, he pretended, had deserted his stand-
a
ard in Normandy. For this reason, he levied large HngbmiJ.
sums on their estates j in order, as he said, to undertake ’ v——'
an expedition to the continent. This expedition, how-A
ever, he several times capriciously deferred 5 and once
having ventured out to sea, returned again without ma¬
king the smallest attempt. At last, he landed at Ro¬
chelle, and burnt the city of Angiers-r but hearing that
the enemy were preparing to oppose him, he returned
without attempting any thing else.
This irresolute and cowardly behaviour of John made
him contemptible in the eyes of his subjects 5 but the
Norman princes had so far extended the prerogatives
of the English crown, that the barons, however discon¬
tented, durst not yet attempt to change the form of go- 13S
vernment. John, by entering into a controversy with His coatcil
the church, completed his ruin. The clergy, who forj^^1
some time had acted as a community totally indepen¬
dent of the civil power, had their elections of each
other generally confirmed by the pope, to whom alone
they owned subjection. The election of archbishops,
however, had been a subject of continual dispute be¬
tween the suffragan bishops and the Augustine monks.
In the mean time the archbishop of Canterbury died j
and the Augustine monks, in a very private manner,
elected Reginald, their superior, in his place. The
bishops exclaimed against this election, as a manifest
innovation of their privileges 5 and a furious theologi¬
cal contest was likely to ensue. John very imprudently
took a side in this controversy, and espoused the cause
of the suffragan bishops; in consequence of which,
John de Grey bishop of Norwich was chosen. The
cause was appealed to Rome ; and Pope Innocent III.
seizing with avidity an opportunity of extending bis
power, commanded the monks to choose Cardinal
Stephen Langton, an Englishman, then at the court of
Rome. The power of nominating an archbishop of
Canterbury (a person of almost equal authority with
the king), was an acquisition that would effectually
give the court of Rome an unlimited authority over
England. John, therefore, was resolved not to submit
to this imposition *, but he had not judgment sufficient
to conduct him. He violently expelled the monks from
their convent, and seized upon their revenues. The
pope perceiving, from this absurd conduct, that John
was unequal to the task he had undertaken, after some
intreaties, threatened to put the whole kingdom under
an interdict. The prelates threw themselves on their
knees before the king, and in the most earnest manner
intreated him to avoid the resentment of the holy tri¬
bunal, by receiving the primate, and restoring the
monks to their convent. John, however, broke out
into the most violent invectives. He swore by God's
teeth (his usual oath), that if the kingdom was put un¬
der an interdict, he would banish the whole body of
the clergy, and confiscate all their possessions. The
pope at last, finding he might do it with safety, issued
forth this terrible sentence, so much dreaded by the
whole nation. A stop was immediately put to divine
service, and the administration of all the sacraments *39
except baptism. The church-doors were shut, and
the images of the saints laid on the ground. The dead uader aa
were refused Christian burial; and were thrown into interdiej.
ditches and on the highways, without any funeral
solemnity. Marriage was celebrated in the church¬
yards, and the people prohibited the use of meat as
in
ENG
England.
A D.it 15
The king
Kicommn-
nicated,
and the
kingdom
given to
Philip of
France.
X41
•ohn’s sub-
“issioa to
f*s pope.
in times of public penance. They were debarred from
all pleasure; even from shaving their beards, saluting
each other, or paying any regard to their apparel. The
clergy deplored the unhappy state of the nation in the
most lamentable manner ; while John, in revenge, im¬
prisoned all their concubines, and treated the adherents
of Langton with the utmost rigour.
The furious and imprudent efforts of John proved
totally ineflectual. He had scarce a friend left in the
whole nation; and therefore, in 1209, the pope de¬
nounced a sentence of excommunication against him.
This was soon followed by another still more terrible ;
namely, the absolving all the subjects of the king of
England from their allegiance, and declaring every one
to be excommunicated who had any commerce with
him at his table, council, or even in private conversa¬
tion. The king, rendered quite furious by these re¬
peated indignities, wreaked his vengeance on his un¬
happy subjects, whose affections he ought rather to have
attempted to conciliate. The pope, therefore, pro¬
ceeded to execute the full measure of his wrath on this
devoted prince, by giving away his kingdom to Philip
of France. He published a crusade all over Europe
against King John ; exhorting the nobility, the knights
and men of every condition, to take up arms against
him, and enlist under the French banner. Philip was
not less active on his part. He summoned all the vas¬
sals of the crown to attend him at Rouen ; and having
collected a fleet of 1700 vessels, was ready, in 1213, to
invade England.
The pope had now overstretched his power; and
had the English nation been governed by a prince of
any degree of prudence or resolution, the power of the
clergy would in all probability have been totally bro¬
ken. The people, however superstitious and ready to
obey in matters of religion, could not tamely submit
to be given away by the pope as slaves from one master
to another; and therefore this consideration, added to
the natural antipathy subsisting between the French
and English, put John, notwithstanding all his offences,
at the head of an army of 60,000 men. But the pope
was too great a politician to suffer matters to he car¬
ried to extremities. He promised himself many more
advantages from the submission of John than from an
alliance with Philip; and therefore came over in per¬
son, or, according to some, sent over his legale, to
England, under pretence of conferring with the ba¬
rons, but in reality to hold a conference with John.
He there represented to this forlorn prince, the num¬
bers of the enemy, the hatred of his own subjects, and
the secret confederacy there was against him in Eng¬
land. He intimated, that there was hut one way to
secure him from the impending danger ; namely, to’ put
himself under the protection of the pope, who was a
merciful father, and still willing to receive a repenting
sinner. The abject and irresolute spirit of John sub¬
mitted to this last piece of arrogance, and he took an
oath to obey whatever the pope should command. In
Consequence cf this oath, he took another, the most ex¬
traordinary mentioned in the records of history ; and
which, as it was taken while he commanded an army
of 60,000 men, discovers a meanness of spirit almost
incredible. The terms imposed by it were expressed
io the following words. “ I John, by the grace of
Crod, king of England and lord of Ireland, in order to
LAND, gj
expiate my sins, from my own free will, and the advice Kn^and.
of my barons, give to the church of Rome, to Pope  X  
Innocent and his successors, the kingdom of England, A* 1315*
and all other prerogatives of my crown. I will here¬
after hold them as the pope’s vassal. I will he faithful
to God, to the church of Rome, to the pope my master%
and his successors legitimately elected. I promise to
psty him a tribute of 1000 merks ; to wit, 700 for the
kingdom of England, and 300 for the kingdom of
Ireland.”
This oath was taken by the king before all the peo¬
ple, kneeling, and with his hands held up between
those of the legate. Having then agreed to reinstate
Langton in the primacy, he received the crown which
he had been supposed to have forfeited ; while the le¬
gate, to add to his former insolence, trampled under
his leet the tribute which John had consented to pay.-—.
The king of France was enraged at this behaviour of
the pope; and resolved to execute his project of con¬
quering England, in spite of him and all his censures.
His fleet, however, was attacked in their harbours by
the English, who took 300 vessels, and destroyed about
loo more; while Philip, finding it impossible to pre¬
vent the rest from falling into the hands of the enemy,
set fire to them himself, and thus was obliged to give
up all hopes of success.
John being thus freed from all danger, continued to The ha ion*
follow the same cruel and tyrannical measures which attempt to
had hitherto rendered him odious to his subjects. Hisre^uce tb«
scandalous subjection to the clergy now gave the ba- PreroEa-
rons an opportunity of exerting themselves, in order to‘row"' ^
reduce the enormous prerogatives of the crown. Their
designs were greatly facilitated by the concurrence of
Langton the primate, who on all occasions showed a
sincere regard for the interests of the kingdom. At a
synod of his prelates and clergy, convened°in St Paul’s,
on pretence of examining into the losses of some bishops
W’ho had been exiled by John, he privately conferred
with a. number of barons, to whom he expatiated upon
the vices and injustice of their sovereign. He showed
them a copy of Henry the first’s charter; (being the
only one in the kingdom, and which had been buried in
the rubbish of an obscure monastery). Langton exhorted
the barons to insist on a renewal of it; and this thev
solemnly swore to perform. The same agreement was
afterwards renewed at a more numerous meeting of ba¬
rons summoned by Langton at St Edmonsbury. Here
it was resolved, that at Christmas they should prefer
their common petition in a body, and in the mean time
they separated with a design to put themselves in a pos
ture of defence, enlist men, and fortify their castles.
In the beginning of January 12x5, they repaired to
London, accoutred in their military garb and equi¬
page, and presented their petition to the king, alleging
that he had promised to grant a confirmation of the
laws of Edward the Confessor, at the time he was
absolved from his excommunication. John resented
their presumption ; and required a promise undet* their
hands and seals, that they would never demand, or at¬
tempt to extort, such privileges for the future. This
they refused with such unanimity and resolution, that
the king desired time to consider of their demands.
He promised, that, at the festival of Easter, he would
give a positive answer to their petition; and offered
them the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of
L 2 Ely,
ENGLAND.
Ely, and tlie earl mareschal, as sureties for fulfilling Iiis
engagements.
The barons accepted of his securities, and departed
peaceably 5 but John had no design of complying with
their desires. He had recourse to the clergy, whose
power he had seen and felt in so many instances. He
courted their favour, by granting them a charter esta¬
blishing all those rights of which they were already in
the possession, and which he now pretended to confirm
when he had not the liberty to refuse. To ingratiate
himself still farther with this body, he took the cross,
and appealed to the pope against the usurpation of the
barons. The pope wrote letters to England, reproach¬
ing the primate and bishops w'ith favouring these dissen¬
sions ; and commanded them to promote peace between
the two parties. He exhorted the barons to conciliate
the king, not with menaces, but with humble intreaties j
and promised, upon their obedience, to interpose his
own authority in favour of such of their petitions as he
should find to be just. At the same time, he annulled
their association, and forbade them to enter into any
confederacy for the future.
The barons paid no regard to the pope’s remon¬
strances ; knowing that the fulminations of the court
of Rome would be of little avail, unless they were se¬
conded by the clergy of England. After waiting till
Easter, when the king promised to return them an
answer, they met by agreement at Stamford. J.here
they assembled a force of above 2000 knights, and a
prodigious number of foot. Thence they marched to
Brackley, about 15 miles from Oxford, the place where
the court then resided. John, hearing of their ap¬
proach, sent the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of
Pembroke, and others of his council, to know the par¬
ticulars of their request, and wdiat those liberties were
which they so much importuned him to grant. The
barons delivered a schedule containing the chief articles
of their demands, founded on the charters of Henry and
Edward 5 but which were in the highest degree displea¬
sing to the king. He burst into a furious passion, ask¬
ed the barons why they did not also demand his king¬
dom 5 and swore that he would never comply with such
exorbitant demands. The confederates then chose Ro¬
bert Fitzwalter for their general; whom they dignified
with the title of “ Mareschal of the army of God and
of the holy church.” They laid siege to Northamp¬
ton, took Bedford, and were joyfully received into
London. They wrote letters to all the nobility and
gentry who had not yet declared in their favour, threat¬
ening their estates with devastation in case of refusal
or delay.
In the mean time the king wras left at a place called
Odiham in Surrey, attended only by seven knights.
He vainly endeavoured to avert the storm by the me¬
diation of his bishops and ministers. He appealed to
Langton against the barons, not suspecting that he
was engaged in the confederacy •, and desired him to
fulminate the church censures against those who had
made war upon their lawful prince. Langton declared
that he would pass no censure where he found no de¬
linquent j but said, that much might be done if the
king would dismiss some foreign auxiliaries which he
had latelv brought over. Upon this John disbanded
a great body of Germans and Flemings whom he had
hitherto retained in his service, and Langton refused
to excommunicate a single baron. The king, being England,
now quite defenceless, was obliged at last to comply ‘
with the demands of his subjects. A conference %vas I2IS>
accordingly appointed, and all things were adjusted for
this most important treaty. ^
The king’s commissioners met the barons at a place They force
called between Staines and Windsor 5 and him lo sign
which is yet held in reverence as the spot where the Magna
standard of freedom was first erected in England. Here ^ arta'
the king signed the charter called Magna Charta :
which continues in force to this day, and is still re¬
garded as the great bulwark of British liberty. See
Magna Charta. 144
This charter, however, at the time that it was made, Principal ,
secured liberty to the clergy, barons, and gentlemen, ?rtiules of
much more than to the bulk of the people, who did
not for a long time obtain any privileges of import¬
ance. Freedom of elections was secured to the clergy;
and it was determined, that fines on them for any of¬
fence should be laid on in proportion to their estates,
and not the value of their benefices. The privileges
secured to the barons were, either abatements in the
rigour of the feudal laws, or relief from arbitrary and
ambiguous decisions before the courts. It was also
decreed, that barons should recover the lands of their
vassals, even though forfeited by felony, after having
been in the possession of the crown for a year and a
day; and no tax was to be imposed without consent
of the great council of the nation, excepting in case
of the captivity of the king, the. knighting of his el¬
dest son, or marrying his eldest daughter. No land
belonging to any baron was to be seized for a crown
debt, unless the possessor had not personal property
enough to pay it; neither was any vassal to be allowed
to sell so much of his land as to incapacitate him from
performing the necessary service to his lord. It was
also determined, that when the great council of the
nation was called, the prelates, earls, and barons should
be summoned by a particular writ, and the lesser ba¬
rons should receive a summons from the sheriff. In
favour of the people it was stipulated, that they should
have from the barons all the immunities and privileges
granted by the king to the former. Merchants were
to be allowed to carry on their business without any
arbitrary tolls or impositions, and to go out of the
kingdom and return at pleasure. The goods of every
freeman were to be disposed of according to his will ;
or if he died intestate, the nearest heir should succeed
him. No carts, horses, or wood, were to be taken by
the crown officers without the consent of the owner.
The king’s courts were to be stationary, and no delay
to be made in doing justice to every one ; no freeman
should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed ofhis free te¬
nement, outlawed or banished, unless by the legal judg¬
ment of his peers, &c. It was likewise stipulated, that
London should remain in the hands of the barons, and
the Tower be consigned to the primate, till the 15th.
of August following ; or till the articles of the charter
should be fulfilled. To give the more security for this,
the king allowed them to choose 25 of their own num¬
ber, to whose authority no limits were set either in
extent or duration. If any complaint were made of a
violation of the charter, either by the king or his of¬
ficers, any four of the barons might admonish the king
to redress the grievance ; and if satisfaction were not-
obtained,
ENGLAND.
ms
The king
raises an
army a-
gainst his
barons.
England, obtained, they might assemble the whole council of 25;
  ^ 1 and they, in conjunction with the great council, were
A. D 1215. emp0werecl to compel him to fulfil the charter. In
case of his resistance, they had liberty to levy war
against him, attack his castles, and use every kind of
violence, except against his person, or those ol the
queen or children. All men throughout the kingdom
were bound, under the penalty of confiscation, to swear
obedience to the 25 barons ; and the freeholders of each
county were to choose 12 knights, whose business it
was to report such evil customs as ought to be redress¬
ed in terms of Magna Charta.
But although John had thus obliged himself, by wri¬
ting, to allow liberty to his subjects, he had no mind that
they should enjoy it in reality. The sense of his subjec¬
tion to his own vassals sunk deep in his mind. He be¬
came sullen, silent, and reserved. He shunned the so¬
ciety of his former friends j and retired into the isle of
Wight, as if to hide his disgrace in solitude5 but, in
reality, to meditate revenge against the barons. He
sent to the continent to enlist a large body of mercenary
troops, and made complaints to the pope of the insurrec¬
tions of the barons against him. The pontiff very warm¬
ly espoused his cause j a bull was sent over, annulling
the whole charter; and at the same time the foreign
troops arriving, the king once more found himself in a
condition to demand his own terms from his subjects.
The barons had made no preparations for war, not
suspecting the introduction of a foreign army. The
king, therefore, was for some time undisputed master
of the field, and the most horrid cruelties were com¬
mitted by his army. The nobility who had been most
active in procuring the great charter fled with their fa¬
milies to Scotland, where they obtained the protection
They offer of King Alexander by doing homage to him. The
the king- barons being totally unable to raise an army capable of
contending with that of John, applied to their old ene¬
my Philip of Fi ance, offering to acknowledge his eldest
son Louis for their sovereign, on condition of his pro¬
tecting them from the fury of John and his mercena¬
ries. The French king accepted their proposal with
joy j and twenty-five hostages which he demanded be¬
ing sent over, began to make the most diligent prepa¬
rations for this expedition, regardless of the menaces of
the pope, who threatened him with excommunication,
and actually excommunicated his son Louis some time
after.
The first troops who came to the assistance of the
barons, were only a body of 700a men •, but, soon
after, Louis with a powerful army landed at Sand¬
wich. The first effect of this invasion was, that most
of John’s foreign troops deserted, refusing to serve
against the heir of their monarchy. Many considerable
noblemen also deserted bis cause, and Louis daily gain¬
ed ground. This prince advanced to London, where
the barons and burghers did him homage, and took
the oath of allegiance, after he had sworn to confirm
the liberties and privileges of the people. His impru¬
dence, however, in preferring on all occasions his French
subjects to the English, soon excited a jealousy against
him, which proved very prejudicial to his cause. This
jealousy was greatly increased by the death-bed con¬
fession of the count de Melon, one of his courtiers, who
declared to those about him, that it was Louis’s de¬
sign to exterminate the English barons as traitors,
85
14(1
4om to
Louis the
French
king’s son.
and to bestow their dignities and estates upon his England
French subjects, on whose fidelity he could more safe- 1—^ - *«
ly rely. This caused a considerable desertion among A. D. raid.
Louis’s party : so that John once more found himself
in a condition to make an effort for his crown. He
resolved to penetrate into the heart of the kingdom j
and, for this purpose, he departed from Lynn, and
took the road towards Lincolnshire at the head of a
great body of troops. His road lay along the shore,
which was overflowed at high water; but the king,
not being apprised of this, or being ignorant of the
tides of the place, lost all his carriages, treasure, and
baggage by their influx. He himself escaped with the
utmost difficulty, and arrived at the abbey of Swin-
stead ; where his grief for the loss he had sustained,
and the distracted state of his affairs, threw him into a
fever, which soon appeared to be attended with fatal ,
symptoms. He died at Newark in the year 1216, the Death of
51st of his age, and 18th of his reign. He left two le-King John. ^
gitimate sons : Henry, who succeeded him on the
throne, and was about nine years of age j and Bichard,
who was about seven. He left also three daughters j
Jane, married to Alexander king of Scotland ; Elea¬
nor, married to the earl of Pembroke 5 and Isabella,
married to the emperor Frederic II.
When John died, the earl of Pembroke was mare-
schal of England. By this office he was at the head
of the army, and of consequence, in times of such tur¬
bulence, at the head of the state. He was a nobleman
of great honour and fidelity, and had continued faithful
to John in his greatest reverses of fortune. He now
determined to support the authority of the infant Prince
Henry j and therefore carried him immediately to Glou¬
cester, where the ceremony of coronation was perform¬
ed, in the presence of Gaulo the legate and a very few
noblemen, by the bishops of Winchester and Bath. j4s
The young prince was obliged to swear fealty to the Henry III.
pope, and renew the homage which his father had done
for the kingdom ; after which, the earl of Pembroke
was chosen protector.
Till the king arrived at the years of maturity, the He grants .
transactions of his reign can only be considered as the new char-
consequences of the disposition of his tutors. Pem-ters*
broke caused him grant a new charter of liberties,
consisting of the concessions extorted from John, with
some alterations $ and the next year it was renewed,
with the addition of some other articles. Thus these
famous charters were brought very nearly to the shape
in which they have ever since stood ; and they were,
during many generations, esteemed the most sacred
rampart to national liberty and independence. As
they secured the rights of all orders of men, they were
anxiously defended by all, and became in a manner the
basis of the English monarchy, and a kind of original
contract, which both limited the authority of the king,
and ensured the conditional allegiance of his subjects.
Though often violated, they w'ere still claimed and re¬
called by the nobility and people 5 and as no prece¬
dents were supposed valid that infringed them, they
rather acquired, than lost, authority, from the frequent
attempts made against them, in several ages, by regal
and arbitrary power.
These charters were made use of by Pembroke as ar¬
guments to draw off the malecoutent barons from their,
allegiance to Louis. He represented to them, that,
whatever
86
ENGLAND.
Finsland. whatever jealousy they might tiave entertained against
' the late king, a young prince, the lineal heir of their
A. IL i*i6.ancjent monarchs, had now succeeded to the throne,
without succeeding either to the resentments or prin¬
ciples of his predecessor: That the desperate expedi¬
ent, which they had employed, of calling in a foreign
potentate, had, happily for them, as well as for the na¬
tion, failed of entire success; and it was still in their
power, by a quick return to their duty, to restore the
independence of the kingdom, and to secure that li¬
berty for which they so zealously contended: That, as
all past offences of the barons were now buried in ob¬
livion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com¬
plaints against their late sovereign ; who, if he had
been anywise blameable in bis conduct, had left to his
son the salutary warning to avoid his paths, which had
led to such fatal extremities t And that, having now
obtained a charter for their liberties, it was their in¬
terest to show, by their conduct, that the acquisition
was not incompatible with their allegiance *, and that
the rights of the king and people, so far from being
hostile and opposite, might mutually support and sustain
Decline of
t’rioce
Louis’s par¬
ty.
each other.
These considerations, enforced by Pembroke’s known
character of constancy and fidelity, had a very great
influence on the barons. Most of them began to ne¬
gotiate with him, and many actually returned to their
duty. At the same time Louis continued to disgust
those of his own party by the preference which he vi¬
sibly gave to the French. Though he went over to
France, therefore, and brought fresh succours from
thence, he found that his party was greatly weaker
than before, by the desertion of his English confede¬
rates : and that the death of King John had, contrary
to his expectations, occasioned the total ruin of his af¬
fairs. In a short time Pembroke was so much strength¬
ened by deserters from Louis’s party, that he ventu¬
red to invest Mount Sorel j though upon the approach
of the count de Perche with the French army, he de¬
sisted from that enterprise. The French general im¬
mediately marched to Lincoln $ and, being admitted
into the town, laid siege to the castle, and soon redu¬
ced it to extremity. Pembroke summoned his forces
from every quarter, in order to relieve this important
place and he appeared so much superior to the
French, that they shut themselves up within the city,
resolving to take shelter there. But the garrison of the
castle, having received a strong reinforcement, made a
visrorous sally upon the besiegers, while the English
anny assaulted them from without. The French army
was totally routed j the count de Perche with only
two persons more were killed but many of the chief
commanders, and about 400 knights, were made pri¬
soners. On the news of this fatal event, Louis raised
the ^iege of Dover, and retired to London t where he
received intelligence of a new disaster, which put an
end to all his hopes. A French fleet, which carried
a strong reinforcement, had appeared on the coast of
Kent : where they were attacked and repulsed with
considerable loss by Philip d’Albiney. He is said to
have gained the victory by the following stratagem.
Having got the wind of the French, he came down
upon them with violence * and throwing on their faces
a great quantity of quicklime, which he purposely ear-
ri«J on board, they were so blinded that they were
disabled from defending themselves. This misfortune Fngimia.
so discouraged the barons who yet adhered to Louis, -y——1
that they came from every quarter to make their sub- 1255,
mission to Pembroke : and Louis himself, finding his
affairs totally desperate, was glad to make his escape
from a country where every thing was become hostile to t
him. He therefore concluded a peace with the pro-He leare*
lector ; promised to evacuate the kingdom ; and only the kins-
stipnlated, in return, an indemnity to his adherents, and Aoa,«
a restitution of their honours and fortunes, together
with the free and equal enjoyments of those liberties
which had been granted to the rest of the nation.
When the king grew up, he was found to be very
unfit for the government of such a turbulent people as
the English at that time were. Though his temper
was mild and humane, he was also very weak, fickle,
and irresolute. He disgusted the people by the cares¬
ses he bestowed on foreigners $ and this disgust rose
once to such a height, that the barons refused to as¬
semble in the general council of the nation, or parlia¬
ment, at his desire. When commanded to do so, they
sent a message to Henry, desiring him to dismiss his fo¬
reigners j otherwise they would drive both him and
them out of the kingdom, and put the crown on the
head of one who was more worthy to wear it. The
facility of Henry’s temper also induced him to heap
riches upon his foreign favourites in a manner which
be could by no means afford : this often brought him
into very great straits j and to relieve himself, he
was obliged to have recourse to many arbitrary mea¬
sures, which he could not otherwise have chosen. No¬
thing, however, of very great moment happened till
the year 1255, when the pope found means to embark The pope
Henry in a scheme for the conquest of Naples, or Si-undertake»
cily on this side the Faro, as it wras called ; an enterprise
which not only brought much dishonour to the king, {■„
but involved him for some years in very great expenceHeary’s
and trouble. The court of Home some time before »°n.
had reduced the kingdom of Sicily to the same state
of feudal vassalage which he pretended to exercise
over England ; but Mainfroy, an usurper, under pre¬
tence of governing the kingdom for the lawful heir,
had seized the crown, and was resolved to reject the
pope’s authority. As the pope found that his own
force alone was not sufficient to gain his point, he had
recourse to Richard the king of England’s brother,
who had been created earl of Cornwall, and had such
talents for amassing money, that he was reckoned the
richest prince in Christendom. To him the pope of¬
fered the kingdom of Sicily, upon the single condition
of his conquering it from the usurper. Richard was too
wise to accept this offer; upon which the pope applied
to Henry, and offered him the crown of Sicily for his
second son Edmund. Henry, dazzled by this propo¬
sal, without reflecting on the consequences, or with¬
out consulting his brother or the parliament, gave the
pope unlimited credit to expend whatever sums he
thought necessary for completing the conquest of Sici-
ly. In conesquencc of this unlimited grant, his holiness intolerable
determined to exert his apostolical authority to the ut-e*tort»oi!!
most, in extorting money from the English. A cru'||gi^*lfa
eade was published, requiring every one who had taken
the cross against the infidels, or even vowed to advance
money for that purpose, to support the war against
Mainfroy, whorci fes accused as being a more terrible
enemy
ENGLAND,
Jfe'Hgland. enemy to the Christian faith than any Saracen. A
^  tenth on all the ecclesiastical benefices in England was
A iJ. j 2>5. levied for three years; and orders were given to ex¬
communicate the bishops who did not make punctual
payment. A grant was made to the king of the goods
of intestate clergymen, as well as of the revenues of
vacant benefices and those of non-residents. These
taxations, however grievous, were submitted to with
little murmuring; but another suggested by the bishop
,ot Heretord exeited the most violent clamours. This
prelate, who at that time resided at the court of Home,
drew bills on all the abbots and bishops of the king¬
dom, to the amount of no less than 150,540 marks,
which he granted to Italian merchants in consideration
of the money they had advanced or pretended to ad¬
vance for the support of the Sicilian war. As it was
apprehended that the English clergy would not easily
submit to such an extraordinary demand, a commission
was given to Rostand, the pope’s legate, to use his au¬
thority. An assembly ot the prelates and abbots was
accordingly summoned ; who, on hearing the proposal
sanctified with the names both of the pope and king,
were struck with the utmost surprise and indignation.
A violent altercation took place; during which the le¬
gate told them, that all ecclesiastical benefices were the
property of the pope, and that he might dispose of them
as he pleased. The affair ended, however, in the sub¬
mission of the clergy : but the barons still continued
reh'actory, and for some time answered the king’s de¬
mands of supplies with expostulations ; urging the
king’s partiality to foreigners, and the various injuries
the nation had sustained from the servants of the crown.
The great council of the nation, which had lately ob¬
tained the name of parliament, was therefore dissolved,
mid another called, but with as little success as before.
1 he king, however, had involved himself in so much
debt, that a large supply was become absolutely ueces-
saiy ; and as that could by no means be obtained from
parliament, he was now reduced to the humiliating ex¬
pedient of going about among such of his subjects as he
thought most attached to him, and begging assistance
from them at their own houses. At length his barons,
[,53] PerceIvIng .t,ie exigencies to which he was reduced,
Henry so- seemed willing to afford him aid ; and, upon his promi-
leomly re- sing to grant them a plenary redress of grievances, a
V,er? Hberal SUI!pi? was obtaine<J, ^r which he renewed
their charter with more than usual solemnity. All the
prelates and abbots were assembled with burning tapers
in their hands : the magna charta was read in their
presence ; and they denounced sentence of excommuni¬
cation upon all who should infringe upon its decisions.
They then put out their tapers on the ground, and ex¬
claimed, “ May every soul that proves false to this
agreement so stink and corrupt in hell.” The king
subjoined, ‘‘ So help me God, I will inviolably keep
all these things, as I am a man, as I am a Christian,
as I am a knight, and as I am a king crowned and
r.^ anointed.”
le breaks No sooner had the king received the supplies of
19 engage-which he stood so much in need, than he forgot all his
Soc ew™nts, Put b‘s confidence entirely in foreign
tsions a c°unsellois, and evaded or broke through in number-
Tolution. ^ess instances the charters he had given. This conduct
rendered him so obnoxious to the barons, that Simon
Mountfort earl of Leicester, a man of a very violent
and ambitious temper, determined to attempt an inne- EnglancJ.
vation in the government. He formed a powerful con- y—
federacy against the king, and the designs of the con- A- ^ ‘-.in¬
spirators were effectually put in execution in the year
1258. Henry had summoned a parliament in expec¬
tation of receiving supplies for his Sicilian project;
when the barons appeared in the hall, clad in com¬
plete armour, with their swords by their sides. Tl»e
king, struck with this unusual appearance, asked them
what was their purpose, and whether they pretended
to make him their prisoner? Roger Bigod, earl ma-
reschal, answered in name of the rest, that he was not
then piisoner; that they even intended to grant him
large supplies, in order to fix his son on the throne of
Sicily ; that they only expected some return for this
expence and service; and that as the king had fre¬
quently made submissions to the parliament, bad ac¬
knowledged his past errors, and had still allowed him-
Stit to be carried into the same path, which gave them
such reason of complaint, be must now yield to more
strict regulations, and confer authority on those who
were able and willing to redress the public grievances.
Henry instantly assured them of bis intentions to grant
them all possible satisfaction ; and for that purpose
summoned another parliament at Oxford, to digest the
new plan of government, and to elect proper persons
who were to be entrusted with the chief authority.
This assembly, afterwards called the mad parliament,
went very expeditiously to work on the business of re-
formation. iwenty-four barons were appointed, with
supreme authority, to reform the abuses of the state ;
and Leicester was placed at their head. Their first
step was to order four knights to be chosen out of each
county, who should examine into the state of their
respective constituents, and should attend at the en-
suing parliament to give information of their com¬
plaints. hey ordained that three sessions of parlia¬
ment should be regularly held every year; that a new
high sheriff should be elected annually; that no wards
nor castles should be entrusted to foreigners, no new
forests made, nor the revenues of any counties let to
farm.
These constitutions were so just, that some of them Had con-
remain to this day. But the parliament having once ^uct of
obtained the sovereign power, took care not to partnew rilitrs'
wi(h it again. Tiiey not only protracted the time of
their sitting under various pretences ; but at last had
the effrontery to impose an oath upon every individual
of the nation, declaring an implicit obedience to all
the statutes executed or to be yet executed by the
barons who were thus appointed as rulers. They not
only abridged the authority of the king, but the’ effi¬
cacy of parliament also; giving up to 12 persons the
whole parliamentary power between each session 
Their usurpations were first opposed by the knights of
the shires, whom they themselves had appointed. These
had for some time begun to be regularly assembled ir»
a separate house, to consider of the national grievan¬
ces ; the first of which was the conduct of the 24 ru¬
lers. They represented, that though the king had
performed all that was required of him, the barons
had hitherto done nothing on their part that showed
an equal regard for the people ; that their own interest
and power seemed the only aim of all their decrees ;
and they even called upon the king’s eldest son Prince
Edwardt
83
ENGLAND.
England. Edward to interpose his authority, and save the sinking
V 1 ’ nation.
A. D. 1258. The prince was at this time about 22 years of age,
q I55| b and by his active and resolute conduct had inspired the
Prince Ed-nation with great hopes. He told those who made the
ward. application to him, that he had sworn to the late con¬
stitutions j and, on that account, though they were
contrary to his own private opinions, he was resolved
not to infringe them. At the same time, however, he
sent a message to the barons, requiring them to bring
their undertaking to an end, or otherwise to expect
the most vigorous resistance to their usurpations. On
this the barons were obliged to publish a new code of
laws, which, though it contained scarce any thing
material, yet, it was supposed, would for a while
dazzle the eyes of the people, until they could take
measures to establish their authority upon surer foun¬
dations. In this manner, under various pretences,
they continued their power for three years ; while the
whole nation loudly condemned their treachery, and
the pope himself at last absolved the king and his sub¬
jects from the oath they had taken to obey their in¬
junctions. Soon after this, a parliament was called,
and the king reinstated in his former authority. The
barons were obliged to submit for a time ; but the earl
of Leicester having joined the Welsh, who at this time
made an irruption into England, the kingdom was re¬
duced to the most deplorable situation. The pusillani¬
mity of the king prevented any proper or judicious
method from being pursued for extricating the people
from their distresses j and at last a treaty was concluded
with the barons on the most disadvantageous terms that
can be imagined. They were restored to the sovereign¬
ty of the kingdom, took possession of all the royal ca¬
stles and fortresses, and even named the officers ol the
king’s household. They summoned a parliament to
meet at Oxford, in order more fully to settle the plan
of government ; and by this assembly it was enacted
that the authority of the 24 barons should continue not
only during the life of King Henry, but also during that
x-7 of Prince Edvvard.
Who is de-t These scandalous conditions would have been easily
feated and complied with by King Henry ; but they were utterly
taken pri- rejecte(] by Prince Edward, and a civil war immediate-
thlTldn" * ly ensued.' The prince was at first successful ; but,
through his impetuosity, occasioned the loss of a great
battle, in which his father and uncle were taken pri¬
soners, and he himself was obliged soon after to surren¬
der to the earl of Leicester. The king was now redu¬
ced to the most deplorable situation. His partisans
were totally disarmed, while those of the earl of
Leicester still kept themselves in an offensive posture.
Leicester seized the estates of no fewer than 18 barons j
engrossed to himself the ransom of all the prisoners ;
monopolized the sale of wood to foreign markets $ and
at last ordained that all power should be exercised by
nine persons, who were to be chosen by three others,
or the majority of them ; and these three were the earl
of Leicester himself, the earl of Gloucester, and the bi¬
shop of Chichester.
The miserable situation to which the kingdom was
now reduced, proved at last the means of settling the
government on a more proper foundation. Leicester, in
order to secure himself, was obliged to have recourse to
an aid, till now entirely unknown in England, namely,
3
and his
brother.
158
First House
of Com-
saons.
that of the body of the people. He called a parliament, England,
where, besides the barons of his own party, and several y—
ecclesiastics who were not proper tenants of the crown, ia<*5
he ordered returns to be made of two knights from
every shire j and also deputies from the boroughs, which
had been hitherto considered as too inconsiderable to be
allowed any share in the legislation. This parliament
was called on the 2Qth of January 1265 : an<^ ^ere 'we
find the first outline of an English House of Commons 5
an institution which has ever since been considered as
the bulwark of British liberty.
The new parliament was far from being so compliant
to Leicester as he had desired or expected. Many of the
barons who had hitherto stedfastly adhered to his party
were disgusted with his boundless ambition ; and the
people, who found.Jiiat a change of masters was not a
change from misery to happiness, began to wish for the
re-establishment of royal authority. Leicester at last, to
make a merit of what he could not prevent, released
Prince Edward from his confinement, and had him in¬
troduced at Westminster-hall, where his freedom was
confirmed by the unanimous voice of the barons. But
though Leicester had all the popularity of restoring the
prince, he was yet politic enough to keep him guarded
by his emissaries, who watched all his actions. At last,
however, he found means to make his escape in the fol¬
lowing manner. The duke of Gloucester, being dis¬
gusted with Leicester, retired from court, and went to
his estates on the borders of Wales. His antagonist
pursued him thither: and to give the greater authority
to his arms, carried the king and prince of Wales along
with him. This furnished young Edward with the op¬
portunity he had so long desired. Being furnished by
the earl of Gloucester with a horse of extraordinary
swiftness, he took leave of his attendants, who were in
fact his guards, but were not able to come up with him.
They pursued him, however, for some time ; but the
appearance of a body of troops belonging to Gloucester
soon put an end to their pursuit. 155,
The prince no sooner recovered his liberty, than the Prince Ed
royalists joined him from all quarters, and an army was
soon procured which Leicester could not withstand.
This nobleman now found himself in a remote quarter
of the kingdom 5 surrounded by his enemies ; and de¬
barred from all communication with his friends by the
riyer Severn, whose bridges Edward had broken down.
In this extremity, he wrote to his son to hasten to his
assistance from London, with a considerable body which
he had under his command. With this view his son
advanced to Kenilworth ; but here he was surprised,
and his army entirely dispersed by Prince Edward.
The young prince, immediately after this victory, ad¬
vanced against Leicester himself j who, ignorant ct
the fate of his son’s army, had passed the Severn in
boats. He was by no means able to cope with the
royalists $ his men being inferior both in numbers and 1^0
resolution to their antagonists. His army was defeat-Earl of Lci-
ed with great slaughter. Leicester himself was slain, caster de-
though he called out for quarter, together with his el-
dest son Henry, and about 160 knights and other
gentlemen. The old king had been purposely placed
bv the rebels in the front of the battle, where he was
wounded, and in great danger of being killed ■, but, cry¬
ing out, “ I am Henry of Winchester your king,” he
was saved and put in a place of security by his son,
who
E N G L A N D.
Eneland. '*v^° fi°wn ^i13 assistance. The body of Leicester
1——v——' being found among the dead, was barbarously mang-
A. D. 1272. le(] by one Koger Mortimer ; and then sent to his wi¬
dow, as a testimony of the royal party’s barbarity and
success.
This victory, gained at Evesham, proved decisive in
favour of the royal party. Almost all the castles,
garrisoned by the barons, hastened to make their sub¬
missions, and opened their gates to the king. The
Isle of Axholme alone, and that of Ely, trusting to
the strength of their situation, ventured to make re¬
sistance 5 but were at last reduced, as well as the castle
of Dover, by the valour and activity of Prince Ed¬
ward. Adam de Gourdon, a courageous baron, main¬
tained himself some time in the forests of Hampshire,
committing depredations in the neighbourhood ; and
obliged the prince to lead a body of troops into that
country against him. Edward attacked the camp of
the rebels j and being transported by the ardour of ac¬
tion, leaped over the trench with a few followers, and
encountered Gourdon himself in a single combat. The
victory was long disputed between these two valiant
combatants $ but ended at last in the prince’s favour,
who wounded his antagonist, threw him from his horse,
and took him prisoner. He not only granted him his
life, but introduced him that very night to the queen
at Guildford, procured his pardon, and was ever after
faithfully served by him.
In 1271, Prince Edward, having settled the affairs
of the kingdom, undertook an expedition to the Holy
Land, where he signalized himself by many acts of va¬
lour. The king’s health declined visibly after the de¬
parture of his son ; and at last, worn out with cares
and the infirmities of age, he expired at St Edmonsbury
15I on the 16th of November 1272, in the 64th year of his
Death of age and the 56th of his reign.
Henry III. Prince Edward bad reached Sicily in his return from
the Holy Land, when he received an account of his
father’s death ; at which he expressed much concern.
As he knew that England was at that time in a state
161 of perfect tranquillity, he was in no haste to return,
Edward I, but spent near a year in France before he made his ap¬
pearance in England. He was received by his sub¬
jects with the utmost joy, and crowned at Westmin¬
ster by Robert archbishop of Canterbury on the 19th
of August 1274* He immediately applied himself to
the correcting of those disorders which the civil com¬
motions, and weak administration of his father, and
introduced. A system of strict justice, bordering on
severity, was introduced and kept up through the whole
of this reign. The Jews were the only part of his
subjects whom Edward oppressed. Many arbitrary
taxes were levied upon them ; 280 of them w'ere bang¬
ed at once for adulterating the coin ; the goods of the
rest were confiscated, and all of them banished the
i(7, kingdom.
"onqaers In 1276, the king undertook an expedition against
Vales. Lewellyn prince of Wales, who had refused to do ho¬
mage for his crown. The conquest of that country
was not fully accomplished till the year 1283 j after
which the principality of Wales was annexed to the
crown of England, and thenceforth gave a title to the
See Wafe* king’s eldest son *.—In 1286, the settlement of Wales
appeared so complete, that the king went abroad in
order to make peace between Alfonso king of Arra-
Vol. MIL Part I. t
89
gon and Philip le Bel king of France, who had a dif- England
ference about the kingdom of Sicily. He succeeded 1   
in his negotiations j but, staying abroad three years, A-
he found that many disorders had been introduced in
his absence. Many instances of robbery and violence
had broke out in all parts of England j but the cor¬
ruption of the judges, by which the fountains of justice
were poisoned, was of still more dangerous consequence.
Edward, in order to remedy this prevailing abuse,
summoned a parliament, and brought the judges to a
trial 5 where all of them except two, who were clergy¬
men, were convicted of this flagrant iniquity, were
fined, and deposed from their office. The amount of
the fines levied upon them is of itself a sufficient proof
of their guilt, being above 100,000 marks •, an immense
sum in those days, sufficient to defray the expences of a
war betwixt two great nations. The king afterwards
made all the new judges swear that they would take no
bribes ; but the deposing and fining the old ones was
the more effectual remedy. l6j^
In 1291, King Edward began to meditate the con-Attempts
quest of Scotland, which employed him during the t^ie c011-
rest of his life ; but which, though that kingdom was^^^j
by him reduced to the greatest distress, he was never'tJ a‘"
able to accomplish t. At the same time, he was en-f See Scot-
gaged in expensive contests with France ; and these
multiplied wars and preparations for war, by obliging
him to have frequent recourse to parliamentary sup¬
plies, became the remote causes of great and impor- ^
tant changes in the government. The parliament was New mo-
modelled into the form which has continued ever since, dels the
As a great part of the property of the kingdom, by Parlif‘inent.
the introduction of commerce and improvements in
agriculture, was transferred from the barons to the
lower class of people, so their consent was thought ne¬
cessary for raising the supplies. For this reason, the
king issued writs to the sheriffs, enjoining them to send
to parliament, along with two knights of the shire, two
deputies from each borough within their county 5 and
these provided with sufficient powers from their con¬
stituents to grant such demands as they should think
reasonable for the safety of the state. The charges of
these deputies were to be borne by the boroughs, which
sent them ; and so far were they from considering this
deputation as an honour, that nothing could be more
displeasing to any borough than to be thus obliged to
send a deputy, or to any individual than to be thus
chosen. The authority of these commoners, however, in¬
creased through time. Their union gave them weight $
and it became customary among them, in return for the
supplies which they granted, to prefer petitions to the
crown for the redress of those grievances under which
the nation was supposed to labour. The more the king’s
necessities increased, the more he found it necessaiy to
give them an early redress ; till, from requesting, the
commons proceeded to requiring ; and having all the
property of the nation, they by degrees began also to
be possessed of the power. f
Edward I. died of a dysentery at Carlisle on the Dies and U
7th of July 1307, as he was leading a great army intosuccecded
Scotland, against the inhabitants of which he hadIf.
vowed the most dreadful vengeance. He was succeed¬
ed by his son Edward II. whom be had charged with
his dying breath to prosecute the war against Scot¬
land, and never to desist till he had finally subdued the
M kingdom.
go
ENGLAND.
England, kingdom. But Ae new king was of a very diffe-
v—v—_ ent disposition from Ins lather. Ine boots gra-
A. D. 1314. ilually I’ecovered their power j and in I3I4 gave the
English such a terrible defeat at Bannockburn, that
for many years no superiority of numbers could en¬
courage them to look the Scots in the face. See
167 Scotland.
DUcim- reign of Eilward II. affords no particulars of
teius of ^UI great moment. Being a prince of a weak understand¬
ing, though endued with no remarkable bad qualities,
his reign was one continued series of quarrels with his
turbulent subjects. His favourites were the most ge¬
neral causes of discontent. The first of these was one
Piers Gaveston, the son of a Gascon knight of some
distinction, who had honourably served the late king,
and who, in reward for his services, had obtained an
establishment for his son in the family of the prince of
Wales.—To be the favourite of any king whatever, is
no doubt in itself a sufficient offence to the rest of the
courtiers. Numberless faults were therefore found
•with Gaveston by the English barons. When the king
went over to France to espouse the princess Isabella,
to whom he had been long contracted, Gaveston was
left guardian of the realm, with more ample powers
than had usually been conferred in such a case. But
when the queen, who was of an imperious and in¬
triguing spirit, arrived, Gaveston had the misfortune
to fall under her displeasure also, on account of the
ascendency he had acquired over the king. A con¬
spiracy was therefore soon formed against the favour¬
ite j at the head of which were the queen, and the
earl of Lancaster, cousin-german to the king, and the
most opulent and powerful nobleman in England. The
king, unable to resist such a combination, was at last
obliged to banish Gaveston j but recalled him some
time after. This was sufficient to spread an alarm over
the whole kingdom : a civil war ensued; and the nobi-
litv having got Gaveston into their hands, soon freed
themselves of any farther apprehensions from him, by
putting him to death.
After the unfortunate defeat at Bannockburn, King
Edward chose a new favourite namedleDespenser.
He wak a young man of a noble English family, some
merit, and very engaging accomplishments. His fa¬
ther was a person of a much more respectable charac¬
ter than the son } but the being admitted to a share of
King Edward’s favour was a sufficient crime. The king
imprudently dispossessed some lords of their estates, in
order to bestow them upon this favourite j and this
was a sufficient pretence for openly attacking both the
father and son. The earls of Lancaster and Here¬
ford flew to arms. Sentence was procured from par¬
liament of perpetual exile against the two Spencers,
with a forfeiture of all their estates. At last the king
took the field at the head of 30,000 men, and pressed
the earl of Lancaster so closely, that he had not time to
collect his forces together j and, flying from one place
to another, he was at last stopped in his way towards
Scotland, and made prisoner. He was immediately
condemned by a court-martial; and executed on an
eminence near Pomfret, with circumstances of the great¬
est indignity.
Spencer now triumphed for some time over his ene¬
mies $ most of the forfeitures were seized for his use,
and he is said to hare been guilty of many acts of ra- England,
pine and injustice. But he was soon opposed by a more *—-v—
formidable enemy. Queen Isabella fled to France, and I3Id.
refused to return to England till Spenser was removed .nsi)^e8c
from the royal presence, and banished the (kingdom.j4onaj,ajnst
Thus she made herself popular in England, where him by the
Spenser was universally disliked j and she had the plea-quee11*
sure of enjoving the company of a young nobleman
named Mortimer, upon whom she bad lately placed her
aflections. The queen’s court, therefore, became a
sanctuary for all the malecontents who were banished
their own country, or who chose to come over. When
she thought matters were ripe for her purpose, she set
sail from Dort harbour, accompanied by 3000 armed
men. She landed without opposition on the coast of
Suffolk, on the 24th of September 1326 j and she no-
sooner appeared, than there seemed to be a general re¬
volt in her favour. The unfortunate king found the
spirit of disloyalty spread over the whole kingdom.
He had placed some dependence on the garrison of
Bristol, which was under the command of the elder
Spenser j hut they mutinied against their governor ;
and that unfortunate favourite was delivered up, and
condemned by the tumultuous barons to the most igno¬
minious death. He was hanged on a gibbet in his ar¬
mour j his body was cut in pieces and thrown to the
dogs j and his head was sent to Winchester, where it
was set on a pole, and exposed to the insults ol the
populace. Young Spenser did not long survive his fa¬
ther. He was taken, with some others who had fol¬
lowed the fortunes of the wretched king, in an ob¬
scure convent in Wales. The queen had not patience
to wait the formality of a trial; but ordered him to be
immediately led forth before the insulting populace, and
seemed to take a savage pleasure in beholding his dis¬
tress. He was executed on a gibbet 50 feet high ; his
head was sent to London, where it was received by the
citizens with brutal triumph, and fixed on the bridge.
In the mean time the king, who hoped to find re¬
fuge in WTales, was quickly discovered, and delivered
up to his adversaries, who insulted him in the grossest
manner. He was conducted to the capital amidst the
insults and reproaches of the people, and confined in
the Tower. A charge was soon exhibited against him j
in which no other crimes hut his incapacity to govern,
his indolence, his love of pleasure, and his being
swayed by evil counsellors, were objected against him. ^
His deposition, however, was quickly voted by parlia-Edward
ment; he was assigned a pension for his support j his deposed,
son Edward, a youth of 14, was chosen to succeed
him, and the queen was appointed regent during the
minority. The deposed monarch did not long survive
the loss of his crown. He was at first consigned to the
custody of the earl of Lancaster ; but this nobleman
showing some marks of respect and pity, he was taken
out of his hands, and'delivered over to the lords Berke¬
ley, Mautravers, and Gournay, who were entrusted
alternately, each for a month, with the charge of
guarding him. While he was in Berkeley’s custody,
he was still used with some degree of humanity j but
when the turn of Mautravers and Gournay came, every
species of indignity was practised upon him, as if they
had designed to accelerate his death by the bitterness
of his sufferings. It is reported, that one day when
Edward
tyo
and cruel¬
ly mnrdcr-
dered.
x7l
iorcreign
jower as-
Hined by
l>e queen
Hid Mar.
iHicr.
Edward was to be sbaved, they ordered cold and dirty
water to be brought from a ditch for that purpose ; and
when he desired it to be . changed, and was still de¬
nied his request, he burst into tears, and exclaimed,
That in spite of their insolence he should be shaved
with clean and warm water. As his persecutors, how¬
ever, saw that his death might not arrive, even under
every cruelty they could practise, and were daily afraid
of a revolution in his favour, they determined to rid
themselves of their fears by destroying him at once.
Mortimer, therefore, secretly gave orders to the two
keepers, who were at his devotion, instantly to dis¬
patch the king; and these ruffians contrived to make
the manner of his death as cruel and barbarous as pos¬
sible. Taking advantage of Berkeley’s sickness, in
whose custody he then was, and who was thereby in¬
capacitated from attending his charge, they came to
Berkeley-castle, and put themselves in possession of the
king’s person. They threw him on a bed, and held
him down with a table which they had placed over
him. They then ran a horn-pipe up his body, through
which they conveyed a red-hot iron ; and thus burnt
his bowels without disfiguring his body. By this in¬
fernal contrivance they expected to have their crime
concealed : but the horrid shrieks of the king, which
were heard at a distance from the castle, gave a suspi¬
cion of the murder; and the whole was soon after di¬
vulged by the confession of one of the accomplices.
Gournay and Mautravers were held in detestation by
all mankind ; and when the ensuing revolution depri¬
ved their protectors of power, they found it necessary
to fly the kingdom. Gournay was afterwards seized at
Marseilles, delivered over to the seneschal of Guienne,
and put on board a ship with a view of carrying him
over to England ; but he was beheaded at sea, by se¬
cret orders, as was supposed, of some nobles and pre¬
lates of England, anxious to prevent any discovery
which he might make of his accomplices. Mautra¬
vers concealed himself for some years in Germany ;
but having found means of rendering some services to
Edward III. he ventured to approach his person,
threw himself on his knees before him, and received a
pardon.
By the death of Edward IT. the government fell
entirely into the'hands of the queen and her paramour
Mortimer. The parliament, which raised young Ed¬
ward to the throne, had indeed appointed 12 persons
as his privy-council, to direct the operations of govern¬
ment. Mortimer excluded himself, under a show’ of
moderation; but at the same time secretly influenced
all the measures that came under their deliberation.
As this influence began very soon to be perceived, and
the queen’s criminal attachment to Mortimer was uni¬
versally known, these governors soon became very ob¬
noxious to the people. The first stroke given to Mor¬
timer’s power was during an irruption of the Scots,
when the favourite prevented the young king from at¬
tacking the enemy. Though it is very probable that
the English army would have been destroyed bv ma¬
king an attack on an army situated in such an advan¬
tageous post as the Scots at that time occupied, Mor¬
timer incurred great blame on that account. He was
accused of having allowed the Scots to make their
escape ; and the general disgust on this account was in¬
creased by his concluding a peace with that kingdom,
ENGLAND. 9l
wherein the English renounced all title to the sove- England,
reignty of Scotland for the sum of 30,000 marks. Soon
.O J —     —   j tuciAivo. k-ruuil v
after Mortimer seized and executed the earl of Kent,A,D* z327*
brother to the late king; who, supposing Edward II.
to be still alive, had formed a design of reinstating him
in his kingdom. The execution was so sudden, that
the young king had not time even to interpose in his
behalf; and Mortimer soon after seized this nobleman’s
estate for his own use, as he did all the immense for¬
tunes of the Spensers,
Edward, finding the power of Mortimer a continual
restraint upon himself, resolved to shake oft" an autho¬
rity that was likewise grown odious to the whole na¬
tion. The queen and Mortimer had for some time
chosen the castle of Nottingham for their residence. It
was strictly guarded, the gates were locked every night,
and the keys carried to the queen. It was therefore
agreed between the king and some of the barons, who
secretly entered into his designs, to seize upon them in
this fortress. Sir William Eland the governor was in¬
duced to admit them through a subterraneous passage,
which had been formerly contrived for an outlet, but
was now choked up with rubbish, and known only to
one or two. Through this passage the noblemen in the
king’s interest entered the castle in the night-time;
and Mortimer, without having it in his power to make
any resistance, was seized in an apartment adjoining to
that of the queen. The parliament, which was then
sitting, condemned him, without either permitting him
to make his defence, or examining a single witness
against him. He was hanged on a gibbet at a place Mortimer
called EfmcS) about a mile from London. A similar executed,
sentence was passed against some of his adherents, par¬
ticularly Gournay and Mautravers, who found an op¬
portunity of escaping as above mentioned. The queen,
who was perhaps the most culpable of the whole, was
screened by the dignity of her station. She was, how¬
ever, deposed from all share of power; and confined
for life to the castle of Risings, with a pension of 3000
pounds a-year. From this confinement she was never
set free, though the king paid her an annual visit of
ceremony. She lived 25 years after her deposition.
Edward III. proved the greatest warrior that ever
sat on the English throne. He first attempted to raise
Edward Baliol to the sovereignty of Scotland ; but this
he found impossible fully to accomplish. Edward£d
next formed a project of invading and conquering invades
France, to the sovereignty of which lie pretended a *’rance on-
right. His first expectations were attended with so succe8lful-
little success, that on his return to England he found y’
the nation very much discontented, and himself haras¬
sed by his numerous creditors, without any sufficient
resource for paying them. Being determined, how¬
ever, not to bear any blame himself if he could throw
it anywhere else, he took the first opportunity of
wreaking his vengeance upon his subjects. Finding nis S-
tberefore the tower of London negligently guarded on trary beha.
his arrival, he imprisoned the constable and all his in- viour on his
ferior officers, treating them with the greatest severity. relUII1•
He then fell upon the sheriffs and collectors of the re¬
venue, whom he dismissed from their employments, and
appointed an inquiry into their conduct to be made by
persons who, knowing the king’s humour, were sure to
find every one guilty who came before them. The keeper
of the privy-seal, the chief-justice, the mayor of London,
M 2 the
92
Kiiglanil.
Is opposed
by the
archbishop
of Canter¬
bury;
176
and obli¬
ged at last
to submit:
ENGL
the bishops of Chichester and Litchfield, with the
chancellor and treasurer, were deposed and imprisoned.
In this career of resentment and cruelty, however, he
found himself opposed by the archbishop ot Canter¬
bury, whom he had appointed to collect the taxes laid
on for the support of the French war. That prelate
happening to be absent at the time of the king’s ar¬
rival, did not immediately feel the effects of his resent¬
ment. Being informed, however, of the humour in
which Ills sovereign was, he issued a sentence of excom¬
munication against all who, on any pretence whatever,
should exercise violence against the persons or estates
of clergymen, or who infringed those privileges secu¬
red by the great charter, or who accused a prelate of
treason, or any other crime, in order to bring him
under the king’s displeasure. A regular combination
was formed against the king by the clergy, with the
primate at their head } who, to excite the indigna¬
tion of the people as much as possible, reported that
the king intended to recal the general pardon and the
remission to old debts which had been granted, and to
impose new and arbitrary taxes without consent of par¬
liament. The archbishop also, in a letter to the king,
informed him, that there were two powers by which
the world was governed, viz. the holy pontifical apo¬
stolical dignity and the regal authority ; of which the
clerical power was evidently the supreme, as the priests
were to answer even for the conduct of kings at the
last judgment } and were besides the spiritual fathers
of all the faithful, kings and princes not excepted j
having, besides, a heavenly charter, entitling them to
direct their wills and actions, and to censure their
transgressions. On this the king resolved to mortify
him, by sending no summons to him when the parlia¬
ment was called : but the prelate, undaunted by this
mark of resentment, appeared before the gates of the
parliament-house with his crosier in his hand, de¬
manding admittance as the first peer of the realm.
This application was rejected for two days, but at last
complied with ; and the parliament now seemed in¬
clined to abridge the king’s authority considerably.
They began with observing, that as the great charter
had been violated in many points, particularly by the
illegal imprisonment of many freemen and the. seizure
of their goods, it was necessary to confirm it anew,
and to oblige all the chief officers of the law and
others to swear to the observance of it. It was also
required, that whenever any of the great offices be¬
came vacant, the king should fill them up by the ad¬
vice of his council and the consent of such barons as
should at the time be found to reside in the neigh¬
bourhood of the court. They enacted also, that on
the third day of every session the king should resume
all such offices into his own hand, excepting those of
the justices of the two benches and the barons of ex¬
chequer ; that the ministers should for the time be re¬
duced to private persons j that they should in that
condition answer before parliament to any accusation
preferred against them ; and that, if they were found
in any respect guilty, they should be finally deprived
of their offices, and others appointed in their stead.
In return for such ample concessions, the king was of¬
fered a grant of 20,000 sacks of wool} and such was
his urgent necessity, that he was compelled to accept
ijf it even upon these terms. Still, however, he deter-
2c
AND.
mined to adhere to his engagements no longer than till England.
this necessity was removed. Though the agreement, ' *—
therefore, was ratified in full parliament, he secretly A-D. 1377,
entered a protest, that, as soon as his convenience per¬
mitted, he would from his own authority revoke what
had been extorted from him. This protest was after¬
wards confirmed by a public edict in which he assert¬
ed, that that statute had been made contrary to law j
that it was prejudicial to the prerogatives of the crown,
which he had only dissembled when he seemed to ra-r
tify it; and that in his own breast he had never assent¬
ed to it : and declared, that from henceforth it had
no force or authority. This exertion of arbitrary But7egaifc
power, which it might have been imagined would have ]ijs p0W£r.
occasioned a prodigious clamour, was not taken notice
of by any of the subsequent parliaments; so that in
the course of two years Edward had entirely regained
his authority, and obtained a repeal of the obnoxious 17s
statute just mentioned. Having thus settled matters Performs
to his satisfaction, the king resumed his expedition g|Lat «x-
against France, where he gained great advantages. In
his absence the Scots invaded England ; but were en¬
tirely defeated at Durham, and their king himself taken
prisoner. The English king in the mean time conti¬
nued his victories on the continent ; in which he was
greatly assisted by Ed ward surnamed the Black Prince,
the greatest hero recorded in the English annals. But
for the wars of Edward III. and the exploits of this
famous prince, see the articles Scotland and I range.
The Black Prince died on the 8th of June 1376, and
the king survived only about a year. He expired on
the 21st of June 1377, and was succeeded by his se¬
cond son Richard.
As the new king was only eleven years old when he Richard 1L
ascended the throne, the government was vested in the
hands of his three uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York,
and Gloucester. The different dispositions of these no¬
blemen, it was thought, would cause them check the
designs of each other. Lancaster was neither popular
nor enterprising; York was indolent and weak; and
Gloucester turbulent, popular, and ambitious. Dis¬
contents first arose among the common people. They
had now acquired a share of liberty sufficient to inspire
them with a desire for more, and this desire was greatly
increased by the discourses of John Ball a seditious
preacher. He went about the country, and inculcated
on his audience, that mankind were all derived from
one common stock ; and that all of them had equal
right to liberty and the goods of nature, of which they
had been deprived by the ambition of a few insolent
rulers.
These doctrines were greedily swallowed by the po¬
pulace, who were farther inflamed by a new imposition
of three groats a-head upon every person in the king¬
dom above 15 years of age. This had been granted
as a supply by parliament, and was no doubt necessary
on account of the many expensive wars in which the
kingdom was engaged ; but its apparent injustice, in
laying no more burden upon the rich than the poor,
excited the utmost resentment of the people. The
manner, too, of collecting this tax, soon furnished them
with an occasion of revolt. It began in Essex, where a
report was industriously spread that the peasants were
to be destroyed, their houses burned, and their farms
plundered. A blacksmith, well known by the name
England of Wat Tyler, was the first that excited them to arms.
  The tax-gatherers coming to this man’s house while he
A-D. 1377. Was at work, demanded payment for his daughter.
Dangerous ^ie reflliied, alleging that she was under the age
inwmc- mentioned in the act. One of these fellows offered to
lion by produce a very indecent proof to the contrary, and at
Wat Ty- the same time laid hold of the maid. This the father
resenting, immediately knocked out the ruffian’s brains
with his hammer. The bystanders applauded the ac¬
tion ; and exclaimed that it was high time for the peo¬
ple to take vengeance on their tyrants, and to vindi¬
cate their native libery. The whole country imme¬
diately took arms, and the insurgents soon amounted
to about 100,000 men. They advanced to Blackheatb,
where they sent a message to the" king, who had taken
shelter in the Tower, desiring a conference with him.
The king was desirous of complying with their de¬
mands, but was intimidated by their fierce behaviour.
In the mean time, they entered the city, burning and
plundering the houses of such as were obnoxious for
their power or riches. Their animosity was particu¬
larly levelled against the lawyers, to whom they show¬
ed no mercy. The king, at last, knowing that the
Tower was not able to resist their assaults, went out
among them, and desired to know their demands. To
this they made a very humble remonstrance j requiring
a general pardon, the abolition of slavery, freedom of
commerce in the market-towns, and a fixed rent in¬
stead of those services required by the tenure of vil-
lenage. The king granted all these requests; and
charters were made out by which the grant was rati¬
fied. In the mean time, however, another body of
these insurgents had broke into the Tower, and mur¬
dered the chancellor, the primate, and the treasurer,
with some other officers of distinction. They then di¬
vided themselves into bodies, and took up their quar¬
ters in different parts of the city. At the head of one
of these was Wat Tyler, who led his men into Smith-
field, where he was met by the king, who invited him
to a conference under pretence of hearing and redress¬
ing his grievances. Tyl er ordered his companions to
retire till he should give them a signal, and boldly ven¬
tured to begin a conference with the king in the midst
of his retinue. His demands were, That all slaves
should be set free ; that all commonages should be open
to the poor as well as to the rich ; and that a general
pardon should be passed for the late outrages. Whilst
he made these demands, he now and then lifted up his
lSj sword in a menacing manner: which insolence so rai-
He is kill- setl tlie indignation of William Walworth lord mayor
£<i. of London, that, without considering the danger to
which he exposed his majesty, he stunned Tyler with
a blow of his mace ; while one of the king’s knights
riding up, dispatched him with his sword. The mu¬
tineers, seeing their leader fall, prepared themselves to
take revenge. Their bows were already bent for exe¬
cution ; when Richard, though not yet 16 years of
age, rode up to the rebels, and with admirable presence
of mind cried out: “ What, my people, will you kill
your king ? Be not concerned for the loss of your lead¬
er. I myself will now be your general. Follow me
into the field, and you shall have whatever you desire.”
The multitude immediately desisted, and followed the
king into the fields, where he granted them the same
charters that he had before granted to their compa¬
nions. These charters, however, were soon after revo- England,
ked, and the common people reduced to the same situa- \
tion in which they had formerly been. A. D. 1377.
The courage, address, and presence of mind, which
the king had discovered in quelling such a dangerous
tumult, gave great hopes to the nation : hut, in pro¬
portion as Richard advanced in years, these hopes were
blasted ; and his want of capacity, or at least of solid
judgment, appeared in every enterprise he attempted.
The king had unluckily lost the favour of the com- jg2
mon people after the insurrection just mentioned. He The king
allowed the parliament to revoke the charters of en-^osesthe
franchisemcnt and pardon which had been granted 5 ^onro°^
some of the ringleaders in the late disorders had been"156 51€0i’‘e3
severely punished, and some even put to death with¬
out any form or process of trial. Thus the popular
leaders were greatly exasperated by this cruelty, thouah
probably the king did not follow the dictates of his
own mind so much in it as the advice of his counsel¬
lors. But having thus lost the favour of one party,
he quickly after fell under the displeasure of the other
also. Supposing himself to be in too great subjection
to his uncles, particularly the duke of Gloucester, be
attempted to shake off the yoke, by raising others
to such a degree of power as might enable them to jg-
rival them. His first favourite was Robert de Vere His exces-
earl of Oxford, a young man of an agreeable person, swe favour
but dissolute in his behaviour, who soon acquired anfor the earl
absolute ascendant over him. So much was he deter-°ri ‘
mined to show his attachment to this nobleman, that
he first created him marquis of Dublin, a title ne¬
ver known in England before 5 then duke of Ireland j
transferring to him the entire sovereignty of that
island by patent for life. He gave him in marriage f
his cousin-german, the daughter of the earl of Bed¬
ford $ but soon after permitted him to divorce her for
another lady with whom he had fallen in love. This A conspira-
nobleman soon became the dispenser of all the king’s cy against
favours to such a degree, that a conspiracy was formed1^6
against him ; at the head of which were Mowbray
earl of Nottingham, Fitz Alan earl of Arundel,
Percy earl of Northumberland. Montacute earl of
Salisbury, and Beauchamp earl of Warwick. Vere
was impeached in parliament; and though nothing of
moment was even alleged against him, he was con¬
demned and deprived of his office. They next pro¬
ceeded to attack the royal authority itself. Under
pretence that the king was yet unable to govern the
kingdom, though at that time 21 years of age, they
appointed a commission of 14 persons to whom the
sovereignty was to be transferred for a year. This
measure was driven forward by the duke of Gloucester,,
and none but his own faction were admitted as mem¬
bers of the committee. The king could not without
regret perceive himself thus totally deprived of autho¬
rity. He first endeavoured to gain over the parlia¬
ment to his interests, by influencing the sheriffs of each
county, who were then the only returning officers.
This measure failing, he next applied to the judges.
They declared, that the commission which had depri¬
ved the king of his authority was unlawful, and that
those who procured or advised it were punishable with
death. Their sentence was quickly opposed by decla- *
rations from the lords. The duke of Gloucester arm¬
ed his partisans, aud appeared at Haringay park near
Highgate*
ENGLAND.
■185
The king
takes the
power into
his own
hands.
Highgate, at the head of a body of men sufficient to
intimidate the king and all his adherents. These in¬
surgents, sensible of their own power, began by de¬
manding of the king the names of those who had ad¬
vised him to his late rash measures. A few days after¬
wards they appeared armed in his presence, and accu¬
sed by name the archbishop of York, the duke of
Ireland, the earl of Suffolk, and Sir Robert Tresilian,
one of the judges who had declared in his favour, to¬
gether with Sir Nicholas Bember, as public and dan¬
gerous enemies to the state. The duke of Ireland fled
into Cheshire, where he attempted to raise a body of
forces $ but was quickly obliged to fly into Flanders,
on the arrival of the duke of Gloucester with a superior
army. Soon after, the king was obliged to summon
a parliament, where an accusation was drawn up against
five of his counsellors. Of these only Sir Nicholas
Bember was present •, and he was quickly found guil¬
ty, condemned, and executed, together with Sir Ro¬
bert Tresilian, who had been discovered and taken du¬
ring the interval. Lord Beauchamp of Holt was soon
after condemned and executed ; and Sir Simon Bur¬
ley, who had been appointed the king’s governor, sha¬
red the same fate, though the queen continued for three
hours on her knees before the duke of Gloucester, im¬
ploring his pardon.
Such unparallelled insolence and barbarity in a sub¬
ject could not go unpunished. In 1389, the king at
an extraordinary council of the nobility assembled after
Easter, to the astonishment of all present, desired to
know his age. Being told that he was turned of two
and twenty, he alleged that it was then time for him
to govern without help $ and that there was no reason
why he should be deprived of those rights which the
meanest of his subjects enjoyed. The lords answered
in some confusion that he had certainly an undisputed
right to take upon himself the government of the king¬
dom. “ Yes (replied the king), I have long been
under the government of tutors ; and I will now first
show my right to power by their removal.” He then
ordered Thomas Arundel, whom the commissioners
had lately appointed chancellor, to give up the seals $
which he next day delivered to William Wickham
bishop of Winchester. He next removed the duke of
Gloucester, the earl of Warwick, and other lords of the
opposition, from the council; and all the great offi¬
cers of the household, as well as the judges, were
changed.
The king being thus left at liberty to govern as he
thought proper, for some time behaved in such a man¬
ner as to gain the affections of the people. It does
not appear indeed that he ever gave much cause of
complaint j but it was impossible for any prince in those
days to keep himself secure on the throne but by a very
severe and vigorous administration. The duke of Glou¬
cester, perceiving that Richard was not of a warlike
disposition, frequently spoke with contempt of his per¬
son and government, and deliberated concerning the
lawfulness of throwing off all allegiance to him. The
king being informed of his conduct by spies appointed
for that purpose, at last formed a resolution of ridding
himself of Gloucester and his faction at once. He there¬
fore ordered that nobleman to be immediately arrested
and sent over to Calais, where there was no danger of
his being rescued by his numerous adherents. The
4
earls of Arundel and Warwick were seized at the same England,
time $ and a new parliament, which the king knew —v——'
would be perfectly obedient to his will, was summoned^* l^9°
to Westminster. Here the commission of 14, who had
usurped on the royal authority, was annulled for ever ;
all those acts which had condemned his former ministers
were repealed j and the general pardon which the king
had formerly given when he assumed the government jg^
into his own hands, was revoked. Several of Glouces-Duke of
ter’s party were condemned and executed, and at last Gloucester
’ that nobleman himself was called for to take his trial nlUnle^€d•
as well as the rest; but he had before been privately
dispatched in prison.
After the destruction of the duke of Gloucester and
the heads of his party, a misunderstanding arose among
the noblemen who had joined in the prosecution. The
duke of Hereford appeared in parliament, and accused
the duke of Norfolk of having spoken seditious words
against his majesty in a private conversation. Norfolk
denied the charge, gave Hereford the lie, and offered
to prove his innocence by single combat. The chal¬
lenge was accepted ; but on the day appointed for the
duel, the king would not suffer the combatants to en¬
gage, but commanded both of them to leave the king- ,j7
dom. The duke of Norfolk he banished for life, but Duke* of
the duke of Hereford only for ten years. The former Herefor<*
retired to Venice, where in a short time he died of
broken heart. Hereford behaved in a resigned andcc|,
submissive manner; which so pleased the king, that he
consented to shorten the time of his banishment four
years: he also granted him letters patent, ensuring
him of the enjoyment of any inheritance which should
fall to him during his absence $ but upon the death of
his father the duke of Lancaster, which happened
shortly after, Richard revoked those letters, and kept
the estate to himself. iSS
This last injury inflamed the resentment of Here-Hereford
ford to such a degree, that he formed a design of de-
throning the king. He was a great favourite both dethroning
with the army and people 5 he was immensely rich, the king,
and connected by blood or alliance with all the great
families of the nation. The king at the same time, it
is said, gave himself up to an idle, effeminate life; and
his ministers following his example, the national honour
was lost. The number of malecontents daily increased,
and only waited for the absence of the king, in order
to put their schemes in execution ; and this opportunity
soon offered.
The earl of March, presumptive heir to the crown,
having been appointed the king’s lieutenant in Ireland,
was slain in a skirmish with the natives of that country;
which so incensed Richard, that, unmindful of his pre¬
carious situation at home, he went over to Ireland with
a considerable army, in order to revenge his death in
person. The duke of Lancaster (for that was the title
which Hereford assumed on the death of his father)
hearing of the king’s absence, instantly embarked at
Nantz ; and with a retinue only of 60 persons in three
small vessels, landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. The
6arl of Northumberland, who had long been a male-
content, together with Henry Percy his son, who from
his ardent valour was surnamed Hotspur, immediately
joined him with their forces ; and the people flocked
to him in such numbers, that in a few days his army
amounted to 60,000 men.
Richard,
ENGLAND.
Eagland. Richard, in the mean time, continued in perfect
v—-v——■ security in Ireland for some time. Contrary winds for
A. D. three weeks together prevented his receiving any news
of the rebellion which was begun in his native domi¬
nions. He landed therefore at Milford Haven without
suspicion, attended by a body of 20,000 men j but ini
tTlPrllQ rnnriri ri ■ rY-tenl r #-» *» ^ Vv 1. .
95
ment he called, no fewer than 40 challenges were given England,
and accepted by different barons j and though Henry v—" v~~ —*
had ability and address enough to prevent these duels A‘D‘
from being fought, it was not in his power to prevent
continual insurrections and combinations against him-
se *• 'Ihe most formidable one was conducted by the
V . , ’ f 1 ir ' 11 " , r V .V must xormiuaDie one was conducted by the
mediately found himself opposed by a power which lie earl of Northumberland, and commenced A. D. /40a
could by no means resist. His army gradually desert- Hie occasion of it was, that Henry denied the earl
ed him, till at last he was obliged to acquaint the duke,
1S9 that he would submit to whatever terms he pleased to
Bjehai'd dc-prescribea The duke did not think proper to enter
murdered! *nto any treaty ^ k*ng> hut carried him to
London, where he was confined close prisoner in
the Tower, formally deposed by parliament, or rather
liberty to ransom some Scots prisoners which had been
taken in a skirmish with that nation. The king was
desirous of detaining them, in order to increase his de¬
mands upon Scotland in making peace ; but as the
ransom of prisoners was in that age looked upon as a
right belonging to those who had taken them, the earl
190
Duke of
Lancaster’s
ilaim to
lie crown
I Dry IV.
..1,, PT ^ \ 5 * , . ’ , iu uiose wno naa taken them, the earl
by the duke of -L.nca .er, and a last put to death, thought himself grievously injured. The injimy apnea '
The manner of Ins death ,s variously related. Accord- ed still the greater, because Northumberlald consider-
ing to some, eight or nine ruffians were sent to the -J 1 *  
castle of Pomfret, whither the unhappy prince had
been removed, in order to despatch him. They rush¬
ed unexpectedly into bis apartment j but Richard,
knowing their design, resolved to sell his life as dear as
possible. He wrested a pole-axe from one of the mur¬
derers, with which he killed four of them ; but was at
length overpowered and killed. Others relate that he
was starved in prison j and that, after he was denied all
nourishment, he prolonged his life 14 days, by feeding
on the flocks of his bed. He died in the year 1399,
in the 34th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.—It
was during the reign of Richard II. that Wickliff, the
noted reformer, published his doctrines in England. See
Wickliff.
After sentence of deposition had been pronounced
on Richard by both houses of parliament, the throne
, being then vacant, the duke of Lancaster stepped
forth j and having crossed himself on the forehead and
on the breast, and called on the name of Christ, gave
in his claim to the throne in the following words,
which we shall give in the original language. “ In
the name of Fadher, Son, and Holy Ghost, I Henry
of Lancaster, challenge this rewme of Ynglonde, and
the croun, with all the membres and the appurtenan¬
ces $ als I that am descendit by right line of the hlode,
coming fro the gude King Henry therde, and throge
that right that God of his grace hath sent me, with
help of kyn, and of my frendes to recover it; the
which rewme was in poynt to be ondone by default of
governance, and ondoying of the gude laws.”
The right which the duke here claimed by descent
from Henry III. proceeded on a false story that Ed-'
mund earl of Lancaster, son of Henry III. was really
the elder brother of Edward I.; but that, by reason of
some deformity in his person, he had been postponed
in the succession, and Edward the younger brother im¬
posed on the nation in his stead. The present duke
of Lancaster inherited from Edmund, by his mother, the
right which he now pretended to the crown ; though
the falsehood of the story was so generally known, that
he thought proper to mention it only in general terms.
—No opposition, however, was made to the validity
of this title in parliament; and thus commenced the
differences between the houses of York and Lancaster,
which were not terminated but by many bloody and
ruinous wars.
. The reign of Henry IV. was little else than a con¬
tinued series of insurresctions. In the very first parlia-
ed the king as indebted to him both for his life and 19a
crown. He therefore resolved to dethrone Henry •
and to raise to the throne young Mortimer, who was tl0IJ llic
the true heir to the crown, as being the son of Roger Northum-
Mortimer earl of March, whom Richard II. had de- berland.
clared his successor. For this purpose he entered into
an alliance with the Scots and Welsh, who were to
make an irruption into England at the same time that
he himself was to raise what forces he could in order to
join them. But when all things were prepared for this
insurrection, the earl found himself unable to lead on
the troops, by a sudden fit of illness with which be
was seized at Berwick. On this, young Percy faur-
named Hotspur) took the command} and marched to¬
wards bhrewsbury, in order to join the Welsh. But
the king had happily a small army with which he in¬
tended to have acted against the Scots } and knowing
the importance of celerity in civil wars, instantly hur¬
ried down that he might give battle to the rebels. He
approached Shrewsbury before a junction with the
Welsh could be effected} and the impatience of Percy
urged him to an engagement, which at that time he
ought to have declined. The evening before the battle,
he sent a manifesto to Henry} in which he renounced
ns allegiance, set the king at defiance, and enumera¬
ted all the grievances of which he imagined the nation
might justly complain. He reproached him (and very
justly) with his perjury} for Henry, on his first land¬
ing in England, had sworn upon the gospels, before
the earl of Northumberland, that he had no other in¬
tention but to recover possession of the duchy of Lac-
caster, and that he would ever remain a faithful subject
to King Richard. He aggravated bis guilt, in first
dethroning and then murdering that prince; and in
usurping on the title of the house of Mortimer; to
whom, both by lineal succession and by declarations of
parliament, the throne, then vacant by Richard’s death,
did of right belong. Several other heavy charges were
brought, against him; which, at that time, could be
productive of no other effect than to irritate the king
and Ins adherents to the utmost. 8 i95
The armies on each side were in number about Son ^c-
feated and
12,000 ; so that they were not unmanageable by their !^ntc,c
commanders ; and as both leaders were men of known Shrem8
bravery, an obstinate engagement was expected, Thelmry.
battle was fought on the 20th of July 1403; and we
can scarce find in those ages any other in which the
shock was so terrible and constant. At last Percy being
killed by an unknown hand, the victory was decided
in /
at
g6
ENGLAND.
England
A, D. 1405.
194
Archbishop
of York
executed.
195
Burning of
heretics irn
troduc?d.
in favour of the royalists. There are said to have
fallen on that day near 2300 gentlemen, and 6000
private men, of whom near two-thirds were of I ercy s
army.
The earl of Northumberland having recovered from
his sickness, and levied an army, was on his march to
join his son; but being opposed by the ear! of West¬
morland, and hearing of the defeat at Shrewsbury, he
dismissed his forces, and came with a small retinue to
the king at York. He pretended that his sole inten¬
tion was to mediate between the contending parties j
and the king thought proper to accept of his apology,
and grant him a pardon for his offence. The other re¬
bels were treated with equal lenity 5 and none of them,
except the earl of Worcester and Sir Ricnard Vernon,
who were regarded as the chief authors of the insuirec-
tion, perished by the hands of the executioner. This
lenity, however, was not sufficient to keep the king¬
dom quiet j one insurrection followed another almost
during the whole of this reign 5 but either tluough
Henry’s vigilance, or the bad management 01 the con¬
spirators, they never could unite tneir forces in such a
manner as was necessary for bringing their projects
to bear.
This reign is remarkable for the first capital punish¬
ment inflicted on a clergyman of high rank. The arch¬
bishop of York having been concerned in an insurrec¬
tion against the king, and happening to be taken pri¬
soner, was beheaded without either indictment, tiial,
or defence*, nor was any disturbance occasioned by
this summary execution. But the most remarkable
transaction of tins reign was, the introduction of that
absurd and cruel practice of burning people on account
of their religion. Henry, while a subject, was thought
to have been very favourable to the doctrines of Wick-
liff; but when he came to the throne, finding his pos¬
session of it very insecure, be thought superstition a
necessary implement of his authority, and therefore
determined by all means to pay court to the clergy.
There were hitherto no penal laws against heresy } not
indeed through the toleration oi the court of Rome,
but through the stupidity of the people, who could not
perceive the absurdities of the established religion.
But when the learning and genius of Wickliff had
once broken the fetters of prejudice, the ecclesiastics
called aloud for the punishment of his disciples 5 and
Henry, who was very little scrupulous in his conduct,
resolved to gratify them. He engaged parliament to
pass a law for this purpose: it was enacted, that when
any heretic, who relapsed, or refused to abjure his opi¬
nions, was delivered over to the secular arm by the
bishop or his commissaries, he should be committed to
the flames before the whole people. This weapon did
not remain long unemployed in the hands of the clergy.
William Sautrg, rector of St Osithes in London, had
been condemned by the convocation of Canterbury *,
his sentence was ratified by the house of peers *, the king
issued his writ for the execution 3 and the unhappy man
was burnt alive in the year 1401. The dootrines of
-Wickliff, however, seem to have already gained ground
very considerably in England. In I4°5> ^ie con5mons»
who had been required to grant supplies, proposed in
plain terms to the king to seize all the temporalities of
the church, and employ them as a perpetual fund to
serve the exigencies of the state. They insisteo that
the clergy possessed a third of the lands of the king- England,
dom 5 and they contributed nothing to the public bur-'*—
dens 3 and that their exorbitant riches tended only to ^ ‘Wl*
disqualify them from performing their ministerial func¬
tions with proper zeal and attention. When this ad¬
dress was presented, the archbishop of Canterbury, who
then attended the king, objected that the clergy, though
they went not in person to the wars, sent their vassals
and tenants in all cases of necessity 3 while at the same
time, they themselves who staid at home were employ¬
ed night and day in offering up their prayers for the
happiness and prosperity of the state. The speaker an¬
swered with a smile, that he thought the prayers of the
church but a very slender supply. The archbishop,'
however, prevailed in the dispute 3 the king discoura¬
ged the application of the commons 3 and the lords re¬
jected the bill which the lower house had framed for
despoiling the church of her revenues. The commons
were not discouraged by this repulse. In 1410, they
returned to the charge with more zeal than before.
They made a calculation of all the ecclesiastical reve¬
nues, which, by their account, amounted to 485,000
marks a-year, and included 18,400 ploughs of land.
They proposed to divide this property among 15 new
earls, 1500 knights, 6000 esquires, and 100 hospitals 5
besides 20,oool. a-year, which the king might keep
for his own use : and they insisted that the clerical
functions would be better performed than at pre¬
sent, by 15,000 parish priests, at the rate of 7 marks
a-piece of yearly stipend. This application was ac¬
companied with an address for mitigating the statutes
enacted against the Wickliffites or Lollards, so that the
kincr knew very well from what source it came. He
gave the commons, however, a severe reply j and fur¬
ther to satisfy the church that he was in earnest, or¬
dered a Lollard to be burnt before the dissolution of
parliament.
The king had been for some time subject to fits,
which continued to increase, and gradually brought
him to his end. He expired at Westminster in 1413,
in the 46th year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. l9g
He was succeeded by his son Henry V. whose martial Henry V.
talents and character had at first occasioned unreason¬
able jealousies in the mind of his father, so that he
thought proper to exclude him from all share of public
business. The active spirit of Henry being thus re¬
strained from its proper exercise, broke out in every
kind of extravagance and- dissipation. It is even re¬
ported, that when heated with liquor, he scrupled not
to accompany his riotous associates in attacking the
passengers on the streets and highways, and robbing
them of their goods. No sooner, however, did he
ascend the throne, than he called together his former
companions, acquainted them with his intended refor¬
mation, exhorted them to imitate his example 3 but
strictly prohibited them, till they had given proofs of
their sincerity in this particular, to appear any more in
his presence : After which, he dismissed them with li¬
beral presents. His father’s wise ministers, who had
checked his riots, found that they had, unknown to
themselves, being paying the highest court to their so¬
vereign 5 and were received with all the marks of fa¬
vour and confidence. The chief justice, who had for¬
merly imprisoned the prince himself, and therefore
trembled to approach the royal presence, met with
197
Enforces
;he laws
against
re re tics.
ENG
England, praises instead of reproaches for Ins past conduct, and
'—-v—was exhorted to persevere in the same rigorous and im-
A. D. I4I4-partial execution of the laws. The king was not only-
anxious to repair his own misconduct, but also to make
amends for those iniquities into which policy or neces¬
sity of aflairs had betrayed his father. He expressed
the deepest sorrow for the fate of the unhappy King
Richard, and even performed his funeral obsequies
with pomp and solemnity, and heaped favours upon
all those who had shown themselves attached to him.
He took into favour the young earl of March, though
his competitor for the throne j and gained so far on
his gentle and unambitious nature, that he remained
ever after sincerely attached to him. The family of
Percy rvas restored to its fortune and honours ; and the
king seemed desirous to bury all distinctions in obli¬
vion. Men of merit w7ere preferred, whatever party
they had been of; all men were unanimous in their at¬
tachment to Henry ; and the defects of his title were
forgotten amidst the personal regard which was univer¬
sally paid him.
The only party which Henry was not able to over¬
come was the new sect of Lollards, or reformers of re¬
ligion. These were now gaining such ground in Eng¬
land, that the Romish clergy were greatly alarmed, and
Henry was determined to execute the laws upon them.
The head of that party at present was Sir John Old-
castle, Lord Cobbam; a nobleman rvlio had distin¬
guished himself by his valour and military talents on
many occasions, and acquired the esteem both of the
late and present king. His high character and zeal for
the new sect pointed him out to Arundel archbishop of
C anterbury as a proper object of ecclesiastical fury, and
therefore he applied to Henry for permission to indict
him. The king desired him first to try gentle me¬
thods, and undertook to converse with Lord Cobham
himself upon religious subjects. He did so, but could
not prevail, and therefore abandoned Cobham to his
enemies. He was immediately condemned to the
flames : but having found means to make his escape,
he raised an insurrection ; which was soon suppressed,
without any other consequence than that of bringing
a stain on the sect to which he belonged. Cobham
himself made his escape, but four years afterwards
was taken and executed as a traitor. Immediately
after, the most severe laws were passed against the
Lollards. It was enacted, that whoever was convicted
of Lollardy, besides suflering capital punishment ac¬
cording to the laws formerly established, should also
forfeit bis lands and goods to the king ; and that the
chancellor, treasurer, justices of the two benches, she¬
riffs, justices of the peace, and all the chief magi¬
strates in every city and borough, should take an oath
to use their utmost endeavours for the extirpation of
heresy.
Notwithstanding these terrible laws, the very parlia¬
ment which enacted them, namely that of 1414, when
the king demanded a supply, renewed the offer for¬
merly pressed upon Henry IV. and intreated the king
to seize all the ecclesiastical revenues, and convert them
to the use of the crown. The clergy were greatly a-
larmed. They could ofler the king nothing of equal
Value. They agreed, however, to confer on him all the
priories alien, which depended on capital abbeys in
Normandy7, and which had been bequeathed to them
Vol. VIII. Part I. +
LAND. 97
when that province W'as united to England. The England.
most effectual method, however, of warding off the   
blow at present was by persuading the king to under-V®- 1450.
take a war with France, in order to recover the pro¬
vinces in that kingdom which had formerly belonged
to England. This was agreeable to the dying injunc¬
tion of Henry IV. He advised his son never to let the
English remain long in peace, which rvas apt to breed
intestine commotions ; but to employ them in foreign
expeditions, by which the prince might acquire ho¬
nour, the nobility in sharing his dangers might at¬
tach themselves to his person, and all the restless spi¬
rits find occupation for their inquietude. The natural
disposition of Henry sufficiently inclined him to follow
this advice, and the civil disorders of France gave him 19S
the fairest prospect of success. Accordingly, in 1415, France in-
the king invaded France at the head of 30,000 men.vaded‘
The great progress he made there is related at length
under the article France. Fie had espoused the king’s
daughter, and conquered the greatest part of the king¬
dom. His queen was delivered of a son named Henry,
whose birth was celebrated by the greatest rejoicings
both at London and Paris; and the infant prince seem¬
ed to be universally regarded as heir to both monarchies.
But Henry’s glory, when it seemed to be approach¬
ing the summit, was blasted at once by death, and all
his mighty projects vanished. He was seized with a
fistula, a distemper which at that time the physicians
had not skill enough to cure ; and he expired on the Death^of
31st of August 1422, in the 34th year of his age, and Henry v.
the 1 Oth of his reign. ioo
Flenry 'VL succeeded to the throne before he was Henry VI.
quite a year old, and his reign affords only the most
dismal accounts of misfortunes and civil wars. Flis
relations very soon began to dispute about the admi¬
nistration during the minority. The duke of Bed¬
ford, one of the most accomplished princes of the age,
was appointed by parliament protector of England,
defender of the church, and first counsellor to the
king. His brother, the duke of Gloucester, was fixed
upon to govern in his absence, while he conducted the
war in France; and in order to limit the power of both
brothers, a council was named, without whose advice
and approbation no measure could be carried into exe¬
cution.
Hie kingdom of France was now in the most despe¬
rate situation. The English were masters of almost
the whole of it. Henry VI. though but an infant, was
solemnly invested with regal power by legates from Pa¬
ris ; so that Charles VII. of France succeeded only to
a nominal kingdom. With all these great advantages,
however, the English daily lost ground ; and in the
year 1450 were totally expelled from France*. It * See
may easily be imagined, that such a train of bad success
would produce discontents among the rulers at home.
The duke of Gloucester was envied by many on account
of his high station. Among these was Henry Beaufort,
bishop of Winchester, great uncle to the king, and the
legitimate son of John of Gaunt brother to Richard II.
The prelate, to whom the care of the king’s educa¬
tion had been committed, was a man of great capacity
and experience, but of an intriguing and dangerous
disposition. He had frequent disputes with the duke
of Gloucester, over whom he gained several advantages
on account of his open temper. The duke of Bed-
N ford
*
201
Married to
Margaret
of Anjou.
98 ENGL
England, ford employed both Ills own authority and that of par-
'—~v   liament to reconcile them, hut in vain } their mutual
A. D. 14s0* animosities served for several years to embarrass go¬
vernment, and to give its enemies every advantage.
The sentiments of the two leaders were particularly di¬
vided with regard to France. The bishop laid hold of
every prospect of accommodation with that country ;
and the duke of Gloucester was for maintaining the
honour of the English arms, and regaining whatever
had been lost by defeats or delay. Both parties call¬
ed in all the auxiliaries they could. The bishop re¬
solved to strengthen himself by procuring a proper
match for Henry, at that time 23 years old ; and then
bringing over the queen to his interests. Accordingly,
the earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew to be
stedfast in his attachments, was sent over to France,
apparently to settle the terms of a truce which had then
been begun, hut in reality to procure a suitable match
for the king.
The bishop and his friends had cast their eyes on
Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king
of Sicily, Naples, and Jerusalem ; but without either
real power or possessions. She was considered as the
mos*t accomplished princess of the age, both in mind
and person $ and it was thought would, by her own
abilities, be able to supply the defects of her husband,
who appeared weak, timid, and superstitious. The
treaty was therefore hastened on by Suffolk, and soon
after ratified in England. The queen came immedi¬
ately into the bishop’s measures : Gloucester was depri¬
ved of all real power, and every method taken to ren¬
der him odious to the public. One step taken for this
purpose was to accuse his duchess of witchcraft. She
was charged with conversing with one Roger Boling-
broke, a priest and reputed necromancer 5 and also with
one Mary Gourdemain, who was said to be a witch.
It was asserted that these three in conjunction had made
an image of the king in wax, which was placed before
a gentle fire : and as the wax dissolved, the king’s
strength was expected to waste; and upon its total dis¬
solution, his life was to be at an end. This accusation
was readily believed in that superstitious age. The pri¬
soners were pronounced guilty, the duchess was con¬
demned to do penance and suffer perpetual imprison¬
ment ; Bolingbroke the priest was hanged, and the wo¬
man burnt in Smithfield.
The bishop, called also the Cardinal, of Winchester,
was resolved to carry his resentment against Gloucester
to the utmost. He procured a parliament to be sum¬
moned, not at London, which was too well affected
to the duke, but at St Edmundsbury, where his adhe¬
rents were sufficiently numei'ous to overawe every op¬
ponent. As soon as Gloucester appeared, he was accu-
Gloucester se(] 0f treason and thrown into prison ; and on the day
inur erei ’ on which he was to make his defence, he was found
dead in his bed, though without any signs of violence
upon his body.
The death of the duke of Gloucester was universally
ascribed to the cardinal of Winchester, who himself
died six weeks after, testifying the utmost remorse for
the bloody scene he had acted. What share the queen
had in this transaction, is uncertain : but most people
believed that without her knowledge the duke’s ene¬
mies durst not have ventured to take away his life.
The king himself shared in the general ill-will, and he
202
Duke of
AND.
never had the art to remove the suspicion. His inca¬
pacity also Fegan every day to appear more clearly,
and a pretender to the throne soon made his appear-A. D. 145a,
ance. 203
In the year 1450, Richard duke of York began toEukeof.
c of preferring his claims to the crown. All the
England,,
tie to tlie
204
think of preferring
males of the house of Mortimer were extinct •, but
Anne, the sister of the last earl of March, having espou¬
sed the earl of Cambridge, who had been beheaded for
treason in the reign of Henry V. had transmitted her
latent, but not yet forgotten claim, to her son Rich¬
ard. This prince, descended by his mother from Phi¬
lippa, only daughter of the duke of Clarence, second
son of Edward III. stood plainly in order of succession
before the king $ who derived his descent from the
duke of Lancaster, third son of that monarch. The
duke was a man of valour and abilities, as well as of
some ambition j and he thought the weakness and un¬
popularity of the present reign afforded a favourable
opportunity to assert his title. The ensign of Richard
was a white rose, that of Henry a red one $ and this
gave names to the two factions, who were now about to
drench the kingdom in blood.
After the cardinal of Winchester’s death, the duke Duke of
of Suffolk, who also had been concerned in the assassi-Suffolk
nation of Gloucester, governed every thing with uncon-banis,J?<b
trollable sway. His conduct soon excited the jealousy of
the other nobility, and every odious or unsuccessful mea¬
sure was attributed to him. The duke, however, ima¬
gining that his crimes were of such a nature as could
not be proved, boldly called upon his enemies to show
an instance of his guilt. The house of commons im¬
mediately opened against him a charge of corruption,
tyranny, and treason. He was accused of being the
cause of the loss of France j of persuading the French
king, with an armed force, to invade England} and of
betraying the secrets of state. The popular resentment
against him was so strong, that Henry, in order to se¬
cure him as much as possible, sentenced him to five
years banishment. This was considered by his enemies
as an escape from justice. The captain of a ship was
therefore employed to intercept him in his passage to
France. He was seized near Dover, his head struck and raur-
off on the side of a long-boat, and his body thrown intot,ej,ed>
the sea.
The complaints against Henry’s government werejnsUi.rcc_
heightened by an insurrection headed by one Johntionof
Cade, a native of Ireland. He had been obliged to fly John Caiie
over into France for his crimes ; but, on his return,
seeing the people prepared for violent measures, he as¬
sumed the name of Mortimer; and, at the head of
20,000 Kentish men, advanced towards Blackheath.
The king sent a message to demand the cause of their
rising in arms. Cade in the name of the community
answered, That their only aim was to punish evil mi¬
nisters, and produce a redress of grievances for the
people. On this a body of 15,000 troops was levied j
and Henry marched with them in person against Cade,
who retired on his approach, as if he had been afraid
of coming to an engagement. He lay in ambush, how¬
ever, in a wood j not doubting but he should be pur¬
sued by the king’s whole army : but Henry was con¬
tent with sending a detachment after the fugitives, and
returned to London himself j upon which Cade issued
from his ambuscade, and cut the detachment in pieces.
Soon
205
»07
_ Duke of
(York sus¬
pected by
the court.
England. Soon after, the citizens of Xjondon opened their gates
v to the victor ; and Cade, for some time, maintained
A. D, 1450.great order and regularity among his followers. He
always led them out into the fields in the night-time,
and published several edicts against plunder and violence
of any kind. He was not, however, long able to keep
his people in subjection. He beheaded the treasurer,
“Lord Say, without any trial} and soon after, his troops
committing some irregularities, the citizens resolved to
shut their gates against him. Cade endeavouring to
force his way, a battle ensued, which lasted all day, and
was ended only by the approach of night. The arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, and the chancellor, who had ta¬
ken refuge in the Tower, being informed of the situa¬
tion of affairs, drew up, during the night, an act of
amnesty, which was privately dispersed among the re¬
bels. This had such an effect, that in the morning
Cade found himself abandoned by his followers; and
retreating to Kochester, was obliged to fly alone into
the woods. A price being set on his head by procla¬
mation, he was discovered and slain by one Alexander
Eden ; who, in recompense for this service, was made
governor of Dover castle.
The court now began to entertain suspicions that
the insurrection of John Cade had not happened mere¬
ly in consequence of his own machinations and ambi¬
tion, but that he had been instigated thereto by the
duke of York, who, as we have already seen, pretended
a right to the crown. As he was about this time ex¬
pected to return from Ireland, and a report took place
that he was now to assert his supposed right by force
of arms, orders were issued in the king’s name to deny
him entrance into England. This was prevented
by his appearance with no more than his ordinary at¬
tendants ; but though he thus escaped the danger for
the present, he instantly saw the necessity of proceed¬
ing in support of his claim. His partisans were in¬
structed to distinguish between his right by succession
krguments and by the laws of the kingdom, the adherents of
°ainst the IjancasterTmaJ.ntaIneil» that though the advancement of
louses of Henry IV. might be looked upon as irregular, yet it
fork and 'vvas founded upon general consent; or, even allowing
-ancaster. it to have been at first invalid, it had now been for a
long time established, and acquired solidity of conse¬
quence ; nor could the right of succession at any rate
be pleaded for the purpose of overthrowing the gene¬
ral peace and tranquillity of the kingdom.' The prin¬
ciples of liberty as well as the maxims of true, policy
had been injured by the house of York ; while the pub¬
lic were bound to those of Lancaster, no less by politi¬
cal than moral duty, in consequence of the oaths of
fealty that had been so often sworn to them; the
duke 01 \ ork himself having repeatedly sworn alle¬
giance to them, and thus indirectly renounced those
claims which he now brought forward to disturb the
public tranquillity. On the part of the duke of
A 01k, it was replied, that the good of the people re¬
quired the maintenance of order in the succession of
princes ; that, by adhering constantly to this rule,
a number of inconveniences would be prevented
which must otherwise ensue; and though that or¬
der had been broken through in the case of Hen¬
ry I V. it was never too late to remedy any pernicious
precedent. It would indeed be a great encourage¬
ENGLAND.
99
208
ment to usurpers, if the immediate possession of power, England
or their continuance in it for a few years, could con- X—I
vert them into legal princes; and the people must be A- ^ MS
in a very miserable situation, if all restraints on vio¬
lence and ambition were taken off, and full liberty
given to every innovator to make what attempts he
pleased. They did not indeed deny that time might
confer solidity on a government originally founded on
usuipation ; but a very long course of years was not
only required for this purpose, but a total extinction
of those who had any just title. The deposition of
Kichard II. and advancement of Henry IV. were not
legal acts, but the effects of mere levity in the people ;
in which the house of York had acquiesced from ne¬
cessity, and not from any belief of the justice of their
cause; nor could this be ever interpreted into any re¬
nunciation oi their pretensions ; neither could the re¬
storation of the true order of succession be considered
as an encouragement to rebellion and turbulence, but
the correction of a former abuse by which rebellion
had been encouraged. Besides, the original title of
Henry I\ . was founded entirely on present conveni¬
ence ; and even this was now entirely shifted to the
house of York. Hie present prince was evidently in¬
capable of governing the kingdom by reason of his
imbecility ; so that every thing was governed either
by corrupt ministers or an imperious queen, who en¬
gaged the nation in foreign connections entirely con¬
trary to its interests ; while, on the other hand, the true
heir of the crown was a prince of approved judgment
and experience, and a native of England, who, by his re¬
storation, would undoubtedly correct all those abuses of
which there was now such just reason to complain.
In this dispute it was evident that the house of
York had the better in point of argument: neverthe¬
less, as a prince of the house of Lancaster was in imme¬
diate possession of the throne, and could by no means
be charged with any crime, the cause of the former was
less generally interesting ; especially as it must always
have been uncertain, a priori, whether the duke of York
would have governed any better than King Henry. 20„
After his return from Ireland, however, the former The duke
used all his power and influence to foment the discon-of York
tents which had for some time prevailed in the king-foments
'I'-'—   '  /- .1 ,. p dissensions
dom ; and the conduct of the next parliament mani- disseu6io1
fested the success of his intrigues. A violent attack thelin"
was made upon such noblemen as were known to be and parlm-
most in favour with the king. The house of com-ment
mons presented a petition against the duke of Somer¬
set, the duchess of Suffolk, the bishop of Chester,
Lord Dudley, and several others of inferior rank;
praying not only that the king would remove them
from his council, but that he would prohibit them
from coming within twelve miles of the court. Hen¬
ry, not daring to refuse this petition altogether, con¬
sented to banish all those of inferior rank, whom the
commons had specified, but only for a year ; and this
too on condition that he had no use for their assistance
in quelling any rebellion. But he rejected a bill for
attainting the late duke of Suffolk, and proposed some
other measures which seemed to militate against the
court, though it had passed both the house of lords
and the house of commons.
Encouraged by this disagreement between Henry
H 2 and
100
F.ngland.
A. D.1459
ito
Itichanl
raises an
army;
2It
but is
obliged to
retire.
IIZ
He is ap¬
pointed
protector
in conse¬
quence of
tne king’s
illness.
213
Is deposed
and levies
an army.
414
History of
the civil
war be¬
tween Hen
ry and the
duke of
Turk.
ENGL
and Ills parliament, the duke of York raised an ar¬
my of 10,000 men, with whom he marched towards
London, demanding a reformation in matters of go¬
vernment, and the removal ot the duke of Somerset.
This first enterprise, however, proved unsuccessful;
the gates of the city were shut against him, and he was
pursued by the king at the head of a superior army.
On this he retired into Kent j and as there was a
number of his own friends in the army of the king, a
conference took place, in which Richard still insisted
upon the removal of the duke of Somerset, and his
submitting to be tried in parliament. This request,
was in appearance complied with, and Somerset ar¬
rested : the duke of York was then persuaded to wait
upon the king in his royal pavilion 5 but, on repeat¬
ing his charge against the duke, he was surprised to
see the latter come out from behind the curtain, and
otter to maintain his innocence. Richard perceiving
that he had not sufficient interest to ruin his adversary,
pretended to be satisfied, and retired to his seat at Wig-
more in Wales •, and during the time he resided there,
a better opportunity was given him of accomplishing
his designs than he could have hoped for. The
king fell into a kind of lethargic disorder, which in¬
creased his natural imbecility to such a degree, that
he could no longer retain a shadow of royalty. Rich¬
ard now had interest enough to get himself appointed
protector, with power to hold parliaments at pleasure ;
with which high office he was no sooner invested, than
he turned out all the Lancastrian party from their
offices, and sent the duke of Somerset to the Tower 5
but on the recovery of the king, which happened in
no long time after, he himself was dismissed from-his
employment, the duke of Somerset released, and the
administration once more put into his hands. On
this the duke of York levied an army, merely, as he
pretended, to enforce the reformation of government
and the removal of the duke of Somerset. Thus
Henry, though sore against his will, was obliged to
face him in the field. A battle ensued at St Al¬
ban’s j in which the royalists were defeated, and the
'duke of Somerset, the chief partisan of their cause,
killed in the action. The king himself was wounded,
and took shelter in a cottage near the field of battle j
where he was taken prisoner, but was afterwards treat¬
ed with great respect and kindness by the duke of
York.
Henry, though he was now only a prisoner treated
with the forms of royalty, was nevertheless pleased with
his situation ; but his queen, a woman of a bold and
masculine spirit, could not bear to have only the ap¬
pearance of authority, while others enjoyed all the real
power. She therefore excited the king once more to
assert his right by force of arms j and after several ma¬
noeuvres, the duke of York was obliged to retire from
court. A negotiation for peace was at first set on foot,
but the mutual distrusts of both parties soon broke it off.
The armies met at Bloreheath on the borders of Stafford¬
shire, on the 23d of September 1459’, and the Yorkists at
first gained some advantages. But when a more general
engagement was about to ensue, a body of veterans who
served under the duke of York deserted to the king $
and this so intimidated the duke’s party, that they se¬
parated the next day without striking a blow. The
AND.
duke of York fled to Ireland ; and ‘.he earl of War- England.
wick, one of his ablest and best supporters, escaped to ' v—J
Calais, with the government of which he had been en-A- ^ M60
trusted during the late protectorship.
The York party, though thus in appearance sup¬
pressed, only waited a favourable opportunity of re¬
trieving their affairs. Nor was this opportunity long
wanting. Warwick having met with some successes
at sea, landed at Kent j and being there joined by
other barons, marched up to London amidst the ac¬
clamations of the people. The city immediately open¬
ed its gates to him, and he soon found himself in a
condition to face the royal army. An engagement en¬
sued at Northampton on the 10th of July 1460; in
which the royalists were entirely defeated, and the
king again taken prisoner. The duke of York then
openly laid claim to the crown •, and on this occa¬
sion the first instance of a spirit of national liberty is
said to have appeared in the house of lords. rlhe
cause of Henry and the duke of \ork was solemnly
debated *, and the latter, though a conqueror, did not
absolutely gain his cause. It was determined that
Henry should possess the throne during his life ; and
that the duke of York should be appointed bis succes¬
sor, to the utter exclusion of the prince of Wales, who
was then a child.
Though the royal party now seemed destitute of
every resource, the queen still retained her intrepidity.
She fled into Wales, where she endeavoured to raise
another army. The northern barons, provoked at the
southern ones for settling the government and succes¬
sion to the crown without their consent, soon furnish¬
ed her with an army of 20,000 men. Another battle
was fought near Wakefield Green, on the 24th of De¬
cember 1460. The Yorkists were defeated, and the 3,-
duke himself was killed in the action. His head was Duke of
afterwards cut off by the queen’s orders, and fixed on Yorl* kill-
one of the gates of York, with a paper-crown, in de-e ‘
rision of his pretended title. His son the earl of Rut¬
land, a youth of 17, was taken prisoner, and killed in
cold blood by Lord Clifford, in revenge for his father’s
death, who had fallen in the battle of St Alban’s.
After this victory, Margaret marched towards Lon¬
don, in order to set the king at liberty 5 but the earl of
Warwick, who now put himself at the head of the York¬
ists, led about the captive king, in order to give a sanc¬
tion to his'proceedings. He engaged the queen’s forces
at St Alban’s ; but through the treachery of Lord
Lovelace, who deserted during the heat of the engage¬
ment with a considerable body of forces, Warwick was
defeated, and the king fell once more into the hands of
his own party.
The submission of the city of London seemed now
to be the only thing wanting to complete the queen’s
success ; but Warwick had secured it in his interests,
and the citizens refused to open their gates to the
queen. In the mean time, young Edward, eldest son
of the late duke of York, put himself at the head of
his father’s party. He was now in the bloom of youth,
remarkable for the beauty of his person and his bra¬
very, and was a great favourite of the people. He de¬
feated Jasper Tudor earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer’s
cross in Herefordshire. The earl himself was taken
prisoner, and immediately beheaded by Edward’s or¬
ders.
ENGLAND.
Id
217
Affairs of
the queen
totally
ruined.
England, tiers. After this, he advanced to London; and being
' v 'joined by the remainder of Warwick’s army, he soon
A. D H61 obliged Margaret to retire, entered the city amidst the
£jwan]iy. acclamations of the people, and was crowned king on
the 5th of March 1461.
Notwithstanding all her misfortunes, however, Mar¬
garet still continued undaunted. She retired to the
north, where she was soon joined by such numbers,
that her army amounted to 60,000 men. She was
opposed by young Edward and Warwick at the head
of 40,000 ; and both armies met near Touton in the
county of York, on the 29th of March 1461. A
bloody battle ensued, in which the queen’s army was
totally defeated ; and as Edward, prompted by his na¬
tural cruelty, had ordered no quarter to be given,
40,000 of the Lancastrians were slain in the field or in
the pursuit. Edward is said to have gained this vic¬
tory by means of a violent storm of snow, which blew
full in the face of the queen’s army, and so blinded
them that they could scarcely make any use of their
arms. After this disaster the queen fled to Scotland
with her husband and son; and notwithstanding all the
misfortunes she had already met with, resolved once
more to entei> England at the head of 5000 men
granted her by the king of France. But even here she
was attended by her usual bad fortune, tier little
fleet was dispersed by a tempest, and she herself esca¬
ped with the utmost difficulty by entering the mouth
of the Tweed. Soon after, a defeat, which her few
forces sustained at Hexham, seemed to render her
cause entirely desperate ; and the cruelties practised
upon all her adherents rendered it very dangerous to
befriend her.
By these repeated misfortunes the house of Lancas¬
ter was so effectually ruined, that Margaret was obliged
to separate from her husband, and both of them to
shift for themselves the best way they could. The king
was still protected by some of his friends, who convey¬
ed him to Lancashire, where he remained in safety for
a twelvemonth ; but being at last discovered, he was
thrown into the Tower and kept close prisoner. The
queen fled with her son to a forest, where she was set
upon by robbers, who stripped her of her rings and
jewels, treating her otherwise with the utmost indigni¬
ty. A quarrel which happened among them about the
division of the spoil afforded her an opportunity of esca¬
ping from their hands into another part of the forest,
where she wandered for some time without knowing
what to do. At last, when quite spent with hunger and
fatigue, she saw a robber coming up to her with a drawn
sword in his hand. Finding it altogether impossible to
escape, she suddenly took the resolution of putting her¬
self under his protection. Advancing towards him,
therefore, and presenting the young prince, “ Here
(says she), my friend, I commit to your care the safety
of your king’s son.” This address so much surprised
the robber, that, instead of offering her any injury, he
professed himself entirely devoted to her service. After
living for some time concealed in the forest, she was at
last conducted to the sea-side, where she found a ship
which conveyed her to Flanders. On her arrival there,
she went to her father’s house, who, though very poor,
gave her such entertainment as he could afford ; and in
this retreat she staid some years in expectation of find¬
ing an opportunity of retrieving her affairs.
218
Adventures
of the king
and queen.
219
rhe queen
etires to
Handers,
Edward, in the mean time, thinking himself se- England.
curely fixed on the throne, gave a loose to his fa- ' ''— ■'
vourite passions ; one of which was an immoderate love I4^t.
of women. To divert him from this, the earl of 320
Warwick, to whom he was indebted for his crown, ad-Warwick
vised him to marry. Edward consented, and sent him disgusted
over to the continent to negotiate a match with the ^ d.dwajd.
princess of Savoy. The negotiation proved successful ;
but, in the mean time, the king had privately espoused
Elizabeth Woodville, daughter to Sir Philip Woodville,
who had married the duchess of Bedford after the death
of her first husband. Edward had employed his arts of
seduction against this lady in vain before he married
her ; but unfortunately the match was concluded just at
the time that the earl of Warwick had proved success¬
ful in the negotiation with the princess of Savoy. The
minister therefore returned full of indignation against
his sovereign : and Edward, forgetting how great cause
he had to be offended, determined to remove him en¬
tirely from his councils. Warwick was likewise dis¬
gusted by the favour shown to the queen’s party; which,
though certainly a piece of very commendable policy in
Edward, was entirely disagreeable to the ambitious dis¬
position of that nobleman. A plan of revenge was there¬
fore thought of; and a most powerful combination was
formed against Edward : to accomplish which, Warwick
not only employed his own influence, which was very ex- 221
tensive, but likewise that of the duke of Clarence, P'.d- The
ward’s brother, to whom the earl had allied himself by 'nrol^r
 t.:„ l:„ j ^ ... .joins m the
giving him his daughter in marriage; after which heeonSpiracy
persuaded him to embrace bis cause. Some circumstan-against
ces which took place about this time also favoured tho him.
scheme. The inhabitants about St Leonard’s in York- 222
shire complained, that the duties levied for that in-An insnr-
stitution, and which had been originally appointed for r5ctlon.,a
pious purposes, were secreted by the managers, who re. Yorks!n'e*
fused to contribute their part. As the clergy were con¬
cerned in this affair, they attempted to silence their
antagonists by ecclesiastical fulminations against them ;
upon which the latter took up arms, fell upon the offi¬
cers of the hospital, and having massacred them, pro¬
ceeded towards York, to the number of 15,000. Jn
the first skirmish, they bad the misfortune to lose
their leader, who was instantly executed. The rebels^
however, still continued in arms, and in a short time
appeared in such numbers as to become formidable
to government. Henry earl of Pembroke was sent
against them with a body of 5000 men ; and having
taken Sir Henry Nevil, one of the leaders of the insur¬
gents, prisoner, instantly put him to death ; but this
was soon revenged by a similar execution on himself,
who happened to be defeated and taken prisoner a short
time after. This defeat had been occasioned by a dis¬
agreement betwixt the earls of Pembroke and Devon¬
shire ; in consequence of which the latter had gone off
with his troops, leaving Pembroke to shift for himself
the best way he could. The king, enraged at this,
caused Devonshire to be executed in a like summary
manner : but this was of no service to his cause; a new
body of insurgents appeared under Sir Robert Welles,
son to a nobleman of that name. The latter, in order
to secure him from ail suspicions of disloyalty, fled
to a monastery ; but he was soon enticed from thence
and put to death by the insidious promises of King Ed¬
ward, whose treachery was equal to his cruelty. His
son
i
n. \
* ‘
I
102 ENGL
England, son soon after shared the same fate, being defeated and
v ■—-v 11 mj taken prisoner by Edward, who instantly ordered him
A. D. i46i-to be beheaded, along with Sir Thomas Launde and
*23 other persons of distinction.
Warwick Notwithstanding such an appearance of a general
and Cla- Insurrection, the king had so little suspicion of the loy-
thcTJr alty Warwick and Clarence, that he employed them
gents. in raising troops to quell the insurgents. Instead of
executing their commission with fidelity, however, they
joined the malcontents with all the forces they could
raise j but being quite disconcerted by the defeat and
death of Sir Robert Welles, they retired to Lancashire,
in hopes of being joined by Lord Stanley, who had
married the earl of Warwick’s sister. Being disap¬
pointed in this, they were obliged to disband their ar¬
my, and fly into Devonshire, whence they set sail lor
Calais. Upon their arrival on the continent, matters
seemed not to be much mended : the deputy-governor,
. whom Warwick had left, refused him admittance j nor
would he even allow the duchess of Clarence to land,
though she had been delivered of a son on board on¬
ly a very few days before, and was at this time ex¬
tremely ill. Being well acquainted, however, with the
uncertainty of the affairs of England at that time, he
afterwards made an apology to Warwick for this beha¬
viour. The latter pretended to be easily recouciled ;
but immediately left the place, having seized some Fle-
mish vessels which he found lying in the neighbourhood.
Reconcilia- As a very close alliance subsisted between Warwick
tion be- an(J the duke of Burgundy, the king of France be-
wic^and^* came uneasy j and therefore, as soon as the earl landed
the queen. dominions, received him with the greatest marks
of esteem. The reconciliation betwixt him and the
unfortunate Queen Margaret now seemed to be natu¬
ral, though, considering all circumstances, this must have
formerly appeared in a manner impossible. The earl’s
father had been put to death by the orders of Margaret j
and Warwick, in return, had twice taken prisoner
King Henry, banished the queen, and put to death
almost all their faithful adherents. By the mediation
of the French monarch, however, all difterences were
He lands accommodated. A fleet was prepared to reconduct
in Eng- them to England *, and seizing a proper opportunity,
lan(1, they landed at Dartmouth with a small body of troops,
while Edward was in the north suppressing an insurrec¬
tion which had lately appeared there. M arwick was
attended with astonishing success on his arrival in Eng¬
land, and in less than six days saw himself at the head
of 60,000 men. Edward was now obliged in his turn
to fly the kingdom. Having narrowly escaped an at¬
tempt made upon his person by the marquis of Mon¬
tague, he embarked on board a small fleet which lay
off Lynn in Norfolk. While at sea, he was chased by
some ships belonging to the Hans Towns, that were
then at war both with France and England ; but at
length, having escaped all dangers, Edward landed
safely in Holland, where he met w ith but an indifferent
reception from the duke of Burgundy, with whom he
had lately entered into an alliance.
Warwick in the mean time advanced to London, and
once more released and placed on the throne the mi¬
serable King Henry VI. A parliament was called,
which very solemnly confirmed Henry’s title to the
throne, and Warwick himself was dignified by the
people with the title of the king-7?iaker. All the at-
A N D.
tainders of the Lancastrians wrere reversed ; and every Eils,ian(j
one was restored who had lost either honours or for- -y—
tune by his former adherence to Henry’s cause. All A. I), 1471,
the adherents of Edward fled to the continent, or
took shelter in monasteries, where they were pro¬
tected by the ecclesiastical privileges. But Edward’s
party was not yet destroyed. After an absence of nine
months, being seconded by a small body of troops
granted him by the duke of Burgundy, he made a de¬
scent at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. At first he met with
little success $ but his army increasing on his march, he
was soon in a condition to appear before the capital,
which immediately opened its gates.
The unfortunate Henry was thus again plucked from
the throne ; and the hopes of Warwick were almost
totally blasted by the defection of Clarence, Edward’s
brother. Nothing now remained but to come to an
engagement as soon as possible. M arwick knew his
forces to be inferior to those of Edward, but placed
great dependence on his own generalship. He there¬
fore advanced to Barnet, within ten miles of London,
where he resolved to wait the coming of Edward. The
latter soon came up with him, and on the 14th of
April 1471 a most obstinate and bloody battle was
fought. Edward, according to custom, had ordered no
quarter to be given; and obtained the victory through
a mistake of a body of Warwick’s forces, who fell with
fury on their own party instead of the enemy. The earl
himself was slain, together with his brother, and io,oco
of his bravest followers.
The queen was just then returned with her son from
France, where she had been soliciting supplies. She
had scarce time to refresh herself from the fatigues of
the voyage when she received the fatal news of the
death of Warwick, and the total destruction of her
party. All her resolution was not able to support her
under such a terrible disaster. Her giief now for the
first time, it is said, manifested itself by her tears 5
and she immediately took sanctuary in the abbey of
Beaulieu in Hampshire. Here she still found some
friends willing to assist her. Tudor earl of Pembroke,
Courtney earl of Devonshire, the lords Wenlock and
St John, with some other men of rank, encouraged her
yet to hope for success, and promised to stand by her
to the last. On this assurance,she resumed her courage j
and advancing through the counties of Devon, Somer¬
set, and Gloucester, increased her army every day. At
last, however, she was overtaken by Edward with his
victorious army at Tewkesbury, on the banks of the
Severn. The queen’s army was totally defeated j the
earl of Devonshire and Lord Wenlock were killed in the
field ; the duke of Somerset, and about 20 other per¬
sons of distinction, who had taken shelter in a church,
were surrounded, dragged out and immediately be¬
headed; about 3000 of their party fell in battle, and
the army was entirely dispersed. Queen Margaret and
her son were taken prisoners, and brought to the king, ^
who asked the prince in an insulting manner how he ^ atioll 0f
dared to invade his dominions ? The young prince re- the queen’s
plied, that he came thither to claim his just inheritance ; party,
upon which Edward struck him on the face with his
gauntlet. The dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, Lord
Hastings, and Sir Thomas Gray, taking this blow' as
a signal for farther violence, hurried the prince into
the next apartment, and there dispatched him with
their
ENGLAND,
EnsUmd. tI,e*r ‘loggers. Margaret was thrown into the Tower
along with her husband Henry, who expired in that
A,D. 148 j. confinement a few days after. It was universally be¬
lieved that he was murdered by the duke of Gloucester,
though of this there was no direct evidence. Marga¬
ret was ransomed by the king of France for 50,000
crowns, and died a few years after in a most miserable
situation.
Edward being now freed from all his enemies, began
to inflict punishment on those who had formerly ap¬
peared against him. Among the cruelties he commit¬
ted, that on his brother the duke of Clarence was the
most remarkable. The king happening to be one day
hunting in the Park of Thomas Burdet, a servant of
the duke, killed a white buck which was a great favou¬
rite of the owner. Burdet, vexed at the loss, broke
out into a passion, and wished the horns of the deer in
the belly of the person who advised the king to that
insult. For this exclamation Burdet was tried for his
life, and executed at Tyburn. The duke of Clarence
exclaimed against the iniquity of this sentence j upon
which he was arraigned before the house of peers, found
guilty, and condemned to death. The only favour
granted him was to have the choice of his death ; and
his choice was a very singular one, namely, to be drown¬
ed in a butt ot Malmsey wine ; which was according¬
ly done.—The rest of this reign affords little else than
a history of the king’s amours. Among his many
mistresses, Jane Shore was the most remarkable j (see
Shore). The king died on the 9th of April 1482,
in the 42d year of his age and 2ist of his reign, count¬
ing from his first assuming the crown. Besides five
daughters, he left two sons; Edward prince of Wales,
his successor, then in his 13th year; and Richard duke
2jS of York in his 9th.
Edward V. O'1 ^ie death of Edward IV. the kingdom was di¬
vided into new factions. The queen’s family, which,
during the last reign, had come into power, was become
obnoxious to the old nobility, who considered them as
their inferiors. The king had endeavoured to prevent
these animosities from coming to a height, by desiring
on his death-bed that his brother Richard duke of Glou¬
cester should be entrusted with the regency ; and re¬
commended peace and unanimity during the minority
of his son. But the king was no sooner dead than the
former resentment between these parties broke out with
violence; and the duke of Gloucester, who was endued
219 with almost every had quality, resolved to profit by
5uke of their contentions. His first step was to get himself de-
kclared61' c!a'e<l Pr.otector t!ie realm ; and having arrested the
irotcctor. eai1 of 1?ivers’ ^le king’s uncle and guardian, he met
young Edward in his way from Ludlow castle, where
the late king had resided during the latter part of his
reign, and respectfully oft'ered to conduct him to Lon¬
don. Having thus secured the person of the king, he
next got possession of his brother’s person also. The
queen had retired with this child into Westminster ab¬
bey ; and it was not without extreme regret that she
delivered him up at the intercession of the primate and
archbishop of York.
In a few days after Gloucester had made himself ma¬
ster ot the persons of the two princes, he had them
confined in the Tower, under pretence of guarding them
from danger; and soon after spread reports of their
illegitimiicy, and by pretended obstacles put off the.
young king’s coronation. Lord Stanley first began to
suspect his designs; and communicated his suspicions '
to Lord Hastings, who had long been firmly attached ^
to the king’s family. Lord Hastings would not at first
give credit to this surmise; but he very soon had a fa¬
tal prooi of the truth of what had been communicated
to him. On the 13th of June 1483, he was hurried
out of the council-room in the Tower by Gloucester’s
order, and beheaded on a log of timber. The soldiers
who carried him oil made a bustle as though an attempt
had been made to rescue him, and one of them dis¬
charged a blow at Lord Stanley’s bead with a pole¬
axe ; but^ he happily escaped by shrinking under the
table. The same day were executed the earl Rivers,
and some others, who had committed no other crime
than being faithful to the young king,
The protector now thought he might with safety
lay claim to the throne. He had previously gained
over the duke of Buckingham, a nobleman of great
influence among the people. He used his utmost en¬
deavours to inspire the people with a notion of the il¬
legitimate birth of the late king, and consequently of
his children. L)r Shaw, a popular preacher, was also
hired to harangue the people to the same purpose from
St Paul’s cross. Having expatiated on the inconti¬
nence of the queen, and the illegality of the young
king’s title, he then made a panegyric on the virtues
of the protector. “ It is the protector (continued he)
who carries in his face the image of virtue, and the
marks of a true descent. He alone can restore the lost
glory and honour of the nation.” It was hoped that
upon this occasion some of the populace would have
cried out, “ Long live King Richard!” but the audi¬
ence remaining silent, the duke of Buckingham under¬
took in his turn to persuade them. Having expatiated
on the calamities of the last reign and the illegitimaey
of the present race, he told the people, that he saw only
one method of warding off the miseries which threat¬
ened the state, which was by electing the protector;
but he seemed apprehensive that he would never be pre¬
vailed upon to accept a crown accompanied with such
difficulty and danger. He next asked his auditors,
whether they would have the protector for their king ?
but was mortified to find that a total silence ensued.
The mayor, who was in the secret, willing to relieve
him in this embarrassed situation, observed, that the
citizens were not accustomed to be harangued by a man
of his quality, and would only give an answer to their
recorder. This officer, therefore, repeated the duke’s
speech; but the people continuing still silent, “ This
is strange obstinacy (cried the duke) : we only require
of you, in plain terms, to declare, whether or not you
will have the duke of Gloucester for your king; as the
lords and commons have sufficient power without your
concurrenceAt this, some of the meanest appren¬
tices, incited by the servants of the protector and
Buckingham, raised a feeble cry of “ God save King
Richard !” The mob at the door repeated the cry; and
throwing up their caps into the air, cried out, “ A
Richard ! A Richard!” After this farce was acted,
Buckingham, on the 24th of June 1483, waited on
Richard with offers of the crown: but the protector,
with hypocritical modesty, at first declined the offer,
till being told, that tire people, in case of his refusal,
must look out for one that would be. more compliant,
he
IO3
England.
 , 1
k D. 14S3.
13°
Richard ILL
brother
irurdered.
104 ENGL
Ungland. lie accepted the government of England and France,
'—   with a resolution, as he said, to defend the one and sub-
A. D 14^3* due the other.
The first step taken by the new king was to send or¬
ders to Sir Robert Brackenbury governor of the Tower,
to put the young princes to death. But this he re¬
fused ; and submissively answered that he knew not how
to embrue his hands in innocent blood. A fit instru¬
ment for this purpose, however, was not long wanting.
Sir James Tvrrel readily undertook the office j and
Brackenbury was ordered to resign the keys to him for
one night. Tyrrel choosing three associates, Slater,
Deighton, and Forest, came in the night-time to the
door of the chamber where the princes were lodged j
^ t and sending in the assassins, bid them execute their com-
Edwaid W mission, while he himself staid without. They found
and bis the young princes in bed, and fallen into a sound sleep.
The assassins smothered them with the bolster and pil¬
lows $ after which they showed their naked bodies to
Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the stair-foot
under a heap of stones (c).
Richard having thus secured himself on the throne
by the most iniquitous methods, attempted to strength¬
en his interest by foreign alliances, and procui'ing the
favour of the clergy at home by great indulgences j
but he found his power threatened from a quarter where
he least expected an attack. The duke of Bucking¬
ham, who had been so instrumental in raising him to the
throne, did not think himself properly rewarded. He
made a demand of some confiscated lands in Hereford,
to which his family had an ancient claim. Richard
either reluctantly complied with his request, or only
granted it in part j so that a coolness soon ensued be¬
tween them, and in a little time Buckingham came to
a resolution of dethroning the monarch whom he had
just raised. For some time he remained in doubt whe¬
ther he would assume the crown himself, or set up ano¬
ther. At length he determined on the latter 5 and
resolved to declare for Henry earl of Richmond, who
support the was at that time an exile in Brittany, and was consi-
claim of the dered as the only surviving branch of the house of
Lancaster. He was one of those who had the good
fortune to escape the numerous massacres of the for¬
mer reigns j but as he w7as a descendant of John of
Gaunt by the female line, he was for that reason ob¬
noxious to those in power. He had long lived in
exile, and was once delivered over to the ambassadors
of Edward IV. who were preparing to carry him to
England ; when the duke of Brittany, W’ho delivered
him, repented of what he had done, and took him from
the ambassadors just as they were carrying him on ship¬
board. His right to the crown by succession was very
doubtful: but the cruel behaviour of Richard inclined
the people in general greatly to favour him; and, to
give an additional strength to his title, a match was
projected betwixt him and the princess Elizabeth, the
eldest daughter of Edward IV. which, by uniting the
two rival families, would put an end to those dissen-
132
Bucking-
ham deter¬
mines to
eail of
Richmond
to the
throne.
A N D.
sions which had so long filled the kingdom with blood- England,
shed and confusion. Richard, in the mean time, -v—^
from some reasons which have not been particular!-
zed by historians, began to entertain doubts of the
fidelity of Buckingham, and determined to cut him
off. For this purpose he sent for him to court: but
Buckingham, instead of obeying the summons, fled in-
to Wales, where he raised a considerable army, and He takes
forthwith set out to the eastward with a design to in-uPa.rms’
vade England. Richard hastened to meet him with
what forces he could raise; but the march of Buck- his army
ingham being retarded by a most uncommon inunda-and put to
tion of the Severn which lasted 10 days, his troopsd«atb-
were so disheartened at this event, that they almost all
deserted him. The duke was therefore obliged to fly
in distress, and Richard instantly set a price upon his
head. Buckingham was now obliged to trust his life
in the hands of an old servant of his own, named Ba¬
nister ; but this man, tempted by the greatness of
the reward, betrayed him to the sheriff of Shrop¬
shire, by whom he was seized and conducted to Ri¬
chard at Salisbury, who caused him to be executed 234
without delay. The earl of Richmond, in the mean Richmond
time, had set sail from St Maloes with a body of^n<*s 'n,
5000 men : but after his arrival in England, receiving ol)l
the disagreeable news of Buckingham’s misfortune, heiiged lore-
set sail again for Bretagne 5 while Richard, embolden-turn,
ed by the bad success of his enemies., determined to
confirm his title to the throne by calling a parliament,
which till this time he had not ventured to do. At
present matters were so circumstanced, that the par¬
liament had no other resource than to comply with his
desires, and acknowledge his right to the crown. An 235
act was passed confirming the illegitimacy of Edward’s 8
children ; and an attainder was also confirmed against g^^y
the earl of Richmond; the duties of tonnage and parliament,
poundage were granted to the king for life j and his
only son E<1 ward, then about twelve years of age, was
created prince of Wales. In return for these conces¬
sions, Richard passed several popular laws, particular¬
ly against the extorting of money by benevolences, and
some others calculated to gain the good will of the op¬
posite party. He paid his court also to the queen-
dowager with such assiduity and success, that she left
her sanctuary, and put herself and her daughters into
his hands. The ambition and cruelty of this man in¬
deed are said to have extinguished every sentiment of
natural affection as well as humanity. He had married
Anne, the second daughter of the earl of Warwick,
and widow of Edward prince of Wales, whom he him¬
self had murdered j but having born him but one son,
who died about this time, he considered her as an in¬
vincible obstacle to the accomplishment of his desires $
for which reason it was thought he put an end to her
life by poison : and as he knew that the projected match
between the earl of Richmond and the princess Eliza¬
beth could only make the rivalship of the former any
way formidable, he resolved to obtain a dispensa¬
tion
(c) These circumstances are said to have been confessed in the succeeding reign, though the perpetrators escaped
punishment. The bodies of the two princes were sought for without any success under the reign of Henry VII.:
but in the time of Charles II. the bones of two persons answering to their age were found in the spot where they
were said to have been buried j which, being supposed to be the remains of these two unfortunate youths, they
were buried under a marble monument in Westminster abbey.
4
England, tion from the pope for marrying her himself. The
'—:v—'queen-dowager is even said to have come into this
A.D. i4s5-scheme, with a view to recover her power; but the
princess herself always rejected his addresses with ab¬
horrence. The refusal of the princess occasioned no
small perplexity in Richard ; and before he could de-
,,5 termine on any proper method of accomplishing his
Richmond purpose, he received news of Richmond's preparations
lands in for landing in England. These being soon accomplish-
a e<^ Henry se^ sa^ Ron1 Harfleur in Normandy, and
;^n landed without opposition, on the 17th of August
1485, at Milford haven in Wales. Richard, in the
mean time, not knowing where the invasion was to
take place, had posted himself at Nottingham ; which
being almost in the centre of the kingdom, was there¬
fore proper for resisting any invader. Sir Rice ap
Thomas and Sir Walter Herbert were commissioned
by Richard to oppose his rival in Wales ; but the for¬
mer immediately deserted to him, and the latter made
but a very feeble resistance. Richard instantly resolved
to meet his antagonist, and to risk every thing on the
event of a battle. Richmond, though he had not above
6000 men, and the king near double that number, did
not decline the. combat; being chiefly encouraged by
the promises of Lord Stanley to join him with a body
of 7000 men, and with whom he hovered at a little
distance from the intended field of battle, seemingly in-
137 determined to join either side.
\ickardde- The king having commanded his army to form them-
Inw aUd selves *n or^er °f battle, intrusted the van to the duke
of Norfolk, while he himself, with the crown on his
head, took the command of the main body. Lord
Stanley in the mean time posted himself on one flank
between the two armies, while his brother Sir William
took his station directly opposite. As his intention of
either joining the enemy or keeping neutral during the
time of the engagement was now far from being doubt¬
ful, Richard sent him orders to join the main body ;
which not being complied with, the tyrant determined
to put to death Stanley’s son, who had been left with
him as a pledge of his father’s fidelity. He was per¬
suaded, however, to defer the execution till after the
engagement, that Stanley might thereby he induced to
delay his purpose in joining the enemy. This, however,
did not answer the expectation. Soon after the engage¬
ment was begun, Stanley deserted Richard’s party, and
joining Richmond, entirely decided the fortune of the
day. The tyrant perceiving his situation to be quite
desperate, and seeing his rival at no great distance from
him, drove up against him with fury, in hopes that
either Henry’s death or his own would decide the
victory between them. He killed Sir William Brandon
the earl’s standard-bearer; he dismounted Sir John
Cheyney; and was within reach of Richmond, when
Sir W illiam Stanley breaking in with his troops, Richard
was surrounded and overwhelmed by numbers. His
body was found in the field, covered with dead enemies,
and besmeared with blood. It was thrown carelessly
across a horse, carried to Leicester, amidst the shouts of
insulting spectators, and interred in the Gray-Friars
church at that place.
The usurper’s ci’own being found on the field of
battle, was placed on the head of the conqueror, wbi)e
the whole army cried out, “ Long five King Henry !”
7. wo days after the battle, Henry gave orders to con-
VOL. VIII. Part I. * 4-
105
fine Edward Plantagenet earl of Warwick, and son of England.
the unfortunate duke of Clarence ; and to release the    
princess Elizabeth, who had been confined in the Tower.I4^5>
He then advanced by slow and gradual marches to the
city of London, where he was received with the great- 238
est demonstrations of joy. He was crowned king of^cni,Y ^
England on the 30th ot October 1485 ; and to heighten
the splendour on that occasion, he bestowed the rank of
knights-banneret on 1 2 persons, and conferred peerages
on three. Jasper earl of Pembroke, his uncle, he crea¬
ted duke of Bedford ; Thomas Lord Stanley his father-
in-law, earl of Derby ; and Edward Courteney, earl
of Devonshire. At the coronation likewise appeared
a new institution, which the king had established for
personal security as well as pomp ; a band of 50 archers,
who were denominated Yeomen of the Guard. But
lest the people should take umbrage at this step, as if it
implied a diffidence of his subjects, be declared the in¬
stitution to be perpetual. The ceremony of the corona¬
tion was performed by Cardinal Bourchier, archbishop
of Canterbury—On the 18th of January i486, he was
married to the princess Elizabeth ; and his marriage
was celebrated at London with greater appearance of
joy than either his first entry or his coronation had
been. Henry remarked, with much displeasure, this
general favour borne to the house of York ; and the
suspicions arising from it, not only disturbed his tran¬
quillity during the whole of his reign, but bred disgust
towards his consort herself, and poisoned all his domestic
enjoyments.
The reign of Henry VII. was for several years dis-j|js*
turbed by plots and insurrections. The people, by a disturbed
long course of civil war, had become so turbulent and by fl'equent
factious, that no governor could rule, nor could anv rebellions,
king please them. The violent animosity expressed by
this monarch, however, against the house of York, may
justly be considered as one of the causes of the extreme
proneness to rebellion manifested by his subjects. In¬
stead of endeavouring to conciliate the aflection of the
opposite party, he always strove to quell them by ab¬
solute force and violence. For this purpose he took a
journey, soon after his accession, to the north of Eng¬
land, where the Vorkists were very numerous: hoping
to get the better of them by his presence. In his
journey thither, he received intelligence of an insurrec¬
tion against him by Viscount Lovel, with Sir Henry
Stafford and Thomas his brother, who had raised an Stafford’s
army, and were marching to besiege the city of Wor-insurrecfi°11
cester, while Lovel approached to assist them with a suPPcess€ti-
body of three or four thousand men. They were dis¬
persed, however, by the offer of a general pardon ;
which induced Lovel to withdraw from his troops,
who were thereupon obliged to submit to the king’s
mercy. The Staffords took sanctuary in the church of
Colnham near Abingdon ; but as it was found that this
church had not the privilege of protecting rebels, they
were taken from thence : the elder was executed at
Tyburn ; but the younger, pleading that be had been
misled by his brother, received a pardon.
This success was soon after followed by the birth ofprinc^Ar-
a prince ; whom Henry named in honour of the cele-tlmr born,
brated King Arthur, who is said to have been the direct
ancestor of the house of Tudor. All this success,
however, as well as the general satisfaction which the
birth of a prince descended from the houses both of
O York
ENGLAND.
ENGLAND.
ic6
England. York and Lancaster necessarily occasioned, were not
> ,-.v—. sufficient to reconcile the hearts of the English to their
A. D- 1487.S0VereJgn# H;s extreme severity towards the house
of York still continued j and unfortunately this was
tentTof the niuch more beloved by the generality of the nation
people. than that of Lancaster. Many of the Yorkists had
been treated with great cruelty, and deprived of their
fortunes under pretence of treason ; a general resump¬
tion had likewise been made of the grants made by the
princes of the house of York. It was likewise univer¬
sally believed that the queen herself met with harsh
treatment, on account of her being one of that unfor¬
tunate house $ and from all these circumstances it was
not unreasonably imagined that his enmity was inve¬
terate and invincible. Hence, notwithstanding his
politic and vigorous administration, people made no
scruple of openly expressing their disapprobation of his
conduct and government 5 and one rebellion seemed to
Imposture extinguished only to give birth to another. The
«( Lambert king had, at the commencement of his reign, confined
Simnel. the duke of Clarence’s son, as has already been men¬
tioned. This unfortunate youth, who had obtained
the title of the earl of Warwick, was, through long con¬
finement, entirely unacquainted with the affairs of
the world. Simple as he was, however, he was now
made use of to disturb the public tranquillity. The
queen-dow'ager was with great reason suspected to be
at the bottom of this conspiracy ; but not choosing to
interfere openly in the matter herself, she employed
one Simon a priest of Oxford to execute her purposes.
This man cast his eyes upon one Lambert Simnel, a ba¬
ker’s son in the same place, a youth of only 15 years
of age ; but who, from his graceful appearance and
accomplishments, seemed proper for personating a man
of quality. A report had been spread among the people,
that Richard duke of York, second son of Edward IV.
had secretly made his escape from the cruelty of his
uncle, and lay somewhere concealed in England. Si¬
mon had at first instructed his pupil to assume that
name, which he found to be much the object of public
affection j but hearing afterwards a new report, that
Warwick had escaped from the Tower, and observing
that this news was attended with no less general satis¬
faction, he changed the plan of his imposture, and made
Simnel personate that unfortunate prince. The pliant
youth was therefore directed by his instructor to talk
upon many occurrences, as happening to him in the
court of Edward. But as the impostor was not calcu¬
lated to bear close examination, he was removed to
Ireland : and so well had he profited by the lessons
given him, that he no sooner presented himself to the
earl of Kildare the deputy, claiming his protection as
the unfortunate earl of Warwick, than he began to con¬
sult with several other noblemen with regard to him.
These expressed even a stronger belief in Simnel’s story
than the deputy himself had done j and in proportion
as the story was spread abroad, the more credit it ob¬
tained. The impostor was lodged in the castle of
Dublin *, the inhabitants universally took an oath of
allegiance to him, as the true descendant of the Plan-
tagenets; he was crowned with a diadem taken from the
statue of the blessed virgin, and proclaimed king by the
title of Edward VI.; and the whole kingdom followed
the example of the capital.
Such an unexpected event alarmed Henry so much,
that he would have gone over to Ireland on purpose to England,,
quell the rebellion in person, had he not been afraid of —v—--
the machinations of the queen-dowager in his absence. ^ M8!
To prevent any thing of this kind, it was resolved
confine her for life in a monastery *, under pretence, how* dowa^cV*
ever, that it was done on account of her having for-eoufinsd.
merly delivered up the princess her daughter to King
Richard. The queen murmured against the severity
of her treatment j but the king persisted in his resolu¬
tion, and she remained in confinement till the time of
her death, which happened some years after.
The next measure was to show Warwick to the
people. He was taken from the Tower, and led through
the principal streets of London j after which he was
conducted in solemn procession to St Paul’s, where
great numbers were assembled to see him. Still, how¬
ever, they proceeded in Dublin to honour their pre¬
tended monarch ; and he was crowned with great so¬
lemnity in the presence of the earl of Kildare, the chan¬
cellor, and the other officers of state. At last being
furnished by the duchess of Burgundy with a body of
2000 veteran Germans under the command of Martin
Swart, a brave and experienced officer, he resolved to iftf
vade England. He landed in Lancashire, from whence
he marched to York, expecting that the country people
would rise and join him on his march. But in this he
was deceived : the people were unwilling to join a body
of foreigners j and were besides kept in awe by the
great reputation of Henry. Lord Lincoln, therefore,
who commanded the rebel army, determined to bring
the matter to a speedy issue. Accordingly he met the
royal army at Stoke in the county of Nottingham.
An obstinate engagement ensued, but at length King
Henry obtained a complete victory. Lord Lincoln,
with 4000 private men, perished in the battle j and
Simnel with his tutor Simon were taken prisoners.
Simon being a priest, could not be tried by the civil
power, and was only committed to close confinement,
Simnel was pardoned, and made a scullion in the king’s
kitchen, whence he was afterwards advanced to the
rank of falconer, in which employment he died.
Henry being now freed from all danger from that jjenr, p^.,
quarter, determined to take ample vengeance on his nisheshi*
enemies. For this purpose he took a journey into the encraits.
north j but though he found many delinquents, his na¬
tural avarice prompted him to exact heavy fines from
them rather than to put them to death. His proceed¬
ings, however, were extremely arbitrary ; the crimi¬
nals being tried, not by the ordinary judges, but ei¬
ther by commissioners appointed for the occasion, or
suffering punishment by sentence of a court-martial.
Having thus fully established his authority as far as it
could be done by suppressing and punishing domestic
enemies, he next determined to recommend himself to
his subjects by a report of bis military disposition 5 ho- preteiids*
ping, that by undertaking, or pretending to undertake, desire of a
some martial enterprises, he would thus gain the favourcbiering
of a people naturally turbulent, and unaccustomed tornalrl^ e
live long at peace with their neighbours. He certainly1
had not, however, the least intention of prosecuting
foreign conquests j though to please the people, be
frequently gave out that he designed to invade France,
and lay waste the whole country, rather than not re¬
cover his continental possessions. Under these preten¬
ces, particularly that of assisting the Bretons, whom the
ENGLAND.
England, king of France had lately sutidued, and who had ap-
v—plied to him for relief, he persuaded his parliament to
k.D. i487-grant him a considerable supply; but this involved him
Obtains a *n some difficulties. The counties of Durham and
subsidy on York, who had always been discontented with Henry’s
pretence of government, and still farther provoked by the oppres-
assisting sions under which they had laboured after the extinc-
Wants of ^0n ®*mne^’s rebellion, opposed the commissioners
Bretagne. sent the king to levy the tax. The latter applied
to the earl of Northumberland, requesting his advice
and assistance in the execution of their office; but in¬
stead of being able to enforce the levying of the tax,
he himself was attacked and put to death by the insur¬
gents. This act of violence committed by themselves,
seemed to render the insurgents desperate, so that with¬
out more ado they prepared to resist the royal power,
under the conduct of one Sir John Egremond ; but in
*4? ill-conducted and precipitate scheme they met with
Aa insur- no success. Henry instantly levied a considerable force,
reetion which he committed to the charge of the earl of Sur-
iupprefted. rey. Jjy whom the rebels were quickly defeated, and
one of their leaders taken prisoner. Sir John Egre¬
mond fled to the duchess of Burgundy, who afforded
him protection.-
Thus Henry obtained the subsidy which he had so¬
licited under pretence of invading France, though
he would willingly have avoided any expence in pre¬
parations for that purpose in order to keep the mo¬
ney in his possession ; but as the Bretons had applied
to him for assistance, and their distresses became every
449 da7 more urgent, he found himself obliged to attempt
ienry something. With this view he set sail for Calais with an
nakes a army of 25,000 foot and 1600 horse, of which he gave
the command to tI,e duke of Bedford and the earl of
France. Oxford : but notwithstanding this apparently hostile
disposition, negotiations for peace had been secretly be¬
gun, and commissioners even appointed to consider of
the terms, three months before King Henry set out for
the continent. As the love of money was the prevail¬
ing passion of the English monarch, and the possession
of Bretagne was a great object to France, an accom-
t;o modation soon took place betwixt the contending par-
ibtains a ties. The king of France engaged to pay Plenry near
e^and"10" 200>000^ 33 a reimbursement for the expences of
[aalttpen“n‘Iiis expedition, and stipulated at the same time to pay
an. him and his heirs an annual pension of 2C.000 crowns
more.
Thus the authority of Henry seemed to be so firm¬
ly established, as to leave no reason to dread any rival
*51 in time to come ; hut still he found himself mistaken.
Eeririiu ^uc^ess Burgundy, resenting the depression
'arbecL ^er an^ exasperated by her frequent mis¬
carriages in the attempts already made, resolved to
make a final effort against Henry, whom she greatly-
hated. For this purpose she propagated a report that
her nephew Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, had
escaped from the Tower where his elder brother was
murdered, and that he still lay somewhere concealed.
Finding this report eagerly received, she soon found a
young man who assumed both his name and character.
The person chosen to act this part was the son of one
Osbeck, or Warbeck, a converted Jew, who had been
in England during the reign of Edward IV. His name
was Peter; but it had been corrupted after the Fle¬
mish manner into Peterkin, or Perkin. It was by some
107
believed, that Edward, among his other amorous ad- Kiigland.
ventures, had a secret correspondence with Warbtck’s 1 v  
wife, which might account for the great similarity of^■^•I4,’7•
features between Perkin and that monarch. The
duchess of Burgundy found this youth entirely suited
to her purposes. The lessons she gave him were easily
learned and strongly retained. His graceful air, his
courtly address, his easy manners, and elegant conver¬
sation, were capable of imposing upon all but those
who were privy to the imposture. The kingdom
of Ireland was pitched upon tor Perkin’s first appear¬
ance, as it had been before for that ofSimnel. He
landed at Cork ; and immediately assuming the name
of Richard Plantagenet, was followed by great num¬
bers of credulous people. He wrote letters to the
earls of Desmond and Kildare, mviting them to join
his party ; he dispersed everywhere the strange intel¬
ligence of his escape from his uncle Richard’s cruelty;
and his story meeting with general credit, he soon be¬
came an object of the public favour. All those who
were disgusted with the king, prepared to join Perkin ;
but particularly those who formerly were Henry’s fa¬
vourites, and had contributed to place him on the
throne. These, thinking their services had not been
sufficiently repaid, now became heads of the conspiracy.
Their attempts, however, were all frustrated by the vi¬
gilance of the king, and most of the conspirators of any
note were publicly executed.
Perkin finding it was in vain to attempt any thing
in England, went to the court of James IV. of Scot¬
land. Here he was received with great cordiality ; and
James carried his confidence in him so far, that he even
gave him in marriage Lady Catherine Gordon, daugh¬
ter to the earl of Huntley, and a near kinswoman of
his own. But when he attempted to set him on the
throne of England, he found himself totally disappoint¬
ed ; and on the conclusion of peace between the two
kingdoms, Perkin was obliged to leave Scotland. From
thence he went to Flanders ; and meeting with but a
cool reception there, he resolved to try the affections
of the people of Cornwall, who had lately risen against
the king on account ef a new tax which had been le¬
vied upon them. On his first appearance, Perkin was
joined by about 3000 of these people, with which
force he laid siege to Exeter. Henry, however, having
marched against him with a considerable army, Per¬
kin’s heart failed him, though his followers now a-
mounted to 7000 ; and he took shelter in a monastery.
His wife fell into the conqueror’s hands; who placed
her in a respectable situation near the queen’s person,
with a suitable pension, which she enjoyed till her
death. Perkin being persuaded to deliver himself into
the king’s hands, was compelled to sign a confession of
his former life and conduct; but this was so defective
and contradictory, that very little regard was paid to
it. His life was granted him ; though he was still de¬
tained in custody, and keepers were appointed to watch
his conduct. From these, however, he broke loose ; and
flying to the sanctuary of Shyne, put himself into the
prior’s hands. He was once more prevailed upon to trust
himself in the king’s hands, and was committed to the
Tower ; but having here entered into a correspondence
with the earl of Warwick in order to make their escape,
both of them were condemned and executed.
To Henry VII. in a great measure, is owing the
O 2 present
io8
ENGLAND.
England, present civilized state of the English nation. He hail
. ■— v-~ a)[ along two points principally in view', the one to
A. J). 1509. (]epress the nobility and clergy, and the other to exalt
C;A!L and humanize the populace. In the feudal times every
xhn^Iisii na- ir • 1 c 1
tiou civi- nobleman was possessed 01 a certain number or vassals
lized by over whom he had, by various methods, acquired an
Henry. almost absolute power ; and, therefore, upon every
slight disgust, he was able to influence them to join
him in his revolt or disobedience. Henry considered,
that the giving of his barons a power to sell their
estates, which were before unalienable, must greatly
weaken their interest. This liberty therefore he gave
them 5 and it proved highly pleasing to the commons,
nor was it disagreeable to the nobles themselves. His
next scheme was to prevent their giving liveries to many
hundreds of their dependents, who were thus kept like
the soldiers of a standing army to be ready at the com¬
mand of their lord. By an act passed in this reign,
none but menial servants were allowed to wear a livery 5
and this law was enforced under severe penalties.
With the clergy, Henry was not so successful. The
number of criminals of all kinds who found protection
in monasteries and other places appointed for religious
worship, seemed to indicate little less than an absolute
toleration of all kinds of vice. Henry used all his in¬
terest with the pope to get these sanctuaries abolished,
but to no purpose. All that he could procure was,
that if thieves, murderers, or robbers, registered as
sanctuary men, should sally out and commit fresh of¬
fences, and retreat again, in such cases they might
be taken out of the sanctuary and delivered up to ju¬
stice.
In 1500, the king’s eldest son Arthur was married
to the Infanta Catherine of Spain, which marriage had
been projected and negotiated seven years. But the
prince dying in a few months after marriage, the prin¬
cess was obliged to marry his younger brother Henry,
who was created prince of Wales in his room. Henry
himself made all the opposition which a youth of 12
years of age is capable of: but as the king persisted
in his resolution, the marriage was by the pope’s dis¬
pensation shortly after solemnized.—In the latter part
of this king’s reign, his economy, which had always
been exact, degenerated into avarice, and he oppres¬
sed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had
two ministers, Empson and Dudley, perfectly quali¬
fied to second his avaricious intentions. They were
both lawyers, and usually committed to prison by in¬
dictment such persons as they intended to oppress ;
from whence they seldom got free but by paying heavy
fines, which were called mitigations and compositions:
but by degrees the very forms of law were omitted j
and they determined in a summary way upon the pro-
perties of the subjects, and confiscated their effects to
Death of the royal treasury.—Henry VII. died of the gout in his
Henry Vlhstomach, in the year 1509, having lived 52 years, and
reigned 23 ", and was succeeded by his son Henry VIII.
In Henry VII.’s reign was built a large ship of war
called the Great Harry, which cost 14,000!. This,
was, properly speaking, the first ship in the English
navy. Before this period, when the king wanted a
fleet, he had no other expedient than to hire ships from
2,, the merchants.
Hem-) VIII. Henry VIII. ascended the throne when he was a¬
bout 18 years of age, and had almost every advantage England.
which a prince can have on his accession. He had a 1 —.1
well-stored treasury and indisputed title, and was
peace with all the powers in Europe. Commerce and
arts had been some time introduced into England,
where they met with a favourable reception. The
young prince himself was beautiful in his person, ex¬
pert in all polite exercises, open and liberal in his air,
and loved by all his subjects. The old king, who was
himself a scholar, had instructed him in all the learning,
of the times, so that he was an adept in school-divinity
before the age of 18.
All these advantages, however, seemed to have been,
lost upon the new king. Being destitute of a good
heart and solid understanding, he proved a tyrant.
Being always actuated, not by reason, hut the passion
which happened to be uppermost in his mind, he be¬
haved in. the most absurd and contradictory manner j
and however fortunate some of his measures proved at
last, it is impossible that either his motives, or the means
he took for the accomplishment of his purposes, can be
approved of by any good man.
One of Henry’s first actions in his royal capacity
was to punish Empson and Dudley, who were obnoxi¬
ous to the populace on account of their having been
the instruments of the late king’s rapacity. As they
could not be impeached merely on account of their
having strictly executed the will of the king, they
were accused of having entered into a treasonable con¬
spiracy, and of having designed to seize by force the
administration of government j and though nothing
could be more improbable than such a charge, the ge¬
neral prejudice against them was so great, lhat they
were both condemned and executed.
In 1510, the king entered into a league with Pope
Julius II. and Ferdinand king of Spain, against
Louis XII. of France. In this alliance Henry was
the only disinterested person. He expected nothing
besides the glory which he hoped would- attend his
arms, and the title of Most Christian King, which the
pope assured him would soon be taken from the king
of France to be conferred upon him. The pope was
desirous of wresting from Louis some valuable pro¬
vinces which he possessed in Italy, and Ferdinand was
desirous of sharing in the spoil. Henry summoned his
parliament, who very readily granted him supplies, as
he gave out that his design was to conquer the king¬
dom of France, and annex it to the crown of England.
It was in vain that one of his old prudent counsellors
objected, that conquests on the continent would only
drain the kingdom without enriching it; and that Eng¬
land, from its situation, was not fitted to enjoy exten¬
sive empire. The young king, deaf to all remon¬
strances, and hurried away by his military ardour, re¬
solved immediately to begin the war. But after several
attempts, which were rendered unsuccessful only by the
mismanagement of those who conducted them, a peace
was concluded with France on the 7th of August 1514.
Henry’s arms were attended with more success in
Scotland ; where King James IV. with the greatest
part of the Scots nobility, and 10,000 of the common
people, were cut off in the battle of Flowden f. Henry f See Scot
in the mean time, puffed up with his imaginary sue-
cesses against France, and his real ones against Scot¬
land,
ENGLAND.
Eir-lancl. laud, continued to lavish his treasures by expensive
u-Jy——'1 pleasures, and no less expensive preparations for war.
A. D.tSM-The old ministers who had been appointed by his fa¬
ther to direct him, were now disregarded j and the king’s
confidence was entirely placed in Thomas afterwards
■ dhrd Cardinal Wolsey, who seconded him in all his favourite
Wohey pursuits, and who, being the son of a private gentle-
minister. man at Ipswich, had gradually raised himself to the
*SwWot- ^rs*' employments of the state*. He doth not seem
to have had many bad qualities besides bis excessive
pride, which disgusted all the nobility 5 but tbe great
share he possessed in the favour of such an absolute
prince as Henry VIII. put him quite out of the reach
of his enemies.
Arbitrary The king having soon exhausted all the treasures left
behaviour h*m by bis father, as well as the supplies which he
af the king.could by fair means obtain from his parliament, applied
to Wolsey for new methods of replenishing his coffers.
The minister’s first scheme was to get a large sum from
the people under the title of benevolence; though no
title could be more improperly applied, as it was not
granted without the greatest murmurings and com¬
plaints. Wolsey even met with opposition in the levy¬
ing of it. In the first place, having exacted a consi¬
derable sum from the clergy, he next applied himself
to the house of commons ; hut they only granted him
half the sum he demanded. The minister at first was
highly offended, and desired to be heard in the house ;
but they replied, that none could be permitted to sit
and argue there except sue!) as were members. Soon
alter, the king having occasion for new supplies, by
Wolsey’s advice attempted to procure them by his pre¬
rogative alone, without consulting his parliament. He
issued out commissions to all the counties of England
for levying four shillings in the pound from the clergy,
and three shillings and fourpence from the laity. This
stretch of royal power was soon opposed by the people,
and a general insurrection seemed ready to ensue.
Henry endeavoured to pacify them by circular letters ;
in which he declared, that what he demanded was on¬
ly by way of benevolence. The city of London, how¬
ever, still hesitated on the demand j and in some parts
of the country insurrections were actually begun.
These were happily suppressed by the duke of Suffolk j
hut the cardinal lost somewhat of the king’s favour on
account of the improper advice he had given him. To
reinstate himself in his good graces, Wolsey made the
king a present of a noble palace, called York-place, at
Westminster, assuring him that from the first be had
intended it for the king’s use. In order to have a pre¬
tence for amassing more wealth, Wolsey next under¬
took to found two new colleges at Oxford ; and for
ithis purpose he received every day fresh grants from
the pope and the king. The former imprudently gave
him libeity to suppress some monasteries, and make use
ol their revenues for the erection of his new colieges ;
hut this was a fatal precedent for the pontiff’s interests,
and it taught the king to seize on the monastic revenues
whenever he stood in need of money.
I or a considerable time Wolsey continued to enjoy
the king’s favour in an extreme degree ; and as no
monarch was ever more despotic than Henry VIII.
no minister was ever more powerful than Wolsey. This
extraordinary elevation served only to render his fall
the more conspicuous, and himself the more miserable,
IO9
when it took place: and what was tvorse, he had long England.
foreseen, from what he knew of the king’s capricious 1 -v—. ,<
and obstinate temper, that it certainly would happen A- D. 1527.
one time or other. The cause of this final overthrow ^ ^
was the desire King Henry began to entertain of ha- vVolsey’s
ving his queen Catharine divorced. The doctrines of disgrace,
the reformation, propagated by Luther in 1517, had
gained considerable ground in England, and many pro-
fesssed a beliel in them, notwithstanding the severe per¬
secution which had been carried on against heretics
during some of the preceding reigns. The clergy had
become so exceedingly corrupt, and were immersed in
such monstrous ignorance, that they were universally
hated even by their own party ; while no regard at alt
was paid to their decisions, or rather they were looked
upon with the utmost abhorrence, by the reformers.
Even the papal authority, though still very great, had,
in no greater a space of time than ten years (viz. from
I517f 'vhen Luther first began to attack it, to the
present year 1527), declined very sensibly. The mar-gcrupieS
riage of King Henry, therefore, being looked upon by concerning
all parties as in itself illegal, and only sanctified by the legality
a dispensation from the pope, had been frequently °* Henry’s
objected to on different occasions. We are informed niir,ia^e’
by some authors, that when Henry VIL. betrothed
his son, at that time only 12 years of age, he evidently
showed an intention of taking afterwards a proper op¬
portunity to annul the contract 5 and that he ordered
Prince Henry, as soon as he should come of age, to
enter a protestation against the marriage j charging him
on his death-bed not to finish an alliance so unusual,
and liable to such insuperable objections. Some mem¬
bers of the privy-council, particularly Warham the
primate, afterwards declared against the completion of
tbe marriage ; and even after it was completed, some
incidents which in a short time took place were suffi¬
cient to make him sensible of the general sentiments
ol the public on that subject. The states of Castile
had opposed a marriage betwixt the emperor Charles
and the English princess Mary, Henry’s daughter, ur¬
ging among other tilings the illegitimacy of her birth.
The same objection afterwards occurred on opening a
negotiation with France for a marriage with the duke
of Orleans.
If these accounts are to he depended upon as au-other rca-
thentic, we can scarce perceive it possible hut Henry sons for
himself must have been somewhat staggered by them j Heni7’s(!e-
though it is by no means probable that they were hissue a
only motives. The queen was six years older than
the king, her personal charms were decayed, and his
allection lessened in proportion. All her children had
died in infancy except one daughter, the princess Mary
above mentioned ; and Henry was, or pretended to be,
greatly struck with this, as it seemed something like
the curse of being childless, pronounced in the Mo¬
saic law against some evil doers. Another point of
the utmost importance was the succession to the crown,
which any question concerning the legitimacy of the
king’s marriage would involve in confusion. It was
also supposed, with great reason, that should any ob¬
stacles of this kind occur, the king of Scotland
would step in as the next heir, and advance his pre-
tensions to the crown of England. But, above all, it His love for
is probable that he was influenced by the love he had Anne Bo-
now contracted for Anne Boleyn, who had lately le>J1*
been
ENGLAND.
i66
Sends to
Rome to
obtain a
divorce.
t5r
Extreme
perplexity
of the
pope.
t6i
Henry’s
controversy
witk him.
been appointed maid of honour to the queen. In this
station Henry had frequent opportunities of seeing
•her, and soon became deeply enamoured $ and finding
that his passion could not be gratified but by mar¬
riage, it is not to be doubted that he was thus obsti¬
nately set upon the divorce j for which purpose he
sent his secretary to Rome to obtain from Clement a
bull for dissolving his marriage with Catharine. That
he might not seem to entertain a doubt of the pope’s
prerogative, he insisted only on some grounds of nul¬
lity in the bull granted by his predecessor Julius for
the accomplishment of the marriage. In the preamble
to this bull, it had been said, that it was granted only
upon the solicitation of Henry himself j though it was
known that he was then a youth under 12 years of age:
it was likewise asserted, that the bull was necessary tor
maintaining the peace between the two crowns j though
otherwise it is certain that there was no appearance ot
a quarrel betwixt them. These false premises seemed
to afford a. very good pretence for dissolving it j but,
as matters then stood, the pope was involved in the ut¬
most perplexity. Queen Catharine was aunt to the
emperor, who had lately made Clement himself a pri¬
soner, and whose resentment he still dreaded: and be¬
sides, he could not with any degree of prudence declare
the bull of the former pope illicit, as this would give
a mortal blow to the doctrine of papal infallibility.
On the other hand, Henry was his protector and friend j
the dominions of England were the chief resource from
Whence his finances were supplied $ and the king of
France, some time before, had got a bull of divorce
in circumstances nearly similar. In this exigence he
thought the wisest method would be to spin out the
affair by negotiation; and in the mean time he sent
over a commission to Wolsey, in conjunction with the
archbishop of Canterbury, or any other English prelate,
to examine the validity of the king’s marriage ano of
the former dispensation •, granting them also a provi¬
sional dispensation for the king’s marriage with any
other person.
The pope’s message was laid before the council in
England : but they considered, that an advice given by
the pope in this secret manner might very easily be
disavowed in public j and that a clandestine marriage
would totally invalidate the legitimacy of any issue the
king might have by such a match. In consequence of
this, fresh messenger^ were dispatched to Rome, and
evasive answers returned the pope never imagining
that Henry’s passion would hold out during the tedious
course of an ecclesiastical controversy. But in this he
was mistaken. The king of England had been taught
to dispute as well as the pope, and valued himself not
a little on his knowlege in theology : and to his ar¬
guments he added threats; telling him, that the Eng¬
lish were but too well disposed to withdraw from the
holy see j and that if he continued uncomplying, the
whole country would readily follow the example of
their monarch, who should always deny obedience to a
pontiff that had treated him with such falsehood and
duplicity. The king even proposed to his holiness
whether, if he were not permitted to divorce his pre¬
sent queen, he might not have a dispensation for having
two wives at once ?
The pope, perceiving the king’s eagerness, at last
sent Cardinal Campegio his legate to London; who
with Wolsey, opened a court for trying the legitimacy England,
of the king’s marriage with Catharine, and cited the v—*-
king and queen to appear before them. The trial com- ^
menced the 31st of May 1529 j and both parties pre- Tri^ ^^
sented themselves. The king answered to his name king and
when called: but the queen, instead of answering to queen be-|,
hers, rose from her seat, and, throwing herself at theft)re (l^e
king’s feet, made a very pathetic harangue j which herj^ 1 ls*
dignity, her virtue, and misfortunes, rendered still more*'
affecting. She told her husband, “ That she was a
stranger in his dominions, without protection, without
counsel, and without assistance 5 exposed to all the in¬
justice which her enemies were pleased to impose upon
her : That she had quitted her native country, without
any other resource than her connections with him and
his family ; and that, instead of suffering thence any
violence or iniquity, she had been assured of having in
them a safeguard against every misfortune : That she
had been his wife during 20 years $ and would here
appeal to himself, whether her affectionate submission
to his will had not merited other treatment than to be
thus, after so long a time, thrown from him with in¬
dignity : That she was conscious,—he himself was as-
sured,—that her virgin honour was yet unstained when
he received her into his bed ; and that her connections
with his brother had been carried no farther than the
mere ceremony of marriage : That their parents, the
kings of England and Spain, were esteemed the wisest
princes of their time, and had undoubtedly acted by the
best advice when they formed the agreement for that
marriage, which was now represented as so criminal and
unnatural: And that she acquiesced in their judgment,
and would not submit her cause to be tried by a court
whose dependance on her enemies was too visible ever
to allow her any hopes of obtaining from them an
equitable or impartial decision.” Having spoken these
words, the queen rose j and, making the king a low
reverence, left the court $ nor would she ever again
appear in it. The legate having again summoned the
queen to appear before them, on her refusal, declared
her contumacious, and the trial proceeded in her ab¬
sence. But when the business seemed to be nearly de¬
cided, Campegio, on some very frivolous pretences,
prorogued the court, and at last transferred the cause
before the see of Rome. . 2<j4
All this time Cardinal Wolsey seemed to be in the Embarra^
same dilemma rvith the pope, and indeed much worse j meat of
as he could not boast of the same independence which Cardinal
his holiness possessed. On the one hand, he was very ^ o!ser’
solicitous to gratify the king his master, who had dis¬
tinguished him by so many and extraordinary marks of
favour; on the other, he feared to offend the pope,
whose servant he more immediately was, and who like¬
wise had power to punish his disobedience. He bad
long known that this affair was certainly to end in his
ruin ; and by attempting to please all parties, he fell
under the displeasure of every one ; so that he was at
last left without a single friend in the world. The king
was displeased on account of his not entering into his
cause with the warmth he thought he had reason to ex¬
pect j Anne Boleyn imputed to him the disappointment
of her hopes ; while even Queen Catharine and her
friends expressed the greatest indignation against him
on account of the part he had openly taken in the af¬
fair of her divorce. In this miserable situation the
king
ENGLAND.
A. D. 15ip-
}6S
Is disgraced
and perse¬
cuted.
England, kmg sent him a message by the ilukes of Norfolk and
v——' Suffolk, demanding the great seal ; the cardinal refu¬
sed to deliver it without a more express warrant; upon
which Henry wrote him a letter, and on receipt of this
it was instantly given up. The seal was bestowed on
Sir Thomas More ; a man who, besides elegant literary
talents, was possessed of the highest capacity, integrity,
and virtue. Wolsey was next commanded to depart
from York-place palace which he had built in London ;
and which, though it belonged to the see of York, was
now seized by the king, and afterwards became the
residence of the British sovereigns, under the name of
Whitehall. All his furniture and plate, the richness of
which seemed rather proper for a monarch than a sub¬
ject, was seized for the king’s use. He was then com¬
manded to retire to Esher, a country-seat which he pos¬
sessed near Hampton-court, and there to wait the king’s
pleasure. One disgrace followed another ; and his fall
was at length completed by a summons to London to
answer a charge of high treason. This summons he at
first refused to answer, as being a cardinal. However,
being at length persuaded, he set out on his journey;
but was taken ill, and died by the way. See the ar¬
ticle Wqlsey.
After the death of Wolsey, the king, by the advice
of Cranmer f, had the legality of his marriage debated
in all the universities of Europe ; and the votes of these
were obtained in his favour by dint of money. The de-
bursements made on the occasion have even been preser¬
ved to this day. To a subdeacon he gave a crown, to
a deacon two crowns, and so to the rest in proportion
Jo the importance of their station or opinion.—Be¬
ing thus fortified by the opinions of the universities,
and even of the Jewish rabbies (for them also he had
consulted), Henry began to think he might safely op¬
pose the pope himself. He began: by reviving ip par¬
liament an old law against the clergy, by which all
those who had submitted to the authority of the pope’s
legate were condemned to severe penalties. The cler¬
gy, to conciliate the king’s favour, were obliged to pay
a fine of 118,000 pounds. A confession was likewise
extorted from them, that the king, and pot the pope,
was the supreme head of the church and clergy of Eng¬
land. An act was soon after passed against levying the
first-fruits, or a year’s rent of all the bishoprics that fell
vacant. After this the king privately married his be¬
loved Anne Boleyn ; and she proving with child soon
after marriage, fie publicly owned her for his wife, and
passed with her through London, with a greater mag¬
nificence than had ever been known before. The
streets were strewed with flowers, the walls of the
bouses hung with tapestry, and a universal joy seemed
to be diflused among the people- The unfortunate
Queen Catharine, perceiving all further opposition to
be vain, retired to Amphthill near Dunstable, where
she continued the rest of her days in privacy and peace.
Her marriage with Henry was pt last declared invalid,
but not till after the latter had been married to Anne
Boleyn, though this declaration ought undoubtedly to
have preceded it. See Boleyn.
The pope was no sooner informed of these proceed¬
ings, than he passed a sentence, declaring Catharine to
be the king’s only lawful wife ; requiring him to take
her again, and denouncing his censures against him in
case of a refusal. Henry, on the other hand, knowing
166
AH the uni¬
versities of
Europe
eonsalted
ibout the
egality of
he king’s
narriage.
1 See Cran-
ncr.
467
lenrjr’s fi-
ial quarrel
nth the
iope.
1 I I
that his subjects were entirely at his command, resolved England.
to separate totally from the church of Rome. In the *■ J
year 1534, he was declared head of the church by par-^*1^ 1S36-
liament; the authority of the pope was completely abo-r
lished in England; all tributes formerly paid to thehead^fThe
holy see were declared illegal ; and the king was en-chinch,
trusted with the collation to all ecclesiastical benefices.
The nation came into the king’s measures with joy, and
took an oath called the oath of supremacy ; all the cre¬
dit which the popes bad maintained over England for
ages was now overthrown at once ; and none seemed to
repine at the change, except those who were immedi¬
ately interested by their dependence on Rome.
Lut though the king thus separated from the church
of Rome, be by no means adhered to the doctrines of
Luther which had been lately published. He had
written a book against this celebrated reformer, which
the pope pretended greatly to admire ; and honoured
King Henry, on its account, with the title of “ De¬
fender of the faith.” This character he seemed to be
determined to maintain, and therefore persecuted the
reformers most violently. Many were burnt for deny¬
ing the popish doctrines, and some also were executed
for maintaining the supremacy of the pope. The
courtiers knew not which side to take, as both the new
and old religions were equally persecuted ; and as both
parties equally courted the favour of the king, he was
by that means enabled to assume an absolute authority
over the nation. As the monks had all along shown
the greatest resistance to Henry’s ecclesiastical charac¬
ter, he resolved at once to deprive them of the power
of injuring him. He accordingly empowered Crom¬
well, secretary of state, to send commissioners into the
several counties of England to inspect the monasteries ;
and to report, with rigorous exactness, the conduct
and deportment of such as were found there. This
employment was readily undertaken by some creatures
of the court, whose names were Layton, London,
Price, Gage, Petre, and Belasis. They are said to
have discovered monstrous disorders in many of the re¬
ligious houses; whole convents of women abandoned
to .all manner of lewdness ; friars accomplices in their
crimes; pious frauds everywhere committed, to in¬
crease the devotion and liberality of the people ; and
cruel and inveterate factions maintained between the
inhabitants. Thus a general horror was excited againstsUppr/ls;tm
these communities ; and therefore the king, in 1536, of ihe mo-
suppressed the lesser monasteries, amounting to 376 jnnasterks.
number. Their revenues, computed at 32,000 pounds
a-year, were confiscated to the king’s use ; besides their
plate and other goods, computed at 100,000 pounds
more. In 1538, the greater monasteries also were de¬
molished. The better to reconcile the people to this
great innovation, stories were published, perhaps with
aggravations, of tf e detestable lives which the friars led
in their convents. Tire relicks also, and other objects
of superstitious veneration, were now brought forth,
and became objects of derision to the reformers. A great
number of these are enumerated by Protestant writers;
such as the parings of St Edmund’s toes ; some of the
coals that roasted St Laurence ; the girdle of the vir¬
gin Mary, shown in no fewer than eleven different
places ; two or three heads of St Ursula; the felt of
St Thomas of Lancaster, an infallible cure for the
headach ; part of St Thomas of Canterbury’s shirt,
much-
ENGLAND.
A. D. 1:36,
* See
Becket.
much reverenced among big-bellied women 5 some re¬
licks, an excellent preservative against rain, others
against weeds in corn, &c. Some impostures, how¬
ever, were discovered, which displayed a little more
ingenuity in the contrivance. At Hales in the county
of Gloucester had been shown, during several ages, the
blood of Christ brought from Jerusalem. The vene¬
ration for this precious relick may easily he imagined ;
but it was attended with a most remarkable circum¬
stance not observed in any other relicks. The sacred
blood was not visible to any one in mortal sin, even
when set before him ; nor could it be discovered till he
had performed good works sufficient for his absolution.
At the dissolution of the monastery, the whole con¬
trivance was discovered. Two of the monks who were
let into the secret, had taken the blood ol a duck,
which they renewed every week: they put it into a
phial, one side of which was thin and transparent cry¬
stal, the other thick and opaque. When any rich pil¬
grim arrived, they were sure to show him the dark side,
till masses and offerings had expiated his offences j
after which they made him happy, by turning the
phial.—A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxely
in Kent, and bore the appellation of the rood of grace.
The lips, eyes, and head of the image, moved on the
approach of its votaries. Helsey bishop of Rochester
broke the crucifix at St Paul’s cross, and showed to all
the people the springs and wheels by which it had
been secretly moved. A great wooden idol, called
Qarvel Gathering was also brought to London and cut
in pieces : and, by a cruel refinement of vengeance, it
was employed as fuel to burn Friar Forest 5 who was
punished for denying the king’s snpremacy, and for
some pretended heresies. A finger of St Andrew,
covered with a thin plate of silver, had been pawned for
a debt of 50 pounds; but as the king’s commissioners
refused to release the pawn, people made themselves
very merry with the poor creditor on account of his se¬
curity. On this occasion also was demolished the noted
shrine of Thomas d Becket, commonly called St
Thomas of Canterbury*. The riches ot it were in¬
conceivable '. when broken down, the gold with which
it was adorned filled two large chests that eight strong
men could scarcely carry out of the church. The king,
on the whole, suppressed 645 monasteries, of which 28
had abbots who enjoyed seats in parliament. Ninety
colleges were demolished in several counties-, 2374
chantries and free chapels, and no hospitals. The
whole revenue of these establishments amounted to
161,100 pounds.
It is easy to imagine the indignation which such an
uninterrupted course of sacrilege and violence would
occasion at Rome. In 1535, the king had executed
Bishop I'isher, who was created a cardinal while in
prison, and Sir Thomas More, for denying or speak¬
ing ambiguously about his supremacy. When this was
reported in Italy, numerous libels were published all
over the country, comparing the king ot England to
Nero, Domitian, Caligula, and the most wicked ty¬
rants of antiquity. Clement VII. died about six months
after he had threatened the king with a sentence of ex-
communication 5 and Paul III. who succeeded him in
the papal throne, entertained some hopes of an accom¬
modation. But Henry was so much accustomed to do-
mineering, that the quarrel was soon rendered totally
3
incurable. The execution of Fisher was reckoned such England,,
a capital injury, that at last the pope passed all his cen- —-v——^
sures against the king, citing him and all his adherents D-1539'
to appear in Rome within 90 days, in order to answer T})e2k/°
for their crimes. If they failed, he excommunicated excommy
them 3 deprived the king of his realm j subjected the nicaUd.
kingdom to an interdict j declared his issue by Anne
Boleyn illegitimate; dissolved all leagues which any
Catholic princes had made with him ; gave his king¬
dom to any invader ; commanded the nobility to take
up arms against him ; freed his subjects from all oaths
of allegiance ; cut olf their commerce with foreign
states ; and declared it lawful for any one to seize them,
to make slaves of their persons, and to convert their
effects to his own use. But though these censures were
then passed, they were not openly denounced. The
pope delayed the publication till he should find an
agreement with England totally desperate, and till the
emperor, who was then hard pressed by the Turks and
the Protestant princes of Germany, should be in a con¬
dition to carry the sentence into execution. But in
1538, when news arrived at Rome that Henry had pro¬
ceeded with the monasteries as above related, the pope
was at last provoked to publish the censures against him.
Libels were again dispersed, in which he was anew
compared to the most furious persecutors of antiquity,
and the preference was now given on their side. Henry,
it was said, had declared war with the dead, whom the
Pagans themselves respected ; was at open enmity with
heaven ; and had engaged in professed hostility with all
the saints and angels. Above all, he was reproached
with his resemblance to the emperor Julian, whom (it
was said) he imitated in his apostasy and learning,
though he fell short of him in his morals. But these
terrible fulminations had now lost their effect. Henry
had long ago denied the supremacy of the pope, and
therefore had appealed from him to a general council;
but now, when a general council was summoned at
Mantua, he refused to be subject to it, because it was
called by the pope, and lay entirely under subjection to
that spiritual usurper. He engaged his clergy to make
a declaration to the like purpose, and prescribed to them
many other alterations with regard to their ancient te- 27l
nets and practices. It was expected that the spirit of His absuiii
opposition to the church of Rome would have at last and tyran-
made him fall in with the doctrines of the reformed ; eon'
but though he had been gradually changing the theo¬
logical system in which he was educated, ever since he
came to the years of maturity, he was equally positive
and dogmatical in the few articles he retained, as though
the whole fabric had continued entire and unshaken :
and though he stood alone in his opinion, the flattery
of courtiers had so much inflamed his tyrannical arro¬
gance, that he thought himself entitled to regulate by
his own particular standard the religious faith of the
whole nation. The point on which he chiefly rested
his orthodoxy was the most absurd in the whole popish
doctrine; namely, that of transubstantiation. All de¬
parture from this he held to be a damnable error; and
nothing, he thought, could be more honourable for him,
than, while he broke off all connections with the Ro¬
man pontiff, to maintain, in this essential article, the
purity of the Catholic faith.
I539> a P»rharnent was called, which met on
the 28th day of April. The chancellor opened this
parliament
*7*
X<aw of the
sis articles
framed.
ENGL
parliament by informing the house of lords, that it
was his majesty’s earnest desire to extirpate from his
kingdom all diversity of opinions with regard to re¬
ligion j and as this enterprise was, he owned, difficult
and important, he desired them to choose a committee
from among themselves, who might frame certain ar¬
ticles, and communicate them afterwards to parliament.
Ihe lords named the vicar-general Cromwell, now
created a peer, the archbishops of Canterbury and York,
the bishops of Durham, Carlisle, Worcester, Bath and
Wells, Bangor, and Ely. This small committee itself
was agitated with such diversity of opinions, that it
could come to no conclusion. The duke of Norfolk
then moved, that since there was no hope of having a
report from the committee, the articles of faith pro¬
posed to be established should be reduced to six, and a
new committee be appointed to frame an act with re¬
gard to them. As this peer was understood to speak
the king’s mind, his motion was immediately complied
with j and, after a short precognition, the bill of the
.six aitides, or the bloody bill, as the Protestants justly
termed it, was introduced ; and having passed the two
houses, received the king’s assent. By this law the
doctrine of the real presence was established ; the com¬
munion in one kind j the perpetual obligation of vows
of chastity ; the utility of private masses ; the celibacy
of the clergy j and the necessity of auricular confession.
The denial of the real presence subjected the person to
death by fire, and to the same forfeiture as in cases of
treason 5 and admitted not the privilege of abjuring :
an unheard-of cruelty, unknown even to the inquisi¬
tion itself. The denial of any of the other articles,
even though recanted, was punishable by the forfeiture
of goods and chattels, and imprisonment during the
king’s pleasure: an obstinate adherence to error, or a
relapse, was adjudged to be felony, and punishable by
death. The marriage of priests was subjected to the
same punishment. Their commerce with women was,
for the first ofience, forfeiture and imprisonment j and
for the second, death. Abstaining from confession, and
from receiving the eucharist at the accustomed times,
subjected the person to fine, and to imprisonment during
the king’s pleasure 5 and if the criminal persevered af¬
ter conviction, he was punishable by death and forfei¬
ture as in cases of felony. Commissioners were to be
appointed by the king for inquiring into these heresies
and irregular practices, and the criminals were to be
tried by a jury.
i. he parliament having thus surrendered their eccle¬
siastical privileges, next proceeded to surrender their
civil ones also. I hey gave to the king’s proclamations
the same force as to statutes enacted by parliament, and
thus by one blow made a total subversion of the Eng¬
lish constitution ; and to render the matter worse, if
possible, they framed this law as if it were only de¬
claratory, and intended to explain the natural extent
of the royal authority.—Notwithstanding this, how¬
ever, they afterwards pretended to make some limita¬
tions m the regal power, and they enacted, that no
proclamation should deprive any person of his lawful
possessions, liberties, inheritances, &c. nor yet in¬
fringe any common law or laudable custom ef the
realm.
As soon as the act of the six articles had passed, the
Catholics were extremely vigilant to inform against of-
Vol. YI1I. Part I. ° +
A N D.
fenders j and, in a short time, no fewer than 50c per¬
sons were thrown into prison. But some of the chief v 
officers of state remonstrating against the cruelty ofA,I)-tS4?r
punishing such a number of delinquents, they were all
of them set at liberty ; and soon after this, Henry, as
if he had resolved to give each party the advantage by
turns, granted every one permission to have a transla¬
tion of the Bible, which had been newly made, in his
family.
In 1540, the king again complained to parliament
of the great diversity of religious tenets which pre¬
vailed among his subjects ; a grievance, he affirmed,
which ought the less to be endured, because the scrip¬
tures were now published in England, and ought uni¬
versally to be the standard of belief to mankind. But
he had appointed, he said, some bishops and divines to
draw up a list of tenets 5 and he was determined that
Christ and the truth should have the victory ; whence
he seems to have expected more from this new book
of bis doctors, than had ensued from the publica¬
tion of the scriptures. Cromwell, as vicar-general,
also made a speech in the upper house ; and the peers
in return told him, that he deserved to be vicar-general
to the universe To such a degree of mean and ser¬
vile submission was the English parliament at this time
reduced.
This year also the king suppressed the only religious Sul)Prt8sion
order remaining in England ; namely, the knights of f ^
St John of Jerusalem, or the knights of Malta, as they °
are commonly called. This order had by their valour
done great service to Christendom j and had very much
retarded, at Jerusalem, Bhodes, and Malta, the rapid
progress of the barbarians. During tbe general sur¬
render of the religious houses in England, they had
obstinately refused to give up their revenues to the
king ; and Henry who would endure no society that
professed obedience to the pope, was obliged to have
recourse to parliament for the dissolution of this order.
Their revenues weie large, and formed a considerable
addition to the acquisitions which the king had already
made. But he had been such a bad economist, that,
notwithstanding the immense plunder afforded him bv
the church, be now demanded from parliament a very
considerable supply. The commons, however, though
lavish of the blood of their fellow-subjects, were ex¬
tremely frugal of their money ; and it was not without
murmuring that the grant could he obtained, even by
this absolute and dreaded monarch.
rl lie king all this time continued to punish with un¬
relenting severity the Protestants who offended against
the law of the six articles, and the Papists who denied
his supremacy j which gave occasion to a foreigner at
that time to say, that those who were against the pope ,
were burned, and those who were for him were hanged.
Hie king even seemed to display in an ostentatious
manner his tyrannical justice and impartiality, which
reduced both parties to subjection. This year he exe¬
cuted three Protestants and three Papists coupled to¬
gether. 1 he latter declared, that the most grievous
part of their punishment was the being coupled to such
heretical miscreants as suffered with them. 274
In 1542, Henry proceeded to the further dissoiu-an<* °r n,!l“
tion of colleges, hospitals, and other foundations eS’
that nature. J he courtiers had been dealing with the** *
presidents and governors to make a surrender of their
P -- revenues
ENGLAND.
revenues to the king; and they had succeeded with
eight. But there was an obstacle to their farther pro-
A. D. 1542. gjess: it had been provided by the local statutes of
most of these foundations, that no president nor any
fellows could make such a deed without the unanimous
consent of all the fellows. This consent would not
have been easily obtained ; but the parliament proceed¬
ed in a summary manner to annul all these statutes : by
which means the revenues of those houses were exposed
to the rapacity of the king and his favourites. Henry
also now extorted from many bishops a surrender of
their chapter-lands; by which means he pillaged the
sees of Canterbury, York, and London, and enriched
his favourites with their spoils. He engaged the par¬
liament to mitigate the penalties ol the six articles, as
far as regarded the marriage of priests, which was now
only subjected to a forfeiture of goods, chattels, and
iands during lite: he was still equally bent on main¬
taining a rigid purity in speculative principles. He
had appointed a commission consisting of two archbi¬
shops and several bishops of both provinces, together
with a considerable number of doctors of divinity *, and
by virtue of his ecclesiastical supremacy he had charged
them to choose a religion for his people. Before the
commissioners, however, had made any progress in this
arduous undertaking, the parliament had passed a law
by which they ratified all the tenets which these divines
should establish with the king’s consent; and thus they
were not ashamed of declaring expressly that they took
their religion upon trust, and had no other rule either
in religious or temporal concerns than the arbitrary will
of their master. One clause of the statute, however,
seems to savour somewhat of the spirit of liberty. It
was enacted, that the ecclesiastical commissioners should
establish nothing repugnant to the laws and statutes of
the realm. But in reality this proviso was inserted by
the king, to serve his own purposes. By introducing
a confusion and contradiction into the laws,, he became
more the master of every one’s life and property; and
as the ancient independence of the church still gave him
jealousy, he was well pleased, under colour of such a
clause, to introduce appeals from spiritual to civil
courts. For the same reason he would never promul¬
gate a body of canon law; and he encouraged the
judges on all occasions to interpose in ecclesiastical cau¬
ses, wherever they thought the law or the prerogative
concerned. Being thus armed by the authority of par¬
liament, or rather by their acknowledgement of his spi¬
ritual supremacy, the king employed his commission¬
ers to select a system of tenets for the assent and belief
of the nation. A small volume was published, under
ftf the title of The Institution of a Christian Man, which
was received by the convocation, and made the infal¬
lible standard of orthodoxy. In this book the points
of justification, faith, free-will, good works, and grace,
were discussed in a manner somewhat favourable to the
opinions of the reformers. The sacraments, which a
few years before were only allowed to be three, were
now increased to seven, conformably to the sentiments
of the Catholics. Throughout the whole of this book
the king’s caprice is very discernible ; and the book
is in reality to be regarded as his composition. For
Henry, while he made his opinion a rule for the na¬
tion, would himself submit to no authority whatever;
aot even to any which he had formerly established. The
*75
Extreme
absurdity
the king’;
cunduct.
same year the people had a farther instance of the king’s England,
inconsistency. He ordered a new book to be compo- ' y—
sed, called The Tradition of a Christian Man ; and with- A- I54?
out asking the consent of the convocation, he published
by his own authority this new model of orthodoxy. He
was no less positive in his new creed than he had been
in the old one; but though he required the faith of the
nation to veer about at his signal, he was particularly
careful to inculcate the doctrine of passi ve oobedience in
all bis books, and be was no less careful to retain the
nation in the practice.
But while the king was thus spreading his own books
among the people, both he and the clergy seem to have
been very much perplexed with regard to the scrip¬
tures. A review had been made by the ecclesiastical
synod of the new translation of the Bible ; and Bishop
Gardiner bad proposed, that instead of employing Eng¬
lish expressions throughout, several Latin words should
still be preserved, because they contained, as he pre¬
tended, such peculiar energy and significance, that they
had no correspondent terms in the English tongue. A-
mong these were ecclesia, poznitentia, pontifex, contntus,
&c. But as this mixture would appear extremely bar¬
barous, and was plainly calculated for no other pur¬
pose than to retain the people in their ancient igno¬
rance, the proposal was rejected. The knowledge of
the people, however, seemed to be still more danger¬
ous than their ignorance; and the king and parliament,
soon after the publication of the scriptures, retracted
the concession which they had formerly made, and pro¬
hibited all but gentlemen and merchants to peruse them.
Even that liberty was not granted without an appa¬
rent hesitation, and dread of the consequences. These
persons were allowed to read, so it be done quietly and
with good order. And the preamble to the act sets forth,
“ That many seditious and ignorant persons had abu¬
sed the liberty granted them of reading the Bible; and.
that great diversity of opinion, animosities, tumults,
and schisms, had been occasioned by perverting the
sense of the scriptures.” The mass book also passed
under the king’s examination ; but little alteration was
yet made in it. Some doubtful or fictitious saints only
were struck out; and the name of the pope was erased.
The latter precaution was also used with every new
book that was printed, and even every old one that
was sold. The word pope was carefully omitted or blot¬
ted out; as if that precaution could abolish the terra
from the language, or cause the people forget that
such a person existed. About this time also, the king
prohibited the acting of plays, interludes, and farces,
in derision of the popish superstitions ; which the Pro¬
testants had been in use to practise: and this prohibi¬
tion Avas in the highest degree pleasing to the Roman
Catholics.
In this tyrannical and headstrong manner Henry
proceeded with regard to ecclesiastical affairs. In
other respects his conduct Avas equally violent. With
regard to his domestic concerns, history scarce affords
his parallel. We have already taken notice of his ex¬
treme love for Anne Boleyn, whom lie married, con¬
trary even to his own principles, before the marriage
with Catharine Avas dissolved. His affection for the
former Avas carried to such a height, that he even
procured an act excluding from the succession the is¬
sue of Queen Catharine, in favour of the children of
Ann«-
England.
A. D, 154s
276
The suc¬
cession set.
tied on the
children of
Anue Bo¬
le vn.
’77
Indecent
behaviour
of the new
aueen on
hearing of
Lhe death
»f Catha-
.’ine.
478
The king’s
dffeetion
leclines.
*79
1 he is ac-
ased of
afidelity to
he king.
rs8o
lenry’g
jve for
ane Sey-
lour the
'ue cause
f Anne
loleyn’s
Jath.
Anne Boleyn *, and failing tlienj, to the king’s heirs for
ever. An oath to this purpose was likewise enjoined, un¬
der penalty of imprisonment during the king’s pleasure,
and forfeiture of goods and chattels. All slander against
the king and his new queen or their issue was subjected
to the penalty of treason or misprision of treason. The
reason given for this extreme severity towards his own
child was, that her mother had obstinately refused to
quit the kingdom, notwithstanding all the methods he
could take to induce her to do so. The oath was ge¬
nerally taken throughout the kingdom; Sir Thomas
More the chancellor, and Fisher bishop of Rochester,
being the only persons who refused ; for which both of
them were imprisoned, and soon after executed. The un¬
fortunate Queen Catharine died in her retreat at Ampht-
hill, in the year 1536. On her death-bed she wrote a
most pathetic letter to the king, in which she forgave
him all the injuries she had received, and recom¬
mended to him in the strongest terms their daughter
the princess Mary, This letter affected Henry so
much, that he could not read it without tears 5 but
the new queen is said to have exulted in such a man¬
ner on hearing of the death of her rival, as was quite
inconsistent with either decency or humanity. Her
triumph, however, was of short duration. Plenry had
no sooner possessed her, secure from every disquieting
thought, by the death of Queen Catharine, than his
passion began to decline j and to this her delivery of a
dead son did not a little contribute ; for so impetuous
and absurd were his passions, and such was his desire
for male issue, that the disappointment in this respect
alone was sufficient to alienate his affection from his
wife. The levity of her temper, and her extreme
gaiety of behaviour, bordering upon licentiousness, as
related under the article Boleyn, also gave an oppor¬
tunity to her enemies of inflaming the king’s jealousy
against her. The viscountess of Rochford, in parti¬
cular, a woman of profligate manners, and who was
married to the queen’s brother, had the cruelty to re¬
port to the king that her husband committed incest
with his own sister j and, not content with this, she in¬
terpreted every instance of favour shown by her to a man,
as proof of a criminal intercourse between them. At
the same time it must not be forgot, that he who insisted
on such rigid fidelity from his wives, was himself the
most faithless of mankind. He had doubts, it may be
allowed, about the legality of his marriage with Queen
Catharine, but his doubts were evidently confirmed by
the charms of Anne Boleyn. After being satiated
with the possession of her for six years, perhaps he real¬
ly doubted her fidelity $ but here again his doubts were
confirmed by the beauty of Jane Seymour, with whom
he had now fallen in love. It may easily be believed,
that from this consideration alone there was no reason
to hope that ever the unfortunate Anne would be able
to exculpate herself. Had she really been guilty, her
monster of a husband might have allowed her to live j
but his cruelty was as unbounded and insatiable as his
other perverse passions. She was condemned j and the
sentence pronounced against her was, that she should be
burned or beheaded at the king’s pleasure. On hearing
this dreadful denunciation she exclaimed, “ O Father !
O Creator! thou who art the way, the truth, and the
life ! thou knowest that I have not deserved this fate.”
She then made the most solemn protestations of inno-
ENGLAND. ^ lr5
cence before her judges ; hut these, as they had been En,ian(j.
from the beginning ineffectual, so it was not to be sup- < —
posed that they could now avail any thing. Anne was 1543.
beheaded by the executioner of Calais, who was rec-~
koned more expert than any in England j and Hen-^Anne™
ry enjoyed the pleasure of marrying his beloved Jane Boleyn,and
Seymour. His satisfaction, however, was of no long third mar-
continuance ; for the queen, becoming pregnant imme- r‘a£c
dlately after marriage, died in two days after the birth Hen^'
of the child j who being a son, was baptized by the Queen.Tane
name of Edward \ I. As this lady had been more be-dies in
beloved by Henry than any of his other wives, his griefc'hild-bed
for her loss was extreme. However, it did not yIEd'var<1
hinder him from entering very soon afterwards into
a new matrimonial scheme ; in which he met with Extrava-
many difficulties. His first proposals were made to beha-
the duchess dowager of Milan, niece to the emperor viour.of
and to Catharine his own former queen; but as hetllek,n^
had behaved so indifferently to the aunt, it is scarce-his'founh'5
ly to be supposed that his addresses could prove marriage,
agreeable to the niece. On this he demanded the
duchess-dowager of Longueville, daughter of the
duke of Guise ; but on making the proposal to the
French monarch, Francis I. he was informed that the
princess had been already betrothed to the king of
Scotland. Henry, however, would take no refusal.
He had learned that the object of his affection was
endowed with many accomplishments, was very beau¬
tiful, and of a large size, which last property lie look¬
ed upon to be necessary for him who was now be¬
come somewhat corpulent himself. Francis, to pre¬
vent any more solicitations on this subject, sent the
princess to Scotland, but at the same time made Henry
an offer of Mary of Bourbon, daughter of the duke
of Vendosme. This princess was rejected by Henry,
because he had heard of her being formerly refused
by the king of Scotland. He was then offered his
choice of the two younger sisters of the queen of Scot¬
land, both of them being equal in merit as well as size
to the one whom he had desired : but Henry, unwil¬
ling to trust to any reports concerning the beauty of
those ladies, or even to their pictures, proposed to Fran¬
cis, that they should have a conference at Calais under
pretence of business, and that the latter should bring
with him the two princesses of Guise, with the finest
ladies of quality in France, that he might make a
choice. This indelicate proposal shocked Francis : he
returned for answer that he was too much impressed
with regard to the fair sex to carry ladies of the first
quality, like geldings, to a market, to be chosen or re¬
jected according to the humour of the purchaser.
Henry remonstrated and stormed as usual; but though
Francis at this time earnestly wished to oblige him, he
at last totally rejected the proposal. Negotiations were
then entered into for a German match; and the prin¬
cess of Cleves was proposed by Cromwell, on account .r 2.84
oHhe great interest her father had with the Protestant whhAnne
princes of Germany. Henry had also become enamoured 0 Ckve^
of her person from a picture of her he had seen : but this,
though drawn by an eminent artist, was unluckily done
so much to the advantage, that when the negotiation was
quite finished, and the bride arrived in England, he lost
all patience, swearing that she was a great Flanders mare,
and that he could never bear her the smallest aflection.
The matter was still woYse, when he found that she
P 2 could
ENGLAND.
•Ss
The mar¬
riage an¬
nulled, and
Cromwell
put to
death.
286
Mcnry falls
in love
with Ca¬
tharine
Howard.
287
Infidelity
and death
ofthe new
^ueen.
could speak no language but Dutch, of which he was
entirely ignorant. Notwithstanding all these objec¬
tions, however, he resolved to complete the marriage,
telling Cromwell, that, since he had gone so far, he
must now put his neck into the yoke. T-he reason ot
this was, that the friendship of the German princes
was now more than ever necessary for Henry ; and it
was supposed that the affront of sending the princess
hack to her own country might be resented. Crom¬
well, who knew that his own life depended on the
event of the matter, was very anxious to learn from the
king how he liked his spouse after having passed a
night with her ; but was struck with terror when he
replied that he now hated her more than ever 5 that
he was resolved not to cohabit with her, and even su¬
spected that she was not a virgin ; a matter in which
he pretended to he a connoisseur, and about which he
was extremely scrupulous. In a little time his aver¬
sion increased to such a degree, that he determined at
any rate to get rid of his queen and prime minister
both at once. Cromwell had long been an object of
aversion to the nobility, who hated him on account of
his obscure birth \ his father being no other than a
blacksmith, though the son had obtained the first em¬
ployments in the kingdom. By his office ot vicar-
general, he had an almost absolute authority over the
clergy ; he was also lord privy-seal, lord chamber¬
lain, and master of the wards. He had also been in¬
vested with the order of the Garter, and was created
eal of Essex. This was sufficient to raise the envy
of the courtiers : but he had also the misfortune to
fall under the displeasure ot both Protestants and 1 a-
pists ; the former hating him on account of his con¬
currence with Henry in their persecution, and the lat¬
ter looking upon him as the greatest enemy of their
religion. To these unfortunate circumstances on the
part of Cromwell rvas added the usual situation of
Henry himself, who had now fallen in love with Ca¬
tharine Howard, niece to the duke of Norfolk $ to
enjoy whom, he now determined to divorce Anne of
Cleves. By the insinuations of this lady and her
unde, Cromwell’s ruin was accomplished : and he
was condemned, not only without any trial, hut even
without examination. The charge was of heresy
and high treason •, but the instances of the latter were
quite absurd and ridiculous. He submitted, how¬
ever, to his sentence without murmuring, as know¬
ing that his complaints on this subject would he re¬
venged on his son. He was terribly mangled by the
executioner before his head could he struck off. His
death was soon followed by the dissolution of the mar¬
riage with the princess of Cleves, which was annulled
by the consent of both parties. The princess parted
from him with great indifference j and accepted ot
3000I. a-year as a compensation, but refused to re¬
turn to her own country after the affront she had re¬
ceived.
The king’s marriage with Catharine Howard soon
followed the dissolution of that with Anne of Cleves ;
but the event may surely be regarded as a providential
punishment upon this tyrant, whose cruelty, lust, and
other bad qualities, can scarcely be matched in history.
We have already mentioned his insinuations against the
virtue of the unfortunate princess of Cleves : these were
amply repaid by the actual infidelities of bis new queen.
whom we must suppose he believed to he a pure and England;
perfect virgin at the time he married her. So happy
indeed did he imagine himself in this new marriage,A*
that he publicly returned thanks for his conjugal feli¬
city, when a most unfortunate information concerning
the queen’s incontinence w'as given to Cranmer by
one of the name of Lascelles, whose sister had been
servant to the duchess-dowager of Norfolk. He not
only gave intelligence of her amours before marriage,
hut affirmed that she had continued the same criminal
practices ever since. Two of her paramours were ar¬
rested, and confessed their crimes: the queen herself
also confessed guilt before marriage, but denied having
ever been false to the king’s bed j which, however, had
very little probability. She was beheaded on T-Ower-
hill, along with the viscountess of Rochford, who had
been a confidant in her amours. The latter, as has
already been observed, was a principal instrument in
procuring the destruction of the unhappy Anne Bo-
leyn, and therefore died unpitied j while the virtuous
character of that unfortunate lady received an addi¬
tional confirmation from the discovery of this woman’*
guilt. _ 288
To secure himself from any farther disasters of this Ab^imlity
kind, Henry passed a most extraordinary law, enact- 01 1
ing, that any one who should know, or strongly su¬
spect, any guilt in the queen, might, within 20 days,
disclose it to the king or council, without incurring
the penalty of any former law against defaming th«
queen •, though at the same time every one was pro¬
hibited from spreading the matter abroad, or even
privately whispering it to othei’s. It was also enact¬
ed, that if the king married any woman who had been
incontinent, taking her for a true maid, she should be
guilty of treason if she did not previously reveal her
guilt to him.
These laws afforded diversion to the people, who
now said that the king must look out for a widow ;
as no reputed maid would ever be persuaded to incur
the penalty of the statute. This in truth happened to
he the case at last •, for about a year after the death ot
Catharine Howard, he married, for his sixth wife, Ca-
tharine Parr, widow of Nevil Lord Latimer. ^ witk
lady, being somewhat inclined to the doctrines ot the
reformation, and having the boldness to tel! her bus-Parr, whom
band her mind upon the subject, had like to have sha-hc intends
red the fate of the rest. The furious monarch, inca-
pable of bearing the least contradiction, instantly com¬
plained to Bishop Gardiner, who inflamed the quarrel
as much as possible ; so that at last the king consented
that articles of impeachment should be drawn up
against her. But these were rendered abortive by the
prudence and address of the queen, as related under
the article Parr. _
At this time Henry had tyrannized over his nobi-* o{
lity in the most cruel manner. The old countess oft|ic
Salisbury, last of the house of Plantagenet, was exe¬
cuted with circumstances of great cruelty. She had
been condemned, as usual, without any trial ; and
when she was brought to the scaffold, refused to lay
her head on the block in obedience to a sentence, to
the justice of which she had never consented. She
told the executioner, there-ftTre, that if he would have
her head, he must win it the best way he could j and
thus she ran about the scaffold, pursued by the execu¬
tioner..
ENGL
who aimed many fruitless blows at her neck
191
Attainder
of Norfolk
and Surry.
England, tioner,
v ’ before he was able to put an end to her life. Soon after
A D. 1547* her, the lord Leonard Grey was likewise executed for
treason, but we have very little account of this trans¬
action.
The last instances of the king’s injustice and cruelty
rvere the duke of Norfolk and his son the earl of
Surry. The former had served the king with fidelity,
and the latter was a young man of the most promising
hopes. His qualifications, however, were no security
against the violence of Henry’s temper. He had drop¬
ped some expressions of resentment against the king’s
ministers, who had displaced him from the government
of Boulogne ; and the whole family had become ob¬
noxious on account of the late queen Catharine Ho¬
ward. From these motives, orders were given to arrest
both the father and son $ and accordingly they were
arrested both on the same day, and confined to the
Tower. The duchess-dowager of Richmond, Surry’s
own sister, was among the number of bis accusers j
and Sir Richard Southwell also, his most intimate
friend, charged him with infidelity to the king. Surry
denied the charge, and challenged his accuser to a
single combat.. This favour was denied him j and,
notwithstanding his eloquent and spirited defence, he
was condemned and executed at Tower-hill.—The duke
of Norfolk vainly endeavoured to mollify the king by
letters and submissions. An attainder was found against
him, though the only crime his accusers could allege
was, that he had once said that the king was sickly, and
could not hold out long ; and that the kingdom was
likely to be torn between the contending parties of dif¬
ferent persuasions. Cranmer, though engaged for many
years in an opposite party to that of Norfolk, and
though he had received many and great injuries from
him, would have no hand in such an unjust prosecu¬
tion j but retired to his seat at Croydon. The death-
warrant, however, was made out, and immediately
*9* sent to the lieutenant of the Tower j but a period
idnstc'’WaS PUt t0 ^ie crue*t‘es and violence of the king by
edei! by *'*s <Jeatb> which happened on the 14th of January
I ward VI. I547> th6 night before Norfolk was to have been exe¬
cuted.
Henry was succeeded by his only son Edward, a'
boy of nine years of age. The most remarkable trans¬
actions of his reign are those with regard to religion.
The restraint which Henry VIII. had laid upon the
Protestants was now taken off $ and they not only main¬
tained their doctrines openly, but soon became the
prevailing party. Henry had fixed the majority of his
son at 18 years of age; and, in the mean time, ap¬
pointed 16 executors of his will, to whom, during the
minority, he entrusted the government of the king
and kingdom. This will, he imagined, would be
obeyed as implicitly after his death as though he had
been alive. But the first act of the executors was to
choose the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somer¬
set, protector of the realm ; and in him was lodged all
the regal power, together with a privilege of naming
whom he pleased for his privy council.
I he duke of Somerset had long been reckoned a
secret partisan of the reformers; and immediately on
his elevation to his present high dignity, began to ex¬
press his intention of reforming the abuses of the an-
«ient religion. Under his direction and that of Crau-
N D. 117
therefore, the reformation was carried forward England.
D. 1547.
J93
'oinia*
1 wont¬
ed.
:94
mer,
and completed. The only person of consequence
who opposed the reformers was Gardiner bishop ofA'
Winchester; and, to the disgrace of their own prin¬
ciples, the reformers now showed that they could
persecute as severely as the Papists had formerly per¬
secuted them. Gardiner was committed to the Fleet
prison, where he was treated with great severity. lie ^ be relor-
was afterwards sent to the Tower; and having
tinued there two years, he was commanded to subscribe Catholic*,
several articles, among which was one confessing the
justice of his own imprisonment. To all the articles
but this he agreed to subscribe ; but that did not give
satisfaction. He was then committed to close custody ;
his books and papers were seized ; all company was
denied him, and he was not even permitted the use of
pen and ink. The bishops of Chichester, Worcester,
and Exeter, were in like manner deprived of their offi¬
ces ; but the bishops of Llandaff, Salisbury, and Co¬
ventry, escaped by sacrificing the most considerable share
of their revenues. The libraries of Westminster and
Oxford were ordered to be ransacked, and purged of
the Romish legends, missals, and other superstitious vo¬
lumes ; in which search, great devastation was made
even in useful literature. Many volumes clasped m
silver were destroyed for the sake of their rich bindings;
many of geometry and astronomy were supposed to be
magical, and destroyed on that account; while the
members of the university, unable to put a stop to these
ravages, trembled for their own safety.
The reformers, however, were not contented with
severities ot this kind. A commission was granted to
the primate and others, to search after all Anabaptists,
heretics, or contemners of the new liturgy. Among
the numbers who were found guilty upon this occasion,
was one Joan Boucher, commonly called Joan of Kent;
who was so very obstinate, that the commissioners could
make no impression upon her. She maintained an ab¬
struse metaphysical sentiment, that Christ, as man, was
a sinful man ; but, as the Word, he was free from sin,
and could be subject to none of the frailties of the
flesh with which he was clothed. For maintaining
this doctrine, the poor woman was condemned to be
burnt to death as a heretic. The young king, who
it seems had more sense than his teachers, refused at
first to sign the death-warrant ; but at last, being over¬
come by the importunities of Cranmer, he reluctant¬
ly complied ; declaring, that if he did wrong, the sin
should be on the head of those who had persuaded him
to it. The primate, after making another unsuccessful
effort to reclaim the woman from her opinions, com¬
mitted her to the flames. Some time after, one Van
Paris, a Dutchman, was condemned to death for Aria-
nism. He suffered with so much satisfaction, that he
hugged and caressed the faggots that were consuming
him.
Ihe rest of this reign affords only the history of in¬
trigues and cabals ot the courtiers one against another.
I he protector was first opposed by bis own brother
Admiral Sir Thomas Seymour, who had married Ca¬
tharine Parr the late king’s widow. She died soon af¬
ter the marriage; and he then made his addresses to
the princess Elizabeth, who is said not to have been
averse to the match. His brother the duke, who
was at that time in the north, beiiu
informed cf
hi*.
11 8 ENGL
England, hi8 ambitious projects, speedily returned, had him at-
<—ly——/ tainted of high treason, and at last condemned and ex-
A. 0. 1553 ecuted. The duke of Somerset himself, however, was
some time afterwards deprived of his office by Dudley
duke of Northumberland ; who at last found means to
get him accused of high treason, and executed. Not
satisfied with the office of protector, which he assumed
eu the death of Somerset, this ambitious nobleman
29S formed a scheme of engrossing the sovereign power al-
Lady Jane together. He represented to Edward, who was now
Grey deck-in a declining state of health, that his sisters Mary
red heir to an(j Elizabeth, who were appointed by Henry’s will
tie ciown. ^ succeed, in failure of direct heirs, to the crown,
had both been declared illegitimate by parliament j that
the queen of Scots his aunt stood excluded by the
king’s will j and, being an alien also, lost all right of
succeeding. The three princesses being thus excluded,
the succession naturally devolved to the marchioness of
Dorset, eldest daughter of the French queen, Henry’s
sister, who had married the earl of Suffolk after her first
husband’s death. The next heir to the marchioness was
Lady Jane Grey, a lady universally respected, both on
account of the charms of her person, and the virtues
and endowments of her mind. The king, who was
accustomed to submit to the politic views of this
minister, agreed to have the succession submitted to
council, where Northumberland hoped to procure
an easy concurrence. The judges, however, who
were appointed to draw up the king’s letters patent
for this purpose, warmly objected to the measure 5
and gave their reasons before the council. They
begged that a parliament might be summoned, both
to give it force, and to free its partisans from dan¬
ger : they said that the form W’as invalid, and would
not only subject the judges who drew it, but every
counsellor who signed it, to the pains of treason.
Northumberland could not brook their demurs $ he
threatened them with his authority, called one of
them a traitor, and said he would fight with any man
in his shirt in such a just cause as that of Lady Jane’s
succession. A method was therefore found out of
screening the judges from danger, by granting them
the king’s pardon for what they should draw up •,
and at length the patent for changing the succcession
was completed, the princesses Mary and Elizabeth
were set aside, and the crown settled on the heirs of
the duchess of Suffolk (for she herself was contented to
forego her claim).
For some time the king had languished in a consump¬
tion. After this settlement of the crown, his health
visibly declined every day, and little hopes were enter¬
tained of his recovery. To make matters worse, his
physicians were dismissed by Northumberland’s advice,
and by an order of council $ and he was put into the
hands of an ignorant old woman, who undertook in a
little time to restore him to health. After the use of
her medicines all his bad symptoms increased to the
most violent degree. He felt a difficulty of speech
and breathing; his pulse failed, his legs swelled, his
„ 6 colour became livid, and many other signs of approach-
Death of ing death made aPPearance* ^e expired at
Kit ward VI. Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, in the 16th year
of his age and 7th of his reign.
After the death of King Edward, very little regard
was paid to the new patent by which Lady Jane Grey
AND,
had been declared heir to the throne. The undoubt-
ed title of Mary, notwithstanding the scandalous be-
haviour of her father and his servile parliaments, was A. D. ijji;
acknowledged by the whole nation. Northumberland,
however, was resolved to put the late king’s will in exe¬
cution. He therefore carefully concealed the death of
Edward, in hopes of securing the person of Mary, who
by an order of council had been required to attend her
brother during his illness 5 but she being informed of
his death, immediately prepared to assert her right to
the crown. Northumberland then, accompanied by Lady Jan;
the duke of Suffolk, the earl of Pembroke, and some Grey pla-
other noblemen, saluted Jjady Jane Grey queen of on
England. Jane was in a great measure ignorant
these transactions, and it was with the utmost difficulty resign,^
she was persuaded to accept of the dignity conferred
upon her. At least she complied, and suffered herself
to be conveyed to the Tower, where it was then usual
for the sovereigns of England to pass some days after
their accession. Mary, however, who had retired to
Kenning-hall in Norfolk, in a very few days found
herself at the head of 40,000 men j and Lady Jane re¬
signed the sovereignty in ten days, with much more
pleasure than she had received it. She retired with her
mothor to their own habitation ; and Northumberland
finding his affairs quite desperate, attempted to quit
the kingdom. But he was stopped by the band of pen¬
sioner guards, who informed him that he must stay to
justify their conduct in taking arms against their law¬
ful sovereign. He therefore surrendered himself to
Mary; and was soon after executed, together with Sir
John Gates and Sir Thomas Palmer, two infamous
tools of his power. Sentence was also pronounced
against Lady Jane Grey and her husband Lord Guild¬
ford •, hut without any intention of putting it in exe¬
cution against them at present, as their youth and in¬
nocence pleaded so strongly in their favour, neither of
them having yet reached their 17th year. .
Mary now entered London, and was peaceably set-^ary^'
tied on the throne without any effusion of blood. The clared
English, however, soon found reason to repent their qoeen.
attachment to her cause. Though she had at first so¬
lemnly promised to defend the religion and laws of
her predecessor, she no sooner saw herself firmly esta¬
blished on the throne, than she resolved to restore the ft
Popish religion, and give back their former power to t;
the clergy. Gardiner, Bonnar, and the other bishops
who had been imprisoned or suffered loss during the
last reign, were taken from prison, reinstated in their
sees, and now triumphed in their turn. On pretence
of discouraging controversy, the queen by her preroga¬
tive silenced all preachers throughout England, except
such as should obtain a particular license, and this she
was resolved to give only to those of her own persua¬
sion. The greater part of the foreign Protestants took
the first opportunity of leaving the kingdom j and many
of the arts and manufactures, which they had success¬
fully introduced, fled with them. Soon after the queen
called a parliament, which seemed willing to concur in
all her measures. They at once repealed all the statutes 5
with regard to religion that had passed during the reign
of Edward VI. and the national religion was again
placed on the same footing in which it had been at the
death of Henry VIII. 11,
To strengthen the cause of the Catholics, and give
the
Il
!».
tl;
li®
it
t
ENGLAND.
England, the queen more power to establish the religion to
v which she was so much attached, a proper match was
199 to sougIlt f°r her $ and it was supposed that three
proposals had already been proposed as candidates for her favour,
if marriage Her aflection seemed to be engaged by the earl of He*
/la?'6611 vons,"r? ’ but as be was rather attached to the prin-
ar cess Elizabeth, he received the overtures which were
made him from the queen with neglect. The next
person mentioned as a proper match for her was Car¬
dinal Pole, a man greatly respected for his virtues j
but as he was now in the decline of life, Mary soon
dropped all thoughts of that alliance. At last she
cast her eye on Philip II. of Spain, son to the emperor
Charles V. He was then in the 27th year of his age,
and consequently agreeable in that respect to Mary,
who was in her 48th year; but when her intentions
with regard to this match became known, the great-
300 est alarm took place throughout the whole nation.
Illiance The commons presented such a strong remonstrance
ith Spain against a foreign alliance, that the queen thought pro-
iagw- per. dissolv? the parliament in order to get quit of
Je. their importunity. To obviate, however, all clamour,
the articles of marriage were drawn up as favourably
as possible for the interests of England. It was agreed,
that though Philip should have the title of king, the
administration should be entirely in the queen j that
no foreigner should be capable of holding any office in
the kingdom j nor should any innovation be made in
the laws, customs, and privileges of the people $ that
Philip should not carry the queen abroad without her
consent, or any of her children, without the consent of
the nobility. Sixty thousand pounds a-year were to
be settled upon her as a jointure j and the male issue of
this marriage were to inherit Burgundy and the Low
Countries as well as the crown of England : and in
case of the death of Hon Carlos, Philip’s son by his
former marriage, without any heir, the queen’s issue
should inherit all the rest 01 the Spanish dominions
also.
AH. these concessions, however, were not sufficient
to quiet the apprehensions of the people : they were
considered merely as words of course, which might be
retracted at pleasure j and the whole nation murmured
joi loudly against a transaction so dangerous to its ancient
yatt’s in.liberty and independence. An insurrection was raised
flection, by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic, at the head
of 4000 men, who set out from Kent to London, pub¬
lishing a declaration against the Spanish match and
the queen’s evil counsellors. Having advanced as far
as Southwark, he required that the queen should put
the tower of London into his hands j that she should
deliver four counsellors as hostages 5 and, in order to
ensure the liberty of the nation, should marry an Eng-
I lishman. But his force was at present by far too
small to support such magnificent pretensions j and he
unluckily wasted so much time without attempting any
thing ol importance, that the popular ferment entire¬
ly subsided, his followers abandoned him gradually,
J 302 and he was at last obliged to surrender himself to Sir
*?is con- Maurice Berkeley near Temple-bar. His followers
e Were treated w't*1 g^at cruelty : no fewer than 400 of
many t^lem suffered by the hand of the executioner j 400
0'is foj- p10*® were conducted with ropes about their necks
Ws. into the queen’s presence, and there received their
pardon. Wyatt himself was condemned and exe- England
cuted. , „
1 his rebellion had almost proved fatal to the Prin-
cess Elizabeth, who for some time past had been treat- p „
ed with great severity by her sister. Mary, who pos-p^h
sessed a most malignant and cruel heart, had never for-harshly
got the quarrel between their mothers j and when a de- treated,
claration was made after her own accession, recognising
^ueen Catharine’s marriage as legal, she was thus fur¬
nished with a pretence for accounting Elizabeth ille¬
gitimate.. She was likewise obnoxious on account of
her religion, which Elizabeth at first had not prudence
sufficient to conceal j though afterwards she learned
full well to disguise her sentiments. But, above all, her
standing so high in the affection of the earl of He-
vonshire, was a crime not to be forgiven: and Mary
made her sensible of her displeasure by numberless mor¬
tifications. She was ordered te take place at court
alter the duchess of Suffolk and the countess of Len¬
nox ; to avoid which, and other indignities, Elizabeth
at last retired from court altogether into the country.
After the suppression of Wyatt’s rebellion she was
committed to the Tower, and underwent a strict exa¬
mination before the council ; but as Wyatt had made
a declaration on the scaffold that she was in no manner
of way concerned, the queen found herself under a ne¬
cessity, of releasing her. To get rid of such a trouble¬
some rival, however, she was offered in marriage to the
duke of Savoy j and on Elizabeth’s declining the pro¬
posal, she was committed close prisoner to Woodstoke.
I he rebellion proved fatal, however, to many persons
of distinction, and gave the queen an opportunity of
manifesting that unbounded cruelty which reigned in
her heart. The Tower, and all the prisons in the
kingdom, were filled with nobility and gentry, who
became objects of royal vengeance, more on account of
their credit and interest with the people than any con¬
cern they were^ supposed to have had with Wyatt.
Sir Nicholas. Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall j
but as no satisfactory evidence appeared against him,
the jury gave a verdict in his favour. The queen was
so. much enraged at this disappointment, that she recom¬
mitted him to the Tower, summoned the jury before
the council, and at last sent them all to prison, fining
them afterwards some of 1000I. and others of 2000I.
each. Sir John Throgmorton, brother to Sir Nicho¬
las just mentioned, was condemned and executed upon
evidence which had been already rejected as insuffi¬
cient. But of all those who perished on this occasion, Execution
none excited more universal compassion than the un-of Lady
fortunate Lady Jane Grey and her husband Lord Jane Grey
Guildford Hudley. They had already received sentence fnc^ ber
of death, as has been mentioned 5 and two days after sbam!,i
the execution of Wyatt, they received orders to pre¬
pare for eternity. Lady Jane, who had been in ex¬
pectation of this blow, was no way intimidated, but
received the news with the most heroic resolution.
The place intended at first for their execution was
Tower-hill ; but the council, dreading the effects of
the people’s compassion for their youth, beauty, and
innocence, gave directions that they should be beheaded
within the verge of the Tower. The duke of Suffolk
was soon after tried, condemned, and executed ; but
would have met with more compassion, had not his
ambition
I 20
ENGL
EngtaHii. ambition been the cause of his daughter’s unlmppy fate
* 1 *~v ' just mentioned. Sir -Thomas Grey also lost his hie on
A. D. 1553. t[ie same account 5 but the cruel spirit of Mary was still
unsatisfied 5 and finding herself universally odious, that
she might free herself from any apprehensions for what
305 was past, as well as tyrannize with the more freedom
The .people in time to come, she disabled the people fiom resist-
diiarmed. ancej by ordering general musters, and causing the
commissioners seize their arms and lay them up in forts
and castles.
Notwithstanding this unpopularity, however, the
rebellion of Wyatt had so strengthened the hands of
government, that a parliament was assembled in hopes
of gratifying the queen’s wishes in regard to her mar¬
riage with Philip of Spain. To facilitate this purpose
also, the emperor of Germany sent over to England
400,000 crowns to be distributed among the members
of parliament in bribes and pensions j a practice of
which there had hitherto been no example in England.
The queen, notwithstanding her bigotry, resumed th_
title of Supreme Head of the Church, which she had
dropped three months before. Gardiner made a speech,
in which he proposed, that they should invest the queen
with a legal power of disposing of the crown, and
appointing her successor ; but the parliament, however
obsequious in other respects, did not choose to gratify
their sovereign in a measure by which the kingdom of
England might become a province of the Spanish
monarchy. They would not even declare it treason to
imagine or attempt the death of the queen s husband
during her life time, though they agreed to ratify the
articles of marriage. Finding therefore that the par-
306 liament even yet was not sufficiently obsequious, it was
Marriage thought most proper to dissolve them. Soon after this
wiih Philip tjie marriage with Philip was solemnized j but as the
•oleuu.ized. j]a(j eSp0USed \}\s queen merely with a view to
become king of England, he no sooner found himself
disappointed in this than he showed a total want of
affection for her as a wife. He passed most of his time
at a distance from her in the Low Countries j and sel¬
dom wrote to her except when he wanted money, with
which Mary would at all times gladly have supplied
him, even had it been at the expence of her kingdom,
397 if in her power.
Protestants The enemies of the state being supposed to be sup-
persecuted. 1)resse(]j t|10Se 0f the Protestant religion were next per¬
secuted. The old sanguinary laws which had been
rejected by a former parliament were now revived.
Orders were given, that the priests and bishops who had
married should be ejected 3 that the mass should be
restored, and the pope’s authority established and that
the church and its privileges, all but their goods and
estates, should be put on the same footing on which they
were before the commencement of the reformation. But
as the gentry and nobility had already divided the
church-lands among them, it was thought inconvenient,
and indeed impossible, to make a'restoration of these.
The persons who chiefly promoted these measures were
Gardiner bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal Pole, who
was a kinsman of Henry VIII. but had been long in
Italy, and was now returned from it. The latter was
for tolerating the Protestants ; but the former, percei¬
ving that rigorous measures would be most agreeable
to the king and queen, declared himself against it. Pie
was too prudent, however, to appear in person at the
4
AND.
head of the persecution j and therefore consigned that England.
office to Bonnar bishop of London, a man of a very -v—-
abandoned character. The bloody scene began by the ^
execution of Hooper bishop of Gloucester, and Rogers
prebendary of St Paul’s. These were quickly follow¬
ed by others, of whom the principal were Archbishop
Cranmer, Ridley bishop of London, and Latimer
bishop of Worcester *. These persecutions soon became * See CV«
odious to the whole nation, and the perpetrators oimir< &c-
them were all willing to throw the blame from them¬
selves upon others. Philip endeavoured to fasten the
whole reproach upon Bonnar j but that bishop would
not take the whole, and therefore retorted on the
court. A bold step was now taken to introduce a
court similar to the Spanish inquisition, that should be
empowered to try heretics, and condemn them with¬
out any other law but its own authority. But even
this was thought a method too dilatory in the present
exigence of affairs. A proclamation issued against
books of heresy, treason, and sedition, declared, that
whosoever had such books in Ins possession, and did not
burn them without reading, should suffer as a rebel.
This was attended with the execution of such numbers,
that at last the magistrates who had been instrumental
in these cruelties refused to give their assistance any
longer. It was computed, that during this persecu¬
tion, 277 persons suffered by fire, besides those punish¬
ed by imprisonments, fines, and confiscations. Among
those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergy¬
men, 8 lay-gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen,
55 women, and 4 children.
The only remarkable transaction which happened
during this reign with regard to the temporal affairs
of the kingdom was the loss of Calais, which had been
in the possession of the English for upwards of 200
years t. This loss filled the whole kingdom witht3ce aa
complaints, and the queen with grief. She was heard
to say, that, when dead, the name of Calais would be 3°^
found engraven on her heart. She did not long sur'
vive this loss j but died in the year 1558, of a linger-ceecje(j by
ing illness, after a reign of five years four months and Elizabeth,
eleven days.
After the death of Mary, the princess Elizabeth
succeeded to the throne without opposition. She was
at Hatfield when news of her sister’s death were brought
her j upon which she hastened up to London, where she
was received with great joy. This princess was well
qualified for government. She had judgment sufficient
to make choice of proper ministers, and authority
enough to keep her subjects in awe. The restraints
also, to which she had been subjected during her sister’s
reign, had taught her so well to conceal her sentiments,
that she had become a perfect mistress of dissimulation \
which, though no commendable part of her character,
proved occasionally of great service to her government.
She perfected the reformation, and put the religion of
England upon the same plan which subsists at present.
This was accomplished without the least difficulty ; for
the persecution in Mary’s reign had served only to
give the whole nation an aversion for popery. In the
time of Edward VI. the people had been compelled to
embrace the Protestant religion, and their fears indu¬
ced them to conform ; but now, almost the whole na¬
tion were Protestants from inclination. The reforma¬
tion was confirmed by act of parliament in 1559, and
thus
ENGLAND.
UflgknB
A. D. 1587.
309 .
Peace with
Fraace.
310
Prepata-
sioas for
Bvar with
Jjuin.
3”
■tpioits of
(ir Francis
■•lake.
thus England was seen to change Its religion four times
in the space of 32 years.
During the time that the queen and her counsellors
were employed in settling the religious affairs of the na¬
tion, negotiations were likewise carried on for a peace
between England and France ; which.was at last con¬
cluded on the following terms, viz. that Henry should
restore Calais at the expiration of eight years j that in
case of failure, he should pay 500,000 crowns, and Eli¬
zabeth’s title to Calais still remain ; that for the pay¬
ment of this sum he should find the security of eight
foreign merchants, not natives of France ; and until
that security were provided he should deliver five hos¬
tages. If during this interval Elizabeth should break
the peace with France or Scotland, she should forfeit
all title to Calais ; but if Henry made war on Eliza¬
beth, he should be obliged to restore the fortress imme¬
diately. This pacification was soon followed by an ir-
reconcileable quarrel with Mary queen of Scotland j
which was not extinguished but by the death of the
Scottish princess ; and that with such circumstances of
accumulated treachery, hypocrisy, and dissimulation, as
have stamped an indelible disgrace on the memory of
Elizabeth. See the articles Mary and Scotland.
Elizabeth having at last got rid of her rival in the
year 1587, began to make preparations for resisting
the Spanish invasion. Hearing that Philip was se¬
cretly fitting out a great navy to attack her, she sent
Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to pillage his coasts
and destroy his shipping. On this expedition he set
sail with four capital ships furnished by the queen, and
26 others of various sizes furnished him by the mer¬
chants of London in hopes of sharing the plunder.
Having learned that a Spanish fleet richly laden was
lying at Cadiz in readiness to set sail for Lisbon, he
directed his course towards the former port, where he
boldly attacked the enemy. Six galleys were obliged
to take shelter under the cannon of the forts : he burn¬
ed about 100 vessels laden with ammunition and naval
stores ; and destroyed a great ship belonging to the
marquis de Santa Croce. Thence setting sail for Cape
St Vincent, he took by assault the castle situated on that
promontory, with three other fortresses. Having next
insulted Lisbon, he sailed to the island Tercera, one of
the Azores, where, after lying in wait for some time, he
took a rich prize, and then returned to England ; having
by this short expedition taught the English to despise the
huge and unwieldy ships of the enemy, and thus prepar¬
ed them to act with more resolution against the formid¬
able armament that now threatened to invade them.
But though the expedition of Sir Francis Drake had
retarded the intended invasion of England for a twelve-
month, it had not by any means induced Philip to aban¬
don his design. During that interval he continued his
preparations with the greatest assiduity, the more espe¬
cially as the invasion of England seemed to be a neces¬
sary preparative for regaining his authority over the
Netherlands, the revolted provinces having been strong¬
ly supported by Elizabeth. The fleet prepared at this
time was superior to any thing then existing in the
world $ and no doubt being entertained of its success, it
was ostentatiously styled the Invincible Armada. The
miserable event of this expedition, and the total failure
of all the mighty hopes of Philip, are related under
the article Armada. 1 he spirit and courage of the
VOL. VIII. Part I. f
I 2 [
English were now excited to atiempt invasions in England
their turn $ which they executed in numerous descents ' v  
on the Spanish coasts j though these were only tern-A ^
porary, and designed not for permanent conquest, but
to harass the enemy. It would be endless to relate
all the advantages obtained over the enemy at sea,
where the capture of every ship must have been a se¬
parate narrative. It is sufficient to observe, that the
sea-captains of that reign are still considered as the
boldest and most enterprising set of men that England
ever produced; and among this number we are to rec¬
kon Raleigh and Howard, Drake, Cavendish, and
Hawkins. The English navy then began to take the
lead ; and has since continued irresistible in all parts
of the ocean.
Elizabeth continued to reign with great glory till
the year 1603 ; but all her greatness could not prevent
her from being extremely miserable before her death.
She had caused her greatest favourite, and probably
her lover, the earl of Essex f, to be executed. Though ( See D ve-
this execution could not be called unjust, the queen’srfw-T-
affection (on being informed that he had at last thrown
himself entirely on her clemency) returned to such a
degree, that she thenceforth gave herself entirely over
to despair. She refused food and sustenance ; she con-GriiVLit
tinued silent and gloomy ; sighs and groans were the.m*sery
only vent she gave to her despondence ; and she lay for Elizabeth,
ten days and nights upon the carpet, leaning on cushions,
which her maids brought her. Perhaps the faculties of
her mind were impaired by long and violent exercise ;
perhaps she reflected with remorse on some past actions
of her life, or perceived, but too strongly, the decays
of nature, and the approach of her dissolution. She
saw her courtiers remitting in their assiduity to her, in
order to pay their court to James the apparent succes¬
sor. Such a concurrence of causes was more than suf¬
ficient to destroy the remains of her constitution ; and
her end was now visibly seen to approach. Feeling a
perpetual heat in her stomach, attended with an un¬
quenchable thirst, sho diank without ceasing, but refu¬
sed the assistance of her physicians. Her distemper
gaining ground, Cecil and the lord admiral desired to
know her sentiments with regard to the succession. To
this she replied, that as the crown of England had al¬
ways been held by kings, it ought not to devolve upon
any inferior character, but upon her immediate heir
(lie king of Scotland. Being then advised by the arch¬
bishop of Canterbury to fix her thoughts upon God,
she replied, that her thoughts did not in the least wan¬
der from him. Her voice soon after left her; she fell
into a lethargic slumber, which continued some hours ; ^
and she expired gently without a groan, in the 70th Her death,
year of her age, and 45th of her reign. She was suc¬
ceeded by James I. king of Scotland ; since which time,
the history of both England and Scotland is compre¬
hended under the article Britain. .j, , 31-
Since the Norman conquest, England has been di-En^and,
vided into six circuits, each circuit containing a cer-j™'* dl,ld~
tain number of counties. Two judges are appointedC
for each circuit, which they visit in the spring and au¬
tumn, lor administering justice to the subjects who are
at a distance from the capital. In bolding the lent
(or spring) assizes, the northern circuit extends only
to York and Lancaster ; the assizes at Durham, New¬
castle, Carlisle, and Appleby, being held only in au-
Q tumn,
I 2 2
ENGLAND.
England, tumn, and distinguished by the appellation of the hng
y~—/ circuti' These circuits and counties are :
1. Home Circuit contains the counties of Essex, Hert¬
ford, Kent, Surry, and Sussex.
2. Norfolk Circuit contains those of Bucks, Bedford,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk.
3. Oxford Circuit. Oxon, Berks, Gloucester, Wor¬
cester, Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford.
4. Midland Circuit. Warwick, Leicester, Derby,
Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton.
5. Western Circuit. Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Somer¬
set, Devon, and Cornwall.
6. Northern Circuit. York, Durham, Northumber¬
land, Lancaster, Westmoreland, and Cumberland.
Middlesex and Cheshire are not comprehended in
the above circuits; the former being the seat of the
supreme courts of justice, and the latter a county pa¬
latine. There is still a court of chancery in Lan¬
caster and Durham, with a chancellor ; and there is
a court of exchequer at Chester, of a mixed kind, both
for law and equity, of which the chamberlain of Ches¬
ter is judge : there are also other justices in the coun¬
ties palatine, to determine civil actions and pleas of the
crown.
Besides the 40 counties into which England is di¬
vided, there are counties corporate, consisting of cer¬
tain districts, to which the liberties and jurisdictions
peculiar to a county have been granted by charter from
the throne. Thus the city of London is a county di¬
stinct from Middlesex 5 the cities of York, Chester,
Bristol, Norwich, Worcester, and the towns of King¬
ston upon Hull and Newcastle upon Tyne, are coun¬
ties of themselves, distinct from those in which they
lie. The same may be said of Berwick upon Tweed,
which lies in Scotland, and has within its jurisdiction
a small territory of two miles on the north side of the
river. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities
are contained : for every borough or city is a town,
though every town is not a borough or city.—An ac¬
count of the English constitution and government is
given under the articles King, Lords, Commons,
316 Parliament, Law, Liberty, Rights, &c.
Religion. The established religion of England is Episcopacy.
Since the reign of Henry VIII. the sovereigns of
England have been called, in public writs, the supreme
heads of the church ; but this title conveys no spiritual
meaning, as it only denotes the regal power to pre¬
vent any ecclesiastical differences, or, in other words,
to substitute the king in place of the pope before the
reformation, with regard to temporalities and the inter¬
nal economy of the church. The kings of England
never intermeddle in ecclesiastical disputes, and are
contented to give a sanction to the legal rights ol the
clergy. _ . t .
The church of England, under this description of
the monarchical power over it, is governed by two
archbishops, and 24 bishops, besides the bishop of Sodor
and Man, who, not being possessed of an English baro¬
ny, does not sit in the house of peers. See Archbi¬
shop and Bishop.
England contains about 60 archdeacons. Subordi¬
nate to them are the rural deacons, formerly styled
archpresbyters, who signify the bishop’s pleasure to his
clergy, the lower class of which consists of parish-
priests (who are called rectors or vicars') deacons and
curates. See the articles Curate, Deacon, Parson, EngiftBlj
and Vicar. ^'-j
The following is a list of the English bishoprics, .317
with their revenues, as charged in the king’s books : Rjety!nues
though that sum is far from being the real annual va-°je|g.® <
lue of the see, yet it assists in forming a comparative
estimate between the revenues of each see with those of
another.
Canterbury,
York
London,
Durham,
Winchester,
Archbishoprics.
Bishoprics.
L.
2682
1610
2000
1821
3I24
s.
12
o
o
I
12
These three bishops take precedency of all others in
England, and the others according to the seniority
of their consecrations.
Ely,
Bath and Wells,
Hereford,
Rochester,
Litchfield and Coventry,
Chester,
Worcester,
Chichester,
St Asaph,
Salisbury,
Bangor,
Norwich,
Gloucester,
Llandaff,
Lincoln,
Bristol,
Carlisle,
Exeter,
Peterborough,
Oxford,
St Davids,
2I34
533
768
358
559
420
929
677
i87
i385
834
3X5
154
894
297
53i
500
414
38x
426
18
1
11
4
J7
1
J3
1
11
5
16
11
7
14
18
11
4
o
6
3
o
9
3
8
3
3
8
o
3
7
3
2
1
o
9
o
14 8
11 o
The ecclesiastical government of England is, proper¬
ly speaking, lodged in the convocation ; which is a na¬
tional representative or synod, and answers pretty nearly
to the ideas which we have of a parliament. They are
convoked at the same time with every parliament j and
their business is to consider of the state of the church,
and to call those to an account who have advanced new
opinions, inconsistent with the doctrines of the church
of England. Some high-flying clergymen during the
reign of Queen Anne, and in the beginning of that
of George I. raised the powers of the convocation to a
height that was inconsistent with the principles of re¬
ligious toleration, and indeed of civil liberty : so that
the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of call¬
ing the members together, and of dissolving them j and
ever since they have not been permitted to sit for any
time, in which they could do business.
The following table exhibits a view of the popula¬
tion of England, taken from the returns made to the
house of commons in consequence of an act of parlia¬
ment which was passed in 1801, for the purpose of as¬
certaining the number of inhabitants in the kingdom.
From this table it appears that the total number of per¬
sons in England amounts to 8,331,434.
Counties.
»
hibluhat bif A.Constahh‘ /• C'! /u/in/nnyh
''V‘*
ENGLAND
England,
New
England.
COUNTIES.
Bedford
Berks
Buckingham
Cambridge
Chester
Cornwall
Cumberland -
Derby
Devon
Dorset
Durham
Essex
Gloucester
Hereford
Hertford
Huntingdon
Kent
Lancaster
Leicester
Lincoln
Middlesex
Monmouth
Norfolk
Northampton
Northumberland
Nottingham
Oxford
Rutland
Salop
Somerset
Southampton
Stafford
Suffolk
Surry
Sussex
Warwick
Westmoreland
Wilts
Worcester
York
1801.
Houses.
11,888
20,573
20,443
16,139
34,482
32,906
2L573
31,822
57.955
21,437
27,!95
46,457
17,003
17,681
6,841
5r,585
114,270
25,992
4L395
112,912
8,948
47,6i7
26,66 c
26,518
25,611
20,599
3,274
31,182
48,040
38,345
45»I98
32,233
46,072
25,272
40,847
7>897
29,462
26,711
168,439
Persons.
1,467,870
63,393
109,215
107,444
89,346
I91»75I
188,269
117,230
161,142
343,ooi
II5>3I9
160,361
226,437
2CO,8oq
89,191
97,577
37,568
307,624
672,731
130,081
208,557
818,129
45,582
273,371
I3I>757
157,101
M0,350
109,620
i6,356
167,639
273,750
219,656
239»I53
210,431
269,043
I59,311
208", 190
41,617
185,107
I39>330
858,892
8,33i,434
1811.
Houses.
I3,5°5
22,667
22,386
17,489
42,426
39,371
24,552
36,854
64,793
24,051
29,923
43,841
54,040
19,296
20,781
7»7I9
63,734
148,552
30,649
47,467
I34»939
12,127
52,807
28,857
29,384
32,298
23,201
3,402 -
36,635
54,*34
44,240
56,617
37,851
57,I24
30,680
45,849
9,OI9
38,281
31,010
193,480
1,726,031
Person5.
70,213
118,277
117,650
101,109
227,037
216,667
I33»744
185,487
383.308
124,693
177,625
252,473
285,5M
94,073
111,654
42,208
373,095
828.309
150,419
237,891
953,276
62,127
291,999
I4r,353
172,161
162,900
119,191
16,380
194,298
303,180
245,080
295,M3
234,211
323,851
190,083
228,735
45,922
193,828
160,546
973»II3
I23
England,
New
England.
9,538,827
1801
1811
Inhabitants in towns, 3,661,549
in the country, 4,669,885
See England, Supplement.
4,221,814
5,3i7,oi3
New ENGLAND, late a province of the British
empire in America, is bounded on the north by Ca¬
nada, on the east by Nova Scotia and the Atlantic
ocean, on the south by the Atlantic and Long Island
sound, and on the west'by New York. It lies in the
form of a quarter of a circle. It includes the five
states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts,
Vermont, and New Hampshire 5 and extends from 410
to 46° of north latitude, and from 68° to 740 of west
longitude.
1 his country was discovered in the beginning of the When first
16th century, and called Nort/i Virginia; but no Eu-^'scovered*
ropeans settled there till the year 1608. The first co¬
lony, which was weak and ill-directed, did not suc¬
ceed ; and, for some time, there were only a few ad¬
venturers who came over at times in the summer, built
Q 2 themselves
£
ENG [12.
Muvv themselves temporary huts for the sake of trailing with
Engtumi. i|ie savages, and like them, disappeared again for the
 * ' rest of the year. At last some Brownists, headed by
Mr Robinson, whom Neal styles the l ather of the In¬
dependents, who in 1610 had been drnen fiom Rag¬
land by persecution, fled to Holland, and settled at
Leyden ■, but in 1621 determined, with Mr Brewster
assistant-preacher to Mr Robinson, to found a church
for their sect in the new hemisphere. They therefore
purchased, in 1521, the charter of the English North
Virginia company. Forty-one families, making in all
1 2C persons, landed in the beginning of a very hard
winter, and found a country entirely covered with wood,
which offered a very melancholy prospect to men alrea¬
dy exhausted with the fatigues of their voyage. Near
one half perished either by cold, the scurvy, or other di¬
stress. The courage of the rest wms beginning to lail ;
when it was revived by the arrival of 60 savage war¬
riors, who came to them in the spring, headed by their
chief. The old tenants assigned for ever to the new ones
all the lands in the neighbourhood of the settlement
they had formed, under the name of Neui Plymouth;
ant| one of the savages who understood a liule English
staid to teach them how to cultivate the maize, and in¬
struct them in the manner of fishing upon their coast.
This kindness enabled the colony to wait for the com¬
panions they expected from Europe with seeds, with
domestic animals, and with every assistance they want¬
ed. At first these succours arrived but slowly J but the
persecution of the Puritans in England increased the
number of proselytes to such a degree in America, that
in 1630 they were obliged to form diflercnt settlements,
of which Boston soon became the principal. These
first settlers were not merely ecclesiastics, who had been
deprived of their preferments on account of their opi¬
nions nor those sectaries influenced by new opinions,
that are so frequent among the common people, lliere
were among them several persons of high rank, who,
having embraced Puritanism, had taken the precaution
to secure themselves an asylum in these distant regions.
They had caused houses to be built, and lands to be
cleared, with a view of retiring there, if their endea¬
vours in the cause of civil and religious liberty should
prove abortive. „
BaynnCs Inhabitants of New England lived peaceably lor
History oj ^ jQ t;me? without any regular form of policy. Their
Charter had indeed authorized them to establish any
mode of government they might choose y but these en¬
thusiasts were not agreed among themselves upon the
plan of their republic, and government did not pay suf¬
ficient attention to them to urge them to secure their
own tranquillity. At length they grew sensible of the
necessity of a regular legislation ; and this great work,
which virtue and genius united have never attempted
but with diffidence, was boldly undertaken by blind
* fanaticism. It bore the stamp of the rude prejudices
TfTaws on which it had been formed. There was in this new
code a singular mixture of good and evil, of wisdom
and folly. No man was allowed to have a share in the
government except he were a member of the establish¬
ed church. Witchcraft, perjury, blasphemy, and adul¬
tery were made capital offences j and children weie
also punished with death, either for cursing or striking
their parents. Marriages, however, were to be so¬
lemnized by the magistrate. The price of corn was
. ] ENG
fixed at 2s. 11 yd. per bushel. The savages who ne- Stw
glected to cultivate their lands were to he deprived of England,
them ; and Europeans were forbidden under a heavy y—^
penalty to sell them any strong liquors or warlike stores.
All those who were detected either in lying, drunken¬
ness, or dancing, were ordered to be publicly whipped.
But at the same time that amusements were forbidden
equally with vices and crimes, one might be allowed
to swear by paying a penalty of n^d. and to break
the sabbath for 2l. 19s. 9^!. Another indulgence
allowed was, to atone, by a fine, for a neglect of
prayer, or for uttering a rash oath. But it is still more
extraordinary, that the worship of images was for¬
bidden to the Puritans on pain of death 5 which was
also inflicted on Roman Catholic priests, who should
return to the colony after they had been banished j 3
and on Quakers who should appear again after having Quaker*
been whipped, branded, and expelled. Such was the l,ersc':uUi
abhorrence for these sectaries, who had themselves an
aversion for every kind of cruelty, that whoever either
brought one of them into the country, or harboured him
but for one hour, was liable to pay a considerable fine.
Those unfortunate members of the colony, who, less
violent than their brethren, ventured to deny the coer¬
cive power of the magistrate in matters of religion,
were persecuted with still greater rigour. This was
considered as blasphemy by those very divines who had
rather chosen to quit their country than to show any
deference to Episcopal authority. This system was
supported by the severities of the law, which attempt¬
ed to put a stop to every difference in opinion, by in¬
flicting capital punishment on all who dissented. 1 hose
who were either convicted, or even suspected, of enter¬
taining sentiments of toleration, were exposed to such
cruel oppressions, that they were forced to fly from their
first asylum, and seek refuge in another. They found
one on the same continent 5 and as New England had
been first founded by persecution, its limits were ex*
tended by it.
This intemperate religious zeal extended itself to
matters in themselves of the greatest indifference. A
proof of this is found in the following public declara¬
tion, transcribed from the registers of the colony. 4
“ It is a circumstance universally acknowledged, a-
“ that the custom of wearing long hair, after the gainst
“ manner of immoral persons and of the savage In-
“ dians, can have been introduced into England only ong .
“ ;n sacrilegious contempt of the express command of
“ God, who declares that it is a shameful practice for
“ any man who has the least care for his soul to wear
“ long hair. As this abomination excites the indig-
“ nation of all pious persons ; we, the magistrates, in
“ our zeal for the purity of the faith, do expressly
“ and authentically declare, that we condemn the im-
“ pious custom of letting the hair grow ; a custom
“ which we look upon to be very indecent and disho-
“ nest, which horribly disguises men, and is offensive
“ to modest and sober persons, in as much as it eor-
“ rupts good manners. We therefore, being justly
“ incensed against this scandalous custom, do desire,
“ advise, and earnestly request all the elders of our
“ continent, zealously to show their aversion for this
“ odious practice, to exert all their power to put a
“ stop to it, and especially to take care that the ineni-
“ hers of their churches be not infected with it; in
tl order
ENG [ 125 ] ENG
“ order that those persons who, notwithstanding these
nd. “ rigorous prohibitions, and the means of correction
“ that shall be used on this account, shall still persist
“ in this custom, shall have both God and man at the
“ same time against them.”
This severity soon exerted itself against the Quakers.
They were whipped, banished, and imprisoned. The
behaviour of these new enthusiasts, who in the midst of
tortures and ignominy praised God, and called for bles¬
sings upon men, inspired a reverence for their persons
and opinions, and gained them a number of proselytes.
This circumstance exasperated their persecutors, and
hurried them on to the most atrocious acts of vio¬
lence ; and they caused five of them, who had return¬
ed clandestinely from banishment, to he hanged. This
spirit of persecution was, however, at last suppressed
by the interposition of the mother-country, from
whence it had been brought. Charles II. moved with
the sufferings of the Quakers, put a stop to them by a
proclamation in 1661 ; but he was never able totally
to extinguish the spirit of persecution that prevailed
in America.
The colony had placed at their head Henry Vane,
the son of that Sir Henry Vane who had such a re¬
markable share in the disturbances of bis country. This
obstinate and enthusiastic young man had contrived to
revive the questions of grace and free will. The dis¬
putes upon these points ran very high j and would
probably have plunged the colony into a civil war, if
several of the savage nations united had not happened
at that very time to fall upon the plantations of the
disputants, and to massacre great numbers of them.
The colonists, heated with their theological contests,
paid at first very little attention to this considerable
Joss. But the danger at length became so urgent and
so general, that all took up arms. As soon as the
enemy were repulsed, the colony resumed its former
dissensions j and the frenzy which they excited
broke out in 1692 in a way marked with as many
atrocious instances of violence as any ever recorded in
history.
There lived in a town of New England, called
Salem, two young women who were subject to convul¬
sions, accompanied with extraordinary symptoms. Their
father, minister of the church, thought that they were
bewitched ; and having in consequence cast his suspi¬
cions upon an Indian girl who lived in his house, he
compelled her by harsh treatment to confess that she
was a witch. Other women, upon hearing this, im¬
mediately believed, that the convulsions, which pro¬
ceeded only from the nature of their sex, were owing
to the same cause. Three citizens, casually named,
were immediately thrown into prison, accused of witch¬
craft, hanged, and their bodies left exposed to wild
beasts and birds of prey. A few days after, 16 other
persons, together with a counsellor, who, because he
refused to plead against them, was supposed to share
in their guilt, suffered in the same manner. From this
instant, the imagination of the multitude was inflamed
with these horrid and gloomy scenes. Children of ten
years of age were put to death, young girls were strip¬
ped naked, and the marks of witchcraft searched for
upon their bodies with the most indecent curiosity $ and
those spots of the scurvy which age impresses upon the
bodies of old men were taken for evident signs of the
infernal power. In default of these, torments were
employed to extort confessions dictated by the execu- England,
tioners themselves. If the magistrates, tired out wiih v~—
executions, refused to punish, they were themselves ac¬
cused of the crimes they tolerated ; the very ministers
of religion raised false witnesses against them, who
made them forfeit with their lives the tardy remorse
excited in them by humanity. Dreams, apparitions,
terror, and consternation of every kind, increased
th ese prodigies ot folly and horror. The prisons were
filled, the gibbets left standing, and all the citizens in¬
volved in gloomy apprehensions. The most prudent quit¬
ted the country stained with the blood of its inhabi¬
tants ; and nothing else than the total and immediate
subversion of the colony vras expected, when, on a sud¬
den, all eyes were opened at once, and the excess of
the evil awakened the minds which it had at first stu-
pified. Bitter and painful remorse was the immediate
consequence; the mercy of God was implored by a ge¬
neral fast, and public prayers were offered up to ask
forgiveness for the presumption of having supposed that
Heaven could have been pleased with sacrifices with
which it could only have been offended.
Posterity will probably never know exactly what was
the cause or remedy of this dreadful disorder. It had,
perhaps, its first origin in the melancholy which those
persecuted enthusiasts had brought with them from their
own country, which had increased with the scurvy they
had contracted at sea, and had gathered fresh strength
from the inconveniences and hardships inseparable from
a change of climate and manner of living. The con¬
tagion, however, ceased like all other epidemical dis¬
tempers, exhausted by its very communication. A per¬
fect calm succeeded this agitation ; and the Puritans of
New England have never since been seized with so
gloomy a fit of enthusiasm.
But though the colony lias renounced the persecuting
spirit which hath stained all religious sects with blood,
it has preserved some remains, if not of intoleration, at
least of severity, which remind us of those melancholy
days iu which it took its rise. Some of its laws are
still too severe.
New England had, however, some remedy against
had laws, in the constitution of its mother-country,
where the people who have the legislative power in their
own hands are at liberty to correct abuses; and it lias
others derived from its situation, which open a vast field
to industry and population.
The clearing of the lauds in this colony was not di-Manner of
reeled by chance as in the other provinces. This mat-setlemeiit
ter from the first was subjected to laws which are still"1 this co-
religiously observed. No citizen whatever had the j;.
berty of settling even upon unoccupied land. The go¬
vernment, desirous of preserving all its members from
the inroads of the savages, and of placing them in a
condition to share in the protection of a well-regulated
society, had ordered that whole villages should be
formed at once. As soon as 6a families offered to
build a church, maintain a clergyman, and pay a ~v
schoolmaster, it was usual for the general assembly to
allot them a situation, and permit them to have two re¬
presentatives in the legislative body of the colony. The
district assigned them always bordered upon the lands
already cleared. These new people choose the situa¬
tion most convenient for their habitation, which Ia
usually
ENG [ 126 ] ENG
j^ew usually of a square figure. The church is placet! in the
England' centre •, the colonists divide the land among themselves,
and each incloses his property with a hedge. Some
woods are reserved lor a common $ and thus New Eng¬
land constantly enlarged its territory. Such was the
mode of forming new settlements while it was a British
^ province.
Division, The country was at first divided into four states,
80c. which had no connexion with one another. The neces¬
sity of maintaining an armed force against the savages,
obliged them to form a confederacy in 1643, 'v’l5en they
took the name of the United Colonies. In consequence
of this league, two deputies from each establishment
used to meet in a stated place to deliberate upon the
common affairs of New England, according to the in¬
structions they had received from the assembly by
which they were sent. This association laid no con¬
straint upon the right of every individual to act entire¬
ly as he pleased, without either the pernsssion or ap¬
probation of the mother-country. All the submission
required of these provinces was merely to acknowledge
the kings of England for their sovereigns. Charles II.
wished to make them more dependent. The province
of Massachnset’s bay, which, though the smallest, was
the richest and the most populous of the four, being
guilty of some misdemeanour against government, the
king seized that opportunity of taking away its char¬
ter in 1684 : and it remained without one till the re¬
volution ; when it received another, which, however,
did not answer its claims or expectations. The crown
reserved to itself the right of nominating the governor,
and appointing to all military employments, and to all
principal posts in the civil and juridical departments :
it allowed the people of the colony their legislative
power, and gave the governor a negative voice and the
command of the troops, which seemed him a sufficient
influence to enable him to maintain the prerogative of
the mother-country in all its force. The provinces of
Connecticut and Khode-Island, by timely submission,
prevented the punishment which that of Massachusets
had incurred, and retained their original charter. That
of New-Hampshire had been always regulated by the
same mode of administration as the province of Mas-
sachuset’s-bay. The same governor presided over the
whole colony, but with regulations adapted to the
constitution of each province. To the above states,
another has been added since the revolution, viz. Ver¬
mont. These states are subdivided into counties, and
8 the counties into townships.
Face »f the New England is a high, hilly, and in some parts a
country, mountainous country, formed by nature to be inhabi-
monntains, je(| a ha,dy race of free, independent republicans.
®cc- —The mountains are comparatively small, running
nearly north and south in ridges parallel to each other.
Between these ridges flow the great rivers in maje¬
stic meanders, receiving the innumerable rivulets and
larger streams which proceed from the mountains on
each side. To a spectator on the top of a neighbour¬
ing mountain, the vales between the ridges, while in a
state of nature, exhibit a romantic appearance. They
seem an ocean of woods, swelled and depressed in its
surface like that of the great ocean itself. A richer
though less romantic view is presented, when the val¬
leys, by industrious husbandmen, have been cleared of
their natural growth $ and the fruit of their labour ap-
3
pears in loaded orchards, extensive meadows, covered New
with large herds of sheep and neat cattle, and rich England,
fields of flax, corn, and the various kinds of grain. • ~
These valleys, which have received the expressive name
of interval lands, are of various breadths, from two to
20 miles ; and by the annual inundations of the rivers
which flow through them, there is frequently an accu¬
mulation of rich fat soil left upon their surface when
the waters retire.
There are four principal ranges of mountains, pas¬
sing nearly from north-east to south-west through
New England. These consist of a multitude of paral¬
lel ridges, each having many spurs, deviating from the
course of the general range j which spurs are again
broken into irregular hilly land. The main ridges
terminate, sometimes in high bluff heads, near the
sea-coast, and sometimes by a gradual descent in the
interior part of the country. One of the main ranges
runs between Connecticut and Hudson’s rivers. This
range branches and bounds the vales through which
flows the Housatonick river. The most eastern ridge
of this range terminates in a bluff head at Meriden ;
a second ends in like manner at Willingford, and a
third at New Haven. In Lyme, on the east side of
Connecticut river, another range of mountains com¬
mences, forming the eastern boundary of Connecticut
vale. This range trends northerly, at the distance,
generally, of about 10 or 12 miles east from the ri¬
ver, and passes through Massachusets, where the range
takes the name of Chickabee Mountain ; thence crossing
into New Hampshire, at the distance of about 20 miles
from the Massachusets line, it runs up into a very
high peak, called Monadnick, which terminates this
ridge of the range. A western ridge continues, and
in about latitude 430 20' runs up into Sunipee moun¬
tains. About 50 miles further, in the same ridge, is
Mooscoog mountain. A third range begins near Sto-
nington in Connecticut. It takes its course north-east¬
erly, and is sometimes broken and discontinued ; it
then rises again, and ranges in the same direction in¬
to New Hampshire, where, in latitude 430 25', it runs
up into a high peak called Cowsawaskog. The fourth
range has a humble beginning about Hopkinton in
Massachusets. The eastern ridge of this range runs
north by Watertown and Concord, and crosses Mer¬
rimack river at Pantucket Falls. In New Hampshire,
it rises into several high peaks, of which the White
mountains are the principal. From these White moun¬
tains a range continues north-east, crossing the east
boundary of New Hampshire, in latitude 440 30', and
forms the height of land between Kennebek and
Chaudiere rivers. These ranges of mountains are full
of lakes, ponds, and springs of water, that give rise to
numberless streams of various sizes, which, interlock¬
ing each other in every direction, and falling over the
rocks in romantic cascades, flow meandering into the
rivers below. No country on the globe is better wa¬
tered than New England.
On the sea-coast the land is lowr, and in many parts
level and sandy. In the valleys, between the foremen-
tioned ranges of mountains, the land is generally bro¬
ken, and in many places rocky, but of a strong rich
soil, capable of being cultivated to good advantage,
which also is the case with many spots even on the tops
of the mountains.
The ’
ENG [ 127 ] ENG
New i*16 principal river in .New .bngland is« Connecticut.
England. See CONNECTICUT.
—-y—-j soj|^ as may collected from what has been
I .j 9ro said, must be very various. Each tract of difterent
,'ctions, so^ IS distinguished by its peculiar vegetation, and is
;C. pronounced good, middling, or bad, from the species of
trees which it produces: and from one species generally
predominating in each soil, has originated the descrip¬
tive names of oak land, birch, beech, and chesnut lands,
pine, barren, maple, ash, and cedar swamps, as each spe¬
cies happens to predominate. Intermingled with those
predominating species are walnut, firs, elm, hemlock,
magnolia, moose-wood, sassafras, &c. &c. The best
lands produce walnut and chesnut j the next, beech and
oak; lands of the third quality produce fir and pitch-
pine $ the next whortleberry and barberry bushes j and
the poorest produce nothing but marshy imperfect shrubs.
Among the flowering trees and shrubs in the forests
are the red-flowering maple, the sassafras, the locust-
tree, the tulip-tree, honeysuckle, wild rose, dogwood,
elm, leather-tree, laurel, hawthorn, &c. which in the
spring of the year give the woods a most beautiful ap¬
pearance, and fill them with a delicious fragrance.
Among the fruits which grow wild, are the several
kind of grapes ; which are small, sour, and thick
skinned. The vines on which they grow are very luxu¬
riant, often overspreading the highest trees in the fo¬
rests ; and without doubt, may be greatly meliorated
by proper cultivation. Besides these, are the wild cher¬
ries, white and red mulberries, cranberries, walnuts,
hazel nuts, chesnuts, butter nuts, beech nuts, wild plums
and pears, whortle-bernes, bilberries, gooseberries,
strawberries, &c.
The soil in the interior country is calculated for the
culture of Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, flax, and
hemp (lor which the soil and climate are peculiarly
proper), buck wheat, beans, pease, &c. In many of
the inland parts wheat is raised in large quantities ; but
on the sea-coast it has never been cultivated with suc¬
cess, being subject to blasts. The fruits which the coun¬
try yields from culture, are apples in the greatest plenty j
of these cyder is made, which constitutes the principal
drink ot the inhabitants j also pears ol various sorts,
quinces, peaches (from which is made peach brandy),
plums, cherries, apricots, &c. The culinary plants are
such as have already been enumerated. New England is
a fine grazing country ; the valleys between the hills
are generally intersected with brooks of water, the
banks of which are lined with a tract of rich meadow
oi interval land. I he high and rocky ground is, in
many parts, covered with honeysuckle, and generally
affords the finest of pasture. It will not be a matter
ot wonder, therefore, that New England boasts of
raising some of the finest cattle in the world ; nor will
she be envied, when the labour of raising them is taken
into view. Two months of the hottest season in the
year the iarmers are employed in procuring food for
their cattle*, and the cold winter is spent in dealing it
out to them. The pleasure and profit of doing this, is
however a satisfying compensation to the honest and
p . industrious farmer.
it ^e'v is the most populous part of the
cu me, United States. It contained 1,461,391 freemen, free-
jV1 liver- raen 1810, and 418 slaves. New England then,
should any great and sudden emergency require it,
could furnish an army of 200,000 men. The great body ncw
of these are land-holders and cultivators of the soil. England.
I he former attaches them to their country j the latter, ‘ /H~“
by making them strong and healthy, enables them to
defend it. The boys are early taught the use of arms,
and make the best of soldiers. Few countries on earth,
of equal extent and population, can furnish a more for¬
midable army than tins part of the union.
New England may, with propriety, be called a nur¬
sery of men, whence are annually transplanted, into
other parts of the United States, thousands of its na¬
tives. 1 he state of Vermont, which is but recently
formed, and contained 217,000 souls in 1810, lias re¬
ceived more inhabitants from Connecticut than from any
other state j and yet between the years 1774 and 1810,
notwithstanding her numerous emigrations to Vermont,
Stisqueliannah, and other places, and the depoulation
occasioned by a seven years bloody war, it is found,
from an actual census of the inhabitants in the years be¬
fore mentioned, that they have increased from 197,856,
their number in I774> to 261,942, their number in
1810. Vast numbers of the New Englanders, since
the war, have emigrated into the northern parts of
New Vork, into Kentucky and the Western Territory,
and into Georgia ; and some are scattered into every
state, and every town of note in the union.
Ihe New Englanders are generally tall, s|out, and
well built. They glory, and perhaps with justice, in
possessing that spirit of freedom which induced their
ancestors to leave their native country, and to brave the
dangers of the ocean and the hardships of settling in a
wilderness. Their education, laws, and situation, serve
to inspire them with high notions of liberty. Their
jealousy is awakened at the first motion toward an in¬
vasion of their rights. They are indeed often jealous
to excess 5 a circumstance which is a frightful source of
imaginary grievances, and of innumerable groundless
suspicions and unjust complaints against government.
A law, respecting the descent of estates which are
generally held in fee simple, which for substance is
the same in all the New England states, is the chief
foundation and protection of this liberty. By this „
law, the possessions of the father are to be equally di¬
vided among all the children, excepting the eldest son,
who has a double portion. In this way is preserved
that happy mediocrity among the people, which, by
inducing economy and industry, removes from them
temptations to luxury, and forms them to habits of
sobriety and temperance. At the same time, their in¬
dustry and frugality exempt them from want, and from
the necessity of submitting to any encroachment on their
liberties.
In New England, learning is more generally diffu¬
sed among all ranks of people than in almost any
other part ot the globe j arising from the excellent
establishment of schools in every township. Another
source of information to the people is the newspapers,
of which not less than 200,000 are printed every week
in New England, and circulated in almost every town
and village in the country. A person of mature age,
who cannot both read and write, is rarely to be found.
By means of this general establishment of schools, the
extensive circulation of newspapers, and the conse¬
quent spread of learning, every township throughout
the country is furnished with men capable of conduct¬
ing
ENG [ 128 ] ENG
New »ng the aflairs of their town with judgment and dis-
Englrtud, cretion. These men are the channels of political in-
 v   formation to the lower class of people j if such a class
may be said to exist in New England, where every
man thinks himself at least as good as his neighbour,
and believes that all mankind are, or ought to be, equal.
The people from their childhood form habits of can¬
vassing public affairs, and commence politicians. This
naturally leads them to be very inquisitive. This
desire after knowledge, in a greater or lesser degree,
prevails throughout all classes of people in New Eng¬
land ; and from their various modes of expressing it,
some of which are blunt and familiar, bordering on
impertinence, strangers have been induced to mention
impertinent inquisitiveness as adistinguishingcharacter-
istic of New England people.—Each man also has his
independent system of politics j and each assumes a
dictatorial office. Hence originates that restless, liti¬
gious, complaining spirit, which forms a dark shade in
the character of New Englandmen.
Before the American war, which introduced into
New England a flood of corruptions, with many im¬
provements, the Sabbath was observed with great strict¬
ness ’y no unnecessary travelling, no secular business, no
visiting, no diversions, were permitted on that sacred
day. They considered it as consecrated to divine wor¬
ship, and were generally punctual and serious in their
attendance upon it. Their laws were strict in guarding
the Sabbath against every innovation. The supposed
severity with which these laws were composed and exe¬
cuted, together wijth some other traits in their religi¬
ous character, have acquired, for the New Englanders,
the name of a superstitious bigotted people. But su¬
perstition and bigotry are so indefinite in their significa¬
tions, and so variously applied by persons of different
principles and educations, that it is not easy to deter¬
mine how far they deserved that character. Lea¬
ving every person to enjoy his own opinion in regard to
this matter, we will only observe, that, since the war, a
catholic tolerant spirit, occasioned by a more enlarged
intercourse with mankind, has greatly increased, and is
becoming universal; and if they do not break the
proper bound, and liberalize away all true religion, of
which there is much danger, they will counteract that
strong propensity in human nature, which leads men to
vibrate from one extreme to its opposite.
There is one distinguishing characteristic in the reli¬
gious character of this people, which we must not omit
to mention j and that is, the custom of annually cele¬
brating fasts and thanksgivings. In the spring, the
several governors issue their proclamations, appointing
a day to be religiously observed in fasting, humiliation,
and prayer, throughout their respective states, in which
the predominating vices, that particularly call for
humiliation, are enumerated. In autumn, after harvest,
that gladsome era in the husbandman’s life, the gover¬
nors again issue their proclamations, appointing a day
of public thanksgiving, enumerating the public bles-
’ sings received in the couise of the foregoing year.
This pious custom originated with their venerable
ancestors, the first settlers of New England j and has
been handed down as sacred through the successive
generations of their posterity. A custom so rational,
and so happily calculated to cherish in the minds of the
people a sense of their dependence on the great Bene-
4
factor of the world for all their blessings, it is hoped New
will ever be sacredly preserved. EnglauJ
The people of New England generally obtain their ’
estates by hard and persevering labour : They of conse¬
quence know their value, and spend with frugality.
Yet in no country do the indigent and unfortunate fare
better. Their laws oblige every town to provide a
competent maintenance for their poor ; and the neces¬
sitous stranger is protected and relieved from their
humane institutions. It may in truth he said, that in
no part of the world are the people happier, better
furnished with the necessaries and conveniences of life,
or more independent, than the farmers in New England.
As the great body of the people are hardy independent
freeholders, their manners are, as they ought to be,
congenial to their employment, plain, simple, and
unpolished. Strangers are received and entertained
among them with a great deal of artless sincerity and
friendly unformal hospitality. Their children, those
imitative creatures, to whose education particular atten¬
tion is paid, early imbibe the manners and habits of
those around them j and the stranger, with pleasure,
notices the honest and decent respect that is paid him
by the children as he passes through the country.
As the people, by representation, make their own
laws and appoint their owTn officers, they cannot be
oppressed) and living under governments which have
few lucrative places, they have few motives to bribery,
corrupt canvassings, or intrigue. Real abilities and a
moral character unblemished, are the qualifications
requisite in the view of most people for offices of public
trust. The expression of a wish to be promoted is the
direct way to be disappointed.
The inhabitants of New England are generally fond
of the arts, and have cultivated them with great success.
Their colleges have flourished beyond any others in the
United States. The illustrious characters they have
produced, who have distinguished themselves in politics,
law, divinity, the mathematics and philosophy, natural
and civil history, and in the fine arts, particularly in
poetry, evince the truth of these observations.
Many of the women in New England are handsome.
They generally have fair, fresh, and healthful counte¬
nances, mingled with much female softness and deli¬
cacy. Those who have had the advantages of a good
education (and they are considerably numerous) are
genteel, easy, and agreeable in their manners, and are
sprightly and sensible in conversation. They are early
taught to manage domestic concerns with neatness and
economy. Ladies of the first rank and fortune make
it a part of their daily business to superintend the aflairs
of the family. Employment at the needle, in cookery,
and at the spinning-wheel, w'ith them is honourable.
Idleness, even in those of independent fortunes, is uni¬
versally disreputable. The women in the country
manufacture the greatest part of the clothing of their
families. Their linen and woollen cloths are strong and
decent. Their butter and cheese are not inferior to any
in the world.
Dancing is the principal and favourite amusement in
New England ; and of this the young people of both
sexes are extremely fond. Gaming is practised by none
but those who cannot or rather will not find a reputable
employment. The gamester, the horse-jockey, and
the knave, are equally despised, and their company is
avoided
Kew
England,
English.
ii
!radf.
ENG [i
avoided by all who would sustain fair and irreproach¬
able characters. The odious and inhuman practices
of duelling, gouging, cock-fighting, and horse-racing,
^ are scarcely known here.—The athletic and healthy
di versions of cricket, football, quoits, wrestling, jump¬
ing, foot-races, &c. are universally practised in the
country, and some of them in the most populous places,
and by people of almost all ranks. Squirrel-hunting
is a noted diversion in country places, where this kind
of game is plenty. Some divert themselves with fox¬
hunting, and others with the more profitable sports of
•fishing and duck-hunting ; and in the frontier settle¬
ments, where deer and fur-game abound, the inhabi¬
tants make a lucrative sport of hunting them. In the
winter season, while the ground is covered with snow,
which is commonly turn or three months, sleighing is
the general diversion. A great part of the families
throughout the country are furnished with horses and
sleighs.
New England has no one staple commodity. The
ocean and the lorests afford the two principal articles
o! export. Cod-fish, mackarel, shad, salmon, and other
fish, whale-oil and whale-bone, masts, boards, scant-
ling, staves, hoops, and shingles, have been and are still
exported in large quantities. The annual amount of
cod and other fish for foreign exportation, including the
profits arising from the whale-fishery, is estimated at
upwards of half a million.—Besides the articles enu¬
merated, they export from the various parts of New
England ships built for sale, horses, mules, live stock,
pickled beef and pork, pot-ash, pearl-ash, flax-seed,
butter and cheese, rum, &c. From a view of the an¬
nual imports into New England, it appears that the
greatest part of them consists of the luxuries, or at
best the dispensable conveniences of life ; the country
aftords the necessaries in great abundance. See the
articles Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachu¬
setts, Vermont, and New Hampshire.
ENGLISH, or the English Tongue, the language
spoken by the people of England, and, with some varia¬
tion, by those of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland,
and the rest of the British dominions.
The ancient language of Britain is generally allow¬
ed to have been the same with the Gallic, or French j
this island, in all probability, having been first peopled
from Gallia, as both Caesar and Tacitus affirm, and
prove by many strong and conclusive arguments, as by
their religion, manners, customs, and the nearness of
their situation. But now we have very small remains
of the ancient British tongue, except in Wales, Corn¬
wall, the islands and highlands of Scotland, part of Ire¬
land, and some provinces of France j which will not
appear strange, when what follows is considered.
Julius Caesar, some time before the birth of our Sa¬
viour, made a descent upon Britain, though he may
be said rather to have discovered than conquered it;
but about the year of Christ 45, in the time of Clau¬
dius, Aulus Plautius was sent over with some Roman
forces, by whom two kings of the Britons, Togodum-
nus and Caractacus, were both overcome in battle :
whereupon a Roman colony was planted at Malden in
Essex, and the southern parts of the island were redu¬
ced to the form of a Roman province : after that, the
island was conquered as far north as the friths of Dun-
Vol. VIII. Part I. +
29 ] E N G
barton and Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of Do- English,
mitian ; whereupon a great number of the Britons, hi ’.i..—v — .j
the conquered part of the island, retired to the west
part called JFales, carrying their language with them.
The greatest part of Britain being thus become a
Roman province, the Roman legions, who resided in
Britain for above 200 years, undoubtedly disseminated
the Latin tongue ; and the people being afterwards
governed by laws written in Latin must necessarily
make a mixture of languages. This seems to have
been the first mutation the language of Britain suf¬
fered.
Thus the British tongue continued, for some time,
mixed with the provincial Latin, till the Roman le¬
gions being called home, the Scots and Piets took the
opportunity to attack and harass England : upon which
King Vortigern, about the year 440, called the Saxons
to his assistance ; who came over with several of their
neighbours, and having repulsed the Scots and Piets,
were rewarded for their services with the isle of Thanet,
and the whole county of Kent 5 but growing too power¬
ful, and not being content with their allotment, dis¬
possessed the inhabitants of all the country on this side
of the Severn * : thus the British tongue was in a great * See Fng-
measure destroyed, and the Saxon introduced in its
stead. —42.
What the Saxon tongue'was long before the Conquest,
about the year 700, we may observe in the most ancient
manuscript of that language, which is a gloss on the
Evangelists, by Bishop Edfrid, in which the three first
articles of the Lord’s prayer run thus :
“ Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin
noma, so cymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa sue is heofnas,
and in eortho,” &c.
In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes in¬
vaded England j and getting a footing in the northern
and eastern parts of the country, their power gradually
increased, and they became sole masters of it in about
200 years. By this means the ancient British obtain¬
ed a tincture of the Danish language j but their govern¬
ment being of no long continuance, did not make so
great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon as the next re¬
volution, when the whole land, A. D. 1067, wai sub¬
dued by William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy in
Franee : for the Normans, as a monument of their con¬
quest, endeavoured to make their language as generally
received as their commands, and thereby rendered the
British language an entire medley.
_ About the year 900, the Lord’s prayer, in the an-
cient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus :
“ lime ur fader the eart on heofenum, si thin nama
gehalgod j cume thin rice sithin will a on eorthan swa,
swo on heofenum,” &c.
About the year 1160, under Henry II. it was ren¬
dered thus by Pope Adrian, an Englishman, in rhyme:
“ Ure fader in heaven rich,
“ Thy name be haiyed ever lich,
“ Thou bring us thy michel blesse:
“ Als hit in heaven y doe,
“ Evar in yeartb been it also,” &c.
Dr Hicks gives us an extraordinary specimen of the
English, as spoken in the year 1385, upon the very
subject of the English tongue.
R
<4 As
ENG [ 130 ] ENG
“ As it is knowe how meny manor peple beeth in
this lond j ther beeth also so many dyvers longages and
tonges. Notheless AValschemen and Scots that beeth
nought medled with other nation, holdeth wel nyh hir
fxrste longage and speche *, but yit the Scottes, that
were sometime confederate and woned with the Pictes,
drawe somewhat after hir speche ; but the Flemynges,
that woneth on the west side of Wales, haveth lost her
strange speche, and speketh Sexonliche now. Also Eng-
lishemen, they had from the begynnynge thre maner
speche ; northerne, southerne, and middel speche in the
middel of the lond, as they come of thre maner of
peple of Germania : notheless by cornmyxtion and
mellynge first with Danes, and afterwards with Nor¬
mans, in meny the contrary longage is apayred cor¬
rupted^)
“ This apayrynge of the burth of the tunge is by¬
cause of tweie things j oon is for children in scole agenst
the usuage and maner of all other nations, beeth com¬
pelled for to leve hir own longage, and for to construe
hir lessons and here things in Frensche, and so they
haveth sethe Normans come first into Engelond. Also
gentlemen children beeth taught to speke Frensche
from the tyme that they beeth roked in here cradel,
and kunneth speke and play with a childe’s broche 5 and
uplondissche men will lykne hymself to gentilmen, and
fondeth with great besynesse for to speak Frensche to
be told of.—Hit seemeth a great wonder how Eng-
lischemen and hir own longage and tonge is so dyverse
of sown in this oon iland } and the longage of Norman¬
die is comlynge of another lond, and hath oon maner
soun amonge alle men that speketh hit arigt in Enge¬
lond. Also of the foresaid Saxon tonge that is deled
{divided) a three, and is abide scarceliche with fewe
uplondissche men is greet Wonder. For men of the est,
with men of the west, is, as it were, undir the same
pavtie of hevene accordeth more in sownynge of speche,
than men of the north with men of the south. There¬
fore it is that Mercii, that beeth men of myddel Enge¬
lond, as it were, parteners of the endes, understondeth
bettie the side longes, northerne and southerne, than
northerue and southerne understondeth either other.
 All the longage of the Northumbers and spechial-
liche at York, is so scharp, slitting, and frotynge, and
unschape, that we southerne men may that longage
unethe understonde,” &c.
In the year 1537, the Lord’s prayer was printed as
follows : “ O oure father which arte in heven, hallow¬
ed be thy name : let thy kingdome come, thy will be
fulfilled as well in erth as it is in heven ; geve us this
daye in dayly bred,” &c. Where it may be observed,
that the diction is brought almost to the present standard,
the chief variations being only in the orthography.
Ey these instances, and many others that might be gi¬
ven, it appears, that the English Saxon language, of
which the Normans despoiled us in a great measure,
had its beauties, was significant and emphatical, and
preferable to what they imposed on us. “ Great,
verily (says Camden), was the glory of our tongue be¬
fore the Norman conquest, in this, that the old Eng¬
lish could express, most aptly, all the conceptions of
the mind in their own tongue, without borrowing from
any. Of this he gives several examples.
Having thus shewn how the ancient British language
was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes,
and Saxons, and succeeded by the Saxon, and after |J
that the Saxon blended with the Norman French, we^ngraTing
shall now mention two other causes of change in the
language. The first of these is owing to the Britons
having been a long time a trading nation, whereby of¬
fices, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic,
are introduced, which we take with the wares from the
persons of whom we have them, and form them anew,
according to the genius of our own tongue •, and be¬
sides this change in the language, arising from com¬
merce, Britain’s having been a considerable time sub¬
ject to the see of Rome, in ecclesiastical affairs, must
unavoidably have introduced some Italian words among
us. Secondly, As to the particular properties of a
language, our tongue has undergone no small mutation,
or rather has received no small improvement upon that
account: for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learned
have, together with the arts and sciences now rendered
familiar among us, introduced abundance j nay, almost
all the terms of art in the mathematics, philosophy,
physic, and anatomy j and we have entertained many
more from the Latin, French, &.c. for the sake of
neatness and elegancy : so that, at this day, our lan¬
guage, which, about 1800 years ago, was the ancient
British, or Welsh, &c. is now a mixture of Saxon,
Teutonic, Dutch, Danish, Norman, and modern French,
embellished with the Greek and Latin. Yet this, in
the opinion of some, is so far from being a disadvan¬
tage to the English tongue as now spoken (for all
languages have undergone changes, and do continually
participate with each other), that it has so enriched
it, as now to render it the most copious, significant,
fluent, courteous, and masculine language in Europe,
if not in the world.
ENGRAFTING, in Gardeni/ig. See Grafting,
Gardening Index.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in Heraldry, a
term derived from the French gresly, “ hail}” and
signifying a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke
off the edges, leaving them ragged, or with half rounds,
or semicircles, struck out of their edges,
ENGRAVING, the art of cutting metals and pre¬
cious stones, and representing thereon figures, letters,
or whatever device or design the artist fancies.
Engraving, properly a branch of sculpture, is divided
into several other branches, according to the matter
whereon it is employed, and the manner of performing
it. For the rudest branch, that of
Engraving on Wood, see Wood, Engraving on.
Engraving on Copper, the making, correspondently
to some delineated figure or design, such concave lines
on a smooth surface of copper, either by ^cutting or
corrosion, as render it capable, when charged properly
with any coloured fluid, of imparting by compression
an exact representation of the figure or design to paper
or parchment.
Whether we consider the art of engraving, with re¬
gard to the utility and pleasure it affords, or the diffi¬
culty that attends its execution, we cannot but confess,
that on every account it deserves a distinguished rank
among the polite artsf. It is by means of this artl Se*^e'
that the cabinets of the curious are adorned with the^^ 7
portraits of the greatest men of all ages and all na-
tions y
ENG [
1g. tions j that their memories, their most remarkable and
most glorious actions, are transmitted to the latest po¬
sterity. It is by this art also, that the paintings of the
greatest masters are multiplied to a boundless number;
and that the lovers of the polite arts, diffused over the
face of the whole earth, are enabled to enjoy those beau¬
ties from which their distant situations seemed to have
for ever debarred them $ and persons of moderate for¬
tune are hereby enabled to become possessed of all the
spirit, and all the poetry, that are contained in those
miracles of art, which seemed to have been reserved for
the temples of Italy, or the cabinets of princes. When
we reflect, moreover, that the engraver, beside the
beauties of poetic composition, and the artful ordi¬
nance of design, is to express, merely by the means of
light and shade, all the various tints of colour and clair
obscure j to give a relief to each figure, and a truth to
each object j that he is now to paint a sky serene and
bright, and then loaded with dark clouds; now the
pure tranquil stream, and then the foaming, raging
sea; that here he is to express the character of the
man, strongly marked in his countenance, and there
the minutest ornament of his dress ; in a word, that he
is to repreeent all, even the most difficult objects in na¬
ture ; we cannot sufficiently admire the vast improve¬
ments in this art, and that degree of perfection to which
it is at this day arrived. See the article Prints.
Engraving is an art, for the greatest part, of mo¬
dern invention ; having its rise no earlier than the
middle of the 15th century. The ancients, it is true,
practised engraving on precious stones and crystals
With very good success ; and there are still many of
their works remaining equal to any production of the
later ages. But the art of engraving on plates and
blocks of wood, to afford prints or impressions, was not
known till after the invention of painting in oil.
The different modes of engraving are the following :
In strokes cut through a thin wax, laid upon the
copper, with a point, and these strokes bitten or cor¬
roded into the copper with aquafortis. This is called
etching.
In strokes with the graver alone, unassisted by aqua¬
fortis. In this instance, the design is traced’with a
sharp tool, called a dry point, upon the plate; and the
strokes are cut or ploughed upon the copper with an
instrument distinguished by the name of a graver.
In strokes first etched and afterwards finished with
the graver : by this expedient the two former methods
are united.
In dots without strokes, which are executed with
the point upon the wax or ground, bitten in with the
aquafortis, and afterwards harmonized with the graver,
by the means of which instrument small dots are made ;
or with the graver alone, as in the flesh and finer parts’
unassisted with the point.
In dots first etched and afterwards harmonized with
the dry point, performed by a little hammer, called
opus mallei, or the work of the hammer, as practised by
Ijutma and others.
In mezzotinto, which is performed by a dark barb or
ground being raised uniformly upon the plate with a
toothed tool. The design being traced upon the plate,
the light parts are scraped off by instruments for that
purpose, in proportion as the effect requires.
In aquatinta, a newly invented method of engraving.
131 ] ENG
The outline is first etched, and, afterwards a sort of £nC;i
wash is laid by the aquafortis upon the plate, resemblino’ *'■■■“
drawings in Indian ink, bister, &c.
On wood, performed with a single block, on which
the design is traced with a pen, and those parts which
should be white carefully hollowed out; and this block
is afterwards printed by the letter-press printers, in the
same manner as they print a book.
On wood, performed with two, three, or more blocks,
the first having the outlines cut upon it; the second is
reserved for.the darker shadows ; and the third for the
shadows which terminate upon the lights; and these
are substituted in their turn, each print receiving an
impression from every block. This mode of engraving
is called chiaroscuro, and was designed to represent
the drawings of the old masters.
On wood and on copper: in these the outline is en-
giaved in a bold dark style upon the copper j and two
or more blocks of wood are substituted to produce the
darker and lighter shadows, as before.
Of all those modes of engraving, the most ancient is
that on wood; or, to speak more properly, the first im¬
pressions on paper were taken from carved wooden
blocks. From this invention it appears that we are in¬
debted to the brief-malers or makers of playing-cards
who practised the art in Germany about the beginning
01 the 15th century. From the same source may per¬
haps be traced the first idea of moveable types, which
appeared not many years after : for these brief-malers
did not entirely confine themselves to the printing and
painting of cards, but produced also subjects of a more
devout nature ; many of which, taken from holv
wnt, are still preserved in different libraries in Ger¬
many, with the explanatory text facing the figures;
the whole engraved m wood. In this manner they
even formed a species of books ; such as, Historia
sancti Johannis, ejusque Visiones Apocalypticce ; Historia
retenset Novi Testamenti, known by the name of the
roor Man's Bible. These short momentos were print¬
ed only on one side ; and two of them being pasted
together, had the appearance of a single leaf. The
earliest .date, on any of these wooden cuts is 1427.
The subject is St Christopher carrying the Infant Jesus
over the Sea, preserved in a convent at Buxheim near
Menningen. It is of a folio size, illuminated in the
same manner as the playing cards ; and at the bottom
is this inscription, Chnstoferi faciem die quacunque
tuens. Ilia nempe die morte mala non morieris. Mil-
lesimo CCCC° XX° iertio.
Upon the invention of moveable types, that branch
ot the bner-malers business, so far as it regarded the#*^ #
making of books, was gradually discontinued; but thes'rari77
art itself of engraving on wood continued in an im¬
proving state; and towards the end of the 1 cth and
beginning of the 16th century, it became customary
or almost every one of the German engravers on
copper to engrave on wood also. The works of Al¬
bert Durer in this style of engraving are justly held
in the highest esteem. Italy, France, and Holland,
have produced many capital artists of this kind ; but
for boldness and spirit, we must see the prints of Chri¬
stopher Jegher, who worked under the direction of
Rubens, and was without doubt assisted by that great
master. °
Flie invention of that species ©f engraving distin-
■Ra guished
ENG
En^ravHio.gulshed by the appellation of chiaroscuro^ seems also
to be justly claimed by the Germans, and first prac¬
tised by Malr j one of whose prints ot this kind is dated
1499. Many excellent works in chiaro-scuro have
been produced in France4 and in Italy it was honour¬
ed with the performances of Titian and Parmegianoj
but the attempts of Jackson, Kirkall, and others in
Kngland, have not been equally successful. A set of
excellent prints in this way have lately been published
by J. Skippe, Esq. a connoisseur and dillettante.
In Germany, about the year 1450, prints from en¬
graved copper first made their appearance. The ear¬
liest date of a copperplate print is indeed only 1461 j
hut however faulty this print may be with respect to
the drawing, or defective in point of taste, the mecha¬
nical part of the execution ot it has by no means the
appearance of being one of the first productions of the
Strutt's graver. We have also several other engravings, evi-
Hist. of dently the work of the same master j in which the
Engraving. Jnipressions are so neatly taken from the plates, and the
engravings so clearly printed in every part, that ac¬
cording to all appearance they could not be executed
in a much better manner in the present day, with all
the conveniences which the copperplate printers now
possess, and the additional knowledge they must ne¬
cessarily have acquired in the course of more than three
centuries. Hence we may fairly conclude, that if
they were not the first specimens of the engraver’s
workmanship, they were much less the first eftorts of
the copperplate printer’s ability. It is likewise to be
observed, that Martin Schoen, who is said, with great
appearance of truth, to have worked from 1460 to
i486, was apparently the scholar of Stoltzhirs ; for he
folloiVed his style of engraving, and copied from him
a set of prints, representing the passion ot our Saviour.
Now, allowing Stoltzhirs to have preceded his disciple
only ten years, this carries the era of the art back to
1450, as was said above. There is no ground to sup¬
pose that it was known to the Italians till at least ten
Years afterwards. The earliest prints that are known
to be theirs are a set of the seven planets, and an al¬
manack by w'ay of frontispiece ; on which are direc¬
tions for finding Easter from the year 1465 f° 1S1*!
inclusive : and we may be well assured, that the engra¬
vings were not antedated, for the almanack of course be¬
came less and less valuable every year. In all probabi¬
lity, therefore, these prints must have been executed in
the year 1464, which is only four years later than the
Italians themselves lay any claim to. Jhe three earliest
Italian engravers are, Finiguerra, Boticelli, and Lal-
dini. If we are to refer these prints to any of the
three, we shall naturally conclude them to be the work
of Finiguerra or Baidini ; for they are not equal either
in drawing or composition to those ascribed to Boticelli,
which we know at least were designed by him ; and as
Baidini is expressly said to have worked from the de¬
signs of Boticelli, it will appear mast probable that
they belong to Finiguerra.
With respect to the invention of etching, it seems to
be not well known to whom it is to be ascribed. One
of the most early specimens is that print by Albert
Durer, known by the name of the Canon, dated 1518,
and thought by" some, with little foundation, to have
been worked on a plate of iron. Another etching by
ENG
the same artist is Moses receiving the Tables of the y.a^ravinjd
Law, dated 1524. It was also practised in Italy soon w—
after this by Parmegiano, in whose etchings we dis¬
cover the hand of the artist working out a system as
it were from his own imagination, and striving to pro*
duce the forms he wanted to express. We see the dif¬
ficulty he laboured under; and cannot doubt, from the
examination of the mechanical part of the execution
of his works, that he had no instruction } and that it
was something entirely new to him. If the story is
true, that he kept an engraver by profession in his
house, the novelty of the art is rendered so much the
more probable. He died in I540,
As to that species of engraving in which the modes
of etching and cutting with the graver are united, it
must have been found necessary immediately upon the
invention of etching *, it was, however, first carried to
perfection by G. Audran, and is now almost univer¬
sally practised, whether the work is in strokes or in
dots.
Engraving in dots, the present fashionable method,
is a very old invention, and the only mode discovered
by the Italians. Agostina de Musis, commonly called
Augustine of Venice, a pupil of Marc Antonio, used it
in several of his earliest works, but confined it to the
flesh, as in the undated print of An Old Man seated
upon a Bank, with a cottage in the back ground. He
flourished from 1509 to 1536. We also find it in a
print of “ A single figure standing, holding a cup and
looking upwards,” by Giulio Campagnola, who engra¬
ved about the year 1516. The back ground is exe¬
cuted with round dots, made apparently with a dry
point. The figure is outlined with a stroke deeply
engraved, and finished with dots, in a manner greatly
resembling those prints which Demarteau engraved at
Paris in imitation of red chalk. The hair and beard
are expressed by strokes. Stephen de Laulne, a native
of Germany, followed the steps of Campagnola; and
many of his slight works are executed in dots only.
John Boulanger, a French artist, who flourished in the
middle of the last century, and his cotemporary Ni¬
cholas Van Plattenbe.rg, improved greatly on this me¬
thod, and practised it with much success. It is only,
however, of late, that it has been considered as an ob¬
ject worthy of general imitation. John Lutma exe¬
cuted this kind of work with a hammer and a small
punch or chissel.
The method of engraving in me%%otinto was invent¬
ed about the middle of the 17th century ; and the
invention has generally been attributed to Prince Ru¬
pert, though it has also been asserted that he learnt the
secret from another. See Mezzotinto.
Of the method of engraving in aquatinta, a short and
general account has already been given under that
word. See Aquatinta. But as some farther infor¬
mation relating to this branch of the art of engraying
has fallen in our way, we embrace this opportunity of
laying it before our readers.
Engraving in aquatinta, was originally invented by
Le Prince, a French artist. For a long time, his pro¬
cess was kept secret j and his prints, it is said, were at
first sold for drawings. As a proof that the art rose at
once to perfection, as has already been mentioned, the
prints,
[ *32 1
I
ENG [ i
H«>r«vin^ Pr‘nts were executed by him, are still admired as
,2 the finest and best specimens of the art. It appears,
however, that he was only acquainted with the powder¬
ed grain, and the common method of stopping out.
The first who practised this art in England, was Mr
Paul Sandby. By him, we are informed, it was com¬
municated to Mr Jukes, whose works afford excellent
'examples to what perfection the art has been carried ;
and although it is now generally practised all over Eu¬
rope, yet in no country with greater success than in
Britain.
The principle of this process consists in corroding the
copper in such a manner, that an impression from it ex¬
hibits the appearance of a tint laid on paper, or a draw¬
ing in Indian ink. This is accomplished by covering
the copper with some substance which assumes a granu¬
lated form, and prevents the acid from acting where the
particles adhere j and thus the copper is only paitially
corroded. The more minute the particles are, it is ob¬
vious the impression from the plate will more nearly re¬
semble a wash of Indian ink, or a drawing; but the
larger the particles are, the granulation becomes more
distinct. The powder or granulation is called the aqua-
tinta grain. It is produced in two ways.
The process for using the powdered grain, which was
first employed, is the following. The outline being
etched on a copperplate, some substance which easily
melts with heat, adheres to the plate when cold, and
resists the action of the aquafortis, is to be finely pow¬
dered and sifted. Besides asphaltum, rosin, and gum
sandaric, the substances which have been mentioned in
the article already referred to, Burgundy pitch, gum
copal, gum mastic, as well as some other resins and gum
resins, may be employed. Gum copal, it is observed,
produces a grain which resists the.aquafortis extremely
well. Whatever the substance is which is to be em¬
ployed, the great object of the artist in its application
is, to have it equally distributed over the plate. This
is an essential part of the operation, and requires con¬
siderable attention. The usual method is, to tie up a
quantity of the powder in a piece of muslin, and to strike
it against a stick held at a considerable height above
the plate. Thus managed, the powder settles equally
over it, in the same uniform manner that hair powder
settles on the furniture of an apartment, where the ope¬
rations of the hair-dresser are performed. The plate
being thus covered equally with the dust or powder, it
is to be fixed upon it by the application of a gentle
heat, to melt the particles. This is usually done by
holding lighted pieces of brown paper, rolled up, and
moving them about till the whole of the powder is
melted, which is known by its changing to a brown co¬
lour. It is now allowed to cool, and after being exa¬
mined with a magnifying glass, if the particles appear
to be uniformly distributed, the artist proceeds to the
next part of the process.
Those parts of the design or drawing to be engraved,
which are perfectly white, are to be observed and mark¬
ed, and the corresponding parts of the plate must be
covered or stopped out. This is best done by means of
mastic varnish, diluted to .such a consistence with tur¬
pentine as to work freely with the pencil. To give it
colour, lamp-black should be mixed with it, that the
touches of the pencil may be distinctly seen. When
33 . ] ENG
those parts of the plate which are stopped out, are suf-£n ,ravi-n,T
ficiently dry, a border of wax is raised round the plate, 1—^-y—2*
in the same manner as in etching, and the aquafortis
diluted with water is poured on. This being the most
precarious part of the process, requires the greatest ex¬
perience. When it is supposed that the aquafortis has
remained on the plate for such a length of time, that
when an impression is taken, it will produce the lightest
shade in the drawing, it is poured off, and the plate is
washed with water and dried. The lightest tints are
then stopped out, and the aquafortis is again poured
on ; and this process is repeated as often as there are
tints or shades to be produced in the plate.
Many plates are entirely etched in this way, by al¬
ternately stopping out and biting in. It is, however,
found to be extremely difficult, and indeed impossible,
to produce impressions of minute and complicated ob¬
jects with the requisite degree of delicacy and freedom,
lo obviate this difficulty, another process has been pro¬
posed, by which the'touches are laid on the plate, with,
equal ease and expedition as on drawings with Indian
ink. Fine washed whitening is mixed with treacle or
sugar, and diluted with water in the pencil, that it may
work freely. Ibis is laid on the plate covered with
the aquatint ground, in the same way as ink on the
drawing. When this is dry, the whole of the plate is
varnished over with a thin turpentine or mastic varnish,
and when this is dry, the aquafortis is poured on. The
varnish immediately breaks up in those parts of the plate
where the treacle mixture was laid, and thus they are
exposed to the action of the acid, while the other part-*
of the plate remain untouched. Thus the touches or
places of the plate where the treacle has been applied,
are bit in deeper than the rest, and have the precision
of touches done with Indian ink. The plate being
thus completely bit in, the bordering wax is removed,
by gently heating it with a piece of lighted paper.
It is then cleared from the ground, and varnished by
means of oil of turpentine ; and being wiped clean with
a rag and a little fine whitening, it is ready for the
printer.
But in this method of aquatinting, it is found difficult
to produce the necessary degree of coarseness or fineness
in the grain ; and plates which are engraved in this
manner afford but a small number of impressions before
they are worn out. On this account it is now more
rarely followed.
I lie other method of producing the aquatint ground,
which is more generally adopted, is the following. A
resinous substance, as common resfij, Burgundy pitch,
or mastic, is dissolved in spirits of wine. This solution is
poured all over the plate, which is inclined, till the
whole of the superfluous fluid drains off, and what ad¬
heres to the plate becomes quite dry in a few minutes.
The plate being then examined with a magnifying
glass, it will appear that the whole of the spirit hav¬
ing evaporated, the resinous matter is left in a granu¬
lated state, or is cracked in every direction, and adheres
strongly to the copper. In this way a regular and
beautiful grain is easily produced, winch will be found
preferable, at least for most purposes, to that which is
produced by the former method. The grain being thus
formed, the other parts of the process are conducted in
the same manner as before described.
Sucli
ENG [
Ea graving. Such are the usual methods of conducting this process.
^ We shall add a few hints which the young artist may
find useful in the different parts of it. With regard to
the materials which are employed, it is to be observed,
that the spirits of wine should be rectified, and of the
best quality. Resinous matters, as common resin, Bur¬
gundy pitch, and gum mastic, yield grains of a different
appearance and form ; so that advantage may be taken
of this circumstance, by using them sometimes separate¬
ly, and sometimes mixed in different proportions, accord¬
ing to the views and taste of the artist. Different pro¬
portions of resin may be employed, to produce grains
of different kinds. When a coarse grain is intended,
a greater proportion is to be employed ; and when a fine
grain is wanted, a smaller proportion of resin only is
required. The proper proportions may be ascertained
by providing a number of spare pieces of copper; on
these the liquid may be poured, and the grain examined,
before it is applied to the plate which is to be engraved.
After the solution is made, it should remain undisturb¬
ed for a day or two, till the impurities of the resia have
subsided, and the liquid becomes quite limpid. This is
the best method of freeing it from impurities ; for if it
is strained through linen or muslin, it is mixed with
hairs, which are extremely injurious to the grain. It
may be added, that the apartment in which the fluid
is poured on the plate, should be perfectly still, and
entirely free from dust ; for if any fall on the plate^
while it is wet, the gi-ain forms a white spot which
cannot be removed. Great care should be observed in
cleaning the plate. This is done with a bit of rag and
whitening. The smallest stain or particle of grease
produces a streak or blemish in the grain. Still, how¬
ever, with all the attention which can be employed,
and with the utmost delicacy in the management, it is
necessary to observe, that the process is extremely pre¬
carious and uncertain j and even the most experienced
artists find themselves frequently subject to very unac¬
countable accidents.
Artists have frequently complained of the inconve¬
nience from the fumes which proceed from the action
of the acid upon the copper, when the plate is large.
“ To remedy this inconvenience, the following ar¬
rangement, which seems well calculated to answer the
purpose, has been suggested by Mr Cornelius Var-
ley, a young artist who distinguishes himself no less by
his mechanical abilities than by the exquisite produc¬
tions of his pencil in water colours.—Get a frame
made of common deal or any kind of wood, three or
four inches deep, covered with a plate of glass, and open
at one side ; and let the side opposite to this have a
round opening communicating, by means of a common
iron pipe, with the ash-pit of any little stove or other
fire-place, shut up from all other access of air but what
must pass through the pipe. It is obvious that any
fumes rising from a copper-plate laid under such a frame
will be carried backward into the iron-pipe by the cur¬
rent of air required to maintain combustion in the stove,
and will by this means be carried up the chimney in
place of being allowed to fly about in the apartment.
The pipe may be very conveniently used by carrying it
down through the table to the floor, and so along to
the place where the chimney may chance to stand $ and
when the frame is not wanted, the pipe at one of the
Phil. Mair.
vo!. xxiii.
'17'
134 ] ENG
joinings may be made to answer the purpose of a hinge, £UfrraTi
by which to turn up the frame against the wall, where —-*-7— *
it may be secured, while out of use, by a button or any
other contrivance.”
This method of engraving in aquatinta seems to be
chiefly adapted for slight subjects in general, for imita¬
tions of sketches and washed drawings. But for the
production of prints from finished pictures, it is by no
means calculated ; because it is not susceptible of that
accuracy in the nice management of the tints which is
necessary for this purpose. It is equally unsuitable for
book plates j because, without retouching the plates, the
number of impressions that can be thrown off is very
small. On these accounts, therefore, it is to be con¬
sidered greatly inferior to the other modes of engraving.
But as it is more expeditious, and may be attained with
more facility, it is undoubtedly useful when it is con¬
fined to those subjects for which it is peculiarly calcu¬
lated. This rapidity of execution, however, and facility
in acquiring the practice of the art, are followed with the
unfortunate circumstance, that they favour the produc¬
tion of an indiscriminate multitude of prints, which, it is
to be feared, may rather tend to vitiate the public taste.
Engraving with the tool was the kind originally
practised, and it is yet retained for many purposes. For
though the manoeuvre of etching be more easy, and
other advantages attend it j yet where great regularity
and exactness of the stroke or lines are required, the.
working with the graver is much more effectual: on
which account it is more suitable to the precision ne-
cessai’y in the execution of portraits : as there every
thing the most minute must be made out and expressed,
according to the original subject, without any licence
to the fancy of the designer in deviating from it, or
varying the effect either by that masterly negligence
and simplicity in some parts, or those bold sallies of the
imagination and hand in others, which give spirit and
force to history painting.
The principal instruments used in engraving with the
tool are, gravers, scrapers, a burnisher, an oil-stone, and
a cushion for bearing the plates.
Gravers are made in several forms with respect to the
points, some being square, others lozenge ; the square
graver for cutting broad and deep, and the lozenge
for more delicate and fine strokes and hatches. La
Bosse recommends, as the most generally useful, such
as are of a form betwixt the square and lozenge : and
he advises, that they should be of a good length : small
towards the point, but stronger upwards, that they
may have strength enough to bear any stress there may
be occasion to lay upon them : for if they be too small
and mounted high, they will bend : which frequently
causes their breaking, especially if they be not employ¬
ed for very small subjects.
The burnisher is used to assist in the engraving on
some occasions, as well as to polish the plates. It is
seven inches in length, and made of fine steel well po¬
lished. The burnisher is formed at one end, and a
scraper on the other, each about an inch and a half
long from the point: betwixt them, about four inches
of the instrument is made round, and serves as a
handle •, and is thicker in the middle than at the necks,
where the burnisher and scraper begin, which necks are
only one quarter of an inch in diameter. The princi¬
pal
ENG
n''raring. Pa^ application of it in engraving, besides its use in po-
lisliing the plates, is to take out any scratches or acci¬
dental defacings that may happen to the plates during
the engraving j or to lessen the eftect of any parts that
may be too strongly marked in the work, and require
to be taken down.
A cushion, as it is called, is likewise generally used
for supporting the plate in such a manner, that it may
be turned every way with ease. It is a bag of leather
filled with sand, which should be of the size that will
best suit the plates it is intended to bear. They are
round, and about nine inches over, and three inches in
thickness.
The cushion, made as above directed, being laid
on the table, the plate must be put upon it; and
the graver being held in the hand in a proper manner,
the point must be applied to the plate, and moved in
the proper direction for producing the figures of the
lines intended : observing, in forming straight lines,
to hold the plate steady on the cushion ; and where
they are to be finer, to press more lightly, using great¬
er force where they are to be broader and deeper. In
making circular or other curve lines, hold your hand
and graver steadily j and as you work, turn your plate
upon the cushion against your graver, otherwise it will
be impossible for you to make any circular or curved
line with that neatness and command of hand you by
this means may. After part of the work is engraved,
it is necessary to scrape it with the scraper or graver,
passed in the most level direction over the plate, to take
off the roughness formed by the cutting of the graver j
but great care must be taken not to incline the edge of
the scraper or tool used, in such a manner that it may
take the least hold of the copper, as it would otherwise
produce false strokes or scratches in the engraving: and
that the engraved work may be rendered more visible,
it may afterwards be rubbed over with a roll of felt
dipped in oil. In using the graver, it is necessary to
carry it as level as possible with the surface of the plate j
for otherwise, if the fingers slip betwixt them, the line
that will be produced, whether curve or straight, will
become deeper and deeper in the progress of its forma¬
tion ; which entirely prevents strokes being made at
one cut, that will be fine at their extremities, and larger
in the middle ; and occasions the necessity of retouch¬
ing to bring them to that state. For this reason, it
is very necessary for those who would learn to engrave
in perfection, to endeavour, by frequent trials, to ac¬
quire the habit of making such strokes both straight
and curving, by lightening or sinking the graver
with the hand, according to the occasion. If, after
finishing the design, any scratches appear, or any part
of the engraving be falsely executed, such scratches, or
faulty parts, must be taken out by the burnisher, and
further polished, if necessary, by the above-mentioned
roll.
The plate being thus engraved, it is proper to round
off the edges, by using first a rough file, and afterwards
a smoother $ and to blunt the corners a little by the
same means: after which, the burnisher should be pas¬
sed over the edges to give it a farther polish.
The dry point, or needle, which has been of late
much used in engraving, is a tool like an etching point,
which being drawn hard on the copper, cuts a stroke,
ENG
and raises a burr j the burr is scraped off, and there re- Ei
mains a stroke more soft and delicate than can be pro¬
duced in any other way.
In the conduct of the graver and dry point consists
all the art 5 for which there are no rules to be given ;
all depending on the habitude, disposition, and genius,
of the artist. However, besides the explanations al¬
ready given,, some general observations and directions
may not be improper. As the principles of engraving
are the same with those of painting, a person cannot
expect to attain any considerable degree of perfection
in this art who is not a good master of design j and
therefore he ought to be well acquainted both with
perspective and architecture : for the former, by the
proper degradations of strong and faint colours, will
enable him to throw backwards the figures and other
objects of the picture or design which he proposes to
imitate ; and the latter will teach him to preserve the
due proportion of its several orders, which the painter
often entrusts to the discretion of the engraver. In
order to preserve equality and union in his works, the
engraver should always sketch out the principal objects
of his piece before he undertakes to finish them. In
working, the strokes of the graver should never be
crossed too much in a lozenge manner, particularly in
the representation of flesh, because sharp angles pro¬
duce the unpleasing efiect of lattice-work, and take
from the eye the repose which is agreeable to it in all
kinds of picturesque designs : we should except the
case of clouds, tempests, waves of the sea, the skins of
hairy animals, or the leaves of trees, where this method
of crossing may be admitted. But in avoiding the lo¬
zenge, it is not proper to get entirely into the square,
which would give too much of the hardness of stone-
In conducting the stroke, the action of the figures,
and of all their parts, should be considered ; and it
should be observed how they advance towards, or recede
from the eye j and the graver should be guided accord¬
ing to the risings or cavities of the muscles or folds,
making the strokes wider and fainter in the light, and
closer and firmer in the shades. Thus the figures will
not appear jagged j and the hand should be lightened in
such a manner, that the outlines may be formed and ter¬
minated without being cut too hard j however, though
the strokes break off where the muscle begins, yet they
ought always to have a certain connection with each
other, so that the first stroke may often serve by its re¬
turn to make the second, which will show the freedom
of the engraver.
In engraving the flesh, the effect may be produced
in the lighter parts and middle tints by long pecks
of the graver, rather than by light lines 5 or by round
dots j or by dots a little lengthened by the graver j
or, best of all, by a judicious mixture of these to¬
gether.
In engraving the hair and the beard, the engraver
should begin his work by laying the principal grounds,
and sketching the chief shades in a careless manner, or
with a lew strokes $ and he may finish it at leisure
with finer and thinner strokes to the extremities.
When architecture or sculpture is to be represented,
except it be old and ruinous buildings, the work ought
not to be made very black j because, as edifices are
commonly constructed either of stone or white marble,
the
[ 13s ]
ENG
JSugTavIng.the colour, being reflected on all sides, does not pro-
duce dark or bi’own shades as in other substances.
White points must not be put in the pupils of the
eves of figures, as in engravings after paintings j
nor must the hair or beard be represented as in na¬
ture, which makes the locks appear flowing in the
air j because in sculpture there can be no such ap¬
pearances.
In engraving cloths of different kinds, linen should
be done with finer and closer lines than any other sorts,
and he executed with single strokes. Woollen cloth
should be engraved wide, in proportion to the coarse¬
ness or fineness of the stuff, and with only two strokes;
and when the strokes are crossed, the second should be
smaller than the first, and the third than the second.
Shining stuffs, which are generally of silk or satin, and
which produce flat and broken folds, should be en¬
graved more hard and more straight than others, with
one or two strokes, as their colours are bright or
brown; and between the first strokes other smaller
must be joined, which is called interlining. ^ elvet
and plush are expressed in the same manner, and should
always be interlined. Metals, as armour, &c. are also
represented by interlining, or by clear single strokes.
In architecture, the strokes which form the rounding
object should tend to the point of sight; and when
whole columns occur, it is proper to produce the effect
gs much as possible by perpendicular strokes. If a
gross stroke is put, it should be at right angles, and
wider and thinner than the first stroke. In engraving
mountains, the strokes ought to be frequently discon¬
tinued and broken, for sharp and craggy objects $ and
they should be straight, in the lozenge manner, and ac¬
companied with longer points or dots j and rocks should
be represented by cross strokes more square and even.
Objects that are distant towards the horizon should he
kept very tender, and slightly charged with black.
Waters that are calm and still are best represented by
strokes that are straight, and parallel to the horizon,
interlined with those that are finer : omitting such places
as, in consequence of gleams of light, exhibit the
shining appearance of water; and the form of objects
reflected from the water at a small distance upon it,
or on the hanks of the water, are expressed by the
same strokes, retouched more strongly or faintly as
occasion may require, and even by some that are per¬
pendicular. For agitated waters, as the waves of the
sea, the first strokes should follow the figure of the
waves, and may he interlined, and the cross strokes
ought to be very lozenge. In cascades, the strokes
should follow the fall, and be interlined. In engraving
clouds, the graver should sport when they appear thick
and agitated, in turning every way according to their
form and their agitation. If the clouds are dark, so
that two strokes are necessary, they should be crossed
more lozenge than the figures, and the second strokes
should be rather wider than the first. The flat clouds,
that are lost insensibly in the clear sky, should he made
by strokes parallel to the horizon, and a little waving;
if second strokes are required, they should he more or
less lozenge; and when they are brought to the extre¬
mity, the hand should be so lightened, that they may
form no outline. The flat and clear sky is represented
by parallel and straight strokes, without the least turn¬
ing* In landscapes, the trees, rocks, earth, and her-
2
ENG
bage, should be etched as much as possible ; nothing nugmyin
should be left for the graver but perfecting, softening,
and strengthening. The dry point produces an effect
more delicate than the graver can, and may be used to
great advantage in linen, skies, distances, ice, and often
in water, especially in small engravings. In most
things it is proper to etch the shadows, only leaving the,
lighter tints for the dry point, graver, &c.
To imitate chalk-drawings, a mixture of varied and
irregular dots are used, made more or less soft, so as to
resemble the grain produced by the chalks on paper.
Every stroke of the chalks on paper may be considered
as an infinite number of adjoining points, which
are the small eminences of the grain of the paper
touched by the chalk in passing over it. When the
copperplate has been polished and varnished, or proper¬
ly prepared, as in the common method of engraving,
the drawing to be imitated may he counterproved
on the varnish of the plate. If this cannot be con¬
veniently done, black lead pencil, or red chalk, must
be applied to varnished or oiled paper ; and by means
of this chalk or pencil, all the traces of the original
will be transmitted to the varnish. The outlines
of the object must be formed in the etching by points,
whose magnitude and distance must be determined
by the quality of the strokes in the original drawing.
The artist may be provided with pointed instruments
or needles of various sizes with single or double points.
In forming the light and shade, he should distinguish
between those hatches which serve to express the
perspective of the object and those which form the
ground of it. The principal hatches should be more
strongly marked ; the middle tints, if etched, should
be marked lightly, or they may be left till the
varnish is taken off, and he perfected with a greater
degree of softness by needles or the point of the gra¬
ver, as the original may require. There is nothing
jicculiar in the method of applying the aquafortis in
this kind of engraving; but it may be observed, that
it should not be left so long as to corrode the lighter
parts too much : if the light parts are sufficiently
corroded, they must be stopped up with turpentine
varnish and lamp-black mixed together, and the
aquafortis may he applied again to the stronger parts ;
for it will be no detriment to them, if the points
which compose the shade burst into one another, pro¬
vided the extreme be avoided. When the work of
the aquafortis is finished, and the varnish taken off the
copper, it will he necessary in the softest parts, such
as the ilesh, &c. to interstipple with proper points ;
as an effect will be thus produced more delicate
than it is possible to attain with the aquafortis only ;
and the strongest shades will require additional strength
to be given them with small strokes of the graver.
Drawings made with chalks of different colours may
be imitated in this manner, if a plate be provided
for every colour. This method of engraving is in¬
tended to form a kind of deception, so that the con¬
noisseur may not be able, on the first inspection, to
distinguish between the original drawing and the en¬
graving made in imitation of it; and it is extremely
useful, as it serves to multiply copies of drawings left
by those masters who excelled in the use of chalks, and
thus to form and improve young artists, who could not
have access to the originals in the practice of drawing.
[ >36 ]
ENG [i
agraving. To this account of the history and practice of the art
of engraving, we shall annex the following ingenious
observations by an eminent living artist (a). We pre¬
sent them to our readers without alteration or abridge¬
ment.
jin the li- When compared with painting, the art of engraving
sar art in is but a recent invention, being coeval only with that
sneial- 0f printing; and like that noble art, it possesses not
only a similar but a greater power, of multiplying and
extending the productions of genius over the world $
for its language is universally understood.
It would have been well for the arts, if it could boast
of a more remote date, as we might then have had many
more of the finest designs of the first painters of anti¬
quity, now doomed to oblivion, saved from the rude
ravages of time.
But this invention seemed to be reserved for the
fourteenth century, and its improvements for the age of
Louis XIV. an age in which a number of artists, who
may be said to have invigorated the art, and invested it
with beauty, arose both in France and Italy.
Lines, in the first state of the art, like every other
pursuit, whose excellence is progressive, were compa¬
ratively rude and unmeaning, and had nothing more to
recommend them, than merely representing a particu¬
lar sort of markings, or slight hatchings with the pen,
without any other apparent degree of execution or ex¬
pression. Although it is our pride to acknowledge,
that it has not been a little beholden to the elegant
etchings of the great masters in painting, as well as to
their drawings in pen and ink, in its early stages, by
which means an eminent degree of taste was introduced
into the art, particularly in the department of linear dis¬
position. Amongst those, the drawings of a Raphael,
Michael Angelo, and the learned da Vinci; some of
which we have occasionally seen and admired. Some
by da Vinci were hatched in a square but delicate man¬
ner, with a white fluid, on a dark-coloured paper. Those
of Michael Angelo and Raphael inclined more to the
lozenge, in black or brown pink. They even carried
this style of hatching with the pencil into their pictures,
some of which adorn the Vatican) and in the famous
cartoons in his majesty’s collection by Raphael. Baccio
Bandinelli generally hatched his lines in one direction,
particularly a taking down from the Cross, which was
sold in London at the sale of the late Sir Joshua Rey¬
nolds’s drawings. Vicenzio Dante, hatched in a similar
way about the year 1550* Julio Romano used also to
draw in this style with the pen, severals of which are still
to be found in the most select cabinets of men of taste j
and lor near a century and a half after the invention of
etching, it is rare to mention a person of eminence, who
was distinguished in drawings who did not annex this art
to that of painting. But with the application of the bu¬
rin, the art has been gradually improving till the present
period, (b) Linear engraving is nothing more than draw-
ing elegantly on copper. It became more studied as it
was found capable of representing the various appear-
37 ] ENG
ances of nature. The texture or surface of objects be- Engra
came proportionally discriminated by such peculiar mo- v
difications of the line, as seemed most suitable to the
subject represented, although, at the same time, it ren¬
dered it much more arduous in the execution. Hence
arose that diversity of style, and that scope for succeed¬
ing excellence, which, by combining elegance with
simplicity and beauty, distinguished those artists who
have been most conspicuous in its improvement.
It has been said, that we are indebted for the origin
of this art to an ingenious Florentine, Masso Fini-
guerra, the sculptor. He was succeeded by a number
of other ingenious men, among whom we rank Botti¬
celli, Andrea Mantigna, and other able designers j—
and in Germany, Albert Durer, Aldgrave, and Lucas
Van Leyden, who severally contributed their labours.
But in the fifteenth century, the works of the divine
Raphael began to be multiplied by the correct graver
of Marc Antonio, an artist whose prints were the de¬
light of that great painter. Antonio had many imi¬
tators, but none who equalled him for justness of con¬
tour, for which his works will be very highly appreci¬
ated among the early productions of the art.—Having
had occasion to mention a few of the principal artists
who reared the scaffolding of this elegant art, we shall
proceed to those who have so much distinguished them¬
selves in finishing the superstructure. Among those,
Augustino of "Venice began to introduce a better dis¬
position of line in his shades, as well as the ingenious
Bolognese, Augustino Carrachi; whilst Egedius Sade-
laer displayed no less zeal in Germany. In the six¬
teenth century, the art displayed still more vigour and
taste, and seemed to have but little more wanting j for
all that meagre dryness of line began to disappear, which
so manifestly marks the early works of II Tedesca, AI-
degraff, and other artists of a former period. Their
works became consequently more rich in style, by em¬
bracing the best productions of the pencil; and as they
were applied to a greater number of ideas they became
still more interesting and successful.
Patrons were numerous and liberal; and it is but pro¬
per to remark, that the various artists, on their part ac¬
tuated by a becoming zeal which was highly creditable
to themselves, were indefatigable. This is a circum¬
stance not less worthy of imitation, than the many ad¬
mirable monuments of the art which they produced.
Few but admired the works of Masson, Poilly, Nantueil,
and Rousselet; and some time after the death of the in¬
genious Cornelius Bloemart, who had given a grace to
bis lines, hitherto unknown at Rome^ the matchless
Audran and Edelinck displayed their excellent produc¬
tions at Paris. But arts are liable to fluctuate ; and
when the art of engraving began to decline abroad, it
gradually displayed a high degree of lustre in our o’wn
country ; and the variety of styles which has since sprung
from the original.manner of engraving shall be the sub¬
ject of the following sketch.
We shall therefore treat more particularly of the dis¬
position ol the lines and their consequent effects, dis¬
tinguished
r \ ^ranC13 Ijegat» Esq. historical engraver to his royal highness the prince of Wales, and F. A. S. E.
(B) Ihe author has taken the liberty of here adopting the word linear', from its strict analogy to this mode of
^ Voi^VIII P t I approl)at‘on some tfie first professors, both in painting and engraving.
- "f* ®
ENG [
Engraving, tinguished by the terms, Unear expression, imitation,
disposition and harmony ; with a strict investigation of
the first and most approved subjects, either in etching
or engraving*, and of their essential beauties, as far as
they may tend to illustrate the subject.
As the great object of this mode of engraving is, to
adopt those lines the most expressive of the form and
character of whatever happens to be represented, by
maturely investigating not only the action but the cause
and correspondent effects of the original picture j in or¬
der that the artist may avail himself of all that is most
beautiful in his translation, and efficient in the aggregate
either with respect to the expi'ession, spirit, or sentiment.
On linear When historical subjects consist of several figures
Ind^di**0" w^ere th61,6 *s generally a variety of draperies, some, of
position,
them appearing thick and cumbersome, others more
thin and flexible, sitting close and elegant on the limbs,
being composed of a finer texture, or thread $ the coarse
stuffs are consequently more effectually respresenteu by
a bolder line, as the thinner sort, by the application
of a fine line, gives a more lively representation j a dis¬
crimination which has been observed of late, by the
most approved modern artists in linear engraving. Ob¬
servations of this description, when treated in a liberal
manner, not only superadd a degree of truth, but even
render the subjects sweeter to the eye of fancy. In the
early stages of the art, some excellent artists have been
led into particular and limited systems. In the works
of such as have affected to describe every subject in the
same line indiscriminately, even the arms of the most
delicate women are often engraven as if perfectly po¬
lished, by approaching to a metallic appearance, a mode
not uncommon among the second or third class of ar¬
tists about the beginning of the last century j by which
manner, all that softness and delicacy was neglected,
which is so happily effected in the linear productions of
Bartolozzi, Morgan, Sharp, Heath and others, at pre¬
sent of the first masters in Europe. Those who are ac¬
quainted with the works of the ingenious Chaffary,
must with pleasure have perceived in his foliage, how
even the texture of flowers are imitated from the deli¬
cate line-like fibres of which they are composed, issuing
from the stem, and spreading their silken beauties in
the sun : and in this class of imitation, the clear trans¬
parency of glass, the rough texture of woollen, the
thinness of lawn, the flickerings of satin, or the light¬
nings of steel, as well as the rude rock, the lucid lake,
or the flashing of the torrent, are all admirably adapt¬
ed to linear effect by the almost infinite diversity of
their construction, and general constituent principles,
strictly observing on what laws the beauty of lines con¬
sists, by ever keeping in view the due balance of taste,
and a noble simplicity of style throughout. It is the
business of the skilful artist to overpower and subdue
the difficulties in his profession j for no excellence of
art is of cheap or vulgar acquisition. Let it be re¬
membered that with forming steel, even the enchanting
graces of the Venus de Medicis were hewn from a
rock, and the almost breathing Apollo, from a block of
Parian stone.
An elegant English poet, in a critical essay on poe¬
try, observes, that the sound should seem an echo to the
sense •, so should the lines in a fine print seem to har¬
monize with the subject, by flowing with the external
east af the features, and the predominant passion ex-
%
138 ] ENG
pressed in the original picture $ for the same character Bimini
and disposition of the lines that suit the action of the
muscles in one passion, will be found to appear more
vacant and less expressive when applied toothers, how¬
ever graceful they may appear.
As this is a point of view to which the art has never
yet been fully extended, perhaps it may meet with some
degree of attention, as it will be found of utility in
forming a principle respecting disposition, more particu¬
larly in historical subjects, where the passions are re¬
quired to be nicely expressed : and although it may ad¬
mit of some slight exceptions, it is a principle that will
in general be found to be true.
For example, let it be supposed that the passion of
the figure represented, is that of joy j the lines should
seem to expand and swell, with every acting muscle,
in the most delicate manner possible.
But, on tbe contrary, if the subject displays deep
sorrow, they should rather incline downward, partaking
somewhat of the half straight, seeming to act apparent¬
ly in perfect unison and conformity with the features of
the face, with all due subordination to the general effect
of light and shadow.
Various observations may be made in this manner on
the principal passions expressed in the human counte¬
nance, which are but few comparatively, even from tbe
slightest movement to the boldest action. We often
find, on examining the works of those masters who are
not so conspicuous for great clearness of execution, that
they have been occupied by the disposition and energy
of tbe lines, as in the magnificent and masterly prints
of the Battles of Alexander, from the pictures of Carlo
le Brun, engraved by Gerrard Audran $ where the
executive department is no less conspicuous from the
burin of the Chevalier Edelinck in the fine print of the
tent of Darius : whilst Audran displays the true spirit
of art, but rarely avails himself of much of the mecha¬
nical principles. The field, and tumult of battle, seem¬
ed admirably calculated to call forth his rapid powers,
particularly in works of magnitude.
The less active scenery of the tent of Darius, was e-
qually appropriated to the splendid talents of Edelinckt
as he seems to have been better qualified to display sub¬
jects of that nature in general. This is sufficiently ob¬
vious from the beautiful and interesting groupe of tbe
queen mother, and her illustrious family, kneeling at
the feet of the conqueror; his impressive print of the
magdalene, or his most admirable portraits of the dig¬
nified clergy, distinguished authors, and eminent artists.
These, in point of engraving, are no less remarkable for
taste in the execution, than for truth and nature in ex¬
pression.
In one of the Battles of Alexander, the groupe where
Porus is wounded and supported by the soldiers, the
rough discrimination of line finely accords with that
bold deportment of character in the grim visage of that
gigantic prince, whilst a more delicate line marks the
youthful countenance of Alexander j a discrimination
which is totally lost in the large Dutch copy by de Vos.
In the same print, the figures of Alexander and Cly-
tus, are finely relieved from the distant scenery by the
varied description of engraving on their armour, dra¬
pery, and horses. The latter are managed with such
freedom and spirit, that it is difficult to say whether tbe
horses or figures teem the most with masterly execution j
particularly
ENG [ 139 ] ENG
Kiigwring. particularly the white war-horse on the right extremity
> of the print (c).
Had Audran superadded a still greater portion of the
delicacy and clearness of handling so conspicuous in
Edelinck. and other eminent artists since that period, it
would undoubtedly have given an additional beauty to
his other transcendent acquisitions; namely, the vast
spirit of his lines, and power in drawing.
But it is seldom the lot of an individual to combine
every excellence. Arts too have their infancy ; for
they generally require the labour of ages to bring them
to maturity and perfection, and it yet remained to unite
and ameliorate the polish of Edelinck, to the spirited
style of Audran. Without prejudice or partiality, a con¬
siderable degree of this excellence will be found in the
best works of British art, as we shall hereafter exemplify.
Another fine specimen of lineal engraving, and of a
different class, is the celebrated Storm of Balechow,
from a picture of the famous Vernet. In this print he
has transmitted with the graver a certain fluidity and
action in representing the liquid element, to which the
art had never before attained. To a grandeur of style
in the bold swelling of the waves, he has superadded
the utmost transparency of line j at the same time, hav¬
ing attended to all that light restless spray which seems
sporting to the gales as they roll along. In a fanciful
mood, one might almost imagine they heard the motion
of the water: so finely did this discriminating artist
translate, (if I may be allowed the expression) this ad¬
mirable picture.
When we consider the period in which this dis¬
tinguished work was engraved, and that little or no¬
thing had been previously done in that department of a
similar excellence; it is hoped it will be a sufficient
apology for the degree of admiration here expressed :
for, as Lord Verulam truly observes, “ we are too prone
to pass those ladders by which the arts are reared, and
generally reflect all the merit to the last new perform¬
er.” W7e have already observed, they are seldom rear¬
ed with rapidity, and oftentimes that which is consider¬
ed an invention, is only a long succession of trials and
experiments, which have gradually followed each other,
and ought rather to be considered as a series of human
mind than the knowledge of an individual, being the
works of ages. In any point of view, the present sub¬
ject will ever be considered as a high improvement
and an elegant acquisition in the annals of the linear
art. But in historical subjects this artist is by no means
equal in point of taste or discrimination. His print of
St Genevive undoubtedly ranks high in the first classes
of engraving. Had his taste in other respects been
equal to his powerful clearness of execution, it would
have been almost unparalleled} but it betrays a want
of that essential, even in his mode of thinking. Patience
and labour are everywhere too prevalent. It remain¬
ed for Woollet to excel both in figures and in landskip.
In the various styles and modifications of this expres¬
sive art, from the neat to the FEEBLE, and from the
bold to the extravagant, Taste stands sole arbitress:
in brief, it is she who distributes variety with spirit, and
conceals the appearance of intricacy and labour ; who,
by a due modification of line, unites clearness to soft¬
ness, arresting the hand of the skilful artist from every
eflort inconsistent with her powers j producing at once
to the mind all that agreeable finished combination or
harmony which ever accompanies and constitutes the
perfection of true art.
In the execution of subjects of imagination, there is a
perpetual scope for calling forth the fancy of the en¬
graver, as the various combinations of lines are in¬
exhaustible, uncommon effects, such as aerial spirits, or
cejestial beings blended with the light, or ghosts com¬
mingled with the gloom, or fairy elves by moonlight,
who trip the sands, and yet no footing seen ; or wood-
nymphs, laving their taper limbs in the limpid ele¬
ment. Such subjects, in point of style, depend entirely
upon the beauty, lightness, and transparency of execu¬
tion } for those that are merely ornamental or grotesque,
demand a style of a difterent cast from that of the
serious or historical, as they require a less degree of
truth even from the burin. In these cases the style
may be as capricious as the subjects. Those of Raphael,
in the Vatican, display an uncommon degree of taste,
and particularly in the elegant flow of line with which
they are composed.
In all works of taste and genius, those which may
appear the most simple at a transient glance, will be often
found to contain the most art on a more mature in¬
vestigation. The first impression may strike the fancy,
but the second generally calls up the discriminating
powers of the judgment.
Arts generally rise in our esteem according to the
degree of exertion of the mental powers which they re¬
quire j and, as lines are capable of various styles, those
which are most congenial to the subject represented
ought to be adhered to in preference to every other
consideration. Teniers, and Gerrard Douw, demand all
the fidelity and delicacy of the burin in describing the
various draperies and individualities which belong to
that class of painting j but, in proportion as the contour
is composed of fewer parts, and the forms more full and
elegant, the beautiful flowing qualities of the graver is
increased, and its lines glide more gracefully over the
figures, as may be found in the works of Strange and
others from Guido and Corregio. This distinction will
not appear so obvious on a superficial view of the art.
But, on a due investigation, it will be found, that not
only a different modification of lines is necessary to the
various classes of painting, but that even a different
description of style is requisite to characterize some of
the masters in each particular class, from the sublime
and elevated figures of a Raphael and Michael Angelo,
to the simple cottagers of Adrian Ostade.
When we take a more comprehensive view of the
art, we often find, that the styles which are adopted in
the different countries in Europe by the artists where
the art has in any degree been cultivated, are generally
regulated by the modes of painting, drawing, and even
the colouring respectively in each, whether historical,
portrait, or landscape, and is proportionably appreciated
according to the effective beauty and elegance of the
execution.
S 2 It
(c) Whenever M. Bartolozzi happened to speak of those prints to me, he always expressed himself with a great
degree of enthusiasm, thinking himself extremely fortunate in having works of such excellence in his possession.
ENG
[ Ho ]
ENG
It is not improbable that the clear mode, which at
present constitutes the modern German school, is a re¬
finement on the simple style of Cornelius Bloemart.
In Italy, Jachimo Frey, that astonishing Swiss, from
his masterly expertness in drawing, and a rapid use of
the etching steel and the nitre, almost produced an en¬
tire revolution in the art. The unprecedented richness
and ease, the freedom and energy of his style, and the
number and magnitude of his works, attracted all Italy,
and tended greatly to improve the Homan school. A-
bout the year 1672, we find him working jointly with
the nervous Dorigny Frezza, and Vanauden Aird.
From this source we can perceive the style of Wagner,
of Cars in France, and various masters now living;
namely Francisco Bartolozzi, Giovanni Volpato, Domi-
nicus Cunigo, and some of the early works of the excel¬
lent Raphael Morghen.
In many instances Frey indicates, that if he had con¬
sidered it of sufficient consequence to the art, he could
have engraved with more clearness, particularly by his
curious copy from the celebrated print by Edelinck, of
the Madona and Child, with St John and Angels, from
Raphael ; and although but an imitation of another
style, tends to shew the versatility of his talents, when
the judgment is for a Avhile suspended to know which is
the original. We find a performance of Frey’s, en¬
titled La Charite Humaine, dated 1723 ; a print was
afterwards engraved from the same subject at Paris by
Daulle, dated 1763, in which he has rather been too
profuse in the more mechanical part of the art, and des¬
titute of that ardour which a well engraved work should
not only inspire but maintain.
It is not enough for lines to be only well disposed,
but also full of expression : neither is it enough for a
line to be only clearly cut, but it must also be free; for
in a certain free light spirited lines convey an idea ofani-
mation, and are suited to subjects of that description,
while the long sweeping and bold lines are better adapt¬
ed to the solemn and majestic productions of the pencil.
A fine print, like a miniature picture, ought to be
viewed near the eye: as in itself, from the nature of
the art, will he found a due subordination of effect, ever
receding from the bold and articulated lines in the fore
ground to those which are more evanescent and remote.
The graceful birch, the mountain ash, and the oak,
have each their peculiar bark and texture ; and these,
when freely indicated, stamp their mark and character
most completely to the eye. Much of this, as has been
formerly mentioned, depends upon, and is regulated by,
the peculiar style of the picture and the skill of the en¬
graver.
As lines seem to partake of motion, in proportion as
they deviate in gentle bendings from the straight and
precise ; even so also, in the motion of water seemingly
increased, whether they undulate with the simplest wave,
or swell with the fierce and tempest-curled surge. This
character is sufficiently illustrated in the works of Bale-
chow and Woollet.
In the late Mr Brown’s large print of St John
preaching in the wilderness, no engraver has ever more
fully displayed the true spirit of Salvator Rosa, particu- EngraWn;;
larly in the original mode of treating the rocks, and the ''■“"“v
bold style of the surrounding scenery ; in short, in the
aggregate it is a chef d’ceuvre unparalleled in any coun¬
try. This is freely acknowledged, not only by every
man of taste, but by the first landscape engravers (d).
But Brown was perhaps less happy in the companion
to the above, from the celebrated Both, by adapting a
similar mode to that finished and delicate painter. For
the style should ever vary with the subject.
“ Whate’er Lorrain light touched with softening hue,
Or savage Rosa dash’d, or learned Poussin drew.”—
Thomsok’s Castle of Indolence.
His admirable etchings of the cottager and its com¬
panion, and the Celadon and Amelia, are fine specimens
of his discriminating powers, and characterized with so
near an approach to truth, that we cannot help exclaim¬
ing with the poet,
“ He sees no other, nature’s self who sees.”
The engraving of the above subjects was finished
by the matchless Woollet, with the same happy taste.
And it must be acknowledged that it is but seldom that
we see so many excellencies united ; for it is equally
rare to see 'the finest engraving united to the finest
drawing, as to find it in painting combined with the
choicest colouring : yet each have their decided fasci¬
nations in the gallery, the cabinet, or the portfolio.
Woollet, whose works abound with nerve and intelli¬
gence in point of character, his style of landscape is
delightfully descriptive ; whether rocks, water, trees, or
sky ; as the Niobe, the Ceyx and Alcyone, and other
master-pieces from the great Wilson evince. In the
winter scene from Smith of Chichester, he has admirably
contrived to convey the effect of the drifted snow, by deli¬
cate dotting, and with no less precision he has described
the transparent ice with clear lines. Of trees, he wa&
the first that ever faithfully characterized the graceful
larch ; as may be seen in his views of the noblemen’s
seats. In the print of the fishery, he is indebted to the
masterly etching of John Brown, particularly the ship¬
ping, in which there is perhaps no subject more articu¬
late and perspicuous. The engraving of this subject is
finished by himself. In his figures he was the founder
of a style, most happily adapted for modern dresses, and
historical portraiture; a style in which he moved with
unrivalled reputation. His print of the death of Gene¬
ral WTolfe, painted by Mr West, is an admirable ex¬
ample, and does honour to the British nation. It
occupied him no less than four years. The print
of the battle at La Hogue is another fine specimen
of his knowledge of linear discrimination. In short,
when we consider the talents of this artist, it is difficult
to decide whether he most excelled in modern history
or landscape. The art has to regret that he, who was
so eminently qualified to adorn any line of the pro¬
fession, has left no works in ancient history. We have
little doubt, from his knowledge, and a real love of the
art, he would have left a sufficient monument in that
department also, for the pleasure and contemplation of
the
(d) Were I at liberty to mention eminent living artists, I would have been induced here, among others, to
have mentioned the subject of the Tempest in the Twelfth Night, from the late ingenious Wright oT Derby,
grayed by Mr Middleman, in the Messrs Boydell’s large edition of the immortal bard of Avon.
ENG
Engraving, the real connoisseur and of posterity. Engraving in this
—■ ycountry sustained a heavy loss when he died j and if the
death of so excellent an artist may be considered as a
public loss, it is certainly the more felt with respect to
Woollet, who died while he was yet improving in that
excellence (e).
Chattelaine has been termed a mannerist in his draw¬
ings, but he must certainly be allowed to be an excellent
one: his etchings are variety itself. Perhaps in the de¬
partment of etching no artist has so happily translated
the pictures of Claude de Lorraine as Francis Vivares j
that is, with respect to aerial perspective, the peculiar
characteristic of Claude. But his merits are not confined
to this master alone ; for he followed Ruysdale, Berghem,
Gainsborough, and Cuype, with great success. He has
such a free delivery of style, that almost every one who
examines his. works is irresistibly impressed with an idea
of performing the very same. Few artists, it has been
mentioned, have excelled in the etching department.
We cannot, however, omit the name of Perauezzi $ who,
to originality of style, which is apparently spontaneous,
joins a certain grandeur which had never been surpassed.
He has transmitted to posterity so spirited a representa¬
tion of the Greek and Roman edifices and ruins, that
travellers have often confessed that they have raised
their ideas beyond the magnitude of the superstructures
themselves. It is certain that in works of this stupen¬
dous nature, a degree of ruggedness in the execution cor¬
responds with the sublimity of the subjects j and thus
produces a still greater power over the mind, than if
they had been more polished. Some have censured his
figures, and not without cause. This defect has been
ingeniously palliated by an excellent artist, M. Barto-
lozzi. “ For (said he) if the purchasers of the works of
Peranezzi, get so much for their money in the building
way, the figures may be supposed to be given for no¬
thing.” Doubtless those vast piles of perishing gran¬
deur, were never more judiciously presented to the eye,
than by this astonishing artist, or better calculated to
affect the mind by calling forth its most sublime ideas.
We have another striking instance of spirited etching
in a different pursuit of the art, in the works of Ridin-
ger, a name which brings along with it all the savage,
scenery of nature.
“ Assembling wolves in raging troops descend.
————They fasten on the steed and pierce his mishtv
heart.”
Thomson’s Winter.
For vye shall ever find some peculiar beauty to admire,
even in the slightest productions of genius, as well as
in the most perfect productions of the burin.
There are few artists who do not regret, that etching
was unknown to Bolswert, who has done so much with¬
out its aid ; from which we may easily suppose how
much more he could have effected with this charming
acquisition. For the truth of this remark we may ap¬
peal to his landscapes from Rubens, his animated por¬
traits from Vandyke, and his productions from the Fle-
E N G
mish school of history, particularly his large print of the Engraving.
Taking down from the Cross from Rubens.
There is a fine instance of linear effect in a print of
a Flemish conversation piece by Wille. One of the
figures is drinking out of a glass, and the artist has most
deceptively described the texture of the drinker’s face
through the glass. In the same print, a female figure
shews great skill in this way, even the floor is charac¬
terized by lines j and the whole strongly marks the most
proper mode of treating subjects of a mere local nature.
Ihe beautiful print of the Petit Physicien, is also an ad¬
mirable imitation, particularly the little pellucid globule
which has just mounted from the shell. When lines are
engraved in a square acute method of crossing, they ge¬
nerally con vey the idea of hardness to the subject repre¬
sented. The scientific Picart seems to have been so
much aware of this, that in a print of his engraving of
a large marble group of horses, from the animated chi¬
sel of Perriere, he adopted this style in order to heigh¬
ten the imitation.
Mason’s print of Marshal Harcourt is one of the many
fine efforts of portrait engraving j and although it was
executed at an early period of the art, it abounds with
no small degree of taste. The celebrated print (called
the Table-cloth) from Titian, of the Last Supper, also
contains a considerable degree of linear discrimination,
although he sometimes carries it to affectation. He is
rather singular in his mode of engraving hair. Yet the
portraits of Marshal Harcourt and Brisasiere the se--
cretary may be deemed exceptions..
While, by the magic of his tooling, is too apt at times
to give his works indiscriminately the appearance of
bronze •, and we frequently find the same in the figures
of Balechow : but it seems to have been reserved for
Strange to give the softness of carnation to copper; and
to Woollet, to give force and clearness with discrimi¬
nating taste. Bartolozzi in his lines elegance delicacy
and drawing ; while the works of Audran teem with
boldness and simplicity. In the prints of Sir Robert
Strange, the greatest excellence is perhaps his rich and
harmonious tones, as well as the whole effect, which is
supported by an expressive style; which he seems in a
great measure to have invented for his most favourite
painters, Corregio, Titian, Guido, and Guerchino. The
softness, the gusto, and the flowing draperies in the
works of these masters, were his delight. His sleeping
Cupid from Guido, and the prints of the Venus and
Danae from Titian, will ever be esteemed as chef
d'ccuvres in the linear art.
Having thus attempted to fulfil our original intention
of discriminating the most expressive combinations of
lines, and of analyzing and illustrating their various,
powers and effects in engraving, we shall now conclude
these observations ; and if, from the nature of the sub¬
ject, and from the limits of the sketch, we have failed
in marking every brilliant star in the galaxy of the art;
it must at least be acknowledged, that we have not
omitted some of those of the first magnitude.
Engraving upon Glass. See Glass, Engraving on.
Engraving
C 141 1
(I) Although we are now contemplating linear engraving, it is but proper here to observe, that chalk en-
graving, mezzotinto, and aquatinta, have also made ample improvements in this country, in their various styles
ENG [ 142 ] E N H
fn^rarin?. Engbaving on Precious Stones, is the representing
"""v-" ■' of figures, or devices, in relievo, or indented, on divers
kinds of hard polished stones.
The art of engraving on precious stones is one of
those wherein the ancients excelled $ there being divers
antique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, which surpass
any thing of that kind the moderns have produced.
Pyrgoteles among the Greeks, and Dioscorides under
the first emperors of Rome, are the most eminent en¬
gravers we read of $ the former was so esteemed by
Alexander, that he forbade any body else to engrave
his head; and Augustus’s head, engraven by the latter,
was deemed so beautiful, that the succeeding emperors
chose it for their seal.
All the polite arts having been buried under the
ruins of the Roman empire, the art of engraving on
stones met with the same fate. It was retrieved in
Italy at the beginning of the 15th century, when one
John of Florence, and after him Dominic of Milan,
performed works of this kind no way to be despised.
From that time such sculptures became common enough
in Europe, and particularly in Germany, whence great
numbers were sent into other countries : but they came
short of the beauty of those of the ancients, especially
those on precious stones ; for, as to those on crystal, the
Germans, and, after their example, the French, &c.
have succeeded well enough.
In this branch of engraving, they make use either of
the diamond or of emery.
The diamond, which is the hardest of all stones,
is only cut by itself, or with its own matter. The
first thing to be done in this branch ef engraving is,
to cement two rough diamonds to the ends of two
sticks big enough to hold them steady in the hand, and
to rub or grind them against each other till they be
brought to the form desired. The dust or powder
that is rubbed off serves afterwards to polish them,
which is performed with a kind of mill that turns a
wheel of soft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brass
dish j and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with
diamond dust, mixed up with oil of olives ; and when
the diamond is to be cut facet-wise, they apply first
one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, sap¬
phires, and topazes, are cut and formed the same way
on a copper wheel, and polished with tripoli diluted
in water. As to agates, amethysts, emeralds, hya¬
cinths, granites, rubies, and others of the softer
stones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moistened with
emery and water, and polished with tripoli on a pew¬
ter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, &c. are polished on a
wooden wheel. To fashion and engrave vases of
agate, crystal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make use
of a kind of lathe, like that used by pewterers, to hold
the vessels, which are to be wrought with proper-
tools : that of the engraver generally holds the tools,
which are turned by a wheel : and the vessel is held to
them to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or
otherwise j the tools being moistened from time to time
with diamond dust and oil, or at least emery and wa¬
ter. To engrave figures or devices on any of these
stones, when polished, such as medals, seals, &c. they
use a little iron wheel, the ends of whose axis are re¬
ceived within two pieces of iron, placed upright, as
in the turner’s lathe •, and to be brought closer, or set
further apart, at pleasure : at one end of the axis are
fitted the proper tools, being kept tight by a screw.EngraTi#i|.
Lastly, The wheel is turned by the foot, and the stone |
applied by the hand to the tool, and is shifted and con- Enharma.
ducted as occasion requires. . ntc‘ 1
The tools are generally of iron, and sometimes of
brass ; their form is various, but it generally bears some
resemblance to chisels, gouges, &c. Some have small
round heads like buttons, others like ferrels, to take the
pieces out, and others flat, &c. When the stone has
been engraven, it is polished on wheels of hair-brushes
and tripoli.
Engraving on Steel is chiefly employed in cutting
seals, punches, matrices, and dyes, proper for striking
coins, medals, and counters : The method of engraving
with the instruments, &c. is the same for coins as for
medals and counters : All the difference consists in their
greater or less relievo $ the relievo of coins being much
less considerable than that of medals, and that of coun¬
ters still less than that of coins.
Engravers on steel commonly begin with punches,
which are in relievo, and serve for making the creux or
cavities of the matrices and dyes : though sometimes
they begin with the creux or hollowness $ but then it is
only when the intended work is to be cut very shallow.
The first thing done, is that of designing the figures ;
the next is the moulding them in wax, of the size and
depth they are to lie, and from this wax the punch is
engraven. When the punch is finished," they give it a
very high temper, that it may the better bear the blows
of the hammer with which it is struck to give the im¬
pression to the matrice.
The steel is made hot to soften it, that it may the
more readily take the impression of the punch 5 and af¬
ter striking the punch on it in this state, they proceed
to touch up and finish the strokes and lines, where by
reason of their fineness or the too great relievo they are
any thing defective, with steel gravers of different kinds;
chisels, flatters, &c. being the principal instruments
used in graving on steel.
The figure being thus finished, they proceed to en¬
grave the rest of the medal, as the mouldings of the bor¬
der, the engrailed ring, letters, &c. with little steel
punches, well tempered, and very sharp.
ENGUICHE', in Heraldry, is said of the great
mouth of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different
colour from that of the horn itself.
ENHARMONIC, in Music. The Greeks had
three different species of music ; the diatonic, the chro¬
matic, and the enharmonic. This last was esteemed by
much the most agreeable and powerful of the three j
but the difficulty of its execution rendered its duration
short, and latter artists were upbraided for having sa¬
crificed it to their indolence. It proceeded upon lesser
intervals than either the diatonic or chromatic j and as
the chromatic semitone is still less than the diatonic,
the enharmonic intervals must have consisted of that se¬
mitone divided into parts more minute. In Rousseau’s
Musical Dictionary (at the word Enharmonique), the
reader may see how that interval was found in the te-
trachords of the ancients. It is by no means easy for
modern ears, inured to intervals so widely different, to
imagine how a piece of music, whose transitions were
formed either chiefly or solely upon such minute divi¬
sions, could have such wonderful effects *, yet the me¬
lody of speech, which rises or falls by intervals, still
more
f«k
1
&
; Enharmo¬
nic
B
Ennias.
E N N [ 143 ]
more minute than the enharmonic, when properly mo- made use of heroic verses,
dulated and applied with taste, has an astonishing power
over the soul. As to the modern enharmonic system,
^ we may likewise refer the reader to the same work for
an account of its nature and use j though he will find
it accurately and clearly explained by D’Alembert in
the Treatise of Music given in the present work, (art.
144, 145, 146.).
ENHYDRUS, in Natural History, a genus of side-
rochita or crustated ferruginous bodies, formed in large
and in great part empty cases, inclosing a small quanti¬
ty of an aqueous fluid.
Of this genus there are only two species : 1. The
thick-shelled enhydrus, with black, reddish-brown, and
yellow crusts. 2. The thinner-shelled kind, with yel¬
lowish-brown and purple crusts j neither of which fer¬
ments with aquafortis or gives fire with steel.
ENIGMA. See ARnigma.
ENIXUM, among chemists, a kind of neutral salt,
generated of an acid and an alkali.
The sal enixum of Paracelsus, is the caput mortuum
of spirit of nitre with oil of vitriol, or what remains in
the retort after the distillation of this spirit 5 being of a
white colour, and pleasing acid taste.
ENMANCHE', in Heraldry, is when lines are
drawn from the centre of the upper edge of the chief
to the sides, to about half the breadth of the chief j
signifying sleeved, or resembling a sleeve, from the
French manche.
_ ENNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
situated on an eminence to the south of the Chrysas ;
called the centre of Sicily. It was famous for a sacred
grove, in which the rape of Proserpine happened j for
a temple of Ceres, thence surnamed Enncea, and
Ennensis; and for fine springs, whence the name
(Bochart).
ENNEAGON, in Geometry, a polygon with nine
sides. See Polygon.
ENNEAHEDRIA, in Natural History, a genus of
columnar, crystalliform, and double pointed spars, com¬
posed of a trigonal column, terminated at each end by a
trigonal pyramid.
Of this genus there are several species distinguished
by the length or shortness of the column and pyramids,
none of which give fire with steel, but all of them fer¬
ment with aquafortis.
ENNEANDRIA, in Botany, (from tmx, nine, and
*wj{, a man or husband), the name of the ninth class in
Linnaeus’s sexual system, consisting of plants which have
hermaphrodite flowers, with nine stamina or male or¬
gans. See Botany Index.
ENNIUS, Quintus, an ancient Latin poet, born
at Rudii, a town in Calabria. He came first to Rome
when M. Porcius Cato, was questor, whom he had in¬
structed in the Greek language in Sardinia; and by
his genius and behaviour he gained the esteem of the
most eminent persons in the city. According to Ho¬
race, Ennius never applied himself to writing till he
had drank freely of wine. Hence he contracted the
gout, of which he died nine years B. C. He was
interred in Scipio’s sepulchre ; who had a great esteem
and friendship for him, and caused a statue to be erec¬
ted to him upon his monument. He endeavoured to
introduce the treasures of the Greek tongue among
the Latins, and was the first among the Romans who
E N O
He wrote the Annals of
Home ; he translated several tragedies from the Greek,
and wrote others, besides several comedies. We have '
only some fragments of his works, which were first col¬
lected by the two Stephens, and afterwards publish¬
ed at Naples, with a learned commentary, by Je-
rom Columna, in quarto, 1590; and reprinted at
Amsterdam in 1707, in quarto, with additions by
Hesselius.
ENOCH, the son of Cain (Gen. iv. I7*)» in honour
of whom the first city taken notice of in Scripture was
called Enoch by his father Cain, who built it. It was
situated to the east of the province of Eden.
Enoch, the son of Jared and father of Methuselah,
was born in the year of the world 622. At the age
of 65 he begat Methuselah, and lived 300 years after,
and had several sons and daughters. Enoch walked
with God ; and after that he had lived in all 365 years,
he was not, for God took him.” Some construe
these last words, as if they intimated that Enoch died a
natural death, because in reality he lived not near so
long as the other patriarchs of those times ; as if God,
to secure him from corruption, had been pleased to
take him early out of this world. But the generality
of the fathers and commentators assert that he died not,
but was translated out of the sight of men, in like man¬
ner as Elijah was. The apostle Paul (Heb. xi. j.)"
shows very clearly that Enoch was translated, and did
not see death.
The apostle Jude (ver. 14. 15.) cites a passage from
the book of Enoch, which has very much exercised in¬
terpreters. The question is, whether the apostle took
this passage out of any particular book written by
Enoch, which might be extant in the first ages of th^
church ; whether he received it by tradition ; or lastly,
by some particular revelation. It is thought probable,
that he read it in the book we have been speaking of,
which, though apocryphal, might contain several truths
that St Jude, who was favoured with a supernatural
degree of understanding, might make use of to the edi¬
fication of the faithful.
The ancients greatly esteemed the prophecy of Enoch.
Tertullian expresses his concern that it was not gene¬
rally received in the world. That father, on the au¬
thority of this book, deduces the original of idolatry,
astrology, and unlawful arts, from the revolted angels,
who married with the daughters of men. St Augustin
allows indeed that Enoch wrote something divine,
because he is cited by St Jude ; but he says it was not
without reason that this book was not inserted in the
canon which was preserved in the temple at Jerusalem.
This father sufficiently insinuates, that the authority of
this book is doubtful, and that it cannot be proved
that it was really written by Enoch. Indeed the
account it gives of giants engendered by angels, and
not by men, has manifestly the air of a fable, and the
most judicious critics believe it ought not to be ascribed
to Enoch.
This apocryphal book lay a long time buried in
darkness, till the learned Joseph Scaliger recovered a
part of it. Scaliger, Vossius, and other learned men,
attribute this work to one of those Jews who lived be¬
tween the time of the Babylonish captivity and that qf
Jesus Christ. Others are of opinion, that it was writ¬
ten after the rise and establishment of Christianity, by
Enniut,
Enoch.
E N S [ 144 ] E N S
Enoch one of those fanatics with whom the primitive church
H was filled, who made a ridiculous mixture of the Pla-
Ememlilc. jon[c philosophy and the Christian divinity.
The eastern people, who call Enoch by the name of
Edris, believe that he received from God the gift of
wisdom and knowledge *, and that God sent him 30 vo¬
lumes from heaven, filled with all the secrets of the
most mysterious sciences. The Rabbins maintain, that
when Enoch was translated to heaven, he was admitted
into the number of the angels, and is the person gene¬
rally known by the name of Michael.
ENORMOUS, something excessive or monstrous,
especially in bulk.—The word is formed of the priva¬
tive e} and norma, “ rule j” q. d. “ void of, or contrary
to, rule or measure j” contra normam. In the corrupt
ages of Latinity they used innormis and inormis.
In the French jurisprudence, leesio enormis, “ enor¬
mous damage,” is that which exceeds half the value of
the thing sold.
ENOS, the son of Seth and father of Cainan, was
born in the year of the world 235. Moses tells us
(Gen. iv. 26.), that then, “ men began to call upon
the name of the Lord or, as others translate it,
that “ Enos began to call upon the name of the
Lord that is to say, that he was the inventor of
religious rites and ceremonies in the external worship
which was paid to God. This worship was kept up
and preserved in Enos’s family, while Cain’s family
was plunged in all manner of irregularities and impie¬
ties. Several Jews are of opinion, that idolatry was
first introduced into the world in the time of Enos.
They translate the Hebrew thus, “ Then men began
to profane the name of the Lord.” Good men, to
distinguish themselves from the wicked, began to take
upon them the quality of sons or servants of God ; for
which reason, Moses (Gen. vi. 1, 2.) says that the sons
of God (that is to say, the descendants of Enos, who
had hitherto preserved the true religion), seeing the
daughters of men, that they were fair, took them wives
of all which they chose. Enos died at the age of 905
years, in the year of the world 1140^
ENS, among metaphysicians, denotes entity, being,
or existence : this the schools call cns reale, and ens po-
sitivum ; to distinguish it from their ens rationis, which
is only an imaginary thing, or exists but in the imagi¬
nation.
Ens, among chemists, imports the pow’er, virtue,
and efficacy, which certain substances exert upon our
bodies.
Ens, in Geography, a city of Germany, situated at
the confluence of the Danube and the river Ens, about
80 miles south of Vienna. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
48. 16.
ENSATiE, in Botany, (from ensis, “ a sword”) j
the name of the sixth order in Linnaeus’s natural me¬
thod, consisting of plants with sword-shaped leaves. It
contains the following genera, viz. Antholyza, Cal-
lisia, Commelina, Crocus, Eriocaulon, Ferraria, Gla¬
diolus, Iris, Ixia, Moraea, Pontuederia, Sisyrinchium,
Tradescantia, Wachendorffa, Xyris. See Botany
Index.
ENSEELED, in Falconry, is said of a hawk that
has a thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and made
fast under her beak, to take away the sight.
ENSEMBLE, a French term, sometimes used in
3
our language; literally signifying together or one with Ensemble
another:—being formed from the Latin in and simul. |)
In architecture, we say the ensemble, or tout ensemble, ^llt-
of a building ; meaning the whole work, or composi- ' ' ~11
tion, considered together, and not in parts j and some¬
times also, the relative proportion of the parts to the
whole.—“ All those pieces of building make a fine
ensemble.’1'1
To judge well of a work, a statue, or other piece of
sculpture, one must first examine whether the ensemble
be good. The. tout ensemble of a painting, is that har¬
mony which results from the distribution of the several
objects or figures whereof it is composed.—“ This
picture is good, taking the parts separately but the
tout ensemble is bad.”
ENSIFORMIS cartilago. See Xiphoides.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner or colours
under which soldiers are ranged, according to the dif¬
ferent companies or parties they belong to. See Flag,
Colours, Standard, &c.
The Turkish ensigns are horses tails ; those of the
Europeans are pieces of taffety, with divers figures,
colours, arms, and devices thereon. Xenophon tells us,
that the ensign borne by the Persians was a golden
eagle on a white flag ; the Corinthians bore the winged
horse, or Pegasus, in theirs j the Athenians, an owl j
the Messenians, the Greek letter M j the Lacedaemo¬
nians the A. The Romans had a great diversity of
ensigns •, the wolf, minotaur, horse, boar, and at length
the eagle, where they stopped : this was first assumed
in the second year of the consulate of Marius*. A*SeeE(#
military ensign on a medal of a Roman colony denotes
it a colony peopled with old soldiers.
Ensign is also the officer that carries the colours,
being the lowest commissioned officer in a company of
foot, subordinate to the captain and lieutenant. It is
a very honourable and proper post for a young gentle¬
man at his first coming into the army : he is to carry
the colours both in assault, day of battle, &c. and
should not quit them but with his life : he is always
to carry them himself on his left shoulder: only on a
march he may have them carried by a soldier. If the
ensign is killed, the captain is to carry the colours in
his stead.
Naval Ensign, a large standard or banner hoisted
on a long pole erected over the poop, and called the
ensign staff.—The ensign is used to distinguish the ships
of different nations from each other, as also to charac¬
terize the different squadrons of the navy. The British
ensign in ships of war is known by a double cross, viz.
that of St George and St Andrew, formed upon a field
which is either red, white, or blue.
ENSIS HEIM, a town of France, in Upper Al¬
sace. It is a pretty little place, well built, and con¬
sists of about 200 houses. E. Long. 7. 30. N. Lat.
47. 58. ...
ENT, Sir George, an eminent English physician,
born at Sandwich in Kent in 1604. He was educa¬
ted at Sidney college, Cambridge ; and, afterwards
travelling into foreign countries, received the degree
of doctor of physic at Padua. After his return he ob¬
tained great practice, was made president of the col¬
lege of physicians in London, and at length received
the honour of knighthood from King Charles II. He
was extremely intimate with Doctor Harvey ; whom
ENT [ j
be learnedly defended, in a piece entitled Apologia pro
B Circulalione Sanguinis, contra JEmilium Parisanum.
lEnthusi- He also published, Animadversiones in Malachite Thru-
asw j stoni; and some observations in the Philosophical
* Transactions. Glanville, speaking of his Plus Ultra
of the modern improvements in anatomy, numbers
Sir George Ent, Doctor Glisson, and Doctor Wallis,
with the most celebrated discoverers in that science.
The two former were among the first members of
the Royal Society. Sir George Ent died in October
1689.
ENTABLATURE, or Entablement, in Archi¬
tecture, is that part of an order of a column which is
over the capital, and comprehends the architrave, frize,
and corniche. See Architecture, chap. i.
ENTABLER, in the manege, the fault of a horse
whose croupe goes before his shoulders in working
upon volts ; which may be prevented by taking hold
of the right rein, keeping your right leg near, and re¬
moving your left leg as far from the horse’s shoulder as
possible.
This is always accompanied with another fault called
aculer. See Aculer.
ENTAIL, in Law, signifies feetail, 01 fee entailed;
that is, abridged, curtailed, or limited, to certain con¬
ditions. See Fee and Tail.
ENTE', in Heraldry, a method of marshalling, more
frequent abroad than with us, and signifying grafted or
ingrafted.
We have indeed one instance of ente in the fourth
grand quarter of his majesty’s royal ensign, whose bla¬
zon is Brunswick and Lunenburg impaled with ancient
Saxony, ente en pointe, “ grafted in point.”
ENTEROCELE, in Surgery, a tumor formed by
a prolapsion of the intestines through the rings of the
abdomen and processes of the peritonaeum, into the
scrotum. See Surgery Index.
ENTHUSIASM, an ecstasy of the mind, where¬
by it is led to think and imagine things in a sublime,
surprising, yet probable manner. Thi$ is the enthusi¬
asm felt in poetry, oratory, music, painting, sculpture,
&c.
Enthusiasm, in a religious sense, implies a trans¬
port of the mind, whereby it fancies itself inspired with
some revelation, impulse, &c. from heaven. Mr Locke
gives the following description of enthusiasm. “ In all
ages, men in whom melancholy has mixed with devo¬
tion, or whose conceit of themselves has raised them in¬
to an opinion of a great familiarity with God, and a
nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded to
others, have often flattered themselves with a persuasion
] ENT
of an immediate intercourse with the Deity, and fre- j-ul}iusi
quent communications from the Divine Spirit. Their am *
minds being thus prepared, whatever groundless opinion 11
comes to settle itself strongly upon their fancies, is an
illumination from the Spirit of God. And whatsoever ' r"""
odd action they find in themselves a strong inclination
to do, that impulse is concluded to be a call or direc¬
tion from heaven, and must be obeyed. It is a com¬
mission from above, and they cannot err in executing
it. T.his 1 take to be properly enthusiasm, which,
though arising from the conceit of a warm and over¬
weening brain, works, when it once gets footing, more
powerfully on the persuasions and actions of men, than
either reason or revelation, or both together ; men be¬
ing most forwardly obedient to the impulses they re¬
ceive from themselves.” Devotion, when it doe’s not
lie under the check of reason, is apt to degenerate into
enthusiasm. When the mind finds itself inflamed with
devotion, it is apt to think that it is not of its own
kindling, but blown up with something divine within
it. If the mind indulges this thought too far, and hu¬
mours the growing passion, it at last flings itself into
imaginary raptures and ecstasies ; and when once it
fancies itself under the influence of a divine impulse, no
wonder if it slights human ordinances, and refuses to
comply with the established form of religion, as think¬
ing itself directed by a much superior guide.
ENTHUSIAST, a person possessed with enthusiasm.
See the preceding article.
ENTHYMEME, in Logic and Rhetoric, an argu¬
ment consisting only of two propositions, an antecedent,
and a consequent deduced from it. The word is Greek,
ittvfirtftx, formed of the verb ufvptKrtxi, “ to think, con¬
ceive,” a compound of iv and S-v[*6f, “ mind.”
The enthymeme is the most simple and elegant of all
argumentations j being what a man, in arguing close¬
ly, commonly makes, without attending at all to the
form. Ihus, that verse remaining of Ovid’s tragedy,
entitled Medea, contains an enthymeme j Servare p'o-
tui, perdere an possum rogas: “ I was able to save
you ; consequently to have destroyed you.” All the
beauty would have been lost, had all the propositions
been expressed ; the mind is displeased with a rehear¬
sal of what is nowise necessary.
Sometimes, also, the two propositions of an enthy¬
meme are both included in a single proposition, which
Aristotle calls an enthymematical sentence, and gives
this instance thereof: Mortal, do not bear an immortal
haired. The whole enthymeme would be, Thou art
mortal, let not, therejore, thy hatred be immortal.
ENTITY, the same with Ens.
ENTOMOLOGY.
■p’NTOMOLOGY, (from “ an insect,” and
<£ a discourse,”) is that part of zoology
which treats of insects.
Many are disposed to reckon the study of Entomo-
logy trifling. Hunters of butterflies, and catchers of
grashoppers, are laughed at by the vulgar, and even by
those who are more enlightened. The great numbers
and diversity of insects, the beauty and configuration of
Vol. MIL Part I. x
some of them, and the singular instincts of others, can¬
not but attract notice, and excite astonishment in those
who are fond of contemplating the works of nature,
rendering thus the study of Entomology, to them, a
source of much pleasure. A collection of the indivi¬
duals which compose any of the more numerous genera,
placed at the same time, before one capable of attend¬
ing to the striking similarity of the whole, and tracing
T the
146
ENTOMOLOGY.
the distinguishing peculiarities of each, cannot fail to
create surprise. The great and almost phantastic va¬
riety of their forms, the nice adaptation of their parts
to the situation in which each happens to be placed,
must appear truly wonderful. In every department of
nature, which comes within the reach of the human
mind, a pleasing and luxuriant variety is discernible.
The same Supreme Intelligence, which, by varying the
position of the planetary orbs with respect to the sun,
and by other seemingly simple but beautiful contri¬
vances, hath produced their ditferent length of day and
year, and alternation of seasons, is manifest in the forma¬
tion of the minutest insect. Each has received that
mechanism of body, those peculiar instincts, and is made
to undergo those different changes, which fit it for its
destined situation, and enable it to perform its proper
functions. The utility of many insects, such as the bee,
the crab, the silk-worm, the cochineal insect, &c. render
them both interesting and important; and a more intimate
acquaintance with the class, may enable us to add to the
number of those that are useful to man, and to improve¬
ments in the management of those already known. The
havock many insects make in the vegetable kingdom,
the vexation, diseases, and destruction they occasion
among animals, should induce those who are engaged in
agriculture, and in the rearing and management of ani¬
mals, to pay attention to Entomology; for the better
they are acquainted with their enemies, the abler they
must be to attack them with advantage.
Many insects undergo three very distinct changes:
which circumstance, joined to the very great difference
of appearance which is often met with in the male and
female, and even in the neuters of some species, renders
their number apparently greater than it really is, and
adds considerably to the difficulty of reducing them to
order.
Different naturalists have attempted to arrange them
'into families and genera, particularly the celebrated
LlNNJEUS, whose arrangement is followed here. He has
formed them into seven families or orders, composing his
Definition, sixth class of animals, Insecta. He defines an insect, a
small animal, breathing through pores on its sides, fur¬
nished with moveable antenna; and many feet, covered
with either a hard crust, or a hairy skin. Before the
distinguishing marks of the orders and genera can be
understood, it will be necessary to enumerate and ex¬
plain the terms he has given to the different parts, and
the most remarkable of the epithets he has applied to
them.
The body is divided into Head, Trunk, Abdomen,
and Extremities.
Head, &.c. I. CAPUT, the Head, which is distinguishable in
most insects, is furnished with Eyes, Antenna, and
most frequently with a Mouth.
The Eyes, 2, 4* 6, or 8 in number, destitute of
eye-lids, are either small and simple ; or large, com¬
pound and hemispherical ; or pofyedral. They are
commonly immoveable. They are called stipitati
when placed on a stalk.
The Antennae are two articulated moveable pro¬
cesses, placed on the head.
They are either, 1. Setacea, setaceous, i. e. like a
bristle, when they taper gradually from their base, or
insertion into the head, to their point.
2. Clavata, clavated, i. e. club-shaped, when they
grow gradually thicker from their base to their point.
3. Filiformes, filiform, i. e. thread-shaped, when
they are of an equal thickness throughout the whole of
their length.
4. ’Moniliformes, moniliform, i. e, of the form of a
necklace, when they are of an equal thickness through¬
out, but formed of a series of knobs, resembling a string
of beads.
5. Capitatce, capitate, i. e. with a head or knob, when
they grow thicker towards the point, and terminate in
a knob or head.
6. Fissiles, fissile, i. e. cleft, when they are capitate,
and have the head or knob divided longitudinally into
three or four parts or laminae.
7. Perfoliata, perfoliated, when the head or knob is
divided horizontally.
8. Pectinatee, pectinated, i. e. resembling a comb,
when they have a longitudinal series of hairs projecting
from them, in form of a comb.
9. Barbata, barbed, when they have little projec¬
tions or barbs placed on their sides. They are either,
I. Longiores, longer than the body; 2. Breviores, shorter
than the body ; or, 3. Mediocres, of the same length
with the body.
The Mouth, in most insects, is placed in the under
part of the head ; sometimes, however, it is situated in
the thorax, and in a few instances, is entirely wanting.
It is furnished with, 1. Palpce, or feelers; 2. Rostrum,
i. e. beak or snout; 3. Labium, or lip ; 4. Maxilla:, or
jaws, placed transversely, and moving laterally; 5.
Dentes, or teeth ; 6. Lingua, or tongue ; 7. Palatum,
or palate.
Palpa, feelers, which are 4 or 6 in number, are
attached to the mouth, and have 2, 3, or 4 articulations.
The Stemmata are three prominent shining points on
the top of the head.
II. TRUNCUS, the Trunk, to which the legs are Trunk
attached, is situated between the head and the abdo¬
men. It is divided into, 1. The Thorax, or chest, which
is the superior part; 2. Scutellwn, i. e. small shield or
escutcheon, which is the posterior part; 3. The Breast
and Sternum, which is the inferior part.
III. The ABDOMEN, that part which contains Abdomen,
the stomach, intestines, and other viscera, consists of
several annular segments. It is perforated on the sides
with spiracula, i. e. breathing holes. The upper part
of it is termed Tergum, or back ; the inferior part Ven¬
ter, or belly ; the posterior part Anus.
IV. ARTUS, the extremities, are, 1. the Wings; Ext1'ci“-
2. Legs; 3. Tail. t,es*
I. Auk, the wings, are two, or four. They are
either,
1. Fiance, i. e. plain, such as cannot be folded up by
the insect.
2. Plicatiles, or folding, such as can be folded up by
the insect at pleasure.
3. Erectee, erect, such as have their superior surfaces
brought into contact, and stand upright when the in¬
sect is at rest.
4. Patentes, spreading ; such as are extended hori¬
zontally.
5. Incumbentes, incumbent; such as rest on the up¬
per part of the abdomen.
6. DeficKee, bent down ; such as are partly incum¬
bent,
ENTOMOLOGY.
bent, but have their exterior edge inclined towards the
sides of the abdomen.
7. Reversce, reversed; such as are incumbent, but
inverted.
8. Dentatce, such as have their edges notched or ser¬
rated.
9. Caudatce, such as have processes extended from
their extremities like a tail.
* 10. Reticulatce, netted j when the vessels of the
wings put on the appearance of net-work.
ir. Pictas, painted; such as are marked with co¬
loured spots, bands, streaks, lines or dots.
12. Notatce, marked with specks.
13. Ornatce, adorned with little eyes, or circular
spots, containing a spot of a different colour in their
centre. The central spot is termed the exterior
one is called iris. This may happen either in the pri¬
mary or secondary wings, on their upper or under sur¬
faces. The superior wing is called primary, and the
inferior secondary, to avoid confusion, as they may be
at times reversed.
!*ira. The Elytra are hard shells, occupying the place of
the upper wungs. They are, for the most part, move-
able, and are either,
1. Truncata, truncated, when shorter than the abdo¬
men, and terminated by a transverse line.
2. Sptnosa, or prickly, when their surfaces are co¬
vered with sharp points or prickles.
3. Serrata, serrated, when their edges are notched.
4. Scabra, rough, wdien their surface resembles a file.
5. Striata, striated, when marked with slender longi¬
tudinal furrows.
6. Porcata, ridged, when marked with elevated ridges.
7. Sulcata, furrowed.
8. Punctata, marked with dots.
9. Fastigiata, when formed like the roof of a house.
Imelytra. The Hemelytra, as it were half-elytra, partaking
i partly of the nature of crustaceous shells, and membra¬
naceous wings; being formed of an intermediate sub¬
stance.
H teres. Halteres, or poisers, are small orbicular bodies
placed on stalks, situated under the wings of insects of
the order Diptera.
II. Pedes, the Legs. They, are divided into, 1.
Femur, or thigh, that part which is joined to the trunk ;
2. Tibia, or shank; 3. Tarsus, or foot; 4. Ungues,
hooks or nails ; 5. Manus, (chela'), hands or claws,
simple, with a moveable thumb, as iu the crab.
The hind-legs are termed, 1. Cursorii, formed for
running; 2. Saltatorii, formed for leaping; 3. Natatorii,
formed for swimming.
III. Cauda, the Tail, which terminates the abdo¬
men, is, 1. Solitaria, i. e. single. 2. Bicornis, i. e. two¬
horned or double. 3. Simplex, simple, i. e. unarmed.
4. Armata, i. e. furnished, 1. with Forceps or Pincers ;
2. with Furca, a fork; 3. with one or more Setae or
bristtes; 4. with an Aculeus, or sting, either smooth or
barbed. A sting is a weapon, frequently hollow, with
which some insects are furnished, through which they
discharge a poison into the wound they inflict.
Sl !*. The Sexes of insects are commonly two, male and
female. Neuters are to be met with among those insects
which live in swarms, such as ants, bees, £tc.
Most insects undergo three changes. An insect is Metamor-
at first hatched from a very small egg, and becomes aphosu.
Larva ; a soft succulent animal, without wings, inca- '
pable of producing its species, slow in its motions, some¬
times without feet, but more frequently with them;
consuming greedily the kind of food which is peculiar
to it, and which, in proper time, is changed into a
pupa.
Pupa (Nympha, Chrysalis), is firmer and drier than
the larva, and is confined either by a naked membrane,
or enclosed in a follicle. It is commonly without a
mouth ; sometimes it has feet, but more frequently
none.
1. Completa, complete in all their parts, and active;
as the aranea, acarus, oniscus, &c.
2. Semicompleta, half complete, with only the rudi¬
ments of wings ; as the gryllus, cicada, cimex, libellula,
and ephemera.
3. Incompleta, incomplete, with immoveable wings
and feet; as the apis, formica, and tipula.
4. Obtecta, covered, having the thorax and abdomen
enclosed in a skin, and that either naked, or enclosed
in a follicle differently composed.
5. Coarctata, confined withiu a globe; as the musca,
oestrus.
The pupa is converted into the imago, or the perfect
insect.
Imago, is the perfect insect, active, furnished with
antennee, and capable of generating.
Insects are said to inhabit those plants on which they
feed, and not those on which they may be occasionally
found, and receive from them many of their specific
names."
Linnaeus has divided the class of insects into seven
orders.
I. Coleoptera, (from ttuXtif, “ a sheath,” and Classifier.
Trlt^or, “ a wing”), are such insects as have four wings,tioni*
the upper pair of which are elytra, or crustaceous
shells, which, when the animal is at rest, shut, and
form a straight suture down the back.
II. Hemiptera, (from “ half,” and “ a
wing”), containing such insects as have four wings,
the superior part being half crustaceous, and incumbent,
and a mouth or beak bent toward the breast.
HI. Lepidoptera, (from “ a scale,” and
7rli£M, “ a wing”), containing such insects as have four
wings covered with minute imbricated scales, a hairy
body, and a mouth furnished with an involuted spiral
tongue.
IV. Neuroptera, from “ a nerve,” and
?r7tg«7, “ a wing), containing such insects as have
four naked wings, marked wiih veins crossing one ano¬
ther like net-work ; the tail unarmed.
V. Hymenoptera, from ipw, “ a membrane,”
and TThgee, “ a wing”), containing such insects as have
four membranaceous wings, and a tail furnished with
a sting.
VI. Diptera, (from “ two,” and vrlt^v, “ a
wing”), such as have two wings and poisers.
VII. Aptera, (from *, “ without,” and arjigw,
“ a wing”), such as have no wings or elytra in
either sex.
T 2 CHAEACTERS
148
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera,
CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
I. COLEOPTERA.
The Insects belonging to this order are formed into four divisions, i. Those that have the antennae clavated,
and thickened towards their exterior side. 2. Those that have the antennae moniliform. 3. Those which
have the antennae filiform. 4. Those which have the antennae setaceous.
A. Antennis clavatis, extrorsum incrassatis.
a. Clava lamellata.
1. ScaraB-SlUS. Tibiae anteriores dentatae.
2. Lucanus. Penicilli duo sub labio, palpigeri.
b. Clava perfoliata.
3. Dermestes. Caput inflexum sub thorace, vix
marginato.
4. Melyris. Labium clavatum, emarginatum.
5. ByrRHUS. Labium porrectum, bifidum.
6. Sylpha. Thorax et elytra marginata.
7. Tritoma. Palpi anteriores securiformes.
8. Hydrophilus. Maxilla bifida.
c. Clava solida.
9. Hister. Caput retractile intra thoracem.
10. Pausus. Antennae biarticulatse. Clava uncinata.
11. Bostrichus. Caput inflexum sub thorace, vix
marginato.
12. ANTHRENUS. Maxilla bifida.
13. Nitidula. Thorax et elytra marginata.
14. Coccinella. Palpi anteriores securiformes $
posteriores filiformes.
15. Curculio. Rostrum elongatum corneum.
B. Antennis moniliformibus.
16. Brentus. Rostrum elongatum, corneum, rec¬
tum.
17. Attelabus. Rostrum elongatum, incurvum.
18. Erodius. Labium corneum, emarginatum.
19. Staphylinus. Elytra dimidiata, alas tegentia.
Vesiculae duae supra caudam exserendae.
20. Scaurus. Labium truncatum, integrum.
21. Zygia. Labium elongatum, membranaceum.
22. Meloe. Thorax subrotundus. Caput gibbum,
inflexum.
23. Tenebrio. Thorax marginatus. Caput exser-
tum. Corpus oblongum.
24. Cassida. Corpus ovatum. Elytra marginata.
Caput tectum clypeo.
25. Opatrum. Thorax et elytra marginata.
26. Mordella. Laminae ad basin abdominis.
Caput inflexum.
27. Chrysomela. Corpus ovatum, immarginatum.
28. Horia. Palpi inaequales. Maxilla bifida. La¬
bium rotundatum.
2
A. The Antennce clavated, becoming thicker towards
their exterior side,
a. The Clava or Club lamellated.
S. The shanks of the fore-legs dentated.
L. Two tufts under the lip, to which the feelers are
attached.
b. The Club perfoliated,
D. The head bent under the thorax, which is scarce¬
ly marginated.
M. The lip clavated and emarginated.
B. The lip stretched out, and bifid.
S. The thorax and elytra marginated.
T. The two anterior feelers hatchet-shaped.
H. The jaw bifid.
c. The Club solid.
H. The head capable of being drawn back within
the thorax.
P. The antennae consisting of two articulations. The
club hooked.
B. The head bent under the thorax, which is slight¬
ly marginated.
A. The jaw bifid.
N. The thorax and elytra marginated.
C. The anterior feelers hatchet-shaped j the posterior
filiform.
C. The beak lengthened and horny.
B. With the Antennce moniliform.
B. The beak elongated, horny and straight.
A. The beak elongated and crooked.
E. The lip horny and emarginated.
S. The elytra half the length of the body, covering
the wings. Two vesicles above the tail, which can be
pushed out at pleasure.
S. The lip truncated, and entire.
Z. The lip elongated and membranaceous.
M. The thorax roundish. The head gibbons, and
bent inw'ards.
T. The thorax marginated. The head stretched out.
The body oblong.
C. The body oblong. The elytra marginated. The
head covered with a shield.
O. The thorax and elytra marginated.
M. Laminae at the base of the abdomen. Head in¬
flected.
C. The body oval, immarginated.
H. Feelers unequal. Jaw bifid. Lip rounded.
29-
H9
ENTOMOLOGY.
C. Antenniu filiformihus.
£9, ApaLUS. Thorax subrotundas. Caput glbbum,
iuflexum.
30. Manticora. Maxillae exsertae, dentatae. Oculi
prominuli.
31. Pimelia. Thorax marginatus. Caput exser-
tum. Corpus oblongum.
32. Gyrinus. Antennae rigidulae. Oculi quatuor.
33. Cucujus. Labium breve, bihdum, laciniis dis-
tantibus.
34. Cryptocephalus. Corpus ovatum immargina-
tum.
35. Bruchus. Antennae extrorsum crassiores.
36. Ptinus. Thorax caput recipiens. Antennae
articulis ultimis longioribus.
37. Hispa. Antennae porrectae, approximatae, fusi-
formes.
38. Buprestis. Caput dimidium, intra thoracem
retractum.
39. Necydalis. Elytra dimidiata, alls nudis.
40. Lampyris. Elytra flexilia. Thoracis clypeus
caput obumbrans recipiensque.
41. Cantharis. Elytra flexilia. Abdomen late-
ribus plicato-papillosum.
42. Notoxus. Labium bifidum 5 laciniis conniven-
tibus obtusis.
43. Elater. Pectoris mucro e poro abdominis re-
siliens.
44. Calopus. Thorax ad latera mucronato-callo-
sus.
45. Alurnus. Maxilla fornicata.
46. Carabus. Thorax obcordatus, posterius trun-
catus.
47. Lytta. Thorax subrotundus. Caput gibbum,
inflexum.
I). Antennis setaceis.
48. Serropalpus. Palpi anteriores profunde ser-
rati.
49. Cerambyx. Thorax ad latera mucronato-cal-
losus.
50. Leptura. Elytra apice attenuata. Thorax
teretiusculus.
51. Rhinomacer. Antennae rostro insidentes.
52. Zonitis. Labium emarginatum.
53* Cicindela. Maxillae exsertae, dentatae. Ocu¬
li prominuli.
54* Dytiscus. Pedes posteriores ciliati, natatorii.
55. Forficula. Elytra dimidiata. Alls tectis.
Cauda forcipata.
fptera. II. HEMIPTERA.
56. Blatta. Os maxillosum. Alae coriaceae, planae.
Pedes cursorii.
57« Pneumora. Os maxillosum. Alae membra-
naceae, deflexae. Pedes cursorii. Corpus cavum, infla-
tum, diaphanum.
58.. Mantis. Os maxillosum. Pedes anteriores
serrati, ungue unico.
59. Gryllu*. Os maxillosum. Pedes posteriores
saltatorii.
C. Antenna filiform,
A. Thorax roundish. Head turgid, inflected.
M. Jaws stretched out, furnished with teeth. Eyes
rather prominent.
P. Thorax margined. Head stretched out. Body
oblong. J
G. Antennae a little rigid. Eyes 4.
C. Lip short, bifid, the divisions distant.
C. Body oval, immarginated.
B. Antennae growing thicker towards the external
edge.
P. Thorax receiving the head: last joints of the
antennae longer than the rest.
H. Antennae stretched forwards, approaching one
another, and spindle-shaped.
B. Head half retracted within the thorax.
N. Elytra half the length of the body. Wings
naked. °
L. Elytra flexible. Shield of the thorax shading and
receiving the head.
C. Elytra flexible. Sides of the abdomen edged
with folded papillae.
N. Lip bifid, j the divisions of it obtuse and ap¬
proaching closely.
. E- A sharp point proceeding from the breast, spring¬
ing out at a pore in the abdomen.
C The thorax callous at the sides, and set with sharp
points.
A. Jaw arched. Feelers 6.
C. The thorax resembling a heart inverted, and ter-<
minating abruptly behind.
L. Thorax roundish. Head turgid, inflected.
D. Antenna setaceous,
S. The anterior feelers deeply serrated.
C. The thorax callous at the sides, and set witiii
sharp points.
L. Elytra tapering towards the tip. Thorax
roundish.
R. Antennm seated on the snout.
Z. Lip emarginated.
C. Jaws stretched out, furnished with teeth. Eyes
a little prominent.
X). Hind-legs fringed, formed for swimming.
F. Elytra half as long as the body. Wings covered.
Tail furnished with pincers.
II. HEMIPTERA.
B. Mouth furnished with jaws. Wrings coriaceous,.’
plane. Legs formed for running.
P. Mouth furnished with jaws. Wrings membrana*;
ceous, deflected. Legs formed tor running. Body
hollow, inflated, and transparent.
M. Mouth furnished with jaws. The anterior legs'
serrated, and terminated by a single claw.
G. Mouth furnished with jaws. Hind-legs formed}
for leaping.
60..
150
ENTOMOLOGY.
60. FuLGORA. Rostrum inflexum. Frons produc-
ta, inermis. Antennae capitatae.
61. Cicada. Rostrum inflexum. Pedes posterxores
saltatorii.
62. Notonecta. Rostrum inflexum. Pedes pos-
teriores natatorii (ciliati).
63. Nepa. Rostrum inflexum. Pedes anteriores
cbeliferi.
64. Cimex. Rostrum inflexum. Pedes cursorii.
Antennae thorace longiores.
65. Macrocephalus. Rostrum inflexum. An¬
tennae brevissimae.
66. Aphis. Rostrum inflexum. Abdomen bicorne.
67. Chermes. Rostrum pectorale. Pedes poste-
riores saltatorii.
68. Coccus. Rostrum pectorale. Abdomen (mari-
bus) posterius setosum.
69. Thrips. Rostrum obsoletum. Alse incum-
bentes, abdoroine reflexile.
F. Snout inflected. Fore-head projecting, unarmed.
Antennae capitated.
C. Snout inflected. Hind-legs formed for leaping.
N. Snout inflected. Hind-legs fringed, and formed
for swimming.
N. Snout inflected. Fore-legs furnished with claws.
C. Snout inflected. Legs formed for running. An¬
tennae longer than the thorax.
M. Snout inflected. Antennae very short.
A. Snout inflected. Abdomen 2-horned.
C. Snout placed in the breast. Hind-legs formed
for leaping.
C. Snout placed in the breast. Abdomen (in the
males) terminating in bristles.
T. Snout obsolete. Wings incumbent. The ab¬
domen capable of being turned up.
Lepido-
ptera.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
70. Papilio. Antennae extrorsum crassiores. Alae
erectee.
71. Sphinx. Antennae medio crassiores.
72. Phalena. Antennae introrsum crassiores.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
P. Antennae thicker towards the point. W'ings erect.
S. Antennae thicker in the middle.
P. Antennae thicker towards the base.
Neuro-
ptersu
IV. NEUROPTERA.
73. Libellula. Cauda forcipata. Os multi max-
illosum. Alae extensae.
74. Ephemera. Cauda setis 2 et 3. Os eden-
tulum. Alae erectae.
75. Myrmeleon. Cauda forcipata. Os bidenta-
tum. Alae deflexae.
76. PhrygaNEA. Cauda simplex. Os edentulum.
Alae deflexae. #
77. Hemerobius. Cauda simplex. Os bidenta-
tum. Alae deflexae.
78. Panorpa. Cauda chelata. Os rostratum. Alae
incumbentes.
79. Raphidia. Cauda filo 1. Os bidentatum.
Alae deflexae.
IV. NEUROPTERA.l
L. Tail forked. Mouth with many jaws. Wings
expanded.
E. Tail with 2 and 3 bristles. Mouth without teeth.
Wings erect.
M. Tail forked. Mouth with two teeth. W'ings
deflected.
P. Tail simple. Mouth without teeth. Wings de¬
flected.
H. Tail simple. Mouth with two teeth. Wrings
deflected.
P. Tail furnished with a claw. Mouth stretched
out into a beak. Wings incumbent.
R. Tail ending in a simple thread. Mouth with
two teeth. Wrings deflected.
Hymeno-
pteia.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
80. Cynips. Aculeus spiralis !
81. Tenthredo. Aculeus serratus ! bivalvis.
82. Sirex. Aculeus serratus, sub abdominis spina
terminali.
83. Ichneumon. Aculeus exsertus . triplex.
84. Sphex. Aculeus punctorius. Alae planae. Lin¬
gua inflexa, trifida. .
85. Scolia. Lingua inflexa, trifida. Labium apice
membranaceum. ... T
86. Thynnus. Lingua brevissima, involuta. La¬
bium trifidum.
87. Leucopsis. Labium maxilla longius, emargi-
natum. Antennae clavatae.
88. Tiphia. Labium breve, corneum, tridentatum.
89. Chalcis. Antennae breves, cylindricae, fusi-
formes. .
90. Chrysis. Aculeus punctorius. Abdomen sub-
tus fornicatum.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
C. Sting spiral.
T. Sting serrated, two-valved.
S. Sting serrated, under a spine which terminates the
abdomen.
1. Sting stretched out, triple.
S. Sting pungent. Wings smooth. Tongue inflec¬
ted, and divided into three at the extremity.
S. Tongue inflected, trifid. Lip membranaceous at
the extremity.
T. Tongue very short, involuted. Lip trifid.
L. Lip longer than the jaw, notched. Antennse
clavated.
T. Lip short, horny, with three small divisions.
C. Antennae short, cylindrical, spindle-shaped.
C. Sting pungent. Abdomen arched beneath.
• 9r*
3
ENTOMOLOGY.
pr, Vespa. Aculeua punctorlus. Alae superiores
plicatse!
92. Apis. Aculeus purictorlus. Lingua inflexa!
93. Formica. Aculeus obsoletus. Alas neutris
nullae !
94. Mutilla. Aculeus punctorius. Alae neutris
nullae.
VI. DIPTERA.
A. Proboscide et Haustello.
95. Diopsis. Caput bicorne. Oculis terminalibus.
96. Tipula. Haustellum sine vagina. Palpi 2,
porrecti, filiformes.
97. Musca. Haustellum sine vagina, setis instruc-
tuni.
98. Tabanus, Haustellum vagina univalvi, setis-
que instructum.
99. Emfis. Proboscis inflexa.
100. Conops. Proboscis porrecta, geniculata.
B. Haustello sine Proboscide.
101. Oestrus. Haustellum retractum intra labia,
connata poro pertusa.
102. Asilus. Haustellum rectum bivalve, basi gib-
bum.
103. Stomoxys. Haustellum vagina univalve con-
voluta, basi geniculata.
104. Culex. Vagina exserta, univalvis, flexilis,
setis 5.
105. Bombylius. Haustellum longissimum, rectum,
setaceum, bivalve.
106. Hippobosca. Haustellum breve, cylindricum,
rectum, bivalve.
VII. APTERA.
A. Pe dibus sex, Capite a Thor ace discreto.
107. Lepisma. Cauda setis exsertis,
208. Podura. Cauda bifurca, inflexa, saltatrix.
109. Termes. Os maxillis duabus. Labium cor-
neum, quadrifldum.
no. Pediculus. Os aculeo exserendo.
in. Pulex. Os rostro inflexo, cum aculeo. Pe-
des saltatorii.
B. Pedibus 8—14. Capite Thoi'aceque unitis.
112. Acarus. Oculi 2, Pedes 8. Palpi com-
pressi.
113. Hydrachxa. Oculi 2—8. Pedes 8, in an-
teriore corporis parte. Papillae textoriae.
114. Aranea. Oculi 8. Pedes 8. Papillse tex-
toriae. Palpi clavati.
115. Phalangjum. Oculi 4, Pedes 8. Palpi
clielati.
116. Scorpio. Oculi 8. Pedes 8. Palpi chelati.
117. Cancer. Oeuli 2. Pedes 10, primo clieiato.
V. Sting pungent. Upper wings folded.
A. Sting pungent. Tongue inflected.
F. Sting obsolete. Neuters without wings.
M. Sting pungent. Neuters without wings.
VI. DIPTERA.
A, With Proboscis and Sucker.
D. Head two-horned. Eyes terminal.
T. Sucker without a sheath. Feelers 2, projecting,
filiform.
M. Sucker without a sheath, furnished with bristles.
T. Sucker with asingle-valved sheath, furnished with
bristles.
E. Proboscis inflected.
C. Proboscis projecting, and bent with an angular
flexure.
B. With Suckert but no Proboscis.
O. Sucker drawn back within the lips, which are
perforated.
A. Sucker straight, with two valves, turgid at the
base.
S. Sucker with a single-valved convoluted sheath,
bent at the base, with an angular flexure.
C. Sheath stretched out, of one flexible valve, with
5 bristles.
B. Sucker very long, straight, setaceous, with two
valves.
H. Sucker short, cylindrical, straight, with two valves.
VII. APTERA.
A. Legs six. Head distinct from the Thorax.
L. Tail ending in setaceous bristles.
P. Tail forked, inflected, elastic.
_ T. Mouth with two jaws. Lip horny, cleft into four
pieces.
P. Mouth armed with a sting capable of being push¬
ed out at pleasure.
P. Snout inflected, armed with a sting. Feet form-
ed for leaping.
B. Legs 8—14. Head and Thorax united.
A. Eyes 2. Legs 8. Feelers compressed.
H. Eyes 2—8. Legs 8. Abdomen furnished with
papillae, with which the animal spins thread and weaves
itself a web.
A. Eyes 8. Legs 8. Abdomen furnished with
papillae, with which the animal spins thread and weaves
itself a web.
P. Eyes 4. Legs 8. Feelers furnished with claws.
S. Eyes 8. Legs 8. Feelers furnished with claws.
C. Eyes 2. Legs 10, the first pair furnished with
claws.
118.
118. Monoculus. Oculi a,
Jatis,
,119. Oniscus. Oculi 2. Pedes 14,
C. Pedibus pluribus, Capite a Thorace discreto.
1 20. ScoLOPENDRA. Corpus lineare.
121. Julus. Corpus subcylindricum.
M. Eyes 2. Legs 12, 10 of them furnished with
claws.
O. Eyes 2. Legs 14.
C. Legs numerous. Head distinct frotn the Thorax.
S. Body linear.
J. Body nearly cylindrical.
Those marked
N. B. In the following classification, some of the more remarkable species only are enumerated.
with an asterisk are natives of Britain.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Pedes 12, decern che*
I. COLEOPTERA.
Elytra covering the wings.
Scarab»tt*. I. ScARAB^EUS, Beetle.
Antennse clavated, the club lamellated. Feelers 4*
Jaws horny, for the most part without teeth. The
shanks of the fore-legs generally dentated.
The larvae of the genus scarabceus have six feet,
and a body composed of annular segments, furnished
with hairs, and with vesicles at the end of the abdo¬
men. Their heads are hard, formed of a substance like
horn. They are commonly called grubs, and do much
mischief, both in the fields and in the garden. They
live chiefly under ground, or in dung, on which they
frequently feed. The larvae of the species cetonia live
on rotten wood, and those of the melolontha on the
roots of plants. The pupa remains under ground.—
Grubs are devoured by many kinds of birds, particu¬
larly by the rooks, which, on that account, ought not
to be destroyed so eagerly as they are in many places j
for, though they do much mischief themselves, in
spring, and during harvest, yet it is amply compensated
by the good they do through the year, in clearing the
ground of grubs.
* Feelers filiform.
+ Jaiv arched.
a. Without teeth.
N. Thorax horned.
«. Scutellati.
* her cutes. A horn on the thorax, large, and bent inwards,
barbed below with one tooth •, a horn on the head bent
back, dentated on the upper side with many teeth.
Syst. Nat. Lin. 1. It is a native of America, and va¬
ries in colour, being sometimes black, sometimes azure
spotted with black. The female is without horns.
* centau- The horn on the thorax bent inwards, with two teeth
ms. at its base, and bifid at the point j the horn on the head
bent back, furnished with one tooth. 92.
thorinems. The horn on the breast bent inwards and very thick
at the base, bifid at the point *, the horn on the head
bent back, very long, bifid. Native of Brazil. 96.
* tupheeus Bull-comber. With three horns on the thorax, the
middle ones smaller than the rest, lateral ones project¬
ing as far as the head does, which is without horns. It
is a native of Europe ; to be met with under cow-dung.
It makes its nest in holes, which it digs deep into the
ground It is black. Head depressed, hairy at the
sides narrow. Knob of the antennae grayish. Thorax.
smooth. The horns sometimes as long as the head, and
sometimes twice as long j in the female hardly visible.
Elytra striated. Shanks hairy. 9.
Thorax with four projections like teeth. The horn * mobili.
of the head bent back, and moveable. 1x6. Native corm'f.
of England and Germany. Black. Elytra striated.
Female without horns on the head, or projections on the
breast.
Smooth; thorax with two horns j horn of the head acimn.
notched with one tooth, bifid at the end j elytra smooth.
3. Native of South America. The largest of all
known insects, except crabs and monoculi. Elytra
black, or az.ure spotted with black.
N. Thorax horned.
4. Without Scutellum.
Thorax with six spines; jaws prominent; front slop-violaceui\
ing ; body entirely of a violet colour. 117. Native of
Siberia; found under stones ; small. Elytra marked
with deeply excavated spots.
Horn of the thorax flat, marked with one tooth anoedipus,
the under side ; the horn of the head terminating a-
bruptly, with three teeth. 119. Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. Middle-sized.
Thorax with three horns, the middle one obtuse, and * lunarn
bifid ; horn of the head erect; shield emarginated. 10.
Native of Europe ; on dunghills. The female always
without horns on the breast.
Thorax marked with four projections like teeth ; po- camelui,
sterior part of the shield slightly marked with two horns ;
bodv black. 134. Native of Germany. The female
with nearly the same marks as the male.
b. Thorax unarmed ; Head horned,
a. Furnished with a Scutellum,
Thorax prominent, divided into two lobes; horn oibilobus.
the head simple ; elytra striated. 12. Native of the
south of Europe. Black.
A triple prominence on the breast; horn on the head nasicorm
bent back; elytra smooth. 15. Native of Europe;
met with in dunghills. Its larva gray, with a red¬
dish head, feet, and spiracula or breathing holes.
Swammerdam has supposed it to be the cossus of the
ancients. Yid. Plin. 17. 24. Thorax of the female
roundish.
18. Without Scutellum.
Thorax prominent, formed of two lobes ; horn on ihtjacehut.
head bent back, and simple. 156. Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. The born on the head of the female
verv short, and terminating abruptly.
Thorax flat, angularly rough ; the hora on the headewvji/tf,
bent
9 fimcta-
riut.
* stereo-
rarius.
Coieoptera. E N T O M
bent inwards : the body of a yellow colour. 22. Na¬
tive of America. During the whole summer they may
be seen in great numbers, rolling about balls which
they form out of dung. They mutually assist one ano¬
ther to roll them into holes made for their reception,
like the pilularis. Their bodies are broad, and de¬
pressed ; the horn on their heads is placed backwards.
It is black, and smooth. In the female it is effaced.
c. Both Thorax and Head ivithout horns.
a. Furnished with a Scutelium.
Dunghill-beetle. Body black ; head marked with
tubercles, commonly three in number j the elytra red¬
dish. 32. Native of Europe j frequently to be met
with in dung.
Clock-beetle. Body black, smooth ; the elytra fur¬
rowed ; the head of a rhomboidal figurey fore-head
prominent. 42. Native.of Europe ; to be met with
in dung ; much infested with some species of the aca-
rus and ichneumon, and, on that account, frequently
called lousij beetle. It flies about in the evening with
a loud noise, and is said to foretel a fine day. It was
consecrated by the Egyptians to the sun. It is some¬
times of a greenish blue colour. It is likewise some¬
times yellowish below, with dusky-red elytra. This is
the shard-borne beetle of Shakespeare. The female
digs a hole, and kneads a lump of fresh dung, gene¬
rally of a cylindrical shape, on which she deposits one
egg, and then covers it with more dung, attaching it
to the root of some grass. In a few days the larva
breaks the egg, and feeds on the fresh dung. During
the autumn it changes its skin four times.
/3. Without Scutellum.
sacer. The shield of the head marked with six denticula-
tions j the thorax notched 5 the shanks of the hind legs
fringed *, top of the head marked with two slight pro¬
jections. 18. Native of the southern parts of the old
continent. It is frequent in dry situations in the south¬
ern parts of Russia, where it rolls about cylinders form¬
ed of cow-dung. Its figure is carved by the Egyptians
on the ancient pillars at Rome.
filularius. Black, opaque, smooth, yellow underneath $ the thorax
rounded behind. 40. Native of the south of Europe 5
of the same size with the lousy beetle. In pairs, they
daily roll, like Sisyphus, a ball made of excrement,
seven times the bulk of their own body.
schaeffcri. The thorax round ; the shield emarginated 5 the ely¬
tra triangular) the thighs of the hind-legs elongated
and dentated. 41. Native of Italy, Germany, and
Siberia ; to be met with on the sunny hills, where it
rolls and buries balls made of cow-dung. It is black.
*fossor. Thorax retuse ; head marked with three tubercles,
the middle one faintly resembling a horn. 31. A na¬
tive of Europe, in sandy places, and in dunghills.
b. Jaw arched, furnished with some teeth ; the point of
the Abdomen naked, and obliquely truncated. Melo-
ionthae.
* fu/h. E)f a brick colour, and spotted with white. The scu-
tellwm with two notches) the antennas divided into
seven leaves, yjr. It inhabits sandy situations in Eu¬
rope and Barbary, living on the oak, ehjimts nrenaria,
and arundo arenaria. It is hairy below : the hooks at
the ends ot their legs are furnishe 1, at their base, trilh
Yol. VIII. Part I. f
153
O L O G Y.
a crooked branch. It is the largest coleopterous insect
to be met with in Britain, except the stag-beetle. It
is but rare in England.
The head and thorax beset with bluish hair; the ely-fruticola,
tra of a livid colour; the shield bent back at the top.
236. Native of Germany ; on the ears of rye.
The head and thorax beset with bluish hairs ; the ely-* hortico-
tra of a brick colour ; the legs black. 59. Native of/a.
Europe; to be found in gardens, where its grub proves
very destructive to cabbages, &c. and the beetle to the
fruit-trees.
The thorax hairy; the elytra of a livid colour, with agricola.
a black edge, and black band ; the shield turned back
at the top. 38. Native of Europe, on grass-fields.
The head and thorax covered with bluish hairs ; theabdomi-
elytra reddish ; the abdomen white and hairy. 240. nalis.
Native of Europe ; resembles the garden-beetle very
much, and is very destructive.
Of a shining copper colour; the shield emarginated. regius,
24I. Native of Africa, near the equator.
Green ; the sides of the thorax yellow. 249. A vitis.
native both of Europe and America’ on the vine:
very like the frischii, differing only from it by the ely¬
tra, which are of a brick colour.
Blackish yellow ; the elytra of a brick colour, 'lyo.fiischii.
Is a native of Germany; on the vine, and the rose.
The elytra, sometimes, are of the same colour with the
thorax.
Above smooth, and of a golden colour; the $cx\tz\-lactus.
lum, and a line on the back of the thorax, of a blood-
colour. 253. A native of New Zealand.
Door-beetle, May bug, Cockchaffer. Furnished with * melohn*
a scutellum ; without horns ; light brown ; the thorax tha.
hairy ; the tail bent inwards ; a triangular white spot at
each incisure of the abdomen. 60. It inhabits the
northern parts of Europe ; flies about in the evening,
and feeds on the leaves of trees. It is the most destruc¬
tive of all the European insects. When it happens to
be more plentiful than usual, in the autumn, the vulgar
entertain an opinion, that some epidemic diseases are to
follow. The male is distinguished by a sharp inflected
tail. The grub is gray, with reddish brown head and feet.
Eats the roots of plants, particularly of corn, frequently
laying waste a great tract of country. They remain six
years under ground, before they become beetles. Their
thorax varies yearly in colour, from brown to black.
It is furnished with a scutellum, and is without horns ; sohtitiulis.
the thorax is hairy ; the elytra are of a pale yellow co¬
lour, marked with three white parallel lines, 61. Is
a native of Europe, to he met witli among trees. The
claws at the end of the legs, have one little projection,
like a tooth, at their base. They make their appear¬
ance somewhat later than the May-bug, and are very
frequent about the summer solstice.
Body of a brick colour, and woolly below; shield villosus,
marginated, and bent back; scutelium white. 263.
Native of Europe ; of the same size with the cockchaf¬
fer.
ff Jaw straight.
a. Sharp. Cetoniae.
Furnished with a scutellum ; without horns ; sternum chrysis.
projecting ; scutellum one half shorter than the elytra.
49. Native of South America, Of the same size and
colour with the golden beetle.
U Furnished
Coleopten,
154 ENTOMOLOGY.
fuscicuhu Furnished with a scutellum ; thorax marked with four
ria. small white lines ; elytra green j incisures of the abdo¬
men bearded. 75. Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Covered on the under part of the body with pale red
wool, collected into little bundles.
3. Hermestes, Leather-Eater.
b. Jaws straight and blunt. Frischii.
* fascia- Furnished with a scutellum 5 body black, covered
tus. with yellow down j elytra marked with two yellow bands
uniting into one. 70. Native of the north of Europe:
feeding on the flowers of the syringafrfipemhtla, and on
some umbelliferous plants.
* hemipte- Furnished with a scutellum; thorax downy, edged
rus. with two longitudinal wrinkles $ elytra shortened. 63.
Native of Europe. The larva is found in wood j the
beetle on flowers. The female is armed with a stiff,
short Stine.
Antennas clavated $ club perfoliated j three articulations
thicker than the rest. Thorax convex, slightly mar-
ginated. Head bent and concealed under the breast.
Feelers terminating in knobs. Trox.
sus.
* sabulo- Furnished with a scutellum; black, opaque, with
wrinkled tubercles; antennae hairy at the base. 48.
Native of Europe. To be met with on sandy hills,
which are exposed to the sunshine.
morticinii. Shield unequal and fringed; elytra striated, and
marked with convex sharpish points. 404. Native of
Tartary. To be found in great numbers, under dead
bodies, which have been dried by the sun. It makes a
noise, by rubbing its tail against its elytra. Is of an
opaque black colour ; and of the same size with sc.
fossor.
*** Feelers cylindrical: the Club of the Antennce tuni-
cated.
hemisphee- Hemispherical ; the fore part of the shield marked
ricus. with two obtuse projections. 406. Larger than the
sc. sacer.
432 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin, in his last edition of the System of Nature.
i. Lucanus.
Antennae clavated; the club compressed, being bi’oadest
at the sides, and divided into pectinated leaves. Jaws
stretched out, and forked at the points. Two tufts
under the lip, to which the feelers are attached.
The jaws stretched out, and furnished with four teeth
at the point. 8. A native of Asia.
cervus. Stag-beetle. Furnished with a scutellum ; the jaws
stretched out, and foiked at the points, furnished with
one lateral tooth. 1. Native of Europe. It is the
largest coleopterous insect to be met with in Britain. It
feeds on decayed oak. The larva is white and very
thick, with head and feet of a rusty colour. By some
supposed to be the crassus of the ancients. The female
smaller than the male.
The jaws projecting, furnished with one tooth, and
forked at the point; the lip conical and bent down. 9.
Native of Virginia. In the female, which is smaller
than the male, the jaws do not project.
nanrcoins. Furnished with a scutellum ; the jaws projecting, and
only forked at the point. 2. It is a native of the south
of Europe, and North America ; about half the size of
the stag-beetle.
20 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Natuia.
alces.
The larvce, or grubs, of this tribe, devour dead bodies,
skins, leather, and almost any animal substance; and
are exceedingly destructive to books and furniture.
* Jaw bifid.
Black ; the fore part of the elytra of an ash colour. Vtf/Y/tf/'ii
I. It is a native of Europe. Sometimes, though rare¬
ly, the anterior part of the elytra is of a rusty colour.
This insect is the common pest of museums, libraries,
and preparations of natural history. It is also found in
old bacon, whence it has received its name. When it
is eating, it protrudes balls of excrement from its anus,
which hang down in a string. The larva is oval and
hairy.
Black ; the elytra livid at the base, and marked withelongatvl
a band of the same colour, at the posterior part; the
antennae and feet of a rusty colour. 2. Native of Eu¬
rope ; to be met with in old wood ; almost filiform.
Oblong, black; the elytra marked with a double * w/zt/ata.
white linear band. 3. A native of Europe. Feeds
on putrid animal substances.
Black ; the elytra marked with two white spots. 4.* pellio.
It is a native of Europe. Feeds on skins, bacon, and
old books. Its larva is oblong, hairy, and furnished
with a bristly tail.
Oblong, of a rusty colour ; with red eyes. 19. Na- *paniceui
tive of Europe. In bread that has been long kept; in
bookbinders glue ; in books, &c. About the size of a
millet seed. The larva is oblong, white and shining.
** Jaw furnished with one tooth. Apate.
The elytra reticulated, blunted behind and notched ;
thorax prickly and turgid. 6. It is a native of South
America ; in wood, and sugar canes.
Of a dusky colour ; the head drawn back ; the 2in-ruficornh
tennoe and feet reddish. 70. It is a native of Europe,
and very small.
70 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
4. Bostrichus.
Antennae clavated; the club solid. Thorax convex,
and scarcely marginated. Head inflected and con¬
cealed under the thorax.
Black; the elytra and abdomen red; the ihor&x capiecinus
flattened. 1. It is a native of Europe, and of Siberia.
It is to be found in trunks of trees, particularly dead
ones, and in houses.
Of a brick colour ; hairy ; the elytra striated, blunted* typogre-
and notched. 4. It is a native of Europe and A.mtv\-phus.
ca ; to be met with under the bark of trees. It is par¬
ticularly hurtful to the pine tree ; very prolific, and
very voracious ; scooping out furrows under the bark,
from which other smaller ones proceed, in a parallel dU
rection. They are very tenacious of life; and according
to age and size, vary in colour, from a yellow to a
brown, and from that to black.
Black 3 the elytra red, and notched, 5. It is a na.-chalcogra-
iiyephus.
i'’Coleoptera. E N T 0 M
tive of Europe; to be found under the bark of trees.
It sometimes varies in colour.
potygra- Blackish ; the elytra are sometimes blunted, and of
phus. an azure colour. 6. It is a native of Europe. It forms
winding canals under the bark of trees, and is one of
the most destructive of this genus.
* micro- Of a rusty colour $ the elytra entire, and of a brick
graphus. colour. 7. It is a native of Europe 5 in wood, also
within the bark of trees : small, black j the elytra, an¬
tennae, and legs, of a brick colour.
*piniper- Black, and somewhat hairy : the elytra entire and
'■ Pa. black; the feet reddish. 13. It is a native of Eu¬
rope ; on the under branches of pine-trees, which it
perforates, dries up, and destroys. It sometimes va¬
ries in the colour of the elytra.
22 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
5. Melyris.
Lip clavated, and emarginated. Antenna; perfoliated
throughout their whole length. Jaw with one tooth,
and pointed.
'rindis. Green ; the elytra marked with three elevated lines.
1. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. '
\iigra. Black; the elytra marked with three elevated lines.
2. About the third part of the size of the preceding
species.
6. Ptikus.
Antennae filiform ; the articulations towards the points
larger than the rest. Thorax roundish, not margina-
ted, receiving the head.
* Feelers clavated. Anobia.
'Igosus. Brown ; thorax unequal; elytra striated. 1. It is
a native of Europe ; without spots, and double the size
of the subsequent species.
pertu All over brown. 2. It is a native of Europe ; is
w. very destructive to wooden furniture, particularly to
articles made of oak ; likewise to books, &c. When
catched, it contracts itself and counterfeits death. It
can be put in motion again, neither by pricking, nor
any other means, except by the application of a strong
heat. It is destroyed by the attelabusJbrmicarius.
mollis. _ Of a brick colour, with dark-coloured eyes. 3. It
is^ a native of Europe, among rubbish ; an unwelcome
visitor in collections of plants, and to be got rid of ef¬
fectually, in no other way but by the heat of an oven.
The lan a is white, and is capable of enduring a great
degree of cold.
Mlsator. Death-watch. Cylindrical, opaque, and much wrink¬
led, sprinkled with gray spots. 13. It is a native of
Europe. It is common in trunks of old trees, particu¬
larly of the willow, and in houses. It beats, especially
in the night-time, making a noise, resembling that pro¬
duced by one’s nail struck against a table. This is done
by seven, nine, or eleven distinct strokes, and has been
considered by the vulgar, as foreboding some fatal oc¬
currence to the family occupying the house in which
the noise is heard. But it is nothing more than the
call of one sex to the other.
O L O G Y. I5
t
** Feelers filiform, bifid. Ptini.
Light brown, and almost without wings; the thorax *fur,
marked with four projections like teeth ; the elytra
marked with two white bands. 5. It is a native of
Europe, and is exceedingly destructive to seeds, muse¬
ums, books, furniture, preserved subjects of natural hi¬
story, and even to the leaves of tobacco. It delights in
cold and moisture ; and is best kept off by heat and
dryness, by arsenic or alum. It is most effectually de¬
stroyed by corrosive sublimate. The female is without
wings. The larva has six feet, and is soft, thick, and
hairy. The pupa is enclosed in a glutinous spherical
covering.
Brown ; the thorax somewhat crenated ; the elytra* imperi.
marked with a white blotch, divided into lobes. 4, Itfl/A.
is a native of the north of Europe; to be found in trees.
It is about the size of a grain of wheat: the antennae
are ot the same length with the body; the legs are of
a rusty colour ; the scutellum white ; the elytra mark¬
ed with a white spot, resembling the eagle worn on the
imperial standard ; from whence it has received its
name.
The thorax black, and smooth; the elytra connect-* scofowj.
ed, shining, brown. 22. It is a native of Europe ;
on the birch.
32 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
7. Hister.
Antennae clavated. Club solid, the lower joint com¬
pressed, and bent down. Head capable of being
drawn back into the body. Mouth furnished with
pincers. Elytra shorter than the body. Shanks of
the fore-legs notched.
^ ery large. 1. It is a native of India, similar to
the unicolor, but ten times larger. The corners of the
thorax rounded ; point of the breast extended, not
quite up to the mouth.
. Black 5 the elytra obliquely striated. 3. It is a na-* unicolor.
tive of Europe and America; in sand, and in dung.
. Black ; the posterior part of the elytra red. 5. Na-* bimacu-
tive of Europe ; in cow dung. latus.
17 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
8. Gyrinus, Whirler, or Water-flea.
Antennae cylindrical. Jaw very sharp, and horny.
Eyes four; two above, and two below.
These little animals are found on the surface of wa¬
ter, on which they run very nimbly, and describe
circles. When attempted to be taken, they dive down,
drawing after them a bubble, resembling a globe of
quicksilver.
Black; faintly striated. 1. Native of Europe ; in* natator.
lakes and ponds.
Black above; below, of a rusty colour; bind-legsZ>fco/s>/\
compressed. 3. Native of Europe ; frequents waters ;
is larger than the natator.
Nine species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
U 2
9. Byrrhus.
4
*56
9. Byrrhus.
Antennse clavated, and perfoliated. Feelers equal, and
somewhat clavated. Jaw bifid. Lip bifid.
gtgar. Black ; the elytra of a rusty colour, and marked with
points, i. Native of Europe. The anus of the fe¬
male furnished with a sting.
* pilula. Brown •, the elytra marked with black grooves. 4.
Native of Europe $ in sandy places. It is sometimes,
though rarely, black.
* varius. Black ; thorax of a bright yellow *, elytra brown, and
marked with three short green grooves, spotted with
black. 5. Native of Britain.
Nine species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
10. Anthrenus.
Antennse clavated. Club solid. Feelers unequal,
filiform. Jaws membranaceous, linear, bifid. Lip
entire.
pimpincl- Black ; elytra marked with a white band, and ot a
/(jg, rusty colour towards their points, with a white stain. 4*
Native of Europe j feeds on the flowers of the pimpi-
nella.
* scrophu- Black j elytra spotted with white-, suture of a blood-
larice. red colour, 1. Native of Europe; on the scrophularia.
* museo- Clouded; elytra slightly clouded. 2. Found in
rum. museums, destroying animals preserved in them, and
books.
* verhasci. Black ; elytra marked with three waved bands. 3.
Native of Europe ; on the verbascum.
Seven species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
Cokopteis
spots on the elytra, of a rusty colour. 41. Native of
England. Antennae black ; club reddish ; thorax
smooth, without spots; elytra smooth.
Blackish; elytra wrinkled, and marked with three* r«go.fci
elevated lines ; thorax wrinkled and scolloped behind.
16. Native of Europe and Asia. It consumes dead
bodies, either flesh or fish. When catched, it vomits a
very foetid fluid.
94 species of this genus are described by Gmelin, in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
12. Nitidula. I
Antennse clavated. Club solid. Elytra marginated.
Head prominent. Thorax a little flattened, and
marginated.
* Lip square. Elophori.
Brown; thorax wrinkled, which, together with ihe* aquati
elytra, are of a brownish yellow. 1. A native ofco.
Europe, in stagnant waters ; very small, and frequently
to he found among the conferva.
Brown ; thorax wrinkled, and of the colour of brass;* minuk
elytra pale. 4. To be found in England, in stagnant
waters; very similar to the aquatica, but only the third
part of its size.
* * Lip cylindrical.
Oval, black; elytra marked with a red dot. $.* biptuil]
It is a native of Europe; and feeds on animal suh-lata.
stances.
Black; elytra of a dusky colour at the point. 16.* distoidi
Native of England.
30 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
ENTOMOLOGY.
II. Sylpha, Carrion-Beetle.
Antennae clavated. Club perfoliated. Elytra margi-
nated. Head prominent. Thorax flattish, margi¬
nated.
These are chiefly found under the loose bark of trees,
or on the half-decayed carcases of animals, upon which
both the grub and the insect feed.
* gerrna- Oblong, black ; shield roundish, unequal, and mar-
nua. ginated ; elytra very obtuse, with a rusty-coloured
lateral margin. 1. Native of Germany. There are
many varieties of this species. They deposit their eggs
in the carcases of other insects, which they bury under
ground.
* vespillo. Oblong, black ; shield almost spherical and unequal;
elytra marked with a double rusty-coloured hand. 2.
' Native both of Europe and America.—There are many
varieties of this species. In America, some of them are
ten times larger than those in Europe. They frequent¬
ly have the smell of musk, and fly very quickly, with
their elytra erect, and applied close together. They are
much infested by the acarus, and deposit their eggs in
the carcases of other insects, which they bury.
* quadri- Black, oblong; elytra marked with two rusty spots.
pustulata. 5. Native of Europe and America, in decayed wood;
’ very smooth ; the larva oblong, gray and hairy.
* quadri' Bed ; thorax and elytra black; the latter marked
maculata. with two red spots. 27. Native of Europe.
* rujifroni Oblong, smooth, black ; the front, the legs, and two
13. Opatrum.
Antennse moniliform, thicker towards the outside.
Elytra marginated. Head prominent. Thorax some¬
what flat, and marginated.
Of an ash-colour ; thorax flat, and marginated ',griseum>
elytra marked with three elevated lines, and dentated
behind. 1. Native of Italy, larger than the sabii-
losum.
Brown ; thorax emargiuated ; elytra marked with * sabuio-
three elevated lines, and dentated. 2. Native of Europe jk/w.
and North America, in sandy plains.
Brown; thorax and elytra hairy. 16. Native afmonili-
Europe ; not quite half an inch in length. corne.
Of a light brown colour ; eyes, thorax, elytra, and testaceun
antennae dark brown. The base and tips ot the latter
are reddish ; the elytra marked at the base with a large
brick-coloured spot, resembling a crescent; the thorax
impressed with two dots.
22 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
24. Tritoma.
Antennse clavated. Clob perfoliated. Feelers, ante.
rior pair hatchet-shaped.
Black ; the elytra marked with a lateral scarlet line.* bipud*
l. Native of England ; to be met with in those species
of boletus which grow 00 trees.
Smooth,
foil
Colepptera. E N T O M
glabrum. » Smooth, black j the antennse and legs of a dark co¬
lour. 2. Native of the north of Europe, to be met
with under the bark of trees. It somewhat resembles
the bipustulatum.
Seven species of this genus are described by Gmelin
in the last edition of the System of Nature.
15. Cassida.
Antennae moniliform. Elytra marginated. Head con¬
cealed under the shield of the thorax.
* viridts. Green. 1. Native of Europe ; frequently met with
on thistles, and on a variety of plants. The larva is
depressed, and furnished with six feet 5 it is armed
with acute lateral prickles, and has a tail formed of
two bristles. It walks about covered with its own ex¬
crement.
Black, with a red shield } the elytra of a blood-co¬
lour, sprinkled with black dots. 2. Native of Europe j
to be met with on different kinds of plants.
Gray j the elytra marked with a very bright blue
line. 4. Native of Europe ; to be met with on thistles
and various plants. The bright blue line on its elytra
disappears when it dies, but reappears on its immersion
into warm water.
Black ) elytra reddish yellow', spotted with black.
52. Native of Europe, but rare. It is to be met with
on the white poplar, is about the same size with the
nobilis, and, like it, loses its bright colour along with
its life.
Of a bright glossy yellow colour j the elytra, without
spots, are marked with small concave dots. 21. Native
of America. At the anterior part of the suture, there
is a prominence forming a bunch on its back. It loses
its colour in spirits of wine, and recovers it again on
being immersed into warm water.
Black *, elytra and shield dotted, and of a golden
green colour •, antennae, abdomen, and legs green. 39.
Native of Europe. It loses its golden colour at the
same time with its life.
This genus contains yy species.
16. CocciNELLA, Lady bird.
Antennae clavated. Club solid. Feelers, the anterior
pair hatchet-shaped •, the posterior filiform. Body
hemispherical. Thorax and elytra marginated. Ab¬
domen flat.
* The Elytra red or yellow ; marked with black dots.
marginata The elytra yellow, without spots, with a black mar¬
gin j the margin of the thorax marked with two white
dots. Sometimes the elytra are red, with a black edge ;
the margin of the thoi’ax marked with a white dot on
each side. 1. Native of America, of a middling size.
mmacula- Elytra yellow, without spots*, thorax marked with
to. a black spot,, and two white dots. 155. Native of
Europe.
* bipunc- Elytra red, marked with two black dots, y. Native
tata. of Europe frequent in gardens and woods j feeding on
aphides.
* quadri- Elytra yellow, marked with four black dots. 9.
'ounciaia. Native of Europe. Of a middle size j black below ;
thorax yellow, with four black dots j feet yellow.
* quinque- Elytra of a blood colour, marked with five black
Punctata, dots. 11, Native of Europe j to be met with on trees.
vnurraca.
* nobilis.
fastuosa.
jamaicen*
sis.
superba.
O L O G Y. 157
Elytra red, marked with seven black dots. 15. Na-* septem-
tive of Europe. The dots on the elytra are placed \npunctata.
the form of a ti'iangle. This insect, as well as some
others of the coleopterse, is said to possess the property
of giving immediate and effectual relief in the most
violent paroxysms of the toothache, by rubbing them
between the finger and thumb, and applying the finger
to the affected tooth.
Lady-cow. Elytra red, marked with six black spots ; * sexma-
the four anterior ones transverse and arched. 68. Itcu/ata.
is a native of India. Head whitish *, thorax white be¬
fore with a black spot, black behind y suture red y body
pale yellowish.
The elytra yellow 5 with 12 black dots and a black t’ariVgflta.
band in the middle. 86. It is a native of the Cape
of Good Hope 5 of a middle size.
The elytra tawney, with a great number of black
dots, many of them running together. 118. It is a na-punctata.
tive of India, about three quarters of an inch long.
* * The elytra red or yellow, marked with white.
The elytra red 5 marked with 14 white, and threepunctato-
black dots. 32. A native of Europe 5 differing yet-guttata.
haps, only in sex, from the decempustulata.
Elytra yellow, marked with 15 white spots; the quindecem-
middle one, common to both elytra, almost effaced.gufta/a.
I2y. A native of Europe.
Elytra yellow; marked with 16 white spots, ^^.sedecem-
Native of Europe. guttata.
* * * Elytra black, marked with red.
Elytra black, without dots, but marked with red r,t analis.
the points. 129. It is a native of Europe, very like
the hcemorrhoidulis, but only half its size.
Elytra black, their points red, marked with a black hcemor-
band. 130. It is a native of Germany. It is fre-rhcidalis.
quently marked on the back with a red dot common to
both elytra.
Elytra black, marked with two red spots. 41. It is cacti.
a native of America, on the cactus ; and is frequently
gathered along with the cochineal insect. It is very
similar to the bipustulala, which is common in Europe.
Elytra black, marked with two red spots; abdomen* bipustu-
of a blood-red colour. 42. It is a native of Europe,/a/a.
common in gardens. Each of the spots on the elytra
is composed of three spots uniting into one.
* * * * Elytra black, spotted with white or yellow.
Elytra black, marked with eight yellow dots, ^panthe-
Native of the north of Europe. rina.
Elytra black, marked with eight yellow dots, the two humeraliu
anterior ones hooked. 146. A native of Europe.
163 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin.
17. Alurnus, Rove-beetle.
Antennse filiform. Feelers six ; short. Jaw horny ;
arched.
Black ; thorax scarlet; elytra yellow. 1. It is zgrossus,
native of America and India. Antennae black, half as
long as the body ; thorax a little rough, pointed on
each side at the base; the hind margin black; scutel-
lum rounded, black ; elytra larger and longer than the
body,.
'yellowish^;
158
femoratus.
dentipes.
* tenebri-
oides.
* gottin-
gensis.
vittata.
Imitaiiica.
* banksii.
hxmnr-
rhoidalis.
* grami-
nis.
*' fznea.
* hcctnop-
tei'a.
centaurci.
melanosto-
via.
polka.
cruentata.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera
Yellowish green, with a metallic lustre ; the thighs
and shanks of the hind-legs dentated. 2. It is a native
of India. It is large, smooth, and shining; the anten-
nce are half as long as the body ; the extreme articula¬
tions are black.
Elack ; the thighs and shanks of the hind-legs den¬
tated. 3. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. It is
smooth, without spots, and very similar to the al. femo¬
ratus.
There have been only three species of this genus de¬
scribed.
18. Chrysomela.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers six, growing thicker to¬
wards their exterior sides. Thorax marginated ;
elytra not marginated. Body (in most of the spe¬
cies) oval.
This numerous and beautiful tribe is found every¬
where, in woods and gardens. Their motion is slow,
and some of them when caught, emit an oily fluid of a
disagreeable smell. The larvae of this and the next
family feed on the leaves of trees and plants, the fibres
and cuticle of which they leave, contenting themselves
with the pulp.
* Thighs of the Hind-legs equal.
Without wings, black ; antennae and legs of a violet
colour. I. It is a native of the south of Europe. The
larva has a bunch on its back, of a violet colour, with
a red anus ; it feeds on a variety of vegetables.
Black ; the legs of a violet colour. 4. It is a native
of Europe ; very rare in England.
The elytra blue, with a yellow edge, and marked
with a yellow stripe in the middle. 3. It is a native
of America ; very large.
Thorax of a copper colour; elytra resembling brass;
impressed with bluish dots, of a violet colour under¬
neath. *74. Native of Portugal.
Of a brass colour above, and of a brick colour be¬
low. 76. Native of Italy and Portugal, smaller than
the preceding species. Very rare in England.
Black, shining; antennae yellow at the base; anus
red above. 6. Native of Europe, on the birch and
alder. The elytra are marked with regular lines of
dots.
Greenish-blue, very shining; the antennae and legs
of the same colour. 7. Native of Europe, on differ¬
ent plants, especially on grass.
Green, shining ; the extremity of the abdomen red¬
dish. 8. Native of Europe ; on the alder.
Of a violet-colour; feet and wings red. 11. Native
of Europe.
Of a bright copper-colour; beneath green and gold ;
the legs of a bright copper-colour. 102. Native of
Europe, on the centaureus. It exhibits some variety,
especially in size.
Oblong, black ; head red, the mouth and a spot on
the back part of the head black ; the thorax red, with
a black spot on each side ; the elytra red, with a black
suture. 254. Native of Europe.
Thorax gilt; elytra reddish. 27. Native of Europe ;
to be met with on the poplar and willow.
Black; the elytra smooth ; marked with red waved
3
cross bands, and with spots of the same colour. 182.
Native of South America.
Blackish-blue; the elytra blackish-yellow, marked * anglicv I
with dots arranged in straight lines; wings red. 187.
Native of England.
* * The thighs of the Hind-legs thickened, and formed
for leaping. Alticae.
0
Of a greenish blue. 51. Native of Europe. It* oleracec,
feeds on different kinds of plants, pai’ticularly on those
of the class tetradynamia. This is the little insect which
is so troublesome in fields and gardens, commonly called ;
turnip-fly. It attacks turnips, radishes, and cabbages,
when newly sprung above ground, and consumes their
seminal leaves. It frequently destroys whole fields of
turnips, so completely, as to render a second sowing ne¬
cessary, which goes like the first. The attempts may
be repeated with similar success, till the season for sow¬
ing be lost.
Blackish blue, the head and four fore-legs yellow;
53. Native of Europe. phala.
Greenish blue ; the legs testaceous ; the thighs of the hyoscyami
hind-legs of a violet-colour. 54. Native of Europe ;
on the henbane, turnip, and cabbage.
Black; the elytra marked with four reddish spots. * f
217. Native of England and France, in gardens. pustulata.
Black ; the elytra and lower part of the legs pale. * anglica-
218. Native of England, on various sorts of vege-»a.
tables.
1
Greenish yellow, with a metallic lustre; legs black.
220. Native of England.
Of a violet-colour; head and thorax reddish ; \egs* fuscipe$\
black. 224. Native of Britain, on plants of various
sorts.
Testaceous, hunch-backed; elytra very smooth. 225. * testacea,
Native of England, on different kinds of vegetables.
Blackish, yellow; oblong, with black legs. 246. crucifera-
Native of Europe, on tetradynamious plants. rum.
270 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin in the last edition of the System of Nature.
19. Cryptocephalus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four. Thorax marginated.
Elytra not marginated. Body nearly cylindrical.
* Feelers equal, filiform.
f Jaw furnished with one tooth,
a. Lip entire ; Body cylindrical.
Dusky black; the elytra pale, marked with three longipes.
black blotches; fore-legs very long. I. Native of
Europe, on the hazel and willow. j
Black; the elytra red, marked with two black dots ; * quadri- i
the antennae short and serrated. 3. Native of Europe,punctatus<
very common on the hazel. The larva is contained in
a rough-bag; which, on the fore-part, is terminated
obliquely and abruptly.
Of an obscure brass colour ; the elytra of a brick co- longirna-
lour, with a black spot at the base. 19. Native of nus._
Europe ; feeds on the trifolium montanum, and the eu¬
phorbia'cy par issa ; the fore-legs are very long; the lar¬
va is enclosed in a bag. 1 ^
Thorax variegated ; elytra reddish, marked with two cordiger.
black dots. 25. Native of Europe, on the hazel and
willow.
K({
* vitis.
v.oryli.
gkas'
Coleoptera. E N T O M
willow. The spot on the middle of the thorax is some¬
times of the shape of a heart.
Elack •, smooth j elytra reddish. 27. Native of the
south ot Europe j on the vine, committing sometimes
great Iiavock.
Black ; thorax and elytra reddish brown, without
spots. 28. Native of Europe j on the hazel.
b. Lip bifid; Body oTdrng. Cistelcc.
Hairy, brown 5 elytra, abdomen, and thighs, of a
brick colour. 91. Native of the south of France j
very large.
cervinus Livid j with brown legs. 92. Native of the north
of Europe.
Black 5 thorax square \ elytra striated and of a brick
colour. 96. Native of the south of Europe j on the
ears of rye.
sulphu- Yellow j the elytra of a sulphur colour. 98. Native
eus. of Europe. Feeds on umbelliferous plants.
munnus Black ; the elytra and legs reddish brown, 103. Na¬
tive of the north of Europe.
angusta- 1 borax and elytra of a dark reddish colour, black in
f. the middle. 106. Native of Britain 5 somewhat re¬
sembling the murinus, but narrower.
pallidus. Pale 5 the head, and tips ot the elytra, brown. 107.
Native of Britain.
O L Q G Y.
lB9
ufit-
runtarsis.
f f Jaw bifid; Bsdy oblong. Criocerides.
ieola,
nellus.
'.anlha-
ides.
'yanella
sparagi
Gray ; the thorax marked with a line behind ; the
elytra with a black dot at their base. 124. Native of
Italy.
unpluEce. Brown ; the margin of the elytra a little prominent
and yellow. 125. Native of Europe, on the water-
lily.
Of a rusty colour, the edge of the thorax and elytra
yellow. 133. Native of Europe, on the willow.
Of a violet colour ; head, thorax, and legs reddish.
139. Native of Britain.
. Blue j thorax cylindrical j prominent on the sides.
161. Native of Britain.
Blue j thorax and legs reddish. 162. Native of
Europe. Feeds on the oak.
Black j head and thorax somewhat prickly j feet
reddish. 164. Native of Britain.
Thorax red, marked with two black dots ; elytra
yellow, marked with a black cross, and four black
dots. 167. Native of Europe, feeding on asparagus.
There are two or three varieties of this species. ,5. With
two spots on the elytra connected at the base, is to be
met with in Italy, y. With two narrow red bands
on the elytra, is to be met with in France.
Black ; the edge of the thorax and two lines on the
elytra yellow. 168. Native of Europe; to be found
at the roots of the phellandrium aquaticum.
* * Feelers unequal, the anterior ones hatchet-shaped,
f The Lip of a substance like horn. Erotyli.
gh'nteus. Oval,, black ; the elytra marked with a great many
tawney dots. 191. Native of India.
Vc rcus. Black j the thorax and elytra of a bright copoer
colour. 205. Native of New Holland.
. _
hellan-
f t The Lip membranaceous. Lagrice.
Black ; the thorax red and hairy. 221. Native of * ehnaa-
Europe, particularly of England. tus^ * *
. Smooth ; thorax reddish ; elytra yellow. 230. Na- * o-lubra-
tive of England.
268 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
20. Hispa, Blossom-eater.
Antennae cylindrical ; approaching one another at the
base, and placed between the eyes. Feelers spindle-
shaped. Thorax and elytra frequently prickly.
Body entirely black ; antennae spindle-shaped; thorax *
and elytra prickly. 1. Native of the south of Eu¬
rope and north ot Africa. To be found at the roots of
grass.
Without prickles ; the antennas hairy. 4. Native * mntim
of Europe ; in rubbish and in museums.
Antennae serrated; thorax red ; elytra blue; head * cornirr
iurnished with two horns. 15. Native of Britain. r„/
Black ; the antennae pectinated ; the elytra stripped. * flabelli-
19. Native of England. J .
° cornis.
20 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
21. Bruchus, Glutton.
Antennae filiform. Feelers equal and filiform. Lip
pointed.
The elytra black, spotted with white ; the anus white, *pisi.
with two black spots. 1. Native of North America.
It has been lately introduced into Europe, where it
commits great havock in the fields of pease. It is also
very destructive to orchards when in bloom.
Gray, somewhat shining; the elytra very little shorter
than the abdomen. 9. Large ; and has been intro¬
duced into Europe, along with the seeds of the robinia
pseudacacia from America.
Black; the elytra red, marked with raised stripes.*
II. Native of Europe, chiefly on the horse-chesnut. sus.
Body brown, spotted with gray. 13. It feeds on cacao.
the seeds of the theobroma. t
The elytra gray ; spotted with black ; legs red ; theebro.
scutelluni white. 2. Feeds on the seeds of the theo-matis.
bronia.
Ash coloured ; elytra brown ; with a black dot at biputicta-
the base; surrounded by a yellow circle. 17. Native
of Switzerland, on different plants.
Elytra black; speckled with white ; the thighs oi*granari-
the hind-legs are marked with a single projection re-
sembling a little tooth. 5. Native of Europe. Feeds
on tiie seeds of various plants.
Black ; the base of the antennoe and fore feet reddish * semina-
brown ; thighs smooth. 6. Native of Europe, onrius.
flowers ; very small.
25 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
22. PAUSUS.
Antennae consisting of two articulations, clavated. Club
solid and hooked.
I.
i6o
microce* I. It is a native of North America $ entirely black,
phalus. the head very small, the thorax narrow, with an ele¬
vated transverse margin on the lore-part; the elytra ter¬
minated abruptly by a transverse line, and a little long¬
er than the abdomen ; which is likewise terminated a-
bruptly. It is about the size of the dermestes hr-
darius.
23. Zygia.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers unequal, filiform. Lip
elongated, membranaceous. Jaw furnished with one
tooth.
Coleopter;
destructive in granaries, and to seeds of almost every
description. They insinuate themselves into the grain,
and consume it gradually, leaving nothing but the skin,
in which they lie concealed, and undergo their meta¬
morphosis. Those with the short snout infest artichokes,
and the stalks and leaves of plants. The leaves of many
trees, particularly the elm, may be seen marked with
yellow spots, occasioned by the larvae of this tribe in¬
sinuating themselves within the cuticle of the leaf, and
forming a bag, in which they lurk, till they come forth
a perfect insect.
ENTOMOLOGY.
oblonga.
Oblong, reddish ; head and elytra of an obscure blue.
I. Native of the east.
* Long-snouted.
f Thighs simple.
24. ZoNiTlS.
Antennse setaceous. Feelers four, filiform ; shorter
than the jaw, which is entire. Lip emarginated.
chrysome- Yellow; the elytra marked with a black dot in the
Una* middle and at the base. 1. Native of Egypt. Black
below ; the extremity of the abdomen reddish.
jlava. Reddish ; the elytra yellow and black at the tip. 2.
Native of the east.
•25. Apalus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers equal ; filiform. Jaw horny ;
furnished with one tooth. Lip membranaceous; ter¬
minating abruptly, and entire.
bimacula- Furnished with wings; black, the elytra yellow,
tus. marked with a black dot behind ; formerly meldi bi-
maculutus. Native of the north of Europe ; to be seen
early in the spring, in sandy places.
26. Brentus.
Antennae moniliform, advancing beyond the middle of
the snout. Mouth furnished with a straight, cylin¬
drical snout, which projects considerably.
* Thighs simple.
barbicor- Cylindrical ; snout very long, bearded beneath ; the
^ elytra lengthened out and elevated. 1. Native of New
Zealand. Snout longer than the body ; antennae short¬
er than the snout, placed near the tip; eyes globular,
black ; thorax cylindrical, black, with gray hairs ; ely¬
tra streaked and dotted, with furrowed spots ; legs
black, with gray hairs.
The thorax and elytra rough. Antennae white ^.igigas.
the tips. Native of Japan. Snout cylindrical, long,
arched, brown on the fore-part, of an ash-colour be¬
hind; thorax round, brown, rough, with raised sharp
points ; elytra rough, gray, with scattered brown and
white dots.
Black; thorax flat and dotted, with a line slightly
elevated; elytra shortened and somewhat striped: thepteros.
intervals dotted. 555. Native of Europe.
Black; the elytra marked with white dots set in re- undatus,
gular rows, and with white interrupted waved bands.
556. Native of Europe.
Scarlet; the elytra marked with ten rows of dots.cocrimw
358. Native of Europe.
Black; the elytra of a violet colour; the scutellum
white. 5. Native of Europe, particularly on the wil¬
low.
Black above ; ash-coloured below, and hunch-back- cracece.
ed. 6. Native of Europe; feeds on the seeds of the
vetch ; it is very small.
Gray ; the elytra and legs reddish brown. 101. Na- * maka.
tive of England, on the mallow. The snout and abdo¬
men black.
The snout and thorax red; the elytra of a violetrofom.
colour. 103. Native of Europe, on the oak.
Black; with the abdomen oval. 13. Native of the flcncfoAw
north of Europe ; frequently to be met with on plants
of the class tetradynamia.
Of a blood-colour. 15. Native of Europe, and \tvyfrumer\t<i \
destructive to corn which has been long kept. rtus. 11,
Black ; the thorax dotted, and of the same length oryzee. j,
with the elytra ; the elytra marked with two red spots.
This species is very destructive to rice kept in gra¬
naries.
* * Thighs dentated.
anchorago. Linear ; the elytra striped with yellow ; thorax
lengthened. Native of South America and India.
This genus includes 11 species.
27. Curculio, Diamond-beet.e.
Antennas clavated, placed upon the snout, which is
formed of a homy substance, and prominent. Feelers
four, filiform.
This beautiful and numerous genus is divided into
five subdivisions; their larvae have a scaly head, and six
scaly legs. Those of the long-snouted ones are most
Weevil or Bond. Black ; the thorax dotted, and of *granun
the same length with the elytra. 16. This destructive
little animal does much mischief in granaries, and in .
biscuit kept in ware-houses, or on shipboard. Woad,
henbane, and elder, are said to drive them away from
grain which has been infested by them, and, on that
account, is sometimes mixed with the grain.
The elytra of a brick colour, with cloudy bands. 1C).*pim. ,
Native of Europe; in the bark of the pimis syl-
vestris. 1
Black, sprinkled with green ; snout black and bent, cy7iara>
somewhat resembling a keel. 121. Native of Africa,
and the south of Europe: on the flowers of the arti¬
choke.
Cylindrical and ash-coloured; the elytra set with *paraplu
sharp ticus.
El]
Cokopiera,
ENTOMOLOGY.
161
sharp points. 34. Native of Europe ; on umbellife¬
rous plants, particularly on the phellandrum aquati-
cum; in the stalks of which the larva is frequently
lodged, and is supposed to be the cause of the staggei’s
in horses.
ibardan#. Cylindrical •, covered with a gray down ; the fore¬
legs long. 152. Native of Europe, on the burdock.
When old, it loses the gray down, and becomes smooth
and black.
bacchus. Of a bright copper colour ; snout and feet black.
38. Native of the south of Europe, on the vine and
hazel. Somewhat hairy above.
frugilegus Oblong ; of a chesnut colour ; the elytra equalling
the thorax, marked with four red spots. Native of
South America and India. It is small, and very de¬
structive to grain.
I t Hind thighs thickened. Saltatorii.
* quercus. Pale yellow $ eyes black. 25. Native of Europe ;
on the willow, elm, and oak, the leaves of which it
frequently covers with blotches, by insinuating itself
within the cuticle. It is about the size of the pedicu-
lus humanus.
egetis. Body black ; elytra oblong. 45. Native of Eu¬
rope j on the ears of corn.
f f f Thighs dentated.
ternmus. Black-, the elytra shining. 10. Native of Europe j
very frequent on plants of different kinds.
13 ' cerasi. Black ; the elytra opaque and oblong. 11. Native
of Europe j on the leaves of the cherry and pear-tree,
the cuticle of which it eats.
porno- The thighs of the fore-legs dentated ; body gray,
'im. clouded. 46. Native of Europe, on the flowers of
fruit-trees.
cahgino- The streaks of the elytra approaching one another,
, and dotted. 243. Native of Britain, but rare. Body
oblong, entirely black, opaque ; thorax round and
punctured ; elyrawith deep approximate striae in pairs ;
thighs sharply dentated.
1 genna- Black j the thorax marked with two reddish dots on
each side. 58. Native of Europe ; very common in
Germany. It is amongst the largest of this genus that
is to be met with in Europe.
nucunt. Body gray, of the same length with the snout. 59.
Native of Europe ; frequently to be found in hazel-nuts.
scrophu- The elytra marked with two black spots situated
ri<V- near the suture. 61. Native of Europe j on the fig-
wort, the capsules of which the larvae consume, and sub¬
stitute in their place brown follicles,
* * Brevirostres,
t Thighs dentated.
Vctabilis The body variegated with green and black. 298.
Native of New Holland.
jXm-tna- Black ; the thighs faintly dentated; the thorax and
'datus. elytra smooth, spotted with brown. 301. Native of
Europe j large, smooth.
uitus. The abdomen oval and black j the legs and antennae
reddish. 69. Native of Europe ; in orchards.
Yellowish-brown. 72. Native of Europe. The
larva feeds on the leaves of the pear tree j the perfect
insect on the flowers of the pear and of the plum.
The colour varies j sometimes it is bronzed, red, green.
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
&c.; legs reddish j body covered with oblong scales of
various colours ; elytra striated, punctured.
Downy, brown ; the thighs acutely dentated ; an- * tnali.
tennse and legs brownish. 308. Native of Europe j
on the apple-tree.
t f Thighs smooth.
Ihe thorax marked with lines j the elytra of an ash-polygoni,
colour, marked with little brown lines j the suture
brown, dotted with black. 26. Native of Europe ;
on the polygonum.
Above, brownish-gray j beneath, ash-coloured 3 snout * griseus,
grooved.. 335. Native of Britain.
Blackish ; the elytra gray, marked with two white * trigut-
spots, and with a larger one behind, which is common tatus.
to both elytra. 336. Native of Britain.
.The elytra marked with black elevated stripes, and imperial is,
with bright green and gold dotted furrows alternately,
swelling out at their base, and drawing to a point at
their tips. 349. Native of South America. It is
very large, and the most beautiful insect hitherto
known ; commonly known by the name of the dia¬
mond-beetle.
Body green, silky, striped with broad gold bands, rcgalis,
75* Native of South America. The thighs brown,
marked with a golden ring.
Oblong, brown 3 the back part of the thorax flat. * incanus.
81. Native of Europe ; common in fir.
616 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
28. Hhinomacer.
Antennae setaceous, placed upon the snout. Feelers
four, thicker towards their exterior side.
Covered with gray down ; antennae and legs black, curculioi-
1. Native of Italy. (jes
Covered with black hair 3 antennae and legs reddish, afte/nfo;-
2. Native of Europe 3 in pine-forests. des.
Blue, somewhat hairy ; base of the antenna; and ihecceruleus,
legs yellow. 3. Native of Europe.
Only three species of this genus have been described.
29. Attelabus.
Head drawn to a point on the hind part, and inclined.
Antennae moniliform, the articulations towards the
point thicker than the rest.
* Jaw bifid.
Black 3 the elyra red and reticulated. 1. Native * cor ifli.
of Europe; on the leaves of the hazel, which it rolls
up into cylinders and shuts up at both ends.
Black 3 legs formed for leaping. 7. Native of* betidee.
Europe 3 on the leaves of the birch, which it renders
beautifully curled by its gnawing. It leaps very nim¬
bly.
* * Jaw furnished with one tooth,
f The posterior feelers hatchet-shaped. Cleri.
Black 3 the elytra marked with three white bands, mutilla-
and red at the base. 19. Native of Europe. rius.
Black ; thorax reddish ; elytra red, white at the base,* formica-
N and riut.
I 62
E N T O M
and marked with two white hands. 8. Native of Eu¬
rope : it destroys the ptinuspertinax and many other
insects.
aptarms Bluish ; the elytra red, marked with three black
bands. 10. Native of Europe and America. The
larva is frequently to be met with in bee-hives, the
perfect insect on flowers. It is double the size of the
Jormicarius.
f f Feelers four, nearly filiform. Spondilides.
Black ; the elytra full of wrinkles, and broader than
the thorax. 12. Native of Europe, in the boletus fo~
rnentarius.
Black ; the elytra very much ribbed ; the thorax al¬
most globular. 13. Native of Europe, in woods.
There are 34 species of this genus.
teramboi-
dts.
buprestoi-
deS.
30. Notoxus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, hatchet-shaped. Jaw
furnished with one. tooth.
mollis.
monoce-
Downy ; the elytra black, marked with three pale
bands. 3. Native of Europe ; on flowers.
Thorax projecting over the head like a horn j elytra
pale, marked with a black band and dot. 4. Native
of Europe, on umbelliferous plants.
There are four species of this genus.
31. Cerambyx.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers four. Thorax prickly or
turgid. Elytra linear.
O L O G Y. Cokoptera.
1 lie thorax furnished with four small projections an annillatui
each side j the elytra rusty-coloured, edged with black j
ths thighs of the hind-legs marked with a little projec¬
tion. 4. Native of India ; very large.
I borax furnished with very small projections j i\\tdamicor.
jaws stretching out, and furnished with two teeth j the ki>.
antennae short. 86. Native of South America. The
larva is eaten by the natives, and much relished.
The thorax wrinkly j and marked on each side witb/atar.
a small projection; the elytra, black; the antennae of a
middling length. 6. Native of Europe ; in wood.
Thorax marked with three small projections; body
black; the elytra furnished with sharp points ; anten-wf.
nae shorter than the body. 7. Native of Europe ; on
decayed birch-trees. It produces large, oblong, yel¬
lowish eggs.
11 Jaw obtuse, furnished xvith one tooth. Cerambyces.
coriun-
This is a very beautiful and finely variegated family.
The larvae resemble soft, oblong, slender worms, with
a scaly head and hard legs on the fore part. They
bore through the inner part of trees, pulverising the
wood, and are transformed into perfect insects in the
cavities they make. Many of them diffuse a strong
smell, perceivable at a great distance; and some, when
taken, utter a sort of cry, produced by the friction of
the thorax on the upper part of the abdomen and ely¬
tra.
Thorax prickly; elytra formed like the roof of unebulostu
house, marked with black bands and dots; the antenna;
longer than the body. 29. Native of Europe ; in the
stems of fir-tree, which it kills by consuming the inner
bark.
Thorax prickly; elytra entire, marked with three/njc/V»&-
prickly dots ; the antennae of the same length with theft//,
body. 106. Native of Europe.
I borax prickly ; elytra whitish at their anterior part, * htspidvt
and furnished with two small projections at their tips ;
the antennae of the same length with the body, and
rough. 30. Native of Europe.
Green, shining ; thorax prickly ; antennte blue, and * mosihe-
of the same length with the body. 34. Native off*/#.
Europe ; on the willow. The colour of the antennse
and legs varies from a blue to a brown. The living
insect has a smell of musk, which is said to have a so¬
porific effect. It produces white eggs. The green colour
of this insect is sometimes tinged with blue, and at other
times it is entirely blue and gold. The smell it diffuses,
is imagined by some to resemble the smell of a rose, and
frequently pervades a whole meadow, where the insect
happens to be plentiful.
Black ; the thorax prickly and wrinkled ; the elytra heros.
somewhat prickly and reddish brown ; antennae long.
128. Native of Europe ; en the oak.
I 'fl
;
* Feelers four, equal.
a. Filiform.
t Jaw cylindrical, entire. Prioni.
a. The thorax furnished with moveable spines.
Irochlearis The elytra variegated with a dark colour and white,
with raised dots. 2. Native of India.
longima- The elytra marked with a small projection at their
mis. base, and with two at the tip; the antennae long. x.
Native of South America. The shanks of the fore-legs,
in the male, are very long.
b. Thorax marginated.
tervicor- The thorax with three little projections on each side ;
nis. ^ie ja'vs stretched out, and furnished with one spine
on their outside ; the antennae short. 3. Native of
America. The larva is found in the wood of the bom-
bar. It is eatable, and reckoned a delicacy by the
natives.
f f f Jaw divided.
* Horny. Lamia;.
Thorax prickly ; elytra black, with rusty-coloured suior.
spots ; scutellum yellow ; antennae very long. 38. Na¬
tive of Europe ; in woods.
Black; thorax prickly; scutellum bright yellow ; #fifrfw<
elytra without spots ; antennae very long.' 159. Na¬
tive of Europe ; larger than the preceding species.
1 borax prickly; elytra black and convex; antenna: fe.v/w.
of the same length with the body. 41. Native of Eu¬
rope ; on trunks of trees.
Black; thorax somewhat prickly ; elytra ash-co]our-yi//»g/K<J-
ed ; antennae short. 43. Native of Europe. When for.
old, it becomes entirely black. It is met with in wool,
after it has been cut from the sheep.
Thorax prickly, and marked with green bands ; the reged’^
elytra sprinkled with green, with three tawney spots. 167.
Native of Africa. Antennte longer than the body,
black; head beneath lined with green; a tawney spot
under
\
iColeopt
^ entomology.
under the eyes j thorax black, with three impressed
green hands ; elytra somewhat striated 5 black, sprinkled
with green $ abdomen with a white line of tawney dots
on each side.
163
* * Feelers unequal; the anterior pairfiliform, the pos¬
terior clavated. Stenocori Fabricii.
* * Membranaceous. Saperdae.
tarchari-
as.
sardui.
1 populne-
Thorax smooth, cylindrical j body gray, dotted with
black} antennas of the same length with the body.
52. Native of Europe.
Of a dusky colour j thorax marked with lines, scu-
tellum yellow j antennas long. 56. Native of Europe j
on thistles, injuring them much in the month of May;
Body brown, speckled with yellow j thorax marked
with three yellow lines.
Thorax without spines, cylindrical, yellow, and
1 cylindri
■ as.
marked wuth lines j elytra marked with four yellow
dots 5 antennas of the same length with the body. 57.
Native of Europe j on the poplar. Body brown } an¬
tennae variegated with black and white.
Cylindrical, black; fore-legs yellow, y. Native of
Europe; on the pear and plum-tree.
fi. Feelers capitated. Bhagia.
ursor.
Thorax prickly ; elytra obtuse and reddish, marked
with a black line, and black along the suture ; antennse
of the same length with the body. 45. Native of
Europe.
angheus Thorax prickly ; elytra marked with two oblique
yellow bands. 237. Native of Britain.
ujuwtor. Black ; thorax prickly ; elytra clouded with brick-
coloured stripes; antennae shorter than the body. 49.
Native of Europe, on the trunks of trees. The larva
has six feet, and is naked 5 white, head and collar
horny, brown ; back grooved.
Black; thorax with a spine on each side; elytra
chesnut-coloured ; their base suture, and a spot on each,
are black ; they are likewise marked with two yellow
bands . 242. Native of Europe.
egans.
y. Feelers clavated. Callidia.
ims.icu*. Thorax naked: body' pale; the antenna: taperino-,
and shorter than the body. 69. Native of Europc°-
in woods. 1 ’
ndsts. Thorax naked and furnished with knobs, black ; the
elytra of a brick-colour. 68. Native of Europe ; in
fir-woods.
'mlaceus The thorax somewhat downy; body of a violet
colour ; antennse shorter than the body. 70. Native
of Europe; chiefly in fir-timber which has been cut
down some time, and which has not been stripped of
its bark. It bores serpentine cavities between the bark
and the wood, which are larger in diameter as the insect
increases in size, filling the space it leaves behind with
its excrement, which resembles saw-dust. Body dark
violet, a little hairy ; antennse hardly' as long as the
body, hairy; sternum with a small projecting point;
elytra linear, round at the tip, turgid at the base. It
varies in having the head and thorax, and even the
body greenish.
inorax hairy, marked with two protuberances ; body
brown. 76. Native of Europe, on the trunks of trees,
in timber, in houses, perforating the joists, particularly
those that have been formed of fir-timber.
^ajulus.
Thorax slightly prickly ; elytra formed like the roof* meridic-
of a house ; the anterior part of them reddish brown; nus.
the breast shining. 47. Native of Europe. Male of
a brick colour, female blackish ; larva lies under
ground, and has very long legs.
379 speciea of this genus have been described in the
last edition ol the System of Nature.
Calopus.
32.
Antenna filiform. Feelers four ; the anterior ones
clavated ; the posterior filiform. Thorax turgid.
Elytra narrow, and of an equal breadth throughout
their whole length.
Brown ; the antennae compressed. 1. A native of *
Europe ; it is long, and cylindrical. cornis.
Very small, brown ; the antennee serrated and hairy,pygmin/s.
3. A native of Europe 5 about the size of a flea.
There are three species described in the last edition
of the System of Nature.
33. Leptura.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers four, filiform. Elytra
growing small towards the tip. Thorax somewhat
tapering.
* -hip entire. Donacia of Fabricius.
Of a go.den colour; the thighs of the hind legs clava- *aqttatica.
ted and notched. I. A native of Europe ; on aquatic
plants, on the water-lily,phellandrum aqaaticutn, at the
roots of which the pupa may be found enclosed in brown
globes. The thighs of the hind legs are sometimes
without notches. Antennae blackish, the joints pale,
reddish at the tip ; head with a little down on the
middle ; thorax grooved ; elytra streaked, dotted, and
terminating abruptly, with short appendages at each
margin ; body beneath downy ; legs dull, brownish red.
Of a golden colour ; the thighs simple. 17. A na- * simplex.
tive or Britain ; on aquatic plants.
Shining green golden colour ; the elytra marked with nitida.
dotted streaks and with crenated wrinkles, likewise
wit!) a bright purple and green fillet ; the abdomen, an¬
tennae, and legs of a golden colour; the thighs of the
hind-legs notched. 88. A native of Europe.
Silvery green ; the elytra marked with dotted streaks, vulgaris.
crenated wrinkles, with a broad green and purple fillet
common to both elytra; the head, bottom, and legs, of
a golden colour ; the thighs of tlie hind-legs without
notches. 89. A native of Europe.
* Lip bifd. Lepturae.
A. The Thorax on the fore part somewhat oblong and
narrow.
Black; the elytra reddish, with a black dot in thzunipunc-
middle. 22. A native of Europe. tata.
Black; elytra red, black at the tips and at the kastata.
ture.. 23. A native of Europe. The abdomen is
reddish in the male, which is smaller than the female.
X 2 Black $
164 "
mdanura.
ENTOMOLOGY.
^ rubra.
* villica.
splcndida.
rufipes.
Black •, the elytra reddish or livid, black at the tips
and at the suture. 2. A native of Europe j the elytra
are black at the tips in the male, in the female they are
all of one colour.
Black > the thorax, the elytra, and shank of the legs,
purple. 3. A native of Europe $ on flowers.
Of a rusty colour j the antennaj, elytra, and breast,
dark brown. 28. A native of Britain.
Black j covered with yellow hairs 5 the elytra smooth
at the tips ; the legs tawney •, antennse brown, and of a
rusty colour at the base. 49. A native of Europe.
Black } the legs reddish j the thighs red at the base.
52. A native of Europe 5 frequently to be met with
in the month of May, on the buckthorn, the dog-wood,
and hawthorn.
Coleoptera,
B. The Thorax nearly globular, and not attenuated on
its anterior part; the Elytra blunt at the tips, but
not truncated.
* Virginia The thorax globular and black •, the elytrg, of a red¬
dish colour ; the abdomen reddish. 15. A native of
Europe.
* collaris. The thorax globular and red ; the abdomen red 5
and the elytra black. 16. A native of Europe.
bipartita. Black 5 the thorax of a rusty colour, marked with a
longitudinal black line *, the elytra marked with a rusty-
coloured spot, common to both of them. 71. A na¬
tive of Europe.
The thorax globular, which, as well as the abdomen,
is of a shining black, covered with a yellow down ; the
elytra black; marked with four broad transverse yellow
bands ; the legs of a rusty colour. 67. A native of
America.
mtens.
IOO species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin, in the last edition of the System of Nature.
34. Necydalis, Carrion-Eater.
Antennae either setaceous or filiform. Feelers four,
filiform. Elytra smaller, shorter, or narrower, than
the wings. Tail simple.
* Anteniue setaceous; Elytra shorter than the wings
or abdomen.
major.
minor.
* umbella
tarum.
The elytra of a rusty colour, without spots ; the an¬
tennae shorter than the body. I. A native of Europe.
The elytra reddish brown, with a small line at the
top ; the antennae larger than the body. 2. A native
of Europe.
The elytra of a brick colour, without spots; the anten¬
nae long. 3. A native of Europe;'on umbelliferous plants.
* viridis-
simus.
* humira
Us.
melanura
35. Lampyris, Tire-fly.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four. Elytra flexible.
Thorax flat, hemispherical, surrounding and conceal¬
ing the head under it. The sides of the abdomen
furnished with folded papillae. The female in most
of the species without wings.
* Feelers nearly clavated.
Glowworm. Oblong, brown; shield ash-coloured,
I. A native of Europe ; in woods and meadows.
The female is larger than the male, and emits a beau¬
tiful phosphoric light, for the purpose of attracting the
male. It is apparent that their shining light depends
on a fluid placed near the extremity of the abdomen ;
the light becomes brighter, and of a finer green colour,
when the insect is in motion. The little animal can
withdraw the light at pleasure by contracting itself.
Though the insect be bruised, the light continues for a
considerable time.
Dusky black ; the shield marked, on both sides, with corwjcff.
a circular rose-coloured spot. 2. A native of North
America.
Oblong, brown; the shield resembling glass at the #p/e«r/i-
tip. 3. A native of Europe; in woods. This hasJw/i/.
been thought only a variety of the noctiluca ; it is pecu¬
liarly resplendent in showery weather. The female
emits the brighter light, particularly when pregnant.
The shield reddish, and black in the middle; thepyralis.
elytra black, with a white edge ; the abdomen white.
4. A native of the south of America.
Yellow ; the third segment of the abdomen from ihej'aponica.
anus is black. 22. A native of Japan ; very plenti¬
ful in the months of May and June ; diffusing a very
strong light from two small bags at its tail, filled with
air ; eyes, antennae, and wings black.
The elytra brown ; the thorax transverse, red. ll.italica.
A native of Italy and Switzerland ; on trees ; less than
the rest of the genus; brown ; the last two segments
of the abdomen yellow ; the breast and legs pale yel¬
low ; the female black.
* * Feelers nearly filiform.
* * Antennce filiform ; the Elytra growing narrower
towards the tips, and of the same length with the
abdomen.
Black ; the sides of the thorax and elytra of a blood sanguined
colour. 17. A native of Europe , in stony ground.
Black; the thorax and elytra of a brick colour ; an-pcctinicor*
tennse pectinated. 34. A native of Europe. nis.
Black ; the thorax and elytra of a blood colour, and *coccinee.
without spots. 18. A native of Europe ; in hedges ;
head sometimes reddish, the elytra sometimes striated.
, 8m
* * * Feelers with the last joint thicker than the rest,
and terminating abruptly. Lyci.
The thorax somewhat tapering ; body green.
A native of Europe ; very frequent in gardens.
The elytra black, yellow at the base. 18. A na¬
tive of Britain.
Black ; the thorax and elytra reddish brown ; the
latter are black at the tips. 20. A native of Europe;
on plants of different kinds.
26 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
2
Yellow; elytra with a black marginal spot, andJatissiino-
black behind, the lateral margin very much dilated.
14. A native of Sierra Leona. Mouth cylindrical,
prominent; body narrower before, and very wide be¬
hind ; antennae serrated.
Black; thorax orbicular, and with the elytra red,flfnr,
marked with an impressed black spot on the back. 44.
A native of Europe.
fell
it
Forty-four species.
36.
'oleoptera,
16S
ENTOMOLOGY.
36. Horia.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers four, thicker towards
their outer side. Lip linear, round at the tip.
istacca. Reddish ; antennae and legs black. I. A native
of Tranquebar ; the hind thigh of the male thickened,
and grooved beneath, and marked with a little projec¬
tion.
'ermestoi- Reddish brown •, eyes, wings, and breast black. 2.
les. A native of Europe.
There are only two species of this genus described.
37. Cucujus.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, equal; the last articu¬
lation terminating abruptly, and thicker than the
rest. Lip short, bifid ; the divisions linear, and dis¬
tant from one another. Body depressed.
luticus. Thorax unarmed, black, with an impressed dot on
each side ; elytra striated, brown. 2. A native of
Europe ; black.
•staceus. Of a brick colour ; thorax nearly square, unarmed $
thighs compressed. 3. A native of Europe, under the
bark of the birch tree.
'ladratus. Black j the thorax square, notch behind marked
with tubercles in the middle, and wrinkled on the ex¬
ternal edge, clavated on the anterior part j the antennae
brown j the legs and elytra simple and reddish. A
native of Europe.
Eleven species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
38. Cantharis.
Antennae filiform. Thorax (for the most part) mar-
ginated, and shorter than the head. Elytra flexible.
Sides of the abdomen edged with folded papilla;.
* Feelers four, hatchet-shaped.
This is an extremely rapacious genus, preying on
other insects, and even on its own tribe; those of the
division hjmexylon only, both in the grub and perfect
state, feed on green wood.
rusca. Thorax red, with a black spot j elytra brown. 2.
A native of Europe ; in hedges j most rapacious, and
devouring its own species.
'■rginella Reddish ; the abdomen black and marginated j the
back part of the head, eyes, and breast yellow. 73. A
native of Europe.
Brown 5 the thorax, head, base of the antennee, the
sides and tip of the abdomen, and the legs reddish. 14.
1 A native of Europe.
Ifmato- Black ; mouth and abdomen red. 75. A native of
•f ’na. Europe.
mittata. The middle of the thorax black 5 the elytra shorten¬
ed, black and yellow at the tip. 11. A native of
Europe ; in groves and gardens.
Cfdlacce, The thorax Somewhat marginated ; body black ; an¬
tennae pectinated j the elytra marked with a blood-
coloured dot at the tip. 13. A native of Europe ;
on the leonurus cardiaca.
d rio. Black j the thorax, the base of the antennae, pos¬
terior base of the segments of the abdomen, and legs
yellow, with a brown spot on the thorax. 82. A na¬
tive of Europe.
* * Feelers filiform, the last articulation setaceous.
Malachii.
Bright greenish yellow } the upper surface of the * area.
elytra red. 7. A native of Europe ; on plants. It is
furnished with two tentacula at the base of the abdomen,
ol a blood colour, blunt, and connected at the base; like¬
wise two on the thorax which can be stretched out.
There is a smaller variety, with the elytra wholly of a
blood colour.
Bright yellowish green; the elytra red at the tips.* bipustu-
8^ A native of Europe. lata.
Black; the thorax and tips of the elytra red. %6.heemeroi-
A native of Europe. dales.
Thorax red, emarginated ; elytra blue and smooth ; crysomiloi-
antennae and legs black. 63. A native of France ; r/ew.
when touched under the breast, it contracts its head and
body; when set at liberty it runs off very quickly.
* * * The anterior feelers stretched out; the last arti¬
culation but one, is enlarged with a large oval split
appendix; the last articulation arched and acute.
Lymexylon.
Black; the elytra light brown, and black at the tip jprc&cstv-
the feelers hooked, and irregular. 69. A native oidea.
Europe ; in timber.
Brown : the antennae and shanks of the legs black, barbata.
70. A native of Europe ; in timber ; covered with
glossy down of a changeable hue ; antennae and legs
paler.
The thorax somewhat tapering ; body yellow ; the * navalis.
margin and tips of the elytra black. 26. A native of
Europe; in the timber of the oak, to which it is very
destructive.
Eighty-six species of this genus have been described
in the last edition of the System of Nature.
39. Serropalpus.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers four, unequal; the ante¬
rior one longer than the rest, and deeply serrated ;
lour articulations, the last one very large, termina¬
ting abruptly, compressed, and like a plate ; the pos¬
terior one nearly clavated. Thorax marginated, the
anterior one receiving the head, with a prominent
angle on each side. Head bent down. Legs formed
for digging.
Body brown ; the elytra striated. A native of the striatus.
island of Runsala; found on old wooden buildings in
autumn.
Body black; the elytra smooth. 2. A native of IcevigatiCs.
Europe.
40. Elater, Skipper.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, hatchet-shaped. Un¬
der side of the thorax terminating in an elastic spine,
coming out from a cavity of the abdomen ; by which
means the body, when placed on the back, springs up
and recovers its natural posture.
Brown j
166
fiakeiU- Brown ; antenna; with a fan-shaped tuft of eight
cornis, large black leaves. I. A native of India. This is one
of the largest of the genus; the antennae short.
nocttlucus. Sides of the thorax marked with a smooth yellow
spot. 4. A native of America. This insect, like the
lampyris andfulgora, affords a strong phosphoric light
in the night time, the streams of which are so strong,
that a person may see to read the smallest print. When
placed on its back, it will spring four or five inches
from the level on which it is put, to recover its natural
position j the abdomen when removed from the body is
luminous internally.
phospkore- Brown ; the thorax marked on its posterior part with
us. two smooth yellow spots. 5. A native of South America,
resembling the nfrctiluca very much, but only half the
size, although considerably larger than the species to be
found in Europe ; the spots of the thorax shine in the
night like the preceding species.
brp'uslu- Black, shining j the elytra maiked with a black
lata. dot at the base. 9. A native of Europe, on pasture
grounds.
*brunnius The thorax reddish, and black in the middle $ the
elytra and body of a rusty colour. 10. A native of
Europe ; in gardens.
*cruciatus The thorax black, rusty coloured on the sides j the
elytra yellow, marked with a black cross, and black on
the edges. 12. A native of Europe; on pasture
grounds.
*rufaQilis. Black ; the hind part of the thorax red, and shining.
14. A native of Europe ; on grass land.
tnegmt-elos. The thorax and edge of the elytra of a rusty colour ;
body and elytra black. 16. A native of Europe ;
larva six-footed, filiform, and hardish, furnished with a
horny shield at the tail, notched at the sides, and fur¬
nished beneath with a conical hollow tubercle in form
of a leg on the under side. It is common in decayed
wood.
* aferri- Thorax black and shining; the elytra striated and
mvs. black. 17. A native of Europe.
* casta- The thorax reddish and downy ; the elytra yellow,
tieus. and black at the tip. 13. A native of Europe; in
low grounds.
* sangui- Black ; elytra of a blood colour. 21. A native of
neus. Europe; in grass lands. The tip of the elytra black.
—A larger variety is found with the thorax downy
and tawney ; the elytra of a deep colour, and marked
with a faint black blotch at the base.
segeiis. Black ; the antennae and feet brown ; the elytra
marked with longitudinal black and brown lines. 114.
A native of Europe; at the roots of corn. The larva
destroys the fields, especially in dry seasons; it is a long
time before it undergoes its metamorphosis.
funcreus. Reddish; the elytra striated; head brown. 144.
A native of Europe.
*obscurus. Of a rusty colour ; head and thorax brown, the latter,
together with the elytra and legs, are of a brick colour.
136. A native of Europe.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleopters,
149 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
41. Cicindela, the Sparkler.
* Lip divided into three little projections.
This is, in general, a very beautiful genus of insects ;
they are found in dry sandy places, and prey with the
most ravenous ferocity upon all other insects which
come in their way, and which they can overcome. The
larva is soft, white, long, and has six feet, with a brown
scaly head ; and lurks in a round perpendicular hole in
the ground, with its head at the entrance, to draw in,
and devour whatever insects may come near, or fall into
it.
campe*.
Green; the elytra marked with five white dots. 1.#
A native of Europe ; in sandy plains. The upper partfrfr.
of the antennae brown, the under part red; thorax a
little angular, rough ; elytra irregularly dotted ; upper
lip white ; jaws projecting, sharp ; legs red, with a
coppery tinge.
Purple ; the elytra marked with a white band, and * hybrid:
two white circular dots. 2. A native of Europe ; in
sandy places.
Of a copper colour ; the elytra green, marked with v-germanin
white spot, like a crescent, at the tip. 4. A native of
Europe. It varies in colour, being sometimes blue,
green, or black.
Black, above bright brown ; the elytra with lateral
strise at a good distance from one another. 40. A na¬
tive of Europe.
Black, on the upper part nearly of the colour punctata.
brass ; the elytra striated, maiked with four impressed
dots; legs a yellowish brown. 41. A native of
Europe.
Of a rusty colour ; legs, elytra, head, and thorax/^vj/gj»f«
reddish; the latter green behind ; the elytra are
marked with a waved green band, and have a green
suture. 49. A native of Europe ; in water. Head
two-lobed behind ; lip white ; thorax jagged on the
fore part; it has no scutellum ; elytra with each 15
punctured striae, and three spots at the base near the
anterior margin.
* * Lip rounded, pointed, entire. Elaphrus.
Of a bright greenish yellow ; the elytra marked with * riparia,
broad concave points. 10. A native of Europe ; in
moist places.
Of an obscure brass colour; the elytra somewhat * j'iavipts.
cloudy, legs yellow, ir. A native of Europe; on
banks. The elytra are* sometimes dotted; antennae
black, the first joint yellow ; thorax rounded, and
grooved on the back.
Black; the elytra brown, marked with two palequadrima-
spots, the shanks of the legs reddish. 13. A native
of Europe.
Of a bright brass colour, polished; head striated.
14. A native of Europe ; common in water.
48 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
fat
42. Buprestis, the Cow-burner.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers six, filiform ; the posterior
ones hairy. The jaws prominent and many-toothed.
Eyes prominent. Thorax rounded and marginated.
4
Antennae filiform, serrated, and of the same length with
the thorax. Feelers four, filiform ; the last articula¬
tion obtuse and terminating abruptly. Head half
drawn back within the thorax.
This is a genus remarkable for its rich metallic co¬
lours.
\iitala.
astuosa.
itogutta-
oleoptera. E N T O M
lours, having frequently the appearance of the most
highly polished gold or copper ; the lame are usually
found among timber, and in decayed trees.
1 he elytra dotted, and furnished with two little pro¬
jections 5 they are likewise marked with four elevated
lines, and with a broad fillet of green and gold. 32.
A native of India.
The elytra terminating abruptly, furnished with two
small projections, green, and marked with dotted striae ;
the back is of a bright golden colour. 34. A native of
America.
erolinen- . The elytra variegated with green and black, and fur¬
nished with two small projections j the anus is furnish¬
ed with three small projections. 36. A native of Eu¬
rope.
Ihe elytra formed like the roof of a house, and des¬
titute of projections, marked with four white spots ;
body blue. 2. A native of Europe j in groves.
1 he elytra black, striated, furnished with projections,
and terminating abruptly, marked with four yellow
spots. 30. A native of Europe ; of a middle size.
Head and abdomen green and gold ; the legs and tho¬
rax black ; the edge of the latter yellow.
The elytra are serrated, and marked with longitudi¬
nal wrinkles, likewise with two impressed spots j the
thorax furrowed. 6. A native of Europe.
The elytra are serrated, marked with two golden im¬
pressed spots, and longitudinal furrows j the thorax dot¬
ted. 7. A native of Europe.
The elytra formed like the roof of a house, and stri¬
ated ; the thorax dotted. 8. A native of Europe 5 in
groves.
•Shining gieen j the elytra entire, of n golden colour,
and green at the base. 85. A native of Europe ; on
the willow.
O L O G Y.
ulosa.
nana.
ftkryso-
\ gma.
frustica.
fialius.
120 .species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
43. Hydrophilus.
Antennae clavated j the club perforated. Feelers four,
filiform. The hind-legs hairy, formed for swimming,
and almost destitute of nails or claws.
The insects of tills and the next genus, dytiscus, are
inhabitants of ponds and stagnant waters, where they
swim with much dexterity, turning round with great
velocity. They fly abroad by night in search of other
waters. The males are distinguished from the females
by having a horny concave flap or shield on the fore¬
legs, near the setting-on of the feet ; the hind legs are
peculiarly fitted for their aquatic situation, being fur¬
nished on the inner side with a series of long and close-
set filaments, resembling a fin, by which they are ena¬
bled to swim with great ease and celerity. The larva;
remain about two years and a half before they change
into pupae, forming a convenient cell, and secreting
themselves in some bank ; are extremely voracious
and destructive to the more tender aquatic insects,
worms, and young fish, which they ravenously seize
with their forked jaws, and destroy by sucking out their
juice.
p'CUS.
Water-clock. Black ; breast grooved, with a long
spine pointing backwards. 1. A native of Europe.
The larva appears to have its legs seated on the upper
167
part of the body near the back ; but this is occasioned
by the peculiar shape and position of the legs; the fe¬
male spins a flattish circular web, terminated by a long
tapering horn, from which the young escape, as soon as
they are hatched.
Black, shining; the elytra somewhat striated. 2. A* caraboi-
native of Europe. ^
Black, shining; the edges of the thorax and elytra* scara-
yellow. 3. A native of Europe. Feelers filiform, becoides.
Uval, black ; the elytra and legs gray. 11. A na- * minutut.
ive ot Europe. It makes a buzzing noise in the even-
ing. x borax is sometimes gray.
Black, shining above, and thickly dotted. 12. Apilula.
native of Europe.
I wenty species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
44. Dytiscus.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers six, filiform. The hind¬
legs hairy, almost entirely destitute of claws or nails,
and formed for swimming.
Black ; the edges of the elytra dilated, marked with * Uitissi-
a yellow line. 6. A native of Europe. It is so vora-tnus.
emus as even to destroy its own species. The male is
smootli, the female grooved.
Black ; the whole of the edge of the thorax, and the* rnargi-
outer edge of the elytra, yellow. 7. A native of Y.n-nalu.
1 ope. Ihe fore-feet ol the male have a hemispherical
appendage, with two circular cavities in the middle.
The female is semistriated.
Biown ; the elytra hairy, marked with ten furrows, *eemistri-
reaching half their length. 8. A native of Europe, ata.
It is furnished with a sharp crooked concealed sword.
Its legs are oblong, large, and white.
Hie elytra marked with ten longitudinal furrows,* 4'uUaius.
and are hairy. 3. A native of Europe and America,
xhe elytra of the male are smooth.
Biown; thorax yellow, marked with fonr black dots, notatus^
31. A native ol Europe. The thorax is sometimes
reddish, sometimes variegated with black dots, or with
a short black band.
Ihe thorax of a rusty colour, marked with tivo black depres&us.
dots at the base; the elytra brown, spotted with red.
32. A native of Europe.
Brown; the elytra smooth ; the legs and belly of a *
rusty colour. 86, A native of Britain ; in stagnant
waters.
Bluish, clouded with black ; the antennae and legs of * nebula-
a rusty colour ; the belly black, (be margin of a light- sus..
brown colour. 87. A native of Britain ; in stagnant
waters.
133 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
45. Carabus, Bull-head.
Antennae filiform. Feelers six ; the last articulation ob¬
tuse, and terminating abruptly. Thorax heart-shaped
smaller end which terminates abruptly being next the
body. Both thorax and elytra are marginated.
These insects are exceedingly active and quick in
running: they devour the larvae of other insects, ami
all the weaker animals they can overcome ; the legs are
i(5B
twiaceui.
* grcuiula
tus.
* horien-
si$.
yrvemm.
* tritens.
* auratus
violaceus.
* sr/co*
phcmta.
adspersm.
E N T O M
long, thighs compressed, shanks rounded and ciliated
within j the fore ones prickly before ; the larva; are
found under ground or in decayed wood,
* Mujores,
Black, opaque •, without wings *, the elytra connected
and marked with dots which run into one another, and
somewhat wrinkled, j. A native of Europe ; in woods.
One of the largest species in Europe j head and thorax
irregularly dotted j body beneath shining.
Without wings, and blackish \ the elytra of the co¬
lour of brass, striated, and marked with elevated dots,
placed between the strise. 2. A native of Europe j in
fields.
Without wdngs •, black, the elytra smooth, marked
with a triple row of bright yellow depressed dots, and
with a blue edge. 3. A native of Europe *, in gar¬
dens and woods. The dots on the elytra are sometimes
of the same colour with the elytra.
Without wings, and of a blackish copper colour ; the
elytra striated, and marked with a triple row of concave
dots. 42. A native of Europe.
Without wings *, the elytra rough, green, with longi¬
tudinal raised lines, the edge golden ; legs black. 6.
A native of Europe ; in woods.
Without wings *, the elytra gilt, and marked with
elevated ridges and smooth furrows. 7. A native of
Europe ; in close confined places in woods.
Winged ; the elytra somewhat smooth, black, with a
gilt edge ; the thorax..of a violet colour. 8. A native
of Europe 5 very common in woods.
Shining golden colour*, the thorax blue j the elytra
marked with strips of green and gold. 12. A native
of Europe. This is the largest of this genus that is to
be met with in Europe *, the larva is black ; it attacks
caterpillars by night, and devours them.
Without wings ; above of an obscure greenish yel¬
low j beneath black *, the elytra marked with four rows
of concave spots, and with furrows. 82. A native of
Europe *, in woods, under ground. The elytra are
sometimes black.
* * Minorcs.
rufxcor-
711$.
* ptiicor-
o
L 0 G Y.
Head projecting.
and margined,
rigid,
Coleoptem
Elytra somewhat
Feelers six, filiform ; the Fore-legs formed for dig¬
ging, furnished with projections at the extremity
like a hand.
The larvm of some of the species of this genus live in
damp places under ground among rubbish \ of others, in
flour and different kinds of food, where they perform
their metamorphosis. The perfect insects are very
troublesome in houses, eating bread, meal, &c. ; they
precipitately avoid the light ; resort to damp cellars,
and dark places, where putrefaction allures and nou¬
rishes them. They are all of a very dark gloomy ap¬
pearance, from which circumstance they have received
their name.
Black *, thorax nearly square ; the elytra very smooth,
13. A native of Cayenne ; large. tus.
Black. 7. A native of Europe ; on sand hills, in * fossor.
which it digs holes.
Brown *, thorax oblong, marked with five projecting * cursor,
angles. 8. A native of Europe \ in sand hills.
spun-
barbis.
crepitans.
46. Tenebrio.
* *
Feelers unequal; filiform.
Wholly black, and smooth. 21. A native of Egypt *, etfrafw,
the elytra joined together, the fore legs furnished with
two projections.
* * # peelers four ; the anterior ones faintly clavated,
the posterior ones filiform.
Black ; the thorax nearly square and smooth j the laminatui
elytra furrowed ; the shanks of the fore legs crooked
and sharp, terminating in a rusty-coloured plate. 22.
A native of India j the largest of the genus.
r/i
Black; the elytra striated *, thorax smooth. 1. A gigas.
sabuhsus. Pale ; the head black, and a black spot on the ely¬
tra. 96. A native of Europe ; in sandy grounds.
Black : the elytra smooth, and furrowed, the anten-
noe and legs reddish. 97. A native of Europe; in
woods frequently.
The thorax roundish ; the elytra striated, and mark¬
ed with impressed dots ; the antennae hairy. 104. A
native of Britain. It is sometimes black, sometimes ol
a bright yellow.
Blue ; the thorax spherical; mouth, antennae, and
shanks of the legs reddish. 105. A native of Eng¬
land.
The thorax, head, and legs, of a rusty colour ; the
elytra black. 13. A native of Europe ; in groves.
It pursues the larger beetles, driving them away by the
noise made by its belly.
280 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
native of Surinam, about the size of the stag-beetle ;
the antennae are somewhat clavated.
Wholly black ; the thighs of the fore legs thicker * molitm
than those of the rest. 2. A native of Europe ;
among flour, in bake-houses, mills, dry bread, &c.
The larva is white, soft, and smooth, composed of
thirteen segments ; it is eagerly sought after by the
nightingales.
Of a rusty colour; the elytra striated, the shieldculinam
emarginated. A native of Europe ; in loose sand, in
rubbish, and in granaries.
Black above ; beneath of a deeper and brighterpowoRU*
black ; the elytra marked with five elevated strioe on
each side. 45. A native of Europe, in orchards ; the
larva, covered with a loose net, by twos or threes lurk
in the folded leaves.
The thorax marked with two cavities ; the elytra oUignarius
a violet colour or reddish ; the antenna; and legs of a
rusty colour. 57. A native of Europe. The larva is
to he met with in the trunks of pine trees that have
been cut down, the inner bark of which they consume;
the insect is, when full grown, about half an inch long.
64 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
47. PiMELlA.
Antennse moniliform ; the last articulation roundish.
Thorax flat on one side, and convex on the other,
Antennse filiform. Feelers four. Thorax flat on one side,
and convex on the other and marginated. Head pro-
6%
iectirtfr.
It iColeoptera. E N T O M
jecting. Elytra slightly ridged. Wings are wanting
in many of the species.
* Antennce moniliform towards their extremity.
A. Feelers clavated.
ages. Black j thorax roundish j the elytra sharp pointed and
very smooth, i. A native of Europe.
ulcata. r^'^e elytra furnished with sharp points, and furrow¬
ed. 2. A native of Egypt j common in gardens.
They are recommended as remedies in the ear-ache, and
against the bite of scorpions; the Turkish women dress
and eat them, and think them very fattening.
morti- Black; the elytra are furnished with sharp points,
7(r(7> and smooth. 3. A native of Europe j in shady close
situations. This insect is regarded as a presage of the
death of one of the family, by the common people in
Sweden, when it is seen crawling about the house.
B. Feelers filiform.
,r' uricata. Black ; the elytra obtuse, striated, and furnished
with sharp points. 20. A native of Europe, and the
northern parts of Africa and Asia $ it makes a noise by
rubbing its hind legs against its elytra ; it resembles
the mortisaga, but larger.
tiatida. Black; the elytra oblong, oval, and striated. 54. A
native of Europe.
■ * * The Antennce filiform through their whole length.
A. Feelers four, filiform.
icuspi- The thorax furnished with three sharp points ; body
eta. gray. 56. A native of Egypt.
B. The anterior feelers hatchet-shaped, the posterior
ones clavated.
■K-'ulea. Bluish ; the thorax nearly round, the elytra striated.
61. A native of Europe.
f nglica. Black j the thorax roundish before j the elytra dot¬
ted and striated ; the antennse reddish at the tips. 76.
A native of England.
& 'aria. Black j smooth and furnished with ■wings 5 the thorax
circular j the jaws strong, furnished with teeth, and
longer than the head. 84. A native of Europe.
84 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
48. Manticora,
O L O G Y. 269
Hunch-backed, black; the elytra marked with threegihhusA
dotted lines. 2. A native of Africa; in loose sand,
and very common in Egypt.
Black; the elytra marked with one clavated Vine.planus.
3. A native of Egypt.
Black; the elytra very smooth. 4. A native of Asia.tninutus.
Only four species of this genus have been described.
50. Lytta.
Antennae filiform. Feelers four, unequal; the posterior
pair clavated. Thorax roundish. Head inflected,
and turgid on the upper side. Elytra soft, and flex¬
ible.
Green; the antennae black. 1. A native of T.a-vesicalo-
rope ; on the privet, the ash, the elder, the lilach both?*,
common and Persian, the poplar, and on the Tartarian
woodbine.
This insect is used in pharmacy, chiefly for the pur¬
pose of raising blisters. It multiplies greatly, and has a
nauseous smell, not much unlike that of mice; which
helps to conduct those who go in quest of them. The
odorous particles exhaled from them are extremely cor¬
rosive. They were formerly ranked among the canthari-
des ; moi e recently in the genus melo'e. IMore accurate
observation has placed them in the genus lytta.
Green and gold ; the elytra reddish brown. 2. A * nitidida.
native of England.
Black, smooth; breast downy; the elytra grayishauadrima-
yellovv, marked with two black and almost square spots.cw/rtta.
14. A native of the north of Asia. A pleasant smel¬
ling oil exudes from its legs.
Smooth, pale reddish brown ; thorax depressed; the fenestrata.
elytra gray, and black at the tips, and marked with
two square glazed spots. 15. A native of the north of
Asia, among flowers ; of a middle size. A pleasant
smelling oil is likewise exuded from its legs.
Brown ; the fore part of the elytra, and the thorax,/orwi/cc-
which are elongated, are red. 29. A native of Eu- rfa.
rope.
29 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
51. Meloe, the Blossom-eater.
Antennae filiform. The articulations cylindrical. Feel¬
ers four, filiform. Thorax roundish before, and emar-
ginated at the tip behind. Head projecting. Jaws
projecting. Elytra united. No wings.
md/tosa. I. Native of the Cape of Good Hope; body large,
black ; head nearly globular, and impressed on each
side ; jaws furnished with teeth at the base ;. thorax
impressed in the middle, and elevated behind, the mar¬
gin rounded and notched at the tip ; elytra above, flat
and rough, deflected at the edge, with a very sharp
lateral serrated line ; legs simple, black.
Only one species of this genus has been described.
49. Erodius.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers four, filiform. Jaw horny,
bifid, and ending abruptly. Lip horny, emarginated.
Hunch-backed, black; the elytra united and rough;
naPs. the sides dusty white. 1. A native of the Gape of
Good Hope ; large, flat beneath.
VOL. VIII. Part I. +
Antennae moniliform. Thorax roundish. Elytra soft,
and flexible. Head inflated, and turgid on the upper
side.
The larva as well as the perfect insect, both of this
and the preceding genus, feed on leaves.
* No Wings; Elytra shortened.
Body of a violet colour. 1. A native of. Europe, ^wcara-
It is to be met with, particularly in the spring, in sandy hceus.
plains. They feed on the ranunculus and veratrum ; its
eggs have a pleasant smell ; when touched, a very thin
yellowish oil exsudes from the joints of its legs. It is
recommended as a remedy in the hydrophobia. The
female is thrice as large as the male.
The segments of the abdomen red. 2. A native offnajalis.
the south of Europe.
* Furmshed with Wings; the Elytra covering the Wings.
A. Jaw bifid.
Black; the elytra yellow, marked with three black
T bands.
lyc
bands. 5. A native of Asia, and the east of Europe.
It is used in medicine among the Chinese. The an-
tennse are sometimes yellow at the tips.
decern- Black j the elytra reddish, marked with five black
punctatus. dots. 6. A native of Italy. The last articulation of
the antennae clavated.
B. Jaw entire.
ichwfferi. Green ; the antennae and legs yellow. 12. A na¬
tive of Europe.
schreberi. Green 5 the antennae, legs, and three segments of the
abdomen, yellow.
32 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
52. Mordella, the Nibbler.
Antennae moniliform or pectinated. Feelers four j the
anterior pair clavated, the posterior filiform. Head
bent down under the neck. Elytra bent downwards
towards the lip. Before the thighs, and at the base
of the abdomen, there is a broad plate.
CoJeopted
* All the Feelers filiform.
Hairy, black j the thorax and posterior part of the * hirh
abdomen black. 1. A native of Europe ; in sandy
places.
Downy, and ash-coloured, clouded with black. 2.* WJWnL
A native of Europe j in dead bodies, and in dung. The
elytra blue underneath $ larva six-footed, naked, pale j
the head and three first segments of the abdomen ches-
nut brown ; tail with two jointed bristles, and a cylin¬
drical tubercle beneath.
Downy, black j marked with ash-coloured bands j * maxil
the jaws of the same length with the head. 3. A na-zas.
tive of Europe ; in woods, living on plunder.
Black; the thorax and elytra shining. 5. A n&-* polin \
tive of Europe ; on dead bodies; when recently caught,
it diffuses a very fragrant smell.
Black ; the edges of the thorax yellowish; the elytra* nitiJ
of a rusty colour, with a black edge. 4. A native of/wz.
Britain.
** The posterior Feelers hatchet-shaped.
ENTOMOLOGY.
* Antennce pectinated.
paradaxa. The sides of the thorax, and the elytra, a brick colour.
I. A native of Europe ; on umbelliferous plants.
Jlabellata. Reddish brown ; mouth, breast, and upper part of
the abdomen, black. 10. A native of Europe.
** Antennce moniliform.
bimaeula- Of a rusty colour ; breast black ; elytra reddish,
ta. marked with a black spot. 13. A native of Europe.
Large.
* acukata. Black ; the anus terminating in a spine. 2. A
native of Europe ; on umbelliferous, and a variety of
other plants.
* abdomi- Black; thorax and abdomen tawney; the anus ter-
nalis. m in at in g in a spine, 19. A native of Europe.
* humer- Black ; the mouth, sides of the thorax, and legs yel-
alis. low. 3. A native of Europe ; on flowers.
* bicolor. Black ; the elytra reddish, black at the tip, and
marked with a black band in the middle. 25. A na¬
tive of Britain ; very common on the flowers of the
hawthorn, of the dock, and of some kinds of umbellife¬
rous plants. Very small.
*** Antenna clavated.
* tlavicor- Wholly black. 23. A native of Europe ; on the
nis. rhubarb.
28 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
53. Staphylinus, llove-beetk.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers four. Elytra half the
length of the body. Wings covered. Tail simple,
furnished with two vesicles, which can be thrust out
at pleasure.
This is an extremely rapacious tribe, devouring what¬
ever insects they can catch, and frequently each other;
many of them, when laid hold of, turn up the tail ; the
}iws are strong and projecting, with which they bite
and pinch very bard. Most of them are found in damp
places, among putrid substances, and a few upon flowers.
The larvae live under ground.
Reddish ; the head, posterior part of the elytra and* rujui
abdomen, as well as the base of the thighs, black. 6.
A native of Europe ; on the boletus.
Black ; the elytra, antennae, and legs of a rusty co-fiavipu
lour. 22. A native of Europe ; on the boletus.
*** The anterior Feelers clavated.
Reddish; the elytra blue; the head and tip of ther*},flmi
abdomen black. 9. A native of Europe. J
Black ; thorax reddish ; the elytra pale blue. gS.^fi00"'1
A native of Europe ; under stones.
Black ; the posterior part of the elytra, the legs anie^onSot>
antennae, of a rusty colour. 14. A native of Europe.
Iiln
54. Forficula, the Earwig.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers unequal and filiform.
Elytra half the length of the body. Wrings covered.
Tail furnished with pincers.
The larvae of the forficula run very quickly. This
insect is very common, and very well known ; the pin¬
cers at its tail, from whence it has received its Latin
name forficula, afford a very good distinguishing mark.
The elytra white at the tip ; the antennae have four-* aum
teen articulations. 1. A native of Europe ; common/ono
in fruit. It is accused of creeping into the ears of
people while sleeping, whence it has received its name,
earwig. _ j ^
Pale above, variegated with black; the anus far-gig^td
nished with two projections; the pincers projecting ^
considerably, and each furnished with one projection.
3. A native of Europe. Very large.
The elytra reddish, without spots ; the antennae have* nutior
ten joints. 2. A native of Europe. The tips of the
antennae are whitish. It is rare.
Black ; the hind part of the head and legs reddish \bipunW
back of the elytra marked with a white spot. 4. A
native of Europe. The antennae have eleven joints.
11 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
II. HEMIPTEBA.
emiptera,
E N T G M
II. HEMIPTERA.
The mouth and snout bent inwards, towards the
breast. Wings covered with hemelytrce. The upper
wings, composed of a semicrustaceous substance, do not
form a straight suture when shut, but the inferior edge
of the one passes over the superior edge of the other.
55. Blatta, Cock-roach.
Head bent inwards. Antennae setaceous. Feelers un¬
equal, filiform. Elytra and wings smooth, and some¬
what resembling leather. Thorax flattish, circular,
and marginated. Feet formed for running. Two
small horns are situated at the tail in most of the
species.
1 These insects, with their larvae, wander about by night,
and secrete themselves by day. They are fond of
warmth, and haunt about houses, devouring meal, and
whatever provisions they can get at. They run with
great celerity j and are destroyed by the fumes of char¬
coal or sulphur, also by the root of the nymphea alba
m boiled in milk.
gmtea. Livid j the shield of the thorax marked with a square
a| chesnut-coloured spot. 1. A native of Asia and Ame¬
rica. It is the largest of this genus, being nearly the
size of a hen’s egg.
trkne. Brown 5 the thorax and elytra livid, and variegated
Jf| with brown. 11. A native of the island of Madeira j
a little smaller than the last species,
d *|Wt- Of a rusty colour ; the shield of the thorax whitish
fiW. behind. 4. A native of America j it has been intro-
' duced into Europe along with sugar,
flwra/c- Of a rusty colour j the thorax black, marked with a
« white ring ; the elytra marked at the base with a small
white line. 13. Found in ships returning from the
South seas.
: \<ienta- Of a rusty brown colour, without spots} the elytra
short, marked with an oblong furrow. 7. A native
of America, and has been introduced into Europe for
almost two hundred years. Frequent in many countries
of Europe, in meal and bread, and other provisions }
likewise in shoes, which it destroys. It shuns the light,
and runs very quickly. It is much harassed by the
large tenthredo cocrulea. The female is without wings ;
, she produces a cylindrical egg, half the size of the ab¬
domen.
"mnica. Yellowish } the elytra spotted with black. 3. A
native of Europe } consuming provisions. In the moist
woods however of the east of Europe it is less noxious.
fmanica Livid } body yellowish } the thorax marked with two
black parallel lines. 9. A native of Europe.
nvdata. Thorax black, with a whitish edge } the elytra pale,
marked with a large black spot near the tip. 2J. A
native of Europe } in pine forests and heaths.
43 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
56. Pneumora.
Body oval, inflated, and transparent. Head bent in¬
wards, and furnished with jaws. Thorax convex, be¬
neath formed like a keel of a ship. Elytra deflected
and membranaceous. Legs formed for running.
O L O G Y. ,7I
The whole of this genus seem to consist of a mere
hollow inflated membrane ; by rubbing their legs a-
gainst their bodies, they make a shrill noise in the twi¬
light } and during the night, they are attracted by a
bright light. * -
Elytra without spots. 1. A native of the Cape ofimmacula.
Good Hope. Head green } eyes white ; between theta,
eyes are three red stigmata, and above these two short
projections} antennae short, green } thorax rough, with
a short tooth before and an impressed wrinkle in the
middle } the elytra ash-coloured, reticulated with green,
sometimes marked with very small black dots} they are
very rarely yellowish or reddish } the insect is about
twice the size of the house-cricket.
1 hree species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
57. Mantis, Soothsayer.
Head nodding } furnished with jaws. Feelers filiform.
Antennas setaceous. Wings four, membranaceous,
rolled up. Fore-legs compressed, notched under¬
neath, furnished with one hook, and with a lateral
setaceous jointed finger} the four hind-legs smooth,
and formed for walking. Thorax linear, long, and
narrow.
The thorax somewhat tapering and rough } the elytragigas.
very short} the legs prickly. 1. A native of Asia }
wings very large.
Thorax marginated, and marked with small projec- vnendita.
Hons} the elytra variegated with green and white }
dotted with white along the edge. 17. A native of
Alexandria.
The thorax smooth} the elytra green} the wingserotar/d.
reddish at the anterior part, marked with a black spot.
6. A native of Europe. This insect rests sometimes
on its four hind-legs, stretches thb fore-legs out to the
right or left, and for this reason has been supposed to
point out the way to strangers, when asked.
The thorax somewhat fringed } the elytra greenish,
marked with a rusty-coloured ocellus. 8. A native
of America and Africa} the half of the ocellus on the
elytra is white, sometimes entirely white. This is sup¬
posed to be the idol of the Hottentots.
Linear, ash-coloured, spotted with black. 30. Afausta.
native of the Cape of Good Hope. This is the tutelary
deity of the Hottentots.
52 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
58. Gryllus, Cricket.
Head bent inwards } furnished with jaws. Feelers fili¬
form. Antennae either setaceous or filiform. Wings
four, either deflected or twisted } the under wings
folded. Hind-legs formed for leaping.
The whole of this genus feed on vegetables, except
those contained in the first division, acrida, which de¬
vour other insects} the achetce destroy the roots of plants}
the tetigonice and loeustee, the leaves or tender shoots, in
some countries laying waste whole districts } the larvae
and pupae resemble, the perfect insects, reside chiefly
under ground, and are six-footed, voracious and active :
some of this tribe are used as an article of food by the
natives of Africa and India } many of them produce
sound by the friction of some parts of their body.
Y 2 * Antennae
1
I 7'2
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hemipter?.
* Antcnnce the shape of a sword; Head conic, and
longer than the thorax. Acridae.
nasutus. Body green. I.
turritus. Head conic ; antennae sword-shaped \ the wing trans¬
parent. A native of Africa and the southern parts of
Europe ; the mouth placed at the under part of the
head ; antennae on the top of the head, and not longer
than the thorax.
giganieus. Green; marked with two reddish fillets; the anten¬
nae of a rusty colour ; thorax marked with three raised
lines. 64. A native of America ; larger than the gr.
jiasutus.
foliaccus. Wings yellowish ; the antennae resembling a leaf.
67. A native of Asia.
* * Thorax formed like a keel; Antennce filiform,
shorter than the thorax. Bullae.
r* hipunc- Brownish ; the scutellum of the thorax of the same
talus. length with the abdomen. 7. A native of Europe;
on sand hills exposed to the sunshine.
* subula- The scutellum longer than the abdomen. 3. A na-
tus. tive of Europe ; in ditches. It is sometimes gray,
sometimes brown.
* * * Antennas setaceous; Feelers unequal; Thorax
rounded; the Tailfurnished with two bristles.
* grytt°' Mole-cricket. The W'ings furnished with a projec-
ta/pa. tion like a tail, and longer than the elytra ; the fore-feet
formed like hands, and downy. 10. A native of Europe.
This troublesome little animal frequents gardens and
cultivated grounds, both of Europe and America, where
it burrows below the ground, and is very destructive ;
eating and destroying the roots of plants. Body dark
brown, hairy ; antennse shorter than the body.
monslro- The elytra and wings furnished with projections like
sus. tails, and rolled up. 73. A native of India.
* domesti- House-cricket. The wings furnished with a tail and
cus. longer than the elytra : legs simple ; body yellowish
brown. T2. A native of Europe; in many houses,
about ovens, and kitchen chimneys : wanders about
during the whole night, keeping a continual chirping,
especially before rain; is said to forsake houses infest¬
ed by the cockroach. There is a variety of this species
six times the size of the European. Arsenic or the
root of the wild carrot, mixed up into a paste with flour,
is sometimes made use of to poison them ; but an opi¬
nion prevails among the vulgar that their presence in
any house is the cause of good fortune ; and, therefore,
hough they be troublesome, they are unwilling to drive
them away.
* cam pcs- Field-cricket.—Wings shorter than the elytra; body
iris. black, and furnished with a long spine. 13. A native
of Europe ; chirps from the beginning of May till tire
end of September, and is said to drive away the house-
cricket when domesticated.
pdlucens. Whitish; thorax of the form of a trapezium. 85.
A native of Carniola and Europe ; in vineyards and
gardens ; about half an inch in length ; it makes a
noise during the whole summer in the nighttime; it
resembles the house-cricket, but larger ; the head is
shining ; the thorax is marked with three brown spots,
the elytra.with yellowish one^.
* * * * Antennce setaceous. Feelers unequal. Tail
of the female armed with a projection like a sword.
Tetigonice. '
The thorax round, and somewhat warty ; wings very aquilime
broad; with 15 nerves. 27. A native of South Ame¬
rica and India; large; the elytra of the shape of a
lance ; the shanks of the legs set with four rows of
prickles.
Brown ; the thorax roundish and keel-shaped bt-griseus.
hind, furnished with a black crooked spine resembling
a sword, the base of which is pale on each side. 108.
A native of Europe ; the antennae yellow, and of the
same length with the body; legs greenish ; the elytra
variegated with brown and ash colour.
The thorax round ; the wings green and without viridissi- <B
spots; the antennae very long. 31. A native ofEu-wws.
rope ; on trees, in pasture grounds, in barley fields.
It makes a noise in the night time in warm weather
about the time of the dog days.
Thorax nearly square and smooth; the wings green,* verrud
spotted with brown ; the antennae setaceous, about the vorus.
same length as the body. 34. A native of Europe,
and is collected by the common people of Sweden for
the purpose of destroying warts in the hand ; which it
said to perform by biting off the excrescences, and
discharging on the wound a fluid which causes them to
decay.
* * * * * Antennce filiform ; Feelers simple ; Tail un¬
armed. Locustse.
The thorax entirely keel-shaped ; body without wings, elephas.
35. A native of Africa ; this is the largest and heaviest
of the Locustce; green, the thighs smooth, the rudiments
of two wings.
The thorax faintly carinated, composed of one seg-migra-
ment; head obtuse ; jaws black. 41. A native oitorius.
Tartary, and migrates in incredible swarms into various
parts of Europe. The mischief these voracious crea¬
tures do, when they appear in vast swarms, far exceeds
that done by any other tribe of animals. By sud¬
denly destroying all vegetation, they change the most
fertile countries into barren deserts, leaving behind
them desolation and famine. They have occasional¬
ly appeared in small flights in England, but have pe¬
rished in a short time. This was probably the species
that constituted one of the plagues of Egypt. They
are eaten by the inhabitants of different countries, par¬
ticularly by the Egyptians, who roast them alive and
eat their bodies, after having removed their wings and
legs.
The thorax marked with an elevated ridge like a* stridu
keel, the wings red and black at the tips. 47. A na-lus.
tive of Europe ; in dry sandy situations, chirping all.
day long, till late at night. Either black or variegated
with black and yellow.
240 species of this genus have been described.
59. Fulgora, Lanthorn fiy.
The head inflated ; forehead prominent. The anten¬
nse short, placed under the eyes, composed of two
articulations, the upper one being the large&t and
globular.
'"I
I.
| PI
femiptera.
ENTOMOLOGY.
globular. The snout, long and bent inwards, is a
sheath consisting of live articulations. Legs formed
for walking.
nterna- The forehead extended, forming a straight beak j
wings bluish, the under wings marked with ocelli. I.
A native of South America. It emits a very bright
light from the prominent part on its forehead. Travel¬
lers are said to avail themselves of the light they emit ;
two or three of them, fixed on the end of a stick, af¬
fording light sufficient to let them see in the dark.
■dema. The forehead set with tapering points, and extended
into a beak, divided at the tip into threej wings black,
spotted with red. 2, A native of India.
, n del aria The forehead extended into a clavated beak ; the
elytra green, spotted with yellow; the wings yellow
with black tips. 3. A native of China.
osp/10- The forehead raised into a tapering beak ; body
7. grayish yellow. 4. A native of South America.
\alina. The forehead conic and unequal ; wings transparent,
marked with a black streak. 17. A native of Ben¬
gal.
20 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
60. Cicada, Frog-hopper,
Snout bent inwards. Antennae setaceous. Wings four ;
membranaceous and deflected. Legs (in the most
of the species) are formed for leaping.
The insects of this genus feed on the juice of plants;
the larva is without wings; the pupa has only the rudi¬
ments of wings, but they have both six legs ; they very
much resemble the perfect insect, and are very active ;
the perfect insect chirps as well as those of the preceding
genus.
* Antennce tapering at the point, and placed on the
forehead. Membracides.
A. Thorax compressed, membranaceous, and larger
than the body. Foliaceae.
ilfata. The thorax inflated, light brown and reticulated. 52.
A native of Cayenne.
enistce. The thorax brown ; lengthened out behind, the ab¬
domen being half the length of the thorax. 56. A
native of England ; on the genista tinctoria.
h 'mis. The thorax greenish, tapering to a point, and of the
same length with the abdomen. 37. A native of*
America, on plants.
B. The thorax furnished with a horn on each side,
Cruciatge.
*^'nuta. The thorax furnished with two horns; black, taper¬
ing to a point behind, and of the same length with the
abdomen ; wings brown. 6. A native of Europe; on
thistles and willows.
* * Legs not formed for leaping. Maniferae.
The tip of the scutellum marked with two small
projections ; the elytra marked with four anastomoses,
and six lines of a rusty colour. 15. A native of
Europe and Africa, very large. Of this insect Virgil
says, et cantu qucerulce rumpent arbusta deader, and
sole sub ardente resonant arbusta cicadis.
Black, spotted with yellow; the elytra are surrounded
with a thin edge, with six brown connected dots ; the
wings are white, marked with two black spots, and
'73
plbdi
orn.
yellow at the base. 16. A native of Europe; the
larva is eatable.
* * * Antennce filiform, situated under the eyes.
A. The sheath of the snout stretched out, obtuse, and
grooved above. Cercopides.
Yellowish; the elytra brown, marked with twobifasciata.
white hands. II. A native of Europe ; on plants of
different kinds.
Brown ; the elytra are marked on the sides with * spuma-’
two white spots, and with a double interrupted whitish ria.
band. 24. A native of Europe; on various plants,
frequently on the rose, on grass and osier ; the larvae
and pupm of this, and some others of the genus, dis¬
charge a frothy matter from numerous pores about the
tail, within which they are completely enclosed ; this is •
frequently found in summer on various plants, very
much resembling a quantity of saliva, and is commonly
known by the name of cuckow spit; the perfect insect '
will frequently leap two or three yards to escape from
any one who attempts to catch it.
Brown ; the fore part of the thorax marked with \m-punctuluta
pressed dots, the elytra marked on the sides with two
white spots. 212. A native of Europe.
f f The sheath oj the snout very short, membranaceous,
cylindrical, obtuse.
Legs formed for leaping. Banatrm.
Brown ; wings transparent, spotted with brown, and nervosa. '
marked with dotted ribs. 25. A native of Europe ;
on plants.
Yellow; the elytra gilt and brown. 123. A na-*fulgida.
tive of Britain ; on plants.
§ § The wings defected, covering the sides. -Dellexfe.
Yellow; the elytra marked with brown, with iouvaurata.
black spots, and gilt behind. 48. A native of Eu¬
rope.
Yellowish; the elytra marked with blood-coloured
spots, and brown at the tips. 173. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on the oak.
240 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
61. Notonecta, Boat-fly.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae shorter than the tho¬
rax. Wings four, folded cross-wise, the upper ones
coriaceous. Hind legs hairy, formed for swim¬
ming.
The insects of this and the next genus, Nepa, live in
stagnant waters, and prey on aquatic animals ; the lar¬
vae and pupae are six-footed, active, and swim readily,
and very much resemble the perfect insect; the larva is
destitute of wings, the pupae have only the rudiments of
wings.
* Lip long.
The elytra gray, dotted with brown along the edge,* dauca.
and divided at the tip. 1. A native of Europe; in
waters, very troublesome to fish. It swims on its back,
for which reason it has been called by the Greek
name of notonecta. The hind legs, which are longer
than the rest, serve- it as oars. When caught, it must
be-cautiously handled, as the point of its snout is very
sharp, and its puncture very painful.
** No -,
i?4
* striata.
E N T O M
* * No Lip, S!garge,
The elytra brown $ marked with a great number of
cross waved lines of a darker colour. 2. A native of
Europe.
14 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
62. Nefa, Water Scorpion,
Snout bent inwards. Antennae short. Wings four,
folded cross-wise, the upper ones coriaceous. The
fore-legs formed like claws; the other four are
formed for walking.
The insects of this genus are very voracious, and feed
on other aquatic animals, which they pierce and tear
with'their sharp snout, while they hold them with the
claws of their fore-legs. They fly well, especially in
the evening and night, and convey themselves from one
pool to another, particularly when water begins to fail
in the pool they have been in.
O L O G Y. Hemipterai j}
inhabitant of most houses in large towns ; crawling
about in the night time to suck the blood of such as are
asleep, and hiding itself by day in the most x-etired boles
and crevices.
f f T/ie FJijtra almost totally coriaceous. Coleoptrati.
Black ; without wings ; the elytra oval, with yzWowgrylloidcr
edges, and shorter than the abdomen. 13. A native
of Europe. The thorax resembling the gryllus.
f f f Membranaceous and very fiat.
The thorax divided into three wings ; the scutellum *
resembling a leaf5 the elytra reticulated and swelling
out at the base. 137. h. native of Europe ; on the
under surface of the leaves of the pear tree, which be¬
come spotted with its punctures.
B. Lip long, tapering to a point at the extremity.
f The Scutellum of the same length with the Abdomen.
Scutellati.
* Antennec divided into several divisions resembling a
hand; Lip wanting.
* cinerea. Ash-coloured ; thorax unequal j body long and oval.
5. A native of Europe j in stagnant waters j the up¬
per part of the abdomen red.
» linearis. Einear •, the claws furnished with a lateral spine. 7.
A native of Europe and India, in fresh water. The
eggs of this insect are furnished at one end with two
hairs ; they deposit them in holes made in stalks of
rushes, leaving the hairs standing out.
* * Lip stretched out and roundish, Naucorides.
* eimicoi- The edge of the abdomen slightly notched. 6. A
feg' native of Europe.
Twelve species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
63. Cimex, Bug.
Snout bent inwards. Antennae longer than the thorax.
Wings four, folded cross-wise 5 the upper wings coria¬
ceous in the fore part. Back flat. Thorax margi-
nated. Legs formed for running.
Most bugs have a bad smell $ all of them except the
reduvii, feed on the juice of plants, and all of them,
without exception, on the juices of animals, particularly
of the softer insects, which they suck by means of
their snout. The larvae and pupae have six feet, run
quickly, and very much resemble the perfect insect;
the larvae have no wings, only stumps of wings.
* Antennce placed before the Eyes.
A. Lip wanting. Acanthiae.
f Without Wing*.
House-bug. Without wings. 1. A native of Eu¬
rope, though originally a foreigner j it was introduced
into Europe before the Christian era, but not into Bri¬
tain until the seventeenth century, being little known
before the year 1670. It is a troublesome and nauseous
2
* lectufa*
rms.
Black; the thorax marked with five, and the scutel-lineatut.
lum with three orange-coloured lines; the abdomen
yellow, dotted with black. 6. There is a variety of
this species,
(/3) Red ; the thorax marked with five, and the ecu-nigroli-
tellum with three black lines; the abdomen yellow,
dotted with black. A native of Europe ; on the flowei’s
of the apple and elder.
f fThe Thorax armed with a spine on each side. Spinosi.
The thorax armed with blunt prickles; the elytra* iuridut,
gray, marked with a brown spot, the shield emargi-
nated. 190. A native of England ; in thickets.
f f f Thorax without spines.
A. Rotundati, such as are round or oval.
Somewhat tawney, the edge of the abdomen spotted *
with brown. 45. A native of Europe ; on berries, rum.
Blue, with a metallic lustre ; the thorax marked with* oleratt*
a small line ; the tip of the scutellum, and dots on theu*,
elytra, all of a red or white colour. 53. A. native of
Europe ; on tetradynamious plants. It is very destruc¬
tive to cabbages and to turnip fields.
B. Such as have the Thorax oblong,
f Antennce terminating in small hairs.
Black; head, thorax, and legs reddish. 364. k*fiavied-
native of England. ' Us.
* * Antenna: clavated.
Brown ; bead and thorax reddish,
of Europe.
679. A nativejcter/V#/.
C. Antennce filiform.
I Legs smooth.
Yellowish ; elytra green. 36. A native of Europe ;* prute*'
in meadows. sis,
tt Legs
^ ffemiptMa. ENTOMOLOGY.
X t Legs nolthecl or prickly.
alcaratus. Brown j the upper part of the abdomen of a blood
colour ; the thighs of the hind legs furnished with six
sharp projections. 114. A native of Europe.
itki I
13. Anteniue setaceous.
$ Legs notched.
. :bietis. Spotted, with tawney coloured spots j legs reddish ;
thighs thick. 115. A native of Europe j on the fir
tree.
11 Legs without prickles.
wiulinus. Green, without spots $ wings transparent. 83. A
native of Europe j in meadows.
$ § § Linear ; Body oblong and narrow.
|j Antennee setaceous.
« ides. Variegated, with brown and yellow; the thighs of
the hind-legs long and notched. 524. A native of
India.
f || || Antennee filiform.
stagno- Black and tapering ; the thorax marked in the centre
,m. with two globular dots. 113. A native of England ;
very common in Jakes.
|| || || Antennee clavated.
'sPtnosu* Greenish brown; the antennre long, with three erect
prickles on the back. 54^* native of Surinam.
II II II II Antennee double clavated.
tcicus. Ash-coloured; the thighs clavated. C43. A na¬
tive of Europe.
II II If II II dntsnnce with two terminations.
Milanus. Whitish ; all the legs very long ; the thighs cla¬
vated. 120. A native of Europe; on mosses.
* * The Antennee placed above the Eyes; the Snout
arched. Reduvii.
i 'sonatus The antennae resembling hairs at the tips ; body
somewhat hairy and brown. 67. A native of Europe ;
m rubbish. The larva is rough, and destroys the house-
bug.
fidulus. Smooth, black; the elytra brown, Spotted with
black, and with a red edge. 557. A native of Eu¬
rope. . It is small, and moves about with great agility
early in the spring; it keeps its antennse in constant
motion, and makes a shrill noise by rubbing them
against the thorax.
693 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
64. Macrocephalus.
Snout bent inwards. Sheath of one valve, and con-
sisting of three articulations, and furnished with three
bristles, destitute of jaws, feelers, and lip. Antennse
stretched forwards, very short, clavated, and nearly
moniliform. Head oblong, cylindrical above. Scu-
tellum of the length of the abdomen, flat and mem¬
branaceous.
A grayish-reddish colour; the scutellum of an ash-
colour ; a yellow spot on the elytra; the wings of a
purplish violet colour; the thighs of the fore-legs
thickened. 1. A native of America.
. 0nly one species of this genus has been described
m the last edition of the System of Nature.
63* Aphis, Plant-louse or Vincfretter.
Snout bent inwards; a sheath of five joints, furnished
with one bristle. Antennae setaceous, and longer
than the thorax. Wings four, erect in none, Eegs
formed for walking. Abdomen frequently termi¬
nating in two horns.
The minute animals which compose this singular
genus, inlest various plants, generally in large societies,
hindering their growth, and consuming their juices.
A peculiarity in the mode of their propagation attracted
the attention of naturalists a good deal towards the be¬
ginning and about the middle of last century. Reaumur,
110111 some observations of lus own, and from the opinions
of some preceding observers, was led to believe, that they
propagated without sexual connection. Bonnet adopt¬
ed the same opinion, and thought he had established it
beyond controversy by some very accurate experiments
and observations of his own, which he communicated to
the Royal Academy of Sciences. He shut up a young
aphis, at the instant of its birth, in the most perfect so¬
litude, which nevertheless brought forth 95 young ones
in his sight. The same experiment being repeated on
one of this family, it multiplied like its parent; and
one of this third generation, brought up in solitude,
proved no less fruitful than the others. Repeated ex¬
periments, in this respect, as far as the fifth or sixth ge¬
neration, all uniformly afforded the same result. A
suspicion entertained by Mr Trembley induced Mr
Bonnet to repeat bis experiments with still more accu¬
racy, and to continue them longer. He reared to the
amount of the tenth generation of solitary aphides, and
had the patience to keep an account of the days and
hours of the births of each generation : he discovered,
that they are really distinguished by sexes ; that the
males are produced only in the tenth generation, and
are but few in number; that these soon arrive at their
full growth, and copulate with the females ; that the
virtue of this copulation serves for ten generations : he
likewise found that they were viviparous during spring
and summer ; and that they were oviparous only in the
tenth generation; that from these eggs the aphides of
the following year were hatched early in the spring.
His observations have been repeated by other naturalists,
particularly by Hr Richardson of Rippon, who has
given a very minute account of his observations, in a
paper published in the Philosophical Transactions,
vol. xi. art. 22. These little animals discharge from
their anus a sweet fluid, commonly called honey-clew,
which attracts the bees and ants. The species are very
difficultly distinguished ; it is still more difficult to de¬
scribe them ; different species are sometimes found on
the same plant.
Of
*75
eimicoidcs.
%
176 ENTOMOLOGY. Hemipter,
* longiros- Of an ash-colour *, the snout three times the length of
iris. the hotly. 34. A native of Europe j under the barks
of trees j feeds on the larvae of the ants.
* vitis. 56. A native of Europe j on the vine. This destruc¬
tive little insect cuts through the peduncles, or stems
which support the clusters of grapes, in their very early
stage, causing them to wither and drop off soon after
the fruit is formed.
*pistacice. Black ; wings whitish ; shanks of the legs very long ;
the thorax warty. 33. A native of Europe and Asia 5
on the pistachia: the antennae moniliform 5 eyes black¬
ish j the abdomen without bristles, covered with white
down, mixed with small balls; the wings sometimes
erect. It is lodged in a follicle arising from the base
of the leaf, swelling out in the middle, and tapering to¬
ward each end, of more than an inch in thickness, at
first green, after the insects have left it becoming flesh-
coloured.
77 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
66. Chermes.
The snout is a sheath placed in the breast, furnished
with three bristles, bent inwards. Antennae cylin¬
drical, longer than the thorax. Wings four, deflect¬
ed. Thorax turgid on the upper side. Legs formed
for leaping.
These insects inhabit various trees and plants, and
produce by their punctures, protuberances and excres¬
cences of various shapes and sizes, in which are fre¬
quently enclosed the eggs, and insects in their several
states ; the larva is six-footed and apterous ; the pupa is
distinguished by two protuberances on the thorax, which
are the rudiments of future wings.
*graminis. I- A native of Europe ; on grasses, particularly the
aira jicxuosa.
*ca$tanea. Brown; the antennae setaceous and smooth; the
* wings very much ribbed. 21. A native of Europe;
on different plants.
Twenty-six species of this genus have been described
in the last edition of the System of Nature.
67. Coccus, Cochineal.
The snout furnished with bristles, situated in the breast.
Antennae filiform. The anus furnished with bristles.
Male with two erect wings ; female without wings.
These are extremely fertile ; and very troublesome in
hothouses and greenhouses ; the male is very active, with
an oblong body, and ovate abdomen ; the tail is furnished
with a style and two long bristles; the female has a
body nearly globular, and is inactive and fixed to diffe¬
rent parts of plants.
hesperi- Oval, oblong. 1. A native of Europe: on ever-
dum. green plants, in greenhouses, e.g. the orange, the lau¬
rel, &.c.
adoniduru. Reddish, dusted over with powder, and hairy. 4*
A native of America and Africa, lately in the warmer
parts of Europe; on trees. Body oval and whitish ;
antennae and leg® brown, marked on the back with an
elevated line, and with a raised dot on each of its seg¬
ments, with the edges of the side acute, furnished with
fourteen prominent segments and raised dots; its surface
3
sprinkled with as many dots set longitudinally between
the clavated line on the back and the edge; the tail
divided; the perfect insect constructs a follicle in which
it conceals itself and its yellow eggs.
Body oblong, ovate; purple or chesnut. 17. Onpolontcui
the roots of the scleranthusperennis.—This insect with¬
out impropriety may be called the cochineal of the
northern part of the world. It prefers cold climates,
and is commonly called coccus tinctorius polonicus, or
the scarlet grain of Poland. Ray calls the plant on
which it feeds \\\e, polygonum cocciferum; but it is not
confined to one kind of vegetable, for it is found on
the mouse-ear, pimpernel, and pellitory, as well as on
the sc/eranthus perennis. It is a native of some other
northern countries as well as Poland ; though formerly
the greatest quantity of it used to be collected there.
Towards the end of June the coccus is in a fit state for
gathering. Every one of these creatures is then nearly
of a spherical form, and of a fine violet colour. Some
of them, however, are not larger than poppy seeds, and
others of the size of a pepper corn. The males are pro¬
duced from the small grains, the'females from the larger
ones ; each of them is lodged in a sort of cup like that
of an acorn. These cups cover more than one half of
the body of the animal. They are rough and of a
blackish brown on the outside, and smooth and shining
on the inside. At the roots of some of the plants only
one or two grains are to be found, at the root of others
more than forty are to be met with.
Those who collect the grains have a short spade,
with which they raise the plants from the ground ; after
the insects have been collected they replace the plants ;
the grains are then separated from the earth, which
may have adhered to them, by means of a sieve, and
sprinkled with very cold water or vinegar to prevent
them from hatching.
After this they are dried in the sun, or by gentle
artificial warmth ; but this must be managed with cau¬
tion, as too hasty drying might injure their colour.
Sometimes the grains are separated from their covers,
and made up into balls.
According to Bernard de Bemith, the Turks and
Armenians make use of these grains not only for dye¬
ing silk and wool, but likewise the manes and tails of
their horses. The Turkish women use it for tinging the
tips of their fingers. The Dutch formerly mixed it
with the true cochineal. The colouring matter extrac¬
ted from this insect, by means of a solution of alum
with the addition of a little chalk, is said to form a lake
equal in beauty to that of Florence. The great supe¬
riority of the Mexican cochineal, has caused the scarlet
grains of Poland to be neglected in all the countries of
Europe where dyeing is best understood, as they con¬
tain not a fifth part of the colouring matter which may
be extracted from the real cochineal.
Body depressed, downy, and transversely wrinkled ; cacti.
abdomen purplish ; legs short and black; antennae snbu-
lated, the third part of the length of the body. 22. A
native of South America, on the cactus coccinellifera.
The male is very small ; its body is long, of a deep red
colour; two long diverging threads proceed from the
extremity of the abdomen; its wings are large, white,
and incumbent; its legs are pretty long; the antennae
are nearly the length of the body.
The female is more than double the size of the male,
when
lemiptera. E N T O M
when at it« full growth, It is almost as large as a pea, o f
a dark brown colour, and covered with a white powder ;
the antennas are short; the body flat beneath, and con’
vex above, and edged with annular segments distinctly
marked ; the legs are short. 3
The Female of this insect is the real cochineal, so
highly valued in every part of the world, for the in¬
comparable beauty of the red colour which it affords,
which forms so considerable a branch of commerce be¬
tween the new and old continents. In the year 1736,
there was imported into Europe 700,000 pounds weight^
worth upwards of 700,000!. sterling. It was a long
while made use of before its nature was ascertained :
for a considerable time it was thought to be the fruit of
isome vegetable. The same opinion prevailed with re¬
spect to another species of coccus, which was much
used as a dye before the introduction of the Mexican
cochineal, and which, under the name of kermes, is
collected in Spain, Sardinia, Africa, and Asia Minor.
America is still the only quarter from which the true
cochineal is to be obtained. The principal countries,
where tlie cochineal insects are bred, are Oaxaca, Tlas-
cala, Cbulula, Nueva Gallicia, and Chiapa, In the
kingdom of New Spain ; and Hambalo, Loja, and Tu-
cuman in Peru ; hut it is only in Oaxaca that they are
gathered in great quantities, and form a branch of com¬
merce ; the cultivation of these little creatures being
there the chief employment of the Indians. It is im¬
ported into Europe, in the form of small irregular
grains, flat on the one side, and convex on the other :
the best is of a slate gray colour, mixed with red, and
covered with a white powder. There are two kinds of
cochineal: First the fine, called by different names, ac¬
cording to the places from whence itcomes, viz. Mastique
Campeseane, and Tetrascale; of these the mastique is
reckoned the best. The second is called Sylvester, from
its being commonly collected from a species of cactus,
which grows without culture ; this is much inferior to
the other, both in price and in the quantity of the co-
louring matter which it affords; it is likewise smaller,
and generally believed to be a different species of coc¬
cus. The plant on which they rear the best cochineal
ts called nopal by the Indians,' {cactus coccinellifera of
Linnaeus). The colour of the cochineal is by some sup¬
posed to he derived from the juice of this plant. Its
flowers and the juice of its fruit are of a beautiful red
colour. The natives of those countries where the cochi¬
neal is reared, form plantations of the nopal in small
gardens near their houses; the plant is propagated by
cuttings, which grow freely. In about eighteen months
aster the plantations have been formed they are fit for
the reception of the insects. These plantations must be
renewed every six years, as the insects succeed best on
young vigorous plants.
Mie nopal will grow on almost any soil, and needs
no other culture but to be kept clear of weeds, and
protected from the north-wind. The insects are placed
upon the nopal about the middle of October, the period
at which good weather commonly commences in Mexico
Riter the rains. Those who rear the insects, take care
to preserve a suflicient number of females for this pur¬
pose, erther by protecting them during the rainy season
with a covering of matts, or by removing some branches
of the nopal loaded with them into their own houses.
Eight or ten of these females are put into a small nest
* 01.. VIII. Pai-t L .j.
O L o G Y.
formed of a tuft of threads collected from a species of
palm, or of any other cottony matter, which is attach¬
ed to the spines of the nopal, on that side of the plant
exposed to the rising sun, the rays of which promote
the hatching of the young insects, which soon proceed
in great numbers from the nest, as each female pro¬
duces upwards of a thousand. The larvae spread over
tie plant, and soon fix themselves by means of their
trun ' ; alter this, should they by any accident be dis¬
placed, they inevitably perish, as their trunks are broken,
in some districts the females are preserved during tha
rainy season in boxes carefully shut up. The males
live for ittle more than one month; the females about
double that time. Both of them remain in the state of
arvae for about ten days; they remain fifteen days
longer in the state of pupae. The males when they
pass from the state of pupae get wings ; but till that time
they are not distinguishable from the females, except
that they are only about half the size. After they ac-
quire wings, they impregnate the female, and die. The
female, in going through her different changes, does not
change her form, but only casts her skin. After she
has been impregnated she lives for about a month, and
increases considerably in bulk ; then lays her eggs, and
dies. According to M. Thierry, there are six genera¬
tions ot these little animals in the year. They might
be collected during the whole year, did not the rainv
season check their progress, and almost entirely destroy
them. According to all the writers on the' subject,
there are three collections made of them yearly. The
first takes place about the middle of December, and
the last in the month of May. When they make the.
first collection, they take away the nests, and pick out
the dead females, which had been placed on the nopal
the preceding October. The second collection is made
wien the insects again begin to produce young. The
insects are detached from the plant with a knife, the
edge and point of which have been blunted, to prevent
the nopal from being injured. The insects are received
into a vessel as they are separated from the plant, put
to death, and dried, The Indians have several ways of
killing these insects; which they are anxious to accom¬
plish as soon as possible, because the females may live
for some time after they are detached, and produce
their young, which might escape and diminish the quan¬
tity of cochineal collected. Some natives put the co¬
chineal in a basket, and dip them in boiling water; af¬
terwards they expose them to the sun to dry.
Others put them in a hoc oven, or on heated plates
of iron. But it appears that the best cocliineal is ob¬
tained by following the first mode. The different co¬
lours imported into Europe depend entirely on the mode
of killing the insects. That which has been killed by
dipping in boiling water, loses part of the white powder,
with which they were covered, and acquires a brownish
red colour : this kind is called renagrida. That which
is killed in an oven retains the white powder, and re¬
mains of a gray colour : this is called jarpeuda. That
which is killed hy plates of heated iron becomes black¬
ish, and is called negra.
line dead females which are taken from the nests
which had been put on the nopal, lose more of their
weight in drying than the insects which are taken off
alive and full of young ; the first losing three-fourths
and the last two-thirds in drying. Alter it has been dried
Z k
i78
E N T O M
it may be kept for any length of time without losing
either weight or colour.
It requires much care and attention to preserve these
insects from their numerous enemies. The principal
enemies which infest the cochineal are, the larvae ot a
species of coccinella, which suck them, and leave no¬
thing but the skin. A caterpillar of about an inch long,
and of the thickness of a crow quill, is their most de¬
structive enemy, which would soon destroy the whole
race, were they allowed to carry on their depredations
without molestation. The larvae of a species of ptinus
feeds on them likewise. There is a species of insect
which lives on the nopal in great numbers, and does as
much injury to the plant as the cochineal insects them¬
selves do ; which pinches their body, prevents them from
taking nourishment, and causes them to drop from the
plant. A small mouse which always prefers the fine
cochineal to the Sylvester, because the cottony matter
with which the Sylvester is more abundantly covered
entangles its teeth, also preys on them. Many birds,
too, are fond of them, and would destroy great numbers
of them, were they not driven away by the owners of
the plantations. , ...
The Sylvester Is smaller than the true cochineal j their
bodies are covered with a white cottony matter, and
edged all round with hairs. About eight days after
they are fixed, the cottony matter and the hairs increase
in length, and become so closely attached to the plant,
that part of them is commonly left adhering after the
insect has been removed. Though these insects com¬
monly feed on a prickly species of cactus, which grows
wild, the Indians frequently rear them on the nopal,
because they are collected from it with much more faci¬
lity than from the uncultivated species : for Uie most
dexterous workman cannot collect more of the insects in
one day than will produce two ounces of cochineal when
dry } whereas he can collect from the cactus coccmelh-
fera as many as will yield three pounds when dry.
There is also another advantage obtained from rearing
the Sylvester on the nopal which they cultivate in their
gardens-, the insects become almost as large as the true
cochineal, and lose more and more ot their cottony co¬
vering in proportion to the frequency of their reproduc¬
tion. The Sylvester has been lately introduced into the
British settlements in India. The following account of
its introduction and comparative value has been pub¬
lished by Mr Nicholas Fontana, who resided for many
vears in that part of the world. .
“ The introduction of cochineal into Bengal, which
our neighbours had endeavoured to naturalize in theii
Westlndia possessions, deserves particularly to be mark¬
ed, as being likely, under proper management, to be¬
come not only a new £era in the progressive resources
of the company, but an accession of opulence to the
British empire : an sera the more remarkable, as not¬
withstanding the attempts of government, the design
was not accomplished but through accident, the great
parent of discovery, which, with never-ceasing influ¬
ence, operates in many ways for the good of man-
kind. . „ , . • r
“After a large plantation of the various species ot
opuntia had been reared at Madras, waiting only the
arrival of the insect to make it serviceable, which a long
correspondence of thirteen years could not obtain, Di
Anderson’s solicitations about it had almost been for-
O L O G Y. Hemiptera
gotten } yet though his laborious industry and zeal for his
country’s interest, had no other reward, the introduction
of the cochineal insect into India is entirely owing to
his publications on the subject, which fortunately fell
into the hands of Captain Nelson, who was then sta¬
tioned at Madras with the 52d regiment. On the
captain’s return to India in I795> t^ie ^ee*: *n *ie
sailed, repaired for refreshment to the port of Rio de
Janeiro. In his perambulations a little way out of this
town, he was attended as usual by the centinel, when
he saw a plantation of opuntia with the insect upon it.
This circumstance immediately brought to his recollec¬
tion the ardent wish for the importation of the insect
expressed in the letters he had read at Madras ; and he
conceived the hope of being able to gratify Dr Ander¬
son’s desire, by carrying some to India with him.
“ A day or two previous to bis embarkation, he took
another walk to the place where he had seen the opun¬
tia or nopal. He made bold to ask the cultivators for
some of the plant, being curious, he said, in matters ot
natural history. Having collected several other plants,
he wished to have this also. The good people being
the less suspicious as he was in his regimentals, granted
Ids request. They gave him several plants with insects
on them, which he carefully carried aboard. Many ot
these, during the passage to Bengal, which was remark¬
ably long and tedious for such delicate passengers, died.
A few insects only remained alive on the last plant,
several of the leaves having withered.
“ Captain Nelson, on his arrival in Calcutta, sent the
survivors to the botanic garden, where they were dis¬
tributed on the different species of the opuntia. This
well nigh frustrated the whole labour. On the China
and Manilla species, they were found to die fast. It
fortunately occurred to make trial on the indigenous
opuntia of Bengal, which is also abundant in many
parts of India. On this the insects thrived amazingly^
insomuch, that from these few, in the course of four or
five months, a quantity had been collected sufficient for
distribution among all who wished to try the rearing of
them, and several plants upon which the insects were
feeding were sent to Madras. . # <
“ The novelty and importance of the object pi-omising
so speedy and plentiful a harvest of fortune, engaged a
multitude of individuals to undertake the business j amt
this, no doubt, the more readily, as the cultivation of
this field of wealth required but very little capital.
Many golden dreams were enjoyed by the nevy plant¬
ers. All who had a mind were provided with insects j
and undertook plantations of opuntia.
“The anxiety and impatience natural to all, who,
indulging in ardent expectations, undertake new enter¬
prises, induced some of the planters of nopal to put the
insect upon it when the plant had just emerged from
the ground. Others, through inattention, kept their
insects in places too near to where the opuntia was
growing young, which in that tender and premature
state was devoured by these creatures when hard pressed
by hunger. The unskilful mode of drying was like¬
wise adopted j and some of those persons whose opinions
led the multitude, declared in the most decided and po¬
sitive manner, that the cochineal would never answer,
as it would not be found worth the trouble and expence
attending the cultivation of it. AH these considerations
damped in a great measure the ardour of the enterprise.
ENTOMOLOGY.
emiptera.
Many abandoned the pursuit, and left the insects to pro¬
vide for themselves, after the plants destined for their
use were destroyed, wherever they could find nourish¬
ment. They were seen flying about indiscriminately on
various other plants, and thus perishing; while others
rooted out the plantations, and employed the ground for
other purposes.
“Besides the discouraging circumstances already men¬
tioned, it was urged that the species imported into India
was the gratia sylvestris, and that the first specimens
sent home had been of no value. They had grown
lumpy and musty for want of being properly dried, or
thox-oughly divested of the cottony matter with which
the insect is covered. But supposing, it was added, that
a proper mode of drying and preparing it could be
found out, and the cultivation of it brought to the
greatest perfection, it would soon overstock the market,
as there is a certain quantity only, and that not very
great, which is required for Europe. This would soon
be supplied, and loss instead of gain would accrue to
the planters. This excess, however, it was farther ur¬
ged, was to be presumed only in the case of the country
being able to supply plants sufficient for the food of the
insect, which was very doubtful on account of its quick
reproduction, as it sends forth a new generation every
forty days. These, with other objections of less force,
may easily be refuted by any impartial observer ac¬
quainted with the nature of the climate and soil of In¬
dia, even without any kind of knowledge of agricul¬
ture. In such a vast extent of territory as that of the
East India Company, and lying under such a variety of
climates, it is not surely impossible, or vex-y difficult to
find a climate and soil fitted for the naturalization and
rearing the cochineal insect, and where the plants will
grow to proper size for affording it food ; in the same
manner as in the districts of Mexico, where the people
who take most pains, have them growing to such a
height as to require ladders to gather the insects. Such
a state of the plant would check the too rapid repro¬
duction of the insect, and at the same time improve its
quality ; for it is a fact, that the Sylvester cochineal,
when bred upon a full grown nopal, loses part of its tena¬
city,andgrows todoublethesize of that gathered on gum¬
my plants, and is less covex-ed with the cottony substance.
“The cultivation of cochineal, would in all probabi¬
lity be greatly favoured by the vicinity of a hilly coun¬
try ; such as the Boglepore, Rajahmahl, and Purneah.
It can be ascertained by good authority, that there are
already in the Chittagong district, plantations of large
opuntias, which have been growing for two years past.
Whenever the insect shall be placed on these plants, we
shall see cochineal of a very good quality. The nature
and habits of the natives seem entirely calculated for
the employment of gathering the insect ; work that
may be done by old men, women or boys.
“ As to the drying the insects, there is no country
where the sun has sucli'influence as in Bengal. The
method of drying in the sun, after scalding the insect
in hot water, is that practised in Mexico and Brazil :
the insects collected in wooden bowls are thereby spread
from them on a hot dish of earthen wafe, and placed
alive on a charcoal fire, where they are slowly roasted,
till the downy covering disappears, and the aqueous
juices of the animal are wholly evaporated. During
this opei'ation, the insects are constantly stirred about
with a tin ladle, and sometimes water is sprinkled upon
them, to prevent absolute torrefaction, which would
destroy the colour ; but a little practice will teach them
to remove them from the fire, though surely its barba¬
rity ought to prevent its adoption.
“ By an estimate, made on a large scale, of the ne¬
cessary expence that would attend the cultivation of one
hundred biggahs of opuntia, it appeared, that after mak¬
ing every possible allowanceforground rent, ryotsgather-
ing, and an European overseer, and interest on disburse¬
ment at twelve percent, the quantity produced ofgrana
sylvestris, during nine months of the year, reckoning it
at four sicca rupees per seer of thirty-two ounces, would
more than treble the capital employed. But if this cal¬
culation be just in the vicinity of Calcutta, and there is
no reason to suppose it otherwise, where labour and
ground rent is dear ; how much would the whole ex¬
pence of cultivation and preparation be, if transferred
to a greater distance, and to the other provinces !
“ When the insect has been well dried, it should be
packed immediately, as it might otherwise be affected
by the damp air of Bengal. In this business the method
used in Mexico should be followed ; which is to put it
first into a linen bag, covered with a compact net; and
then over the whole an ox’s hide sewed so closely as to
render it impervious to water.
“ For some of the cochineal which I wanted for the
purpose of making experiments, collected at Entally,
two miles from Calcutta, I paid in 1796 sixteen rupees
per seer ; for the same quantity raised by another plan¬
ter the following year eight rupees ; and in 1797,1 might
have bought a great quantity, part of which came one
hundred miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per seer.
“ The improveability of the grana sylvestris, by at¬
tention, will be ascertained more cleaidy by the follow¬
ing fact, than by a thousand arguments. Some mer¬
chants, at my recommendation, bought about two hun¬
dred pounds of cochineal made at Rassapuglah, five
miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per seer. The same
house paid for seven mauns, or 280 seers, to Mr Stephens
at Keerpay, seven rupees per seer; and I can say, that
it was the best of the sort that had yet been seen in the
town, both for its size, cleaning, and drying.
“ Let us now suppose for a moment, such cochineal
as that made at Keerpay, to be the best that can ever
be obtained at Bengal, and that the above may be within
a rupee, more or less the average price. The grana jhia
that is brought to Bengal by way of Manilla, sells, when
abundant, at sixteen rupees per seer, but oftener at nine¬
teen and twenty. The Bengal sylvestris contains onlv
from -/g- to Eg- parts of the colouring matter contained
in the other ; but say only one half, so that the manufac¬
turer will be obliged to use two seers instead of one, the
quality of the colour to be the same; even at this rate,
the silk manufactories at Bengal might be supplied with
it, with a yearly saving. Alter supplying this market,
if the quantity be increased, there will be a demand for
it in the China and English markets, though only of the
Sylvester kind. Supposing it for ever to remain such,
by leaving it to the indolent natives only, even this
would be a great acquisition, considering the various
ways in which it can be employed by the dyers. Be¬
sides, if the prices were immediately to fall, so as not to
indemnify the present freight and insurance to the pri¬
vate adventurers, how easy would it be to reduce the in-
Z 2 seet
179
ENTOMOLOGY. Hemipterai
sect to a mach smaller bulk, by making a lake, and pro¬
ducing carmine no less valuable than the Jina.
“ The overstocking of the market, however, with a
drug so important, and of such extensive use, is not a
thing very likelv to happen. The manufacturer, where-
ever he could get it at a low price, would use it gene¬
rally, and substitute it in the room of other materials
for reds, such as madder, red-wood, and others, used
for woollens, and silks j besides the great varieties of
shades from scarlet and crimson, down to all those va¬
rious tints to be obtained by modifications of re-agents
from cochineal, with a brilliancy, and stability, that
would soon repay the small additional expence that
might be incurred by the substitution.
“ It is a thing greatly to be wished, by every citi-
z.en and patriot, that the Bengal cochineal may soon be
brought to such a degree of perfection, and produced in
such plenty, as may admit of a reduction ot its price suf¬
ficient to induce the calico printers in Europe to use it
more commonly than hitherto, in the dyeing of cotton ;
which would open a much wider field for its consump¬
tion. As to the shyness of cotton to the admission of
this animal colour, it is not an obstacle that ought by
any means to be considered as insurmountable in the
present state of chemistry, advancing so rapidly to far¬
ther improvements, and particularly applying with vast
(ujccess many of its operations to the art of dyeing. The
few unsuccessful attempts made by manufacturers and
chemists to fix this colour on cotton, have been defeated
more by the dearness of the drug, than by any imprac¬
ticability of the design. This exhausted at once the
purse and patience, both of the artist and chemist j and
precluded that continuation, repetition, and diversifica¬
tion of experiment, which is necessary to the completion
of new inventions.
“ It was upon cotton that the Spaniards first saw the
cochineal used in Mexico *, but for want of preparation
it produced but a dull crimson. When some of the
dried Bengal insect was shewed to the vakeel of the
rajah of Napaul, residing as minister to our government
at Calcutta, he soon knew it, and declared that it was
always used in dyeing his country robes and turbans.
The opportunity arising from the management of a
chintz manufactory, induced me to make some trials
of cochineal in cotton cloth and thread. By these it
was ascertained, that the quantity of colouring matter
contained in the Bengal cochineal of 1796, compared
with the grand Jina, was from nine or eleven to sixteen.
I then repeated, as far as the chemical reagents to be
obtained in India wrould permit, various experiments of
the kind mentioned by Dr Bancroft, in his first volume
of the Philosophy of Fast Colours j and nearly with the
same success, in variety of shades, and degrees of perma¬
nency. From these experiments, there resulted two
considerable benefits to that manufactory : the first was,
that I was induced to make an addition of a certain
quantity of powdered cochineal to the morinda root,
for the fine cloths and muslins that were to undergo the
boiling process in the vat. The second, I was led to
mix with the basis for printing red (alum), a decoction
of cochineal, instead of the turmeric or red wood, for¬
merly used by printers in tracing their designs. This
last substitute was only boiled in simple morinda, and the
other with the addition of cochineal. By this process,
deep and brilliant reds were obtained, such as had not
hitherto been seen in Bengal.”
The cultivation, therefore, of the cochineal insect, ia
an object worthy of all the countenance and care of go¬
vernment. The attempts towards its naturalization
ought not by any means to be abandoned $ but conti¬
nued with all persevering industry, and unwearied at¬
tention to every circumstance that may promote so im¬
portant a branch of commerce. For this article we
send annually immense sums to the Spaniards. Not
only might this expence be saved to Britain } but, in
due time, the rest of the world might be supplied from
the Bengal produce of this valuable commodity. It is
in the recollection of most people conversant with India
affairs, how the first specimens of indigo sent home from
Bengal were depreciated and rejected. Hence the cul¬
tivation of it was obstructed for some years. But when
it began to be attended to in 1780 and 1782, by people
who were acquainted with the best modes of manufac¬
turing it, it was improved with such rapidity that in
1790, some of the Bengal indigo was judged to be
equal to the Guatimala, and bore the same price. The
quantity sent home in the years 1795 and 1 796, was far
beyond what had ever been imported into the port of
London from all the world, and more than is required
for the annual consumption of Europe. The use of in¬
digo in the dye-house is very circumscribed, and con¬
fined chiefly to the colours of blue and green. It gives
also a few finer blacks, with lilac grounds j but it can¬
not, like cochineal, be applied to the various principal
colours, as crimson, scarlet, purple, and all the inter¬
mediate shades.
Body red ; antennae branched j tail furnished withJietts*
two bristles. 23. A native of India ; on the Jieus re-
ligiosa and indica. This is the insect which produces
the gum lac.
In the months of November and December, they first
appear, and traverse the branches ot the trees on which
they are produced for some time, and then fix themselves
on the extremities of the young branches. By the middle
of January, they are all fixed in their proper situations,
when they appear as plump as before, but shew no other
signs of life. The legs, antennae, and setae, are no longer
to be seen. Around their edges they are environed with
a subpellucid liquid which seems to glue them to the
branch ; it is the gradual accumulation of this liquid
which forms a complete cell for each insect, and is what
is called lacca. About the middle of March the cells
are completely formed, and the insect is in appearance
an oval smooth red bag without life, about the size of a
small cochineal insect,emarginated at the obtuse end,full
of a beautiful red liquid. In October and November, we
fine about twenty or thirty oval eggs, or rather larvae*
within the red fluid of the mother. When this fluid is
all expended, the young insects pierce a hole through
the back of their mother, and walk off one by one, leav¬
ing their exuviae behind, which is that white membra¬
nous substance found in the empty cells of the stick lac.
These insects feed on some other trees besides the
ficus religiosa and indica of Linnaeus, viz. on the rham-
nus jujuba (Linn.) and on the plaso, (Hort. Malabar.).
The insects generally fix themselvesso close together,and
in such numbers, that scarcely one in six can complete
her cell $ the others die, and are eaten by various insects.
ptera. E N T O M
The extreme branches appear as if they were covered
with a red dust, and their sap is so much exhausted that
they wither and produce no fruit j the leaves drop oft'or
turn to a dirty black colour. These insects are trans¬
ported from one tree to another by birds. It is worth
observing that these fig-trees exsude, when wounded, a
milky juice, which instantly coagulates into a viscid
ropy substance, and when dried resembles the gum lac.
A red gum is procured by incision from the plaso, so
similar to the gum lacca, that it may readily be taken
for the same substance. Hence, it is probable, these
animals have but little trouble in preparing the sap of
the trees for the construction of their cells.
The gum lacca is rarely seen on the rhamnus jujuba,
and is inferior to what is found upon the other trees.
This gum, in Bengal, is principally found on the uncul¬
tivated mountains on both sides the Ganges, where it is
produced in such abundance, that the markets might be
readily supplied, were the consumpt ten times greater
than it is.
The only trouble in collecting it is in breaking down
the branches. The best lac is of a deep red colour :
if it be pale and pierced at top, the value diminishes,
because, the insects having escaped, it cannot be useful
as a dye, though it may answer better as a varnish.
These insects and their cells have been variously de¬
nominated : viz. fzum lacca, lack, lactra, and in Bengal
lascha. By the English, lac is divided into four kinds $
viz. stick lac, lump lac, seed lac, and shell lac; for
which, and their varieties, see the article Lac.
The following account of the lac insect by Dr Wil¬
liam Roxburgh, is published in the Asiatic Researches,
vol. ii.
Some pieces of very fresh looking lac, adhering to
small branches of the mimosa cinerea, were brought me
from the mountains on the 20th of last month. I kept
them carefully j and to day, the 4th December, fourteen
days from the time they came from the hills, myriads
of exceedingly minute animals were observed creeping
about the lac and branches it adhered to, and more still
issuing from small holes over the surface of the cells :
other small and perforated excrescences were observed
with a glass, amongst the perforations j from which the
minute insects issued, regularly two to each hole, and
crowned with some very fine white hairs. When the
hairs were rubbed off, two white spots appeared. The
animals, when single, ran about pretty briskly ; but in
general they were so numerous, as to be crowded over
one another. The body is oblong, tapering most to¬
wards the tail, below plain, above convex, with a double
or flat margin j laterally on the back part of the tho¬
rax are two small tubercles, which may be the eyes 5
the body behind the thorax is crossed with 12 rings j
legs six ; feelers (antennae) half the length of the body,
jointed, hairy, each ending in two hairs as long as the
antennae ; rump, a white point between two terminal
hairs, which are as long as the body of the animal j the
mouth I could not see.
“ On opening the cells, the substance that they were
formed of cannot be better described, with respect to
appearance, than by saying it is like the transparent
amber that beads are made of: the external covering of
the cells may be about half a line thick, is remarkably
strong, and able to resist injuries : the partitions are
0 L o G Y.
much thinner j the cells are in general irregular squares,
pentagons, and hexagons, about an eighth of an inch in
diameter, and a fourth deep 5 they have nocommunica'
tion with each other j all those I opened during the
time the animals were issuing, contained in one half a
small bag filled with a thick red jelly-like liquor, re¬
plete with what I take to be eggs j these bags, or utri-
culi, adhere to the bottom of the cells, and have each
two necks, which pass through perforations in the ex¬
ternal coat of the cells, forming the fore-mentioned ex¬
crescences, and ending in some very fine hairs. The
other half of the cells have a distinct opening, and con¬
tain a white substance, like some few filaments of cotton
rolled together, and numbers of the insects themselves
ready to make their exit. Several of the same insects
I observed to have drawn up their legs, and to lie flat \
they did not move on being touched, nor did they show
any signs of life, with the greatest irritation.
“ December 5th. The same minute hexapedes con¬
tinue issuing from their cells in numbers 5 they are more
lively, of a deepened red colour, and fewer of the mo¬
tionless sort. To day I saw the mouth j it is a flatten¬
ed point, about the middle of the breast, which the lit¬
tle animal projects on being compressed.
“ December 6tb. The male insects I have found to¬
day. A few of them are constantly running amongst
the females most actively ; as yet they are scarce more,
I imagine, than one to 5000 females, but twice their
size. I he head is obtuse •, eyes black, very large ;
antennae clavated, feathered, about two-thirds the length
of the body j below the middle an articulation, such as
those in the legs} colour between the eyes, a beautiful
shining green } neck very short; body oval, brown }
abdomen oblong, the length of the body and head }
legs six } wings membranaceous, four, longer than the
body, fixed to the sides of the thorax, narrow at their
insertions, growing broader for two-thirds of their
length, then rounded } the anterior pair is twice the
size of the posterior; a strong fibre runs along their an¬
terior margins } they he flat, like wings of a common
fly, when it walks or rests} no hairs from the rump} it
springs most actively to a considerable distance on being
touched } mouth in the under part of the head} maxilla;
transverse.
“ To-day the female insects continue issuing in great
numbers, and move about as on the fourth.
“ December 7th. The small red insects still more
numerous, and move about as before } winged insects,
still very few, continue active. There have been fresh
leaves and bits of the branches of both mimosa cinerea
and corinda put into the wide-mouthed bottle with them :
they walk over them indifferently, without showing any
preference, nor inclination to Work nor copulate.
“ I opened a cell whence I thought the winged flies
had come, and found several, eight or ten, more in it,
struggling to shake off their encumbrances } they were
in one of these utriculi mentioned on the 4th, which
ends in two mouths, shut up with fine white hairs, but
one of them was open for the exit of the flies } the other
would no doubt have opened in due time } this utli-
culus I found now perfectly dry, and divided into cells
by exceeding thin partitions. I imagine, before any of
the flies made their escape, it might have contained
about twenty.. In those minute cells, with the living.
flies..
I8l
182 E N T O M
flies, or whence they had made their escape, were small,
dry, dark-coloured, compressed grains, which may be
the dried excrements of the flies.
Weis. Shining brown, covered with white down. 6. This
insect is commonly called kennes grains, and inhabits
the quercus coccifera of the southern parts of Europe.
Mr Hellot of the French Academy of Sciences, in his
Art of Dyeing, chapter 12. says it is found in the woods
of Vauvert, Vendeman, and Narbonne •, but more abun¬
dantly in Spain, towards Alicant and Valencia $ but
also in Murcia, Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Estremadura,
la Mancha, Serranias de Cuenca, and other places. In
Xicona, and Tierra de Eelluc, there is a district called
de la Grana, where the people of Valencia first began
to gather it, whose example was followed all over
Spain. It has some years produced 5000I. to the in¬
habitants of Xicona. Both the ancients and moderns
seem to have had very confused notions concerning the
origin and nature of the kermes $ some considering it as
a fruit: this opinion was entertained by Pliny, and by
most of the ancient naturalists j others taking it for an
excrescence formed by the punctures of a particular fly,
like the common gall observed upon the oak. Tourne-
fort was of this number. Count Marsigli, and Dr
Nisoli a physician of Montpelier, made observations and
experiments, with a view of discovering its nature, but
did not perfectly succeed. Two other physicians at
Aix in Provence, Dr Emeric and Dr Garidel, applied
themselves about the same time with greater success;
they discovered the kermes to be nothing else than the
body of an insect. About the beginning of March they
are perceived on the branches of the quercus coccifera,
very small; they soon fix themselves and become im¬
moveable, after which they increase rapidly in size. In
April they arrive at their full growth, and are nearly
about the size of a pea. About the end of May, sooner
or later, according to the warmth of the climate, the
husk appears replete with small eggs, less than poppy
seed. These are properly ranged under the belly of the
insect, progressively placed in the nest of down that
covers their bodies. After this it soon dies, though it
still adheres to its position, rendering a further service
to its progeny, and shielding them from the inclemency
of the weather, or the hostile attacks of an enemy. In
a good season they multiply exceedingly, producing from
1800 to 2000 eggs. In Languedoc and Provence the
poor are employed to gather the kermes; the women
letting their nails grow for that purpose, in order to
pick them off with greater facility.
The custom of lopping off the boughs is very injudi¬
cious, as by this means they destroy the next year’s
harvest. Some women will gather two or three pounds
a-day \ the great point being to know the places where
they are most likely to be found in any quantity, and
to gather them early with the morning dew, as the leaves
are more pliable and tender at that time, than after they
have been parched by the rays of the sun: strong dews
will occasionally make them fall from the trees sooner
than usual j when the proper season passes, they fall off
themselves, and become food for birds, particularly
doves. Sometimes there is a second collection j but the
insects are commonly smaller, and do not afford so much
colouring matter. The insects which are produced in
the spring, are generally found adhering to the bark j
3
O L O G Y. Lepidopteii \\
those of the second crop are commonly attached to the
leaves.
Those who buy up the kermes for exportation, spread
it on linen, taking care to sprinkle it with vinegar, to
kill the insects, which causes a red dust to separate from
them j in Spain, this is carefully collected, and kept
apart by itself. After it has been dried, they pass it
through a scarce and put it up into bags. In the mid¬
dle of each, its proportion of red dust is put into a
leather bag, which likewise belongs to the buyer. The
people of Hinojos, Bonares, Villalba, and of some other
parts in Spain, dry it on mats in the sun, stirring it
about, and separating the red dust, which is the finest
part; which they sprinkle with vinegar, and call pastil.
The kermes is much in request on the coast of Barbary,
particularly that which comes from Spain. The peoplt
of Tunis mix it with what is brought from Tetuan,
for dyeing those scarlet caps so much used in the
Levant.
43 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
68. Thrips.
Snout concealed within the mouth. Antennee filiform,
of the same length with the thorax. Body linear.
Abdomen capable of being bent upwards. Wings
four, straight, incumbent, narrower than the body,
and nearly forming a cross.
The insects of this genus leap about very actively on
flowers j their feet are vesicular 5 the larvce are equally
active with the perfect insect} commonly red.
The elytra yellowish; body black. 2. A native *p/u/sap;!
of Europe ; on compound flowers. It shuts up the
flowers of the lotus corniculatus, and causes them to
swell out j it is very destructive to wheat and rye, fre¬
quently rendering the ears quite empty.
Eleven species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
III. LEPIDOPTERA.
Wings four, covered with small scales laid over one
another, like tiles on the roof of a house. The mouth
furnished with a spiral tongue. Body hairy.
69. Papilio, the Butterfly.
Antennae thicker towards the points. Most frequently
they are both elevated and furnished with a knob at
the extremity. Their wings, when at rest, are for
the most part erect. They fly about in the day-time.
The butterfly feeds on the nectarious juice of flowers,
or on the saccharine juice which exudes from the leaves
of vegetables. Their larvae are active, and run abort
a good deal. They are furnished with tentacula and
16 feet 5 some are naked, others covered with prickles,
and feed on the leaves of plants. The pupa is naked,
and remains torpid for a longer or shorter period j fre¬
quently adhering to different substances, by means of
threads attached to its middle or head. The perfect in¬
sect is furnished with two feelers, but wants jaws, and
has
j. Ea cites.
A. Trees.
>pidoptera. E N T O M
has four or six feet. Their names are frequently taken
from the plants on which they feed.
These butterflies which belong to the family ef
knights are, for the most part, furnished with filiform
antennae, and with a tail or long appendix to the wings ;
the larvae are commonly variegated, and but few of
them are natives of Europe.
Linnaeus has arranged the genus of Butterfly in¬
to six divisions, and these again into many subdivisions.
I. EauiTES. Alis primo-
ribus ab angulo posterio-
re ad apicem longioribus
quam ad basin*, his saepe
antennas filiformes.
A. Trees. Sacpius nigri,
maculis ad pectus san-
guineis.
B. Achivi. Pectora non
cruenta, ocello ad angu-
lam ani.
a. Alis absque fasciis.
b. Alis fasciatis.
2. Helicokii. Alis an-
gustis integerrimis, sajpe
denudatis j primoribus
oblongis, posterioiibus
brevissitnis.
3. Parnassii. Alis in¬
tegerrimis rotundatis.
4. Danaii. Alis integer¬
rimis.
A Candidi, Alis albis.
B. Fe&tivi. Alis variega-
tis.
5. Nymph ales. Alisden-
ticulatis.
A. Gemmati. Alis ocel-
latis.
o. In alis omnibus.
h. primoribus.
1. posterioribus.
B. Phalerati. Alis absque
oceliis.
6. Plebeii. Parvi, larva
saepius contractu.
A. Tluralcs. Alis macu¬
lis obscurioribus.
B. Urbicoice. Alis macu¬
lis ssepius pellucidis.
1. Knights. Those which
have their upper wings
longer from the posterior
angle to the tip, than to
the base, and have their
antennae for the most part
filiform.
A. Trojans. Those equi-
tes that are generally
black, and marked on
the breast with spots of
a blood-red colour.
B. Greeks. Such as are
not marked on the breast
with red spots \ but have
an ocellus at the angle
of the wing near the a-
nus.
a. Wings without bands.
b. Wings marked with
bands.
2. Heliconii. Those which
have narrow and perfect¬
ly entire wings, frequent¬
ly bare, the upper ones
oblong, the under very
short.
3. Parnassii. Those with
wings perfectly entire,
the upper pair being
round.
4. Danah. Wings per¬
fectly entire.
A. Candidi. Wings white.
B. Festivi. Wings varie¬
gated.
5. Nymphales. Those
with wings notched.
A. Gemmati. Wings adorn¬
ed with several ocelli.
a. on all the wings.
b. on the upper wings.
c. on the under wings.„
B. Phalerati. Wings with¬
out ocelli.
6. Plebeii. Such as are
small and have contract¬
ed larvae,
A. Rurales. Such as have
their wings marked with
obscure spots.
B. Urbicola. Those with
transparent spots on their
wings.
O L O G Y.
183
+ Wings furnished with a tail.
Wings of the same colour, both on their upper and hector.
under surfaces, black ; the upper ones marked with a
white band, the under with red spots. A native of
India ; on the aristolochia. The white band on the up¬
per wings is composed of eight white half-divided spots.
.The scarlet spots on the under wings are round and
form a double arch.
Wings black, both above and below marked with aascanius,
white band, common to both wings; that on the lower
clouded with red. A native of the Brasils. It resem¬
bles the tinctuna; body black, breast marked with
blood-coloured spots.
Wings of the same colour, both on their upper and
under surfaces, black spotted with white j the under
ones marked with circular red spots along their edges.
A native of India. Head red j antennae and thorax
black \ abdomen white, with red bands j wings marked
with numerous white spots, the lower part greenish in
the middle, with a red circular spot at the angle of the
tail.
Wrings nearly of the same colour on both upper vn&glaucus.
under surfaces, clouded $ the upper wings marked with
a yellow spot, the under with a .tawney one near the tail.
A native of America. The under surface of the lower
wings are marked with red and yellow spots.
Wings black, sprinkled with green and gold palinurue*
and marked with a bluish green band. A native of
Tranquebar. Body covered with green and gold
specks. W ings black, speckled with white on their
under surface. The upper ones ash-coloured at the tip,
the under marked with tawney spots along their edges.
Wings black, the under ones of a shining green, thephilenor.
under surface marked with seven red spots somewhat re¬
sembling eyes. A native of America. Body black j
abdomen speckled with white; margin of the upper
wings variegated with white and black; under ones
with a few faint white specks j the margin variegated
with white and black, marked with a white dot at the
base on the under surface; the tip greenish, with seven
round tawney dots surrounded with a black ring, and -
marked with a small white lateral dot. .
Wings black, with a white band ; the under surface cm'*/,?.
of the lower wings marked at the base and at the tip
with red. A native of America. Thorax marked with
an ash-coloured lateral line ; breast with an ash-coloured
dot on each side j abdomen with an ash-coloured lateral
line beneath ; upper wings with both surfaces alike ;
under ones black above, with three scarlet circular spots
at the angle of the tail, and five white ones at the mar¬
gin, brown beneath, marked with red spots at the base,
a red line at the inner margin, and three circular spots
at the angle of the tail, with four white circular spots ,
on the outer margin. ,
f + Wings notched.
Wings notched and silky, the upper ones green onpriamus.
their superior surface, marked with a black spot, the
under with six .black .spots. An native of Amboyna.
This -
i1$4
ENTOMOLOGY.
This is the most remarkable species of this genus, both
for its size and beauty. Head and legs black •, abdo¬
men bright yellow, and the sides of the thorax varie¬
gated with scarlet lines.
anch'ses. Wings of the same colour on both their upper and
under surfaces, black ; the under wings marked with
. seven oval scarlet spots. A native of America ; on the
orange tree. The larva is prickly, brown marked with
white circular stripes, and furnished with tentacula.
They are gregarious. Pupa brown, marked with four
projections on its anterior part.
pyrrhus.
«tcodet.
B. Achivi.
t Wings furnished with a double tail.
Wings brown, each of them marked with a white
band, the band on the upper wings as it were halved.
A native of South America and India.
Wings of a dusky blue, marked on both sides with
a white band, the edges of the under one green. A
native of Africa.
t f Wings furnished with two notched tails.
tiridates.
pollux.
Wings black on their upper surface, spotted with
blue, and marked with a dotted white edge. A native
of Amboyna.
Wings brown j marked with a yellow band on their
upper surface, and on their under surface with a white
band and white spots. A native of Africa.
tacks.
f f f Wring!< furnished with two very slight tails.
Wings striped with white and yellow, with a white
band in the middle j the lower wings marked on their
under surfaces with a strip of dots resembling little eyes.
A native of Siam. Of a middle size, and very tender.
f 111 Wings notched and furnished with a tail.
polycaon.
xipharcs.
Wings black, marked with a yellow band ; the under
surface of the lower wings marked with tawney blue and
vellow circular spots. A native of Surinam j feeds on
some species of the allhcea.
Wings black, the upper spotted with white, the
under ones marked with a yellow band. A native of
Africa.
f f f f f Wings furnished with a tail.
ulysses.
agamcm
non.
Lepidopterif
situated at the edge nearest the extremity of the abdo¬
men. This is the largest and one of the most beau*
ful butterflies which Britain produces. It changes in¬
to the pupa in July, assumes the winged state in August,
and frequents meadows. Sometimes it appears in May.
Wings nearly of the same colour both on their upper */wcfa/,'r|
and under surfaces, marked with brown bands set in us.
pairs; the under surface of the lower wings marked with
a blood-coloured line. A native of Europe and the
northern parts of Asia and Africa. It feeds on differ¬
ent species of the brassica : Larva solitary, yellowish
dotted with brown ; head pale green ; pupa yellowish
dotted with brown, marked with two slight projections
towards the anterior extremity.
Wings white, the upper ones marked with black«/cj'Z>wd«
bands along the edges, the under ones marked on their
superior surface with red near the tip. A native of
Tranquebar. Head tawney, with a broad black line in
the middle ; thorax downy and ash-coloured, marked
with two tawney spots ; abdomen whitish, marked on the
sides with a line of black blotches ; upper wings green¬
ish at the base ; under ones marked with a black spot
near the tail, and marginal circular spots ; tail long,
black tipped with white, streaked with black beneath.
+ + + + ++ Wings terminating in a slight projection
faintly resembling a tail.
fM
Wings brown, marked on their under surfaces witbjp/mtojpp
white bands, adorned with two eyes, and with a double
eye at the tail. A native of India. The female much
larger than the male.
Wings brown, black at the tip, spotted with white \aureH«i.
the under wings on their lower surfaces adorned with
two eyes. A native of India.
WTings, upper surfaces brown ; under wings with vijason.
band marked with six green blotches. A native of
South America and India.
Wings brown : the under wings marked with tnophilosUln ' '
blue ocelli, with black pupils, and three white dots.
A native of South America and India. The female
has a tuft of long diverging hairs at the end of the up¬
per wings.
Wings black, marked with a plain green band ; the nerm.
under surfaces of the wings arc blackish. A native of
South America and India.
Wings black, with a blue radiant centre ; the under
surface of the lower ones adorned with seven ocelli. A
native of Asia.
Wings black, spotted with green; the under surface
of the lower ones adorned with an ocellus, and with red
spots. A native of Asia.
* machaon Wings of the same colour in both surfaces, yellow
with a brown edge, marked with yellow circular spots,
and with a tawney one at the angle of the tail. A na¬
tive of Europe ; on umbelliferous plants, and on rue.
The larvae are seldom fqund in numbers together, are
smooth and marked with annular strips of green and
blacked, dotted with red; their tentacula are short and
vellow. They emit a very disagreeable smell,by which
they keep off the ichneumon. Their pupa is black and
yellow. The under wings are adorned with an eye of
» yellowish-red colour, encircled with blue, which is
4
fttitff Wings notched.
Upper surfaces of the wings of a bright blue, the memlaur p
under spotted with brown. A native of South Ameri- ,,
ca. The larva prickly and yellow, marked with rose-
coloured strips ; head brown and feet red. Pupa pale,
and has a cylindrical inflected tail.
Upper surfaces of the wings brown, spotted with net tor.
white, and blue in the centre; their undersurfaces adorn¬
ed with three or four eyes. A native of America.
Wings brown; the upper surfaces of both have atekmadn'
large radiated disk, the under surface of each marked
with six eves. A native of South America.
Wings pale blue, and black at the tips, spotted witbjjrrw*^- llf
red. A native of Surinam.
Upper surfaces of the wings black marked with aachitt*1'
blue band ; the under ones are brown, adorned with
three or live eyes. A native of America.
Under
n
,epidoptera.
Zj/rios. Under surfaces of all the wings of blue and silver j
the upper wings black on their superior surfaces, mark¬
ed with two silver bands, and with two brown ones on
the under surface ; the under wings marked on their
superior surface with a broad silver band, and with seven
spots of blue and silver. 378. A native of Asia.
l85
margin of the lower wings black, marked with seven
yellowish dots.
4. Daxai.
A. Candidi.
ENTOMOLOGY.
tttfttft Wings faintly notched.
meneus. Wings nearly crenated, and of a dusky blue colour j
the under surfaces clouded, and adorned with two ocelli.
45. A native of South America. The larva is red¬
dish, with feathery protuberances set round it in a ring.
! he pupa is dentated, and furnished with two crooked
horns at the head,
2. Heliconu.
-pst- Upper wings yellow 5 under wings of a deeper yel-
i»re. low than the upper, sprinkled with black spots. 55. A
native of Asia.
tillage. Wings yellow; the upper marked with three black
streaks, and the under with three black bands. 36. A
native of South America and India. Tips of the upper
■ < wings speckled with white.
fomma. Wings pale yellow; the upper ones marked with a
bright yellow band, the under with three black hands.
58. A native of South America. Larva; yellowish and
prickly.
h/«. Wings tawney, dotted with black, and the under ones
have a black edge dotted with white. 359. A native
II . India ; on the violet and borrage.
Wings brown ; the upper wings marked on both sides
with two white bands. 63. A native of America ; on
the ricinus palmci chnsti; the base of the under wing
in the male marked with purple, in the female with
blue ; the larvae green, covered with white hairs.
3. Parnassit.
ikllo. Wings white, spotted with black ; the under wings
are red at the base, and adorned with four ocelli on their
upper, and six on their under surfaces. 50. A native
of Europe, and feeds on the sedum tclephium, and the
saxifraga cotyledon i flies about slowly ; the larva soli¬
tary, silky, black, and furnished, with two tentacula at
the back part of its head ; all its segments are marked
on each side with two red dots. The pupa covered with
a slight follicle; oval, bluish, and marked on each side
with red dots on the anterior part.
Two- Wings white, with black veins; the upper ones
marked with two black spots near their edges, 31, A
# native of Europe.
'atagi. Wings white, with black veins. 72. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on fruit trees. It is very destructive in gardens
and orchards, and emits a fluid of a reddish colour,
which has frequently given rise to the reports of showers*
of blood which are said to have fallen in different pla¬
ces. Larva gregarious ; hairy and yellow, green be¬
neath ; head black ; body marked with three black
lines ; pupa greenish, with black spats and dots.
aToma- Wings of the same colour, both on their upper and
under surfaces; the upper ones dusky and naked, the
under yellow. 382. A native of New Holland. Head
black ; feelers yellow; thorax black, with a yellow dot
on each side ; breast spotted with yellow ; posterior
You VIII. Part I. J i
Wings black at the tips, marked with two black * /err
spots. 75. A native of Europe ; on some species of bras-
sica. I he upper wings in the male are without black
spots, and the same happens in the two following species.
The larva solitary, dotted with black, and marked with
three sulphur-coloured lines ; the tail black ; pupa pale
green, marked with three yellow lines, and three of its
segments globular ; eggs set in clusters.
Smaller than the preceding species ; wings white, * rapee.
upper ones tipt with brown; the female has three brown
spots on the upper, and one on the lower pair. 76. A
native of Europe ; on the tux-nip and other species of
brassica ,* also on the tropceolum. Larva green ; marked
with a bright yellow line on the back, and bright yel¬
low on the sides; pupa greenish, marked with three sul¬
phur-coloured lines.
Wings marked on their under surfaces with broad *
greenish veins. 77. A native of Europe ; on several
species of brassica.
Wings roundish ; of a dusky colour at the tips. 79. * sinapis.
A native of Europe ; on the mustard.
Wings white above ; the upper ones on their superior cfocorj.
surface, black at the edge and tip, which is marked
with four white dots ; inferior surfaces black, marked
at the tips with four yellow spots and a yellow base;
the inferior surface of the under wings scarlet, marked
with black veins. 881.
Wings roundish, brown at the edges ; their under*<Aj/>//«
surfaces of a grayish yellow spotted with white. 81. Kdicce.
native of Europe ; on different kinds oi reseda and bras¬
sica ; larva covered with bluish hairs, marked with
black spots and yellow streaks.
Wings round ; the centre of the upper ones tawney ; * carda-
the inferior surface of the under ones clouded with mines.
green. 85. A native of Europe; on the card amine, bras-
jico, and thlaspis. Larva solitary; greenish above and
whitish beneath. Pupa green, marked with a white
line on each side ; thorax conical, ascending.
Wings yellow, with black tips, and a brown w\&T-palano.
gin ; the inferior surface of the under ones marked with
a silver dot. 99. A native of Europe ; on the coronilla;
wings sometimes whitisli. Larva somewhat hairy; green
marked with yellow lines and black dots.
Wings angular and yellow; each marked with a rusty- * rhetnmi.
coloured spot. 106. A native of Europe; on the buck¬
thorn. Commonly flies about in August, though fre¬
quently it lies dormant all winter, and appears early in
the spring. The male is very often of a sulphur colour;
the female white. Larva smooth ; and green with a
dark line on the back. Pupa in the anterior part turgid,
and drawn to a point.
B. Festivi.
Wings almost entire, brown, with a rusty-coloured cassite.
band divided at the point. The lower surface of the
under wings ash-coloux-ed, and adorned with two ocelli.
The larva green, streaked with red, with two prickles
A a oa
186
* kyper-
anthus.
oedipus.
* pamphi-
lus.
ascamus.
kandcr.
on its head, and tail divided,
very spots, i 20.
Wings entire, of a dusky colour j the lower surface
of the upper ones adorned with three ocelli, and the in¬
ferior surface of the under wings with two or three. 127.
A native of Europe ; is found at the roots of the poa
annua ; the wings sometimes have ocelli on their upper
surfaces. Larva solitary, hairy, and of an ash-colour,
marked with a black line behind ; the tail furnished
with two little prominences; pupa brown, spotted with
yellow j and has a bunch on its back.
Wings entire 5 their upper surfaces black, without
spots, the under brown j the upper wings adorned with
three ocelli, the under with five. 495* native of
Europe.
Wings perfectly entire and yellow j the upper adorn¬
ed on their lower surface with one ocellus 5 the under
ones ash-coloured, marked with a band and four faint
ocelli. 239. A native of Europe 5 on the cynosurus
cristatus ; in woody meadows. Larva and pupa green •,
the former marked with a white line, and has two small
prominences at the tail.
Wings perfectly entire, of a rusty colour; the upper
marked on their inferior surfaces with a single ocellus ;
the under wings with five, the first being separated by a
band. 242. A native of Europe ; in woody meadows.
Larva green, marked on the back with dust-coloured
lines, and on the sides with yellow lines ; the tail fur¬
nished with two little prominences.
Wings perfectly entire, brownish ; (the upper wings
of the female tawney), the lower surface of the under
ones ash-coloured and tawney at the tips, adorned with
six ocelli. 503. A native of Europe ; somewhat re¬
sembling the last.
c. Nymph ales.
ENTOMOLOGY. Lepidoptera
Pupa reddish, with sil- black dots on its back ; tail divided. It remains under
ground till it has undergone its metamorphosis.
A. Gemmati.
hJ0.
macro.
rncgcera
agenda.
phccdra.
Wings angularly notched, tawney, spotted with
black ; each adorned with one ocellus. 131. A native
of Europe. Larva gregarious, prickly, black, dotted
with white; their hind legs of a rusty colour. Pupa
green, dotted with gold; having ten small projections
on the fore part of the body ; the tail divided.
Wings notched, brown ; the upper marked on both
surfaces with one ocellus and a half ; the unuer adorn¬
ed on their superior surfaces with three ocelli, and on
their inferior with six. 141. A native of Europe ; on
pasture ground. Larva greenish, somewhat hairy, hav¬
ing two small prominences at the tail. Pupa greenish,
slightly divided, and prickly on the sides.
Wings notched, yellow, and marked with brown
bands ; the upper adorned with one ocellus, and the
under with five ocelli on the superior, and six on the
inferior surface. 142. A native of Europe ; on pas¬
ture ground. Larva, hairy, green, striped with white ;
the tail divided.
Wings notched, brown, spotted with yellow ; the
upper adorned on both surfaces with one ocellus ; the
under with four ocelli on their superior surface, and four
dots on their inferior. 143.
Wings notched, brown on both their superior and
inferior°surfaces ; the upper wings adorned with violet-
coloured ocelli. 150. A native of Europe ; feeds chief¬
ly on the avena elation. Larva gray, with two lines o_
B. Phalerati,
up
urtica,
Wings notched, of a dusky colour, marked xvitbpopuli,
white dots and bands ; their inferior surfaces yellow,
marked with white bands and black spots. 162. A
native of Europe ; on the populus tremula. The female
marked with a broader white band than the male.
Larva prickly, and variegated ; head and tail tawney.
Pupa yellowish, dotted with black.
Wings angular, black, with a whitish circumference. * antiopc
165. A native both of Europe and America; on the
birch and willow. When it appears in spring, the
edges on the wings are white, and in the summer they
become yellow. Larva gregarious, prickly, black, mark¬
ed with square rusty-coloured spots on the back. Pupa
black, marked with small projections and tawney dots.
Wings angular, tawney, spotted with black; the* potychr.
upper ones marked on their superior surface with fourTOS.
black dots. 166. A native of Europe ; on fruit trees.
Larva gregarious, prickly, blackish, marked with a
yellow line on the sides. Pupa of a flesh colour.
Wings angular, tawney, spotted with black ; the *
superior surface of the upper wings marked with three
black dots. 167. A native of Europe ; very common
on the nettle ; supposed, though often falsely, to be a
forerunner of spring. Larva gregarious, prickly, brown,
variegated with green ; the head black. Pupa brown,
marked with small projections, and golden spots on the
neck, and sometimes entirely of a golden colour. This
insect, and many others of the same genus, p. atalantaf
polychloros,jo, &c. soon after their enlargement from
the chrysalis state, discharge a few drops of a reddish-
coloured fluid ; which in places where they have ap¬
peared in great numbers, has had the appearance of
a shower of blood, and been marked by writers as a
prodigy foreboding some extraordinary event. J
Wings angular, tawney, spotted with black; the * C albtifi
under ones marked on their inferior surface with a
white C. 168. A native of Europe ; on the nettle,
willow, and gooseberry. Larva solitary, prickly, and
tawney ; the back yellow on the fore part, and white
behind. Pupa of a flesh colour, contracted in the
middle, dotted with gold.
Wings notched, yellow, variegated with black, and hypsipf^
him
ni
fjicr
14
atalanti
radiated at the tips ; the under ones marked with seven
red dots. 607. A native of Europe ; on the aristo-
lochia clematis. Larva yellow, marked with black,
furnished with prickles set round in a circle ; red, with
black tips.
Wings black, spotted with white; the upper ones*
marked with a purple band on both sides, the under
with a purple band along the edge. 175* native of
Europe and America ; on the nettle. Larva solitary,
prickly, green, marked with yellow lines on the sides.
Pupa marked with small projections ; blackish above,
and ash-coloured belowv dotted with gold.
Wings angularly notched, brown, marked with taw-celtis.
ney spots and a single white one ; the under wings gray
on their inferior surfaces. 639. A native of the south of
Europe. Larva green, marked with white lines, spotted
with black. Pupa green, marked with white lines.
Wings slightly notched, variegated, and reticulated,
on
mdo.
\tul<e.
kpidoptera, E N T O M
on their inferior surface ; the upper ones marked on their
superior surface with some white spots. 201. A native
of Europe ; on the common thistle. Larva gregarious,
prickly, and black ; legs red ; head marked with two
prickles j pupa furnished with small brown projections ;
thorax yellowish below.
xdippe. Wings notched, brown, spotted with black, adorned
on the inferior surface with twenty-three silvery spots.
212. A native of Europe 5 on the viola odorata and tri-
color: the silver spots sometimes, though rarely, change
into yellow ; larva ash-coloured or brown, covered with
many reddish prickles, and marked on the back with a
black line, rising out of a white one $ pupa brown,
marked with silver dots.
6. Plebeii.
A. Pur ales.
Under wings terminating in six small projections,
white on their inferior surface, marked with silver spots.
217. A native of America j on the cotton. Larva
white, dotted with black.
Wings furnished with a slight tail, the under ones
marked with two white streaks. 220. A native of
Europe $ on the birch and sloe. Wings of the male
marked with tawney spots ; larva thick, green marked
with two obliquely transverse white lines, and two small
furrows on the back j pupa smooth, of a rusty colour.
Wings slightly tailed, brown above, with a red
spot at the tip of the lower ones j lower wings beneath
with a tawney marginal band, dotted with black. 221.
A native of Europe ; on the plum-tree. Larva thick,
green, with a pale lateral line j pupa brown, with a
white head.
Wings slightly tailed, bluish, beneath ash-coloured,
with a white streak and double tawney dot near the tail.
222. A native of Europe ; on the oak. Larva thick
above, of a rose colour; with three lines of green dots.
Pupa smooth, of a rusty colour j with three lines of
brown dots on the back.
Wings tailed, brown, without spots; the inferior
surfaces marked with a white streak, and tawney cir¬
cular spots; the under wings marked with a black dot.
719. A native of Europe j on the cherry tree.
Wings furnished with a tail, blue, with a white
spotted edge, white on their inferior surfaces, marked
with black square spots, and a reddish band. 743. A
nativeof Europe; onth^sedumtelephium. Larva green;
marked with a red line on the back. Pupa obtuse ;
green on the anterior, and brown on the posterior part.
Wings entire, and blue with a black edge ; beneath
of a brownish colour, adorned with a streak of dots
resembling ocelli; the under wings on their inferior
surface blue at the base. 750. A native of Europe ; on
the flower of the ast?'agalus and mellilot. Larva pale ;
marked with a red streak on the back, and on the sides
with oblique green lines ; head black. Pupa brown,
spotted with black.
B. Urbicolce.
Mihia, Wings perfectly entire, spreading so as to form an
obtuse angle, tawney, marked with a small white line
and with white dots beneath. 256. A native of
Europe ; the line wanting in the female. Larva of a
shining red ; head black, with a white strip on the
collar. Pupa long, cylindrical, and brown.
p.m.
*; ercus.
cmi.
st
cwcrus.
O L O G Y. ,87
W ings perfectly entire, spreading so as to form an * linea.
obtuse angle; tawney, with a black margin. 817. A
native of Europe ; upper wings in the male marked
with a small black line on the middle. Larva solitary
and green. Pupa green ; with a very thin covering.
Wings notched and spreading so as to form an obtuse * malvce.
angle ; brow'n, waved with ash colour ; the upper wings
marked with transparent dots; the under ones with
white dots. 267. A native of Europe ; on the malva
and althcea. Larva gray ; head black ; neck marked
with four sulphur-coloured dots. It draws together the
leaves on which it feeds, by threads which it spins.
Pupa hunch-backed and bluish.
876 species of the butterfly have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature published bv
Gmelin ; but a great many more are to be met with in
the collections of the curious, which have not yet been
described by any author.
Sphinx, Hawk-moth.
Antennae nearly prismatic, thickest in the middle.
Tongue (in most species) projecting. Feelers two,
bent back. Wings deflected.
* Legitimae. Antennce scaly. Feelers hairy, Tongue
spiral.
+ Wings angular.
The under wings reddish, adorned with a blue eye.* ocellaia.
I. Native of Europe and America; on the spiraea,
willow, and fruit trees ; the thorax marked with a
rusty-coloured spot, the tongue very short. The larva
solitary, rough, green, and furnished with a tail; marked
with obtuse white streaks, and dotted with yellow ocelli.
The pupa is brown, with a black back.
Wings angularly notched, yellowish, marked on \\xequercus.
under surface with brown bands ; the under wings with
a red band. 48. Native of Europe, on the oak. The
body of the male is ash-coloured; that of the female
brown. The larva solitary, furnished with a tail, and
green ; marked on the sides with oblique white stripes,
and with reddish specks. The pupa a light brown, with
reddish edges.
Wings dentated, reversed and gray ; the under wings*popu/i.
of a rusty colour at the base; the upper ones marked
with a white dot. 2. Native of Europe ; on the poplar
and willow. The larva solitary, rough, green, furnished
with a tail; it is marked on each side with a white line,
and with white oblique cross stripes. The pupa a dusky
gray, and of a rusty colour behind.
Wings marked with greenish bands, and clouded*/f/wf.
with dark green ; the superior surface of the upper
wings of a yellowish brick-colour. 13. Native of
Europe ; on the lime-tree. The larva solitary, rough,
green, furnished with a tail. It grows smaller towards
the head, and is marked on the sides with oblique
blood-coloured and yellow stripes. The pupa of a dusky
brown.
Wings irregularly notched, and greenish, markedawof/rera.
with a dark green band; the under wings tawney, and
black at the tips. 54. Native of Europe : on the
cenothera. The larva solitary, brown, and without a
tail; marked with blood-coloured specks, and with a
black ocellus, the pupil of which is white, on the last
A a 2 segment
i88
ENTOMOLOGY.
Lepidopters \f
spgment hot one of the abdomen. Hie pupa is unco¬
vered, and light brown.
nerii. Wings faintly angular and green •, variegated with
hands of pale or dark green, and yellow. Native of
Europe •, on the nerium. The larva solitary, dotted
with white, and marked on each side of the neck with
a blue ocellus. The tail is bent down, and almost joint¬
ed. The pupa yellow, marked with a black line and
black dots on the back.
f f Wings entire.
* eonvol- Wings clouded*, the under ones faintly marked with
vuli. bands *, the abdomen marked with belts of red, black,
and white. 6. Native of Europe 5 on the co/m^rw/w.?.
It smells of ambergrise. Its eyes are very bright. I he
larva furnished with a tail; marked on each side with
oblique white lines, and dotted with faint ocelli. The
pupa light brown, furnished with a reflected involuted
horn.
* ligustri. The under wings reddish, marked with three black
hands ; the abdomen red, surrounded with black belts.
8. Native of Europe j on the privet, lilac, ash, and
elder. The larva green, and furnished with a tail ;
marked on the sides with oblique streaks of a carnation
colour towards the anterior part of the body, and white
towards the posterior. The fore part of the body is
erect, and it rests with the feet elevated. The pupa
brown *, with a tail formed of four small projections.
* a tropes. The under wings yellow, marked with brown bands ;
the abdomen yellow, marked with black belts. 9.
Native of Europe j on the jessamine, potato, and hemp.
It is also a native of Africa and Asia j but the varie¬
ty to be met with there, is double the size of that in
Europe. It makes a noise by rubbing its feelers against
its tongue. The larva is solitary, and lies concealed
under ground all day, coming out in the evening to
feed. It is yellow dotted with black, and furnished
with a tail which is bent down ; it is marked on the
sides with cross lines, half blue, half green. T-he pupa
light brown, marked on both sides with black specks.
* celerio. Wings gray, marked with white streaks j the under
ones with brown ones, and with six red spots. 12.
Native of the south of Europe ; on the vine. The
larva is brown, marked on the sides with two white
lines, and with two ocelli on each side of the neck. It
is furnished with a tail. The pupa is of a dark brown
before, and of a light brown behind.
* elpenor. The wings variegated with purple and green •, the
under wings red, and black at the base. 17* Native
of Europe *, on the French willow-, the balsam, the con¬
volvulus, and the vine. The larva is furnished with a
tail, and is spotted with black ; it is also adorned with
two blue ocelli on each side of the neck. The pupa on
the anterior part of the body is of a dusky gray, and
brown on the posterior part, marked with dark-coloured
specks.
* euphor- Wings gray j the upper ones marked with two green
bia. bands j the under with two red bauds, with a black
streak at the base j the antennae a pure white. 19.
Native of Europe •, on the euphorbia. The larva is fur¬
nished with a tail, and is black, marked with white $
marked with a blood-coloured line on the back, and on
the sides with yellow dots. The pupa light brown,
marked with black specks.
* * Sesias. The icings entire ; the Tail furnished with
a beard; the Tongue projecting, and terminating
abruptly ; the Antennce cylindrical.
The sides of the abdomen variegated with black and * stellate
white j the under wings of a rusty colour. 27. Na- rum.
live of Europe j on the madder, and on the rest of these
plants which form the natural order called stellatw.
The larva is spotted with white, and is lurnished with a
blue tapering tail, of a rusty colour at the tip. The
pupa brown.
The abdomen black, marked with a yellow band j *yi/f j/o-
the wings transparent, with a black edge. 28. Na-#»f.
tive of Europe j on the woodbine, and on the scabious.
The larva is green, marked on the sides with a yellow
line, and furnished with a reddish horn. The pupa
black, marked on the fore part of the body with yellow
streaks, and enclosed in a follicle.
The wings transparent j the abdomen yellow, with *
black incisures j the thorax black, marked with two mis.
yellow spots. 29. Native of Europe ; on flowers.
The larva on the trunk of the poplar-tree.
The upper wings brown, the under wings transpa-Mfia,
rent ; the abdomen black, marked with three yellow
belts. 102. Native of Europe.
The wings transparent, with a black edge and black * vespifa
band j the abdomen black j the second and last seg-mis.
ments marked with a yellow margin. 31. Native oi
Europe.
The wings transparent, with a black edge and black * lipuli-
band j the abdomen black ; the incisures are alternatelyformu.
marked with a yellow margin. 32. Native of Europe.
Feeds on the pith of the common red currant.
* * * Zygsenae Fabricii, s. Adscitse. The Tongue
projecting, and setaceous ; the Antennee thicker in the
middle.
The upper wings blue, marked with six red dots; the * JUipev
under wings red with a blue edge. 34. Native ofdulee.
Europe ; on the spircea filipendiila. There is a varie¬
ty of this species {f. pence dani') distinguished by a red
belt on the abdomen, which feeds on the peucedanus.
The larva is thick, of a sulphur-colour ; marked with
four rows of black dots, and furnished with a tail. The
pupa is brown, of a sulphur-colonr in the middle, and
marked with brown specks.
Black; the upper wings green, marked with threepythie.
oblong blood-coloured spots, placed near one another;
the under ones red. 106. Native of Europe. The
larva hairy and white ; the head marked with two lines
of black dots ; the fore legs are black ; the hind legs
yellow.
Blue; the upper wings green, marked with five re&fulvia,
spots ; the under ones of a blood colour, and without
spots. 107. Native of Europe ; on the lotus corni-
culatus.
Gieenish-black; the wings marked with transparentphegM-
dots, six on the upper, and two on the under wings ;
the abdomen marked with a yellow belt. 35. Native
of Europe; on the oak, Sec. The larva brown, with
reddish head and legs; with tufts of whitish feathers on
the back.
Blue ; the upper wings marked with six red dots ; iheephite.
under ones with one red dot; the abdomen girt with a
red belt. 36. Native of the south of Europe ; on the
mcdicago.
jpicloptera. E N T O M
medicago. Sometimes tlie wings are dotted with white,
and the base of the upper wings and the abdomen
marked with a yellow belt. The larva hairy and yel¬
lowish ; the head, legs, and two lines on the body, are
of a pale yellow colour,
165 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
77. Phal^ka, Moth.
Antennae growing gradually smaller from their base to
their tip. Tongue spiral. Jaws none. Shield (in
most species) short, and of a horny substance.
Moths fly about at night, have their antennae com¬
posed of many articulations, and commonly pectinated
in one or both sexes. They feed chiefly on the nec-
tareous juice of flowers. The larva is active, commonly
smooth, and more or less cylindrical, and feeds on the
leaves ot plants. The pupa remains torpid, is gene¬
rally cylindrical, sometimes pointed before, sometimes
at both ends, and in most instances covered with a fol¬
licle.
Fhau£n;£ dividuntur in, Moths are divided into,
I. Bombyces. Larva 16-
poda, saepius pilosa, sub-
cylindrica } pupa apice
acuminata; antennis lili-
formibus, apice acutis;
palpis duobus, compres-
si?, reflexis, sequalibus,
pilosis, obtusis; lingua
spiral!, brevi, membra-
nacea, vix exserta, fili¬
form!* obtusa, bifida.
1.Bombyces. Those whose
larvae are generally hairy,
nearly cylindrical, and
furnished with 16 feet ;
whose pupa is drawn to a
point at the head ; and
which have their antennte
filiform and sharp at the
tip : two feelers, equal,
compressed, bent back,
hairy and blunt ; the
tongue spiral, short,mem¬
branaceous, slightly pro¬
jecting, filiform, blunt,
and divided at the ex¬
tremity.
a. Attacos, alis patulis. a. Attacos^ with spreading
wings.
b. BombyceSy alis non pa- b. Bombyces, with wings
tulis. not spreading.
«t. Alis reversis. «. Wings reversed.
«. deflexis. /3. deflected,
y. incumbentibus. y. incumbent,
convolutis. 3. convoluted.
2. GeometR/E. Larva cc-
to vel decem-poda, pedi-
bus pectoralibus 6, cau-
dalibus 2, et interdum
subcaudalibus 2; hirudi-
neminstar incedans, dum
quiescitat erecta, gla¬
bra; pupa apice acumi¬
nata ; antennis filiformi-
bus, articulis obsoletis ;
palpis duobus cequali-
bus, reflexis, membrana-
ceis, cylindricis; lingua
yorrecta, membranacea^
2.GeometRjE.Those whose
larvae are smooth, and
have eight or ten feet,six
attached to the breast,
two to the tail, and some¬
times two more near to
the tail ; moving like a
leech, and resting in an
erect posture ; whose pu¬
pae are pointed at the
head ; which have fili¬
form antennae, with faint
articulations, two feelers
equal, bent back, mem-
O L O G Y.
setacea, bifida ; alis in-
quiescentibus, ut pluri-
mum patulis, horizonta-
libus.
a. Alis angulatis, antennis
ut plurimum pec-
tinatis.
b. integris.
c. rotundatis.
branaceous,and cylindri¬
cal; the tongue membra¬
naceous, setaceous, divi¬
ded at the extremity,and
projecting; the wings,
when at rest, spreading
horizontally.
a. Wings angular; anten¬
nae, for the
most part, pec¬
tinate.
b. entire.
c* round.
3. Tortricp.s. Alis ob-
tusissimis, fere retusis,
mavgine exteriore cur-
vo ; antennis filiformi-
bus; palpis duobus ae-
qualibus, nudiusculis,
basi cylindricis, medio
dilatato-ovatis, apice se-
taceis ; lingua porrecta,
membranacea, setacea,
bifida; larva 16-poda,
folia, quas vorat, et in-
tra quae se recipit, fills
contorquente, et con-
nectente.
4. Pyralides. Alis con-
niventibus, in figuram
deltoideam forficatam ;
antennis filiformibus,
articulis obsoletis; pal¬
pis duobus aequalibus,
reflexis, membranaceis,
cylindrieis ; lingua por¬
recta, membranacea, se¬
tacea, bifida ; larva
•—I6-poda.
5. Nocture. Larva 16-
poda,s3epiusglabra, pupa
apice acuminata, anten¬
nis setaceis, palpis duo¬
bus compressis, pilosis,
apice cylindricis, nudis ;
lingua porrecta, cornea,
setacea, bifida.
j.Tortrices. Those which
have their wings very
blunt, with a curved ex¬
terior margin; the anten¬
nae filiform ; two feelers
equal, nearly smooth, cy¬
lindrical at the base, di¬
lated in the middle into
an oval form, and seta¬
ceous towards the tip ;
the tongne membrana¬
ceous, setaceous, divided
at theextremity, and pro¬
jecting; and whose larvae
are furnished with 16
feet, and twist up the
leaves on which they
feed, by means of threads
they spin, into a retreat
for themselves.
J.P Y R ALIDES. Th ose which
have the wings passing
over one another, form¬
ing a forked figure re¬
sembling the Greek I;
the antennae filiform, with
their articulations faintly
expressed ; two feelers
equal, bent back, mem¬
branaceous, and cylindri¬
cal; the tongue membra¬
naceous, setaceous, divi¬
ded at the extremity, and
projecting ; whose larva
has from 1410 16 feet
. Nocture. Those whose
larva- are for the most
part smooth, and furnish¬
ed with 16- feet whose
pupa are pointed at the
head, and have their an¬
tenna setaceous ; two
feelers compressed,hairy,
with naked cylindrical
tips ; the tongue formed
of a horny sulistance, se¬
taceous, divided at the
point, and projecting.
a,.AJi®
I89
Lepidoptera^pj
a. Alls patulis.
h. incumbentibus,
«. Thorace Isevi.
^3. crlstato.
c. Alls deflexis.
«. Thorace laevi.
cristalo.
E N T O M
a. Wings spreading.
h. incumbent.
«. Thorax smooth.
p. crested,
c. Wrings deflected.
m. Thorax smooth.
/}, crested.
O L
6. Tine®. Larva i6 poda,
ssepius intra cucullum
latente j pupa anterius
acuminata $ antennis se-
taceis j lingua membra-
nacea, setacea, bifida.
6. TlNE®. Those whose
larvae have 16 feet, and
most commonly lie con¬
cealed under a covering;
whose pupa is pointed at
the head j and have the
antennae setaceous, the
tongue membranaceous,
setaceous, and divided at
the extremity.
a. Tinea, palpis quatuor, a. Tinea, with four unequal
inaequalibus ; larva sae- feelers ; whose larva teed
pius rebus culinariis, ves- on clothes, hides, turni-
timentis, pellibus, &c. ture, &c.
victitante.
b. Tinea, palpis duobus b. Tinea, two feelers divi-
ad medium bifidis, laci- ded to the middle, the
nia interiori acutissima. interior division very
sharp.
7. Pterophori sive Alu- 7
CIT®. Alis digitalis ad
basin usque fissis j anten¬
nis setaceis $ palpis duo-
bus tenuissimis, cylindri-
cis, filiformibus, reflexis,
nudis, apice subulatis ;
lingua porrecta, mem-
branacea, elongata, se¬
tacea, bifida} larva 16-
poda, ovata, pilosa } pu¬
pa nuda apice, subulata.
.Pterophori or Alucit®.
Those which have their
wings divided to the base
into several portions j the
antennae setaceous j two
feelers, very slender, cy¬
lindrical, filiform, bent
back, smooth, and ta¬
pering at the tip j the
tongue membranaceous,
setaceous, divided at the
extremity,projecting,and
very long j whose larvae
are oval, hairy, and fur¬
nished with 16 feet.
8. Hapiali. Larva 16- 8
poda, subcylindrica, sae-
pius glabra, radicibus
plantarum victitante j
pupa folliculata, cylin-
drica, apice acuminata j
antennis brevibus, moni-
liformibus *, palpis duo-
bus sequalibus, obtusis,
compressis, membrana-
ceis, reflexis; linguae-
que bifidse inter hos ru-
dimento.
Hapiali. Those whose
larvae are cylindrical,
commonly smooth, fur¬
nished with 16 feet, and
feed on the roots of plants;
whose pupa is cylindri¬
cal, pointed at the bead,
and enclosed in a follicle;
and have short, monili-
form antennae; two feel¬
ers, equal, obtuse, com¬
pressed, membranaceous,
bent back, and the rudi¬
ment of a divided tongue
placed between them.
O G Y.
* Antenna filiform.
a. Feelers compressed.
+ Wings spreading. Attaci.
Wings curved, of the same colour, both on their up- atlas.
per and under surfaces, variegated with yellow, marked
with a transparent spot; the upper wings have a small
transparent spot joined to the other. 1. Native of Asia
and America ; on the orange tree. Lach articulation
of the antennee has two projections proceeding from
them in opposite directions. The larva has hairy tu¬
bercles set round it in circles. It spins a lm-ge bab ot
silk, which is unravelled with very great difficulty.
Wings of a dark carnation colour; the under ones mcWam
marked with a rusty-coloured eye, the pupil of which
is transparent. 469. Native of Africa. I emale largei
than the male. , f *
Wings round, clouded with gray, and faintly marked *patom
with bands, adorned with a long semitransparent ocellus.
7 Native of Europe ; on heath, bramble, the rose, the
elm, the willow, and fruit trees. There are three va¬
rieties of this species, minor, media, and major. 1 he
antennee in the male are more distinctly pectinated than
in the female. The larva is gregarious, and green,
having red and yellow hairy tubercles set round it m
circles. The pupa is blackish, with a hole at the top ot
the follicle, which is elastic, and acting like a valve.
Wings of a brick colour, adorned with an eye of a tau.
violet colour ; with a white spear-shaped pupil. 8. Na¬
tive of Europe ; on the birch. The larva green, mark¬
ed on the sides with oblique white streaks, the back co¬
vered with knots. The pupa light-brown and hairy,
f f Bombyces. Wings not spreading,
tt. Wings reversed.
Wings of a brick colour, notched, and marked vthhpopulM
a great many brown spots like crescents. 485. Na-«a. I
tive of Europe ; on the white poplar.
Wings notched, and of a rusty colour ; the mouth ?
and shanks of the legs black. 18. Native of Europe folia.
on grass, the sloe, pear tree, apple, and willow, ihe
larva is hairy, of a rusty colour, with a blue neck, and
furnished with a slight tail. The pupa brown, marked
with red bands. ,. . ^ »•
Wings fawn-coloured, marked with two whitish rub}.
streaks on their upper surface. 21. Native of Eu¬
rope ; on the bramble and willow. The larva is hairy,
black on the under side, and of a rusty colour, marked
with black rings on the upper side. _When young8 * * * * * * 15
covered with a veil of black silk. The pupa black.sh,
marked with three yellow rings, and enclosed in a co¬
vering of silk. _ ...
Wings notched, yellow, and marked with two brown
streaks and a white dot. 22. Native of Europe ; on
the plum. The larva is smooth, of an ash coloui,
marked with blue lines, and furnished with tufts of hair
on the neck and along the sides; the hind-legs are
stretched out, and at a distance from one another. Ihe
pupa black on the fore part of the body, and oi a hg 1
br0Wingsh faintly notched, and yellow, marked with a *
broad tawney stripe, and with two white dots. 23. Na-m.
tive of Europe ; on grass. It produces oblong eggs ot
a leaden colour, marked at each end with a green ring,
and with a green dot in the middle. The larva has a
tail
3
JU'pidoptera. ENTOMOLOGY 191
tail and a crest, is hairy, and spotted on the sides with vae gregarious, hairy, of a brownish ash-colour, black on
white. The pupa of a light brown. the back, and marked with yellow warts : they move
mrcus. Wings of a rusty colour, marked with a yellow streak; in sets, differing in number. The skin which they cast
the upper wings with a white dot. 25. Native of Eu- excites inflammation when touched.
rope ; on heath, the sloe, the birch, the willow and oak.
The colour of the female is paler than that of the male.
The larva is hairy, gray, marked with black rings, and
spotted with white. The pupa is enclosed in a thick
covering of silk, is green, and brown on the fore part.
Wings of a rusty colour, marked with a white streak ;
the upper wings are white at the base, and marked with
a white dot. 28. Native of Europe ; on the lime
tree, the sloe, and the willow. It produces eggs cover¬
ed with ash-coloured wool. The larva is hairy and
black ; each of its segments is marked with three white
dots between two red tufted spots. It is gregarious, and
lives in habitations which it forms for itself composed of
many cells ; going out in quest of food, it returns
through parallel holes. The pupa is of a sulphur co¬
lour.
inula. Wings nearly reversed, waved and streaked with
brown ; body white, dotted with black. 2p. A native
of Europe ; on the willow and poplar. Larva solitary,
green, and brown on the back, on which there is situat¬
ed a turgid prominence ; the tail is furnished with two
bristles ; it discharges an acrid fluid from a chink under
its head. Pupa brown.
'Silk-worm. Wings pale, marked with three faint
brown streaks,#and a brown circular spot. 33. Native
of China and Persia ; on the mulberry. It was intro¬
duced into Earope by Justinian. It varies a little in
size and colour; the wings being sometimes yellowish,
sometimes whitish. The larva is furnished with a tail,
is naked, and whitish. The pupa light brown, enclosed
in a thick silky covering, from which silk is manufac¬
tured. The first person who unravelled the cocoons of
the silk-worm, and manufactured them into silk, was
Paraphilia, a woman of Coos, the daughter of Latous,
(E/c/e Plin. xi. 22.) ; seu potius Platis filia, (Aristot.
Anim. v. 19.).
puli. Brown and whitish on the fore-part; the wings
brownish, marked with a whitish spreading stripe, with
a small one placed close by it. 34. Native of Europe ;
on the poplar, and on fruit trees. The larva hairy, and
of an ash-colour, darker on the back ; each segment is
marked with two pairs of red dots. The pupa is brown
on the fore part, and reddish behind.
'ia. Wings yellow (in the female brown), marked with a
white dot, and becoming paler towards the tip. 499-
Native of Europe ; on the sloe, &c. It deposits rough
eggs in clusters. The larva gregarious, hairy, and light-
brown. The divisions between the segments black,
and marked on the sides with blue spots and sulphur-
coloured dots. The pupa yellowish.
istren- Wings dark-coloured, marked with two pale bands,
36. Native of Europe ; feeds on the piloseila, jacea,
millefolium, alchemilla, and euphorbia. It deposits its
eggs in circles round branches. The larva is gregari¬
ous, consuming a great variety of vegetables ; it feeds
under a web, and frequently shifts its quarters : it is
hairy, blue, and marked with red lines dotted with
black. The pupa is dark-coloured.
'oces- Wings of a brownish ash-colour : the female marked
°.a. with one dark stripe ; the male with three. 37. Na¬
tive of Europe; on the oak. Of a middle size. The lar-
/3. Wings defected.
f Tongue short.
|j Back smooth.
Wings whitish, marked on the back with a brown rufa*
spot, and with six brown spots like crescents on the
lower wings. 508. Native of Europe. The under
wings white, with a brown edge ; the antennae pecti¬
nated and brown ; the legs brown.
Wings black, with white veins ; the under wings* planta-
yellow, with a black edge, and dotted with black. j[2.ginis.
Native of Europe ; on the plantane, elm, and hyacinth.
The under wings in the female are scarlet; but in the
north of Europe, frequently white, with a black edge
and black spots; when caught it emits a yellow drop
from its collar. Larva hairy, black, with the back
brown.
Wings white, waved with black, marked with \Aooii-*monacha.
coloured rings between the segments of the abdomen.
43. Native of Europe ; on the bramble, the willow,
the apple, the oak, the larix, and other species of pine.
To these last it is particularly destructive. Larva
brownish ash-coloured, with red tufts on the back ; the
second segment of its body is marked with a black spot
of a heart-shape. Pupa black.
Wings marked with spots clouded with gray and * dispar. .
brown : the wings of the female whitish, with black
stains. 44. Native of Europe ; on the oak, the lime,
and fruit trees ; the pest of orchards. The female tv/ice
the size of the male, covers her eggs with balls of dust.
The larvse feed on a variety of vegetables, are hairy,
marked with white lines, dotted with blue on the fore
part of the body, and with red behind. When touched
they excite an itching in the hands. The pupa is
marked on the fore part of the body with four black
dots ; when touched, it rolls itself up in a circle.
Wings of a snow-white, a beard of a rusty colour * r/i/yw-
at the anus. 45. Native of Europe ; on the oak and rhoca.
fruit-trees. There is a smaller variety of this species
with brownish wings in India. The female produces
yellow eggs, and covers them with a large quantity of
tawney-coloured wool. The larva is blackish, hairy,
gregarious ; not confined to one kind of food ; marked
with two red lines on the back, tufted with white on the
sides. The pupa blackish.
|| j| Back furnished with a Crest.
Wings of an ash-colour, marked with three brown *pudibun*
weaved streaks. 54. There is a variety of this species, da.
scopularis /i. Antennae pectinated, wings whitish, mark¬
ed with three dark-coloured bands ; the under wings
white. It is a native of Europe ; on the oak, beech,
and fruit-trees. The larva is yellow, hairy; the tuft
on the tail longer than the rest, and red ; four tufts on
the hack, white ; the head is pale yellow. The pupa is
black in the lower part of the body, and a light brown
behind, spotted with yellow.
Wings clouded; the posterior part of the thorax* cfismt.
marked with a black band; antennae lamellated. 63.
A
192
eerana.
E N T O M
A native of Europe j in decayed wood The larva
somewhat hairy, of a carnation colour j the head black,
and back of a blood-colour. It was reckoned a deh-
cacy by the Romans, who fattened it with flour, (iflin.
xviii. 24.). The pupa of a light brown on the fore
part of the body, and yellow behind. *
Wings yellowish, marked with black bands. 1306.
A native of Chili; on a kind of cony%a. The larva is
naked, and red j while it undergoes its metamorphosis,
it rolls itself up in a kind of wax, at first white and
sweet, and afterwards yellow and bitter, which the na¬
tives gather in the autumn and put into cakes.
O L O G Y. Lepidoptera
Tobago. Feelers white at the base, and tipt with
black 5 thorax bluish black with white dots, and two
tawney spots, abdomen beneath white, with black rings •,
anus tawney *, upper wings blue at the tip, with white
dots} lower wings, and all beneath, black ; the hind
margin a little whitish.
§ § Feelers cylindrical. Geometrse.
a. TFings angular.
f f Tongue long.
a. Back smooth.
0
* aulica. The upper wings gray, and dotted with yellow J the
under ones tawney spotted with black. 60. A naftive
of Europe ; on the angelica, nettle, and grass. 1 he
larva solitary, black, marked with white warts ’, on the
upper part of the body it is covered with whitish hairs,
and underneath with hairs of a rusty colour.
matronula. Wings brown ’, the upper wings gray, spotted with
yellow on their superior surface ’, the under ones yellow
marked with black bands. 92. A native of Europe j
on the artemisia vulgaris.
Wings green and faintly notched, marked with a thymiam
faint waved whitish streak j a smaller line of the same
description being placed contiguous to it. 199’ ^
native of Europe j on thyme. Larva dark-coloured,
marked with carnation-coloured spots on the back the
head and collar furnished with two little projections.
Pupa light brown, marked with a black line, sharp-
pointed before, and divided behind, and covered with a
very thin follicle.
Wings ash-coloured, and marked with a rusty-co-pi/nr/orla
loured streak, and transverse row of black dots. 200.
A native of Europe *, on the oak. Larva ash-coloured,
marked with yellow spots on the sides. Pupa of a pale
carnation colour above, beneath yellow j and is attached
to a leaf.
b. Wings entire.
tssculi.
b. Back furnished with a Crest.
Wings of an ash colour, streaked with a light brown,
and marked with 00. 81. A native of Europe *, on
the oak. Larva naked, of a violet-colour, marked
with white lines, and dots.
Of a snow-white colour *, wings marked with a great
number of bluish-black dots ; the thorax with six. 33.
A native of Europe ’, in the wood of the pear and horse-
chesnut. Larva yellow, dotted with black *, head and
tail black.
Wings green, somewhat waved, marked with apapilma
waved streak, and smaller streak of the same description na.
contiguous to it. 225. A native of Europe 5 on birch-
trees. Larva green, with ten crooked reddish prickles
on the back. Pupa green, varied with yellow ; re¬
mains torpid for 14 days..
Wing pale, marked with a pale fillet. 654’ Avitlata,
native of Europe.
c. Wings round.
*gramir,is
y. Wings incumbent.
Wings gray, marked with a white line dividing into
* faligino
sa.
varella.
three branches, and a white dot.. 73. A native of
Europe •, on grass. It varies in size, and is very de¬
structive to pasture grounds. The larva consumes all
kinds of grass except the alopecurus. It is smooth,
dusky, with a lateral and dorsal yellow stripe. It is
destroyed by rooks and hogs. The pupa remains torpid
for fourteen days only. <
. Wings dark-coloured, tinged with red, marked with
a double black dot ’, abdomen red •, and black on the
back. 0 A native of Europe j on the turnip, mus¬
tard, grass, and birch-tree. 'Ihe larva is hairy, of a
rusty colour, with black head and fore-legs ; wanders
over the snow in winter in Norway •, and is said to ior-
bode a cold summer and scarcity where it appears m
considerable numbers. Pupa black, marked with yel¬
low bands behind.
Wings transparent and gray, antennae brown. 59I.
A native of Europe 5 on the vicia sylvatica. The fe¬
male deposits her eggs .while in the pupa state, and
never becomes a perfect insect.
All the wings yellowish, marked with brown streaks,
and very small dots. 214‘ A native of Europe ; on
the centaurea. Larva gray, and smooth, marked with
a number of interrupted lines of rusty colour, having
two tubercles on the posterior part of the body.
Wings white, marked with a striated yellow band j
the abdomen yellow dotted with black. 213. A na¬
tive of Europe j on the elm and plane-tree. Larva
green, marked with black lines $ head toil black.
Pupa bluish.
Wings variegated with green and ash-colour, marked lichenof
with two black streaks *, the anterior one curved, the
posterior one waved. 633. A native of Europe ; on
lichens. Small. Larva rough, varying in colour accord¬
ing to the colour of the lichen on which it feeds, green,
ash-coloured, or yellow, spotted with black on the sides j
the fore legs marked with a black spot, and a green dot.
histrio.
Wings convoluted.
Wings tawney, marked with numerous white spots,
surrounded with blue. 593. A native of the island of
4
K § § Feelers almost naked, and cylindrical at the base;
dentaied in the middle, and oval; tapering at the
tips. Tortrices.
The upper wings green, marked with two oblique^rja/i
yellow streaks j the under wings white. 235. A native
of Europe; on the alder and oak. Larva and pupa
yeen: the former is marked along the side with a
yellow line, and has the second segment of the back
marked with tubercles j the latter marked on the back
with a black line.
Wings
x93
ENTOMOLOGY,
^epidoptera.
mono. Wings clouded, the under ones marked with a red¬
dish golden spot. 401. A native of Europe } on the
apple. Larva naked, and red j with a black head.
Pupa light brown.
sinaria. Wings brown, marked with a brown spot at the base,
common to both wings, and with a triangular rusty spot
at the tips. 406. A native of Europe. It takes up
its habitation in a ball of rosin, which exudes from a
wound made in the branches of the pine. Larva naked,
and yellowish $ head light brown. Pupa brown.
§ § § JFings shutting closely, with the under edge of
one over the upper edge of the other. Pyralides.
irinalis. Feelers bent backwards 5 wings yellowish and polish¬
ed, marked with white waved streaks, yellowish at the
base and tips. 327. A native of Europe j in flour
and meal. It walks with its tail erect.
pinguin- Feelers bent backwards j wings ash-coloured, thicker
is. at the edges, faintly marked with black bands. 336.
A native of Europe j -on butter, bacon, &c. Very
common in houses and kitchens, sometimes in the hu¬
man stomach j the most pernicious of all the animals
that live within the bodies of others. The larva
smooth, brown, shining. Pupa naked, of a light
brown.
<cahs. Wings gray, streaked with brown, and marked with
a kidney-shaped spot, on which there is inscribed a Ko-
man A. 338. A native of Europe j within the stalks
of rye, which it consumes within the sheath, going from
one to another : this is the cause of the ears becoming
white and empty. Larva green, marked with three
longitudinal green lines j head light brown.
* * The Antennce setaceous.
| Tongue projecting and horny. Noctnce.
a. JFings spreading.
Vora. Wings notched, brown, and waved with black ; the
upper rvings are adorned with a black eye, and marked
with a blue spot like a crescent, and with a white spot¬
ted streak. 11. A native of Surinam.
"ix. Wings of the same colour, both on the upper and
under surface, reticulated and clouded with black and
white. 82. A native of South America. Larva
naked, black, and marked on the sides with a greenish
line, and with green rings.
acrops. Wings indented j brown, waved with black; upper
pair adorned with a large light brown eye. 968. A
native of China. In some specimens, probably the fe¬
males, the outer margin of the lower wings is reflected,
forming a pouch which contains a great quantity of
fine silk.
b. JFings incumbent.
<t. Thorax smooth.
ida. Wings shining black ; under wings of a rusty colour,
edged with dark brown. 999* A native of Europe.
Larva growing smaller towards each end, naked,
greenish, variegated witli yellow and shining red, maik-
ed with a dark-coloured line on the back, and with a
very slender pale one on the sides.; the head of a pale
colour.
Vol. VIII. Part I.
j3. The Thorax furnished with a Crest.
Wings white, streaked with dark brown, dotted with typhae.
black on their posterior margin. 1005. A native of
Europe ; on the stalks of the typha angustifolia. It
comes forth in August, about the size of pinguinalis,
smooth and whitish. Larva is gray and naked. It
undergoes its metamorphosis within the stalks, in the
month of July.
Wings variegated with green and gray ; the under * solani.
ones reddish, marked with a band near the edge. 1009.
A native of Europe ; on the potato and bean, devour¬
ing the larvae of other insects. Larva thick, wrinkled,
and of an ash-colour. Pupa naked, and of a light
brown.
Wings brownish gray, marked with a black spot; C. nigrum
white on the outer edge, and with a black line at the
tip. 162. A native of Europe ; on the common
spinach. Larva variegated with gray and dark brown,
marked on the sides with black cross lines, and with a
single pale one.
c. JFings defected,
cc. Thorax smooth.
Wings whitish, marked with a very broad band of ^trapessina.
darker colour, dotted with black along the edge. 99.
A native of Europe ; on the hazel. Larva greenish,
marked with ash-coloured, whitish, and sulphur-coloured
lines : it devours the larvae of other insects, and even of
its own species. Pupa of a light brown ; it lies dor¬
mant for four weeks.
Wings ash-coloured, without spots, marked W\t\\ lucernca.
three whitish waved streaks; the collar divided. 102.
A native of Europe; frequently flying into candles,
whence it has received its name; though many moths
are attracted by the light as well as this.
/3. Thorax furnished with a Crest.
Wings ash-coloured ; the upper wings marked at the*/z?i.
base with a black line, and black characters ; legs
without spots. 135. A native of Europe ; on the
alder, oak, and fruit-trees ; varying in the number and
figure of the characters. Larva hairy ; back yellow ,;
the sides spotted with black and red ; a black erect horn
on the thorax.
Wings yellowish, marked with two dark brown turca.
streaks, and adorned with a yellowish eye. 140. A
native of Europe ; on the juncus pilosus, and in corn
fields under stones. Larva reddish yellow, black at each
end, underneath of a whitish1 yellow, marked on the
back with a whitish line, and on the sides with a dark
coloured one ; the divisions between the segments are
marked with small black lines, and the head is dark
brown. It gnaws over the stalks of the corn close by
the ground, in the months of May and June.
The upper wings of a rusty colour, marked with n.* ole race a.
yellowish spot like a crescent, and with a white line
divided behind. 171. A native of Europe ; at the
roots of cabbage, greens, &c. likewise on the leaves of
pease and beans. Larva feeds on a variety of vege¬
tables ; naked, of a livid colour, dotted with black, and
marked on the back with a dark brown line, and on the
sides with a whitish one. Pupa naked and blackish.
Wings of a rusty colour marked with two spots, and *pisi.
B b with
f
192
eerana.
E N T O M
A native of Europe*, in decayed wood The larva
somewhat hairy, of a carnation colour 5 the head black,
and back of a blood-colour-. It was reckoned a deli-
cacv by the Romans, who fattened it with flour, (flm.
xviii. 24.). The pupa of a light brown on the fore
part of the body, and yellow behind. t
Wings yellowish, marked with black bands. 1306.
A native of Chili *, on a kind of conyza. The larva is
naked, and red j while it undergoes its metamorphosis
it rolls itself up in a kind of wax, at first white and
sweet, and afterwards yellow and bitter, which the na¬
tives gather in the autumn and put into cakes.
O L O G Y. Lepj
Tobago. Feelers white at the base, and tipt wit
black; thorax bluish black with white dots, and tv
tawney spots; abdomen beneath white, with black rings
anus tawney ; upper wings blue at the tip, with whit
dots ; lower wings, and all beneath, black ; the hin
margin a little whitish.
f f Tongue long.
a. Tack smooth.
* aulica. The upper wings gray, and dotted with yellow > the
under ones tawney spotted with black. 68. A native
of Europe; on the angelica, nettle, and grass. 1 he
larva solitary, black, marked with white warts; on the
upper part of the body it is covered with whitish hairs,
and underneath with hairs of a rusty colour. #
tnatronula. Wings brown ; the upper wings gray, spotted with
yellow on their superior surface ; the under ones yellow
marked with black bands. 92. A native of Europe ;
on the artemisia vulgaris*
QO.
ncsculi.
%
* gr amin is Wing?
pe ; c
tive te
1 of gi
y, with
* fuligino
sa.
varella.
three brat
Europe ; G
structive
kinds
dusky,  
destroyed by
for fourteen
. Wings dai
a double blai
back. 95*
tard, grass, ai
rusty colour,
over the snow
bode a cold su
considerable nu
low bands behin
Wings transp
A native of Ear
male deposits h»
never becomes a
§ § Feelers cylindrical. Geometrse.
a. Wings angular.
Wings green and faintly notched, marke
faint waved whitish streak; a smaller line of
description being placed contiguous to it.
native of Europe; on thyme. Larva dark
marked with carnation-coloured spots on the t:
head and collar furnished with two little pi
Pupa light brown, marked with a black lir
pointed before, and divided behind, and cover
very thin follicle.
Wings ash-coloured, and marked with a
loured streak, and transverse row of black dc
A native of Europe ; on the oak. Larva ash
marked with yellow spots on the sides. Pupa
carnation colour above, beneath yellow; and is
to a leaf.
b. Tack furnished with a Crest.
Wings of an ash colour, streaked with a light brown,
and marked with 00. 8t. A native of Europe ; on
the oak. Larva naked, of a violet-colour, marked
with white lines, and dots. . ,
Of a snow-white colour ; wings marked with a great
number of bluish-black dots ; the thorax with six. 33.
A native of Europe ; in the wood of the pear and horse-
chesnut. Larva vello"7
tail biac
b. Wings entire.
Wings green, somewhat waved,
marked
waved streak, and smaller streak of the same dt
contiguous to it. 225. A native of Europe ;
trees. Larva green, with ten crooked reddish
on the back. Pupa green, varied with yellc
mains torpid for 14 days..
Wing pale, marked with a
native of Eurone.
histrio.
Wings tawney,
surrounded with bl.
593-
_ ..umerous white spots,
A native of the island of
...vu two oblique
,..uer wings white. 233. A native
on the alder and oak. Larva and pupa
green : tne former is marked along the side with a
yellow line, and has the second segment of the back
marked with tubercles; the latter marked on the back
with a black line.
Wings
-r~ >
: the
ptera.
Wings clouded, the under ones marked with a red¬
dish golden spot. 401. A native of Europe ; on the
apple. Larva naked, and red ; with a black head.
Pupa light brown.
Wings brown, marked with a brown spot at the base,
common to both wings, and with a triangular rusty spot
he tips. 406. A native of Europe. It takes up
habitation in a ball of rosin, which exudes from a
nd made in the branches of the pine. Larva naked,
yellowish $ head light brown. Pupa brown.
§ Wings shutting closely, with the under edge of
t \ ne over the upper edge of the other. Pyralides.
selers bent backwards j wings yellowish and polish¬
es. larked with white waved streaks, yellowish at the
and tips. 327. A native of Europe j in flour
neal. It walks with its tail erect,
elers bent backwards 5 wings ash-coloured, thicker
5 edges, faintly marked with black bands. 336.
tive of Europe *, on butter, bacon, &c. Very
ion in houses and kitchens, sometimes in the hu-
itomach j the most pernicious of all the animals
live within the bodies of others. The larva
h, brown, shining. Pupa naked, of a light
i.
ings gray, streaked with brown, and marked with
ley-shaped spot, on which there is inscribed a Ko-
1. 338. A native of Europe j within the stalks
, which it consumes within the sheath, going from
) another : this is the cause of the ears becoming
: and empty. Larva green, marked with three
tudinal green lines $ head light brown.
'T'T,„ Antenrue setaceous.
ENTOMOLOGY.
19.I
/3. The Thorax furnished with a Crest.
W ings shining u.»w. ,
edged with dark brown. 999. a _
Larva growing smaller towards each end, n...
greenish, variegated with yellow and shining red, maik-
ed with a dark-coloured line on the back, and with a
very slender pale one on the sides j the head of a pale
colour.
Vol. VIII. Part I. \ f
Wings white, streaked with dark brown, dotted with typhee.
black on their posterior margin. 1005. A native of
Europe $ on the stalks of the typha angustifolia. It
comes forth in August, about the size of pinguinalis,
smooth and whitish. Larva is gray and naked. It
undergoes its metamorphosis within the stalks, in the
month of July.
Wings variegated with green and gray j the under * solani.
ones reddish, marked with a band near the edge. 1009.
A native of Europe; on the potato and bean, devour¬
ing the larvae of other insects. Larva thick, wrinkled,
and of an ash-colour. Pupa naked, and of a light
brown.
Wings brownish gray, marked with a black spot; C. nigrum
white on the outer edge, and with a black line at the
tip. 162. A native of Europe •, on the common
spinach. Larva variegated with gray and dark brown,
marked on the sides with black cross lines, and with a
single pale one.
c. Wings deflected,
a. Thorax smooth.
Wings whitish, marked with a very broad band of a trapc%ina.
darker colour, dotted with black along the edge. 99.
A native of Europe j on the hazel. Larva greenish,
marked with ash-coloured, whitish, and sulphur-coloured
lines : it devours the larvae of other insects, and even of
its own species. Pupa of a light brown ; it lies dor¬
mant for four weeks.
Wings ash-coloured, without spots, marked with/wcernro.
three whitish waved streaks j the collar divided. 102.
A native of Europe} frequently flying into candles,
whence it h its name} though many moths
■ iked at the>,
4ters } legs
jppe ; on the
number and
/jack yellow 4
ck erect horn
dark brown turca.
.ye. 140. A
s, and in corn
Pjjr, black at each
smarked on the
lies with a dark
he segments are
ie head is dark
le corn close by
S June.
, marked with a * oleracca,
with a white line
f Europe } at the
?e on the leaves of
a variety of vege-
:ed with black, and
Iwn line, and on the
feed and blackish.
tflo.
marked on iin. ^
sides with a whitish one.
Wings of a rusty colour marked with two spots, and * ptsi.
B b with
194
E N T O M
with a pale waved streak on their posterior part. i72'
A native of Europe \ on the pea and broom, consuming
their pods. Larva naked, and of a rusty colour, mark¬
ed with four yellow lines ; head of a carnation colour.
Pupa dark brown j the divisions between the segments
of a blood colour. .
tritici. Of an ash-colour ; the wings marked wita two pale-
coloured spots, and with a single blackish one. 179..
A native of Europe ; on the ears of wheat and oats.
Larva naked and yellow j marked with three white
/foWc0>’72«linUpper wings of an ash-colour, marked with three
black streaks •, antennae yellow. 182. A native ot Lu-
rope j on fruit trees. Larva naked, greenish, mark¬
ed on the sides with white dots •, head ot a carnation
colour.
§ § Tongue prominent and membranaceous. Tinese.
a. Wings four, unequal.
cerella. Wings gray, emarginated behind j back of a dark
brown, and furrowed. 282. A native ot Europe j in
bee hives, feeding on the wax.
padilla. The upper wings of a livid colour, and marked with
20 black dots ; the under ones brown. 351. A native
of Europe j on apple trees. The larva gregarious j
living in swarms, under a common covering: it is
naked, and gray, marked with a black dot on each side
of its segments. Pupa yellowish. ,
* pellionel- Wings gray, marked in the middle with a black dot.
if *72. it is to be met with everywhere in woollen stutts,
which it destroys, lying concealed within a covering.
Larva whitish,' marked with a red line on the back.
Pupa yellowish. , . . , , , 1 •.
* iapexella Wings black, under ones whitish ; head pure white.
371. A native of Europe on tapestry, furs, and stuns,
-into which it gnaws holes.
* fasciteUa Wings of an ash-colour •, thorax marked on each side
with a white dot. 373. A native of Europe 5 in cloths
and furs, which it destroys. It lies concealed under a
covering. , , . , .
* niello- Wings whitish, growing purple towards their exterior
nella. part, marked with a white streak *, the scutellum biack,
and white at the tip. 375. A native of Europe ; in
bee-hives, where it penetrates the honey-combs. Larva
is naked, and gray, with a light brown head. 1 upa
light brown. , , , .
proletel- Wings whitish, marked with two dark brown dots*,
*• . • J ^ \ no f 1 TP.nrnnp I on
O L O G Y. Neuroptera. *
covered with tufts of hair. Pupa long , with two
lines of tubercles on the back, each furnished with four
prickles.
* * * Antennae monilijorrn and short. Hepiali.
Wings yellow, with tawney streaks j the wings of the* hitmuli.
de of a snow-white colour. 84. A native ol Eu-
male
rope j at the roots of the hop : the hop-planters manure
with hogs dung, as a remedy against this troublesome
insect j it deposits a very great number ol eggs.
1329 species of this genus have been described m the
last edition ol the System of Nature.
IV. NEUROPTERA.
Wings four*, naked; their veins forming a net-work.
Tail unarmed.
72. Libellula, Dragon-fly.
Mouth furnished with jaws. Jaws numerous. Lip di¬
vided into three. Antennae shorter than the thorax *,
very slender and filiform. Wings extended. Tail
of the male furnished with a hooked forceps.
* Wings spreading tvhen the insect is at rest.
A. The central division of the Lip very minute.
The under wings marked at the base with a blackish * quadri-
spot j and all the wings marked on the middle of thenmaculata.
upper surface with a blackish spot; the abdomen flattish
and downy. 1. A native of Europe ; in waters.
The under wings becoming black at the base; the * rubievn-
body quadrangular. 4. A native of Europe ; in fresh da.
waters. The one sex is waved on the back with red,
and the other with yellow. - .
All the wings black at the base *, the abdomen de- * depressa.
pressed ; the sides yellowish. 5. A native of Europe ;
in fresh water. The abdomen of the male bluish, mark¬
ed on the sides, near the base, with yellow spots ; the
abdomen of the female brown, and yellow on the
sides.
la.
tongue bent inwards. 379. A native of Europe ; on
different species of cabbage; on the horned poppy ; and
on the oak. An individual, in the space of a year, may
produce many millions, as they propagate every month,
each depositing a great number of eggs.
b. Feelers divided the length of the middle, two in
number.
B. The divisions of the Lip equal. JEshnse.
Abdomen yellow, marked with two black lines; theminula.
under wings yellow, marked with two black spots. 42.
A native ot China. Small: head yellow; eyes brown;
thorax with yellow lines beneath; abdomen with two
black lines above, and one beneath ; upper ones black
at the base, with a yellow spot. * r •
Thorax black; marked with various yellow charac-*/^^
ters ; tail furnished with crooked hooks, ii. A na¬
tive of Europe.
* nranella Wings variegated with black and white ; head very
white. 377- A native of Europe; in granaries,
where it destroys the grain and collects it into knots; it
climbs up the walls of houses in winter.
* * Wings erect when the insect is at rest; the Eyes di¬
stant from one another ; the exterior division of the
§ § § Wings divided into many divisions. Alucitce.
*didactula Wings spreading and blown, marked with white
streaks; the superior wings bifid; the posterior ones
divided into three divisions. 454. A native ot Europe ;
on thegcum rivalc, and on the convolvulus. Larva green,
Lip slightly divided. Agrise.
Wings coloured. _ , . . ,
a. Body shining, greenish blue ; wings bluish in the
middle, the base and tip whitish, the margin without
spots. ...
b. Body silky; wings bluish green, the tip brown,
the margin without spots.
c. Silky,
'leuroptera.
ENTOMOLOGY.
c. Silky, green ; wings brownish, with a white mar¬
ginal clot.
d. Body silky ; wings brown, gilt with a black spot.
20. A native of Europe ; about fresh w'aters.
pvella. Wings transparent.
a. Body red, with yellow and black lines at each seg¬
ment ; wings with marginal spots.
b. Body carnation colour; wings with a brown mar¬
ginal dot.
c. Body alternately blue and ash-colour; wings with
a black dot.
d. Body beneath bluish green, above brown ; thorax
with alternate brown and bluish bands ; wings with a
black marginal dot.
e. Body green, and pale carnation colour ; thorax
with three black lines ; wings with a brown marginal
dot. 21. A native ot Europe; in almost endless va¬
riety.
This is an extremely ravenous tribe, and are gene¬
rally seen hovering over stagnant waters. They copu¬
late in the air, and fly about joined together. They fly
very rapidly, and at a greater height than most other
insects. The larvae are six-footed ; active ; inhabitants
of the water ; furnished with articulated pincers, with
which they seize and prey with the most rapacious fe¬
rocity on aquatic animals. The pupa resembles the
larva, but has the rudiments of wings.
48 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
195
Tail furnished with three bristles.
Wings reticulated and spotted with brown; body * vulgata.
brown. 1. A native of Europe ; in fresh waters.
In the month of June, they are to be seen in the evenings
fluttering about under trees in innumerable swarms.
In the neighbourhood of Laz in Carniola, they abound
so much, that the country people collect them for
manure ; the peasant who has not collected to the
amount of twenty cart loads, thinks himself unfortu¬
nate.
W7ings white, the outer margin brown ; body black. * margi-
3. A native of Europe. nata.
YYings black, the under ones whitish. 4. A native* vesper-
of Europe ; in fresh waters. tin a.
* * Tail composed of the two bristles.
W ings white, and reticulated; the bead marked with * biocula-
two yellow tubercles. 5. A native of Europe ; in ta.
fresh waters. The bristles of the tail white dotted with
brown, and longer than the body.
W ings white, the edges blackish and thicker than* horaria.
the rest of the wing. 9. A native of Europe ; in
fresh waters.
18 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
74. Phryganea.
73. Ephemera, Day-fly.
Mouth without jaws. Feelers four, very short, and fi¬
liform. The resemblance of a jaw, membranaceous,
cylindrical, and connected with the lip. Antennae
short, and tapering towards the tip. Two large stem-
mata above the eyes. Wings erect, under ones very
small. Tail bristly.
These short-lived animals are found everywhere about
waters in the summer, and in their perfect state seldom
live above a day, during which time they perform all
the functions of life. They remain in the state of lar-
vas and pupae for one, two, or three years. The larva
lives under water, and is eagerly sought after by fish,
particularly by trout, for which it forms an excellent
halt. They are furnished with six feet, a tail, and
six fins which serve them as oars. The pupa resembles
the larva, except in having the rudiments of future
wings. They scoop out holes for themselves in the
banks of rivers, formed like siphons ; the one leg ser¬
ving as an entrance, the other as an outlet. The banks
oi some rivers are often perforated with them. When
the waters decrease, they form fresh holes lower down.
The ephemerte on -the Rhine appear two hours before
sunset; they come forth almost all at the same time,
and in immense numbers. Those on the Marne and
Seine, in France, do not begin to fly till two hours af¬
ter sunset. The females, by the help of the threads of
the tail, and the flapping of their wings, support them¬
selves on the surface of the water, and, in almost an up¬
right position, drop their eggs in clusters. A female
will drop seven or eight hundred eggs, which sink to
the bottom.
Mouth furnished with a horny mandible, short, arched
and sharp, without teeth. Jaw membranaceous.
Feelers four. Stemmata three. Antennae setaceous,
/ and longer than the thorax. Wings incumbent, the
under ones folded.
These insects are seen in a summer evening floating
in the air in great numbers, and are eagerly devoured
by swallows ; they are easily distinguished from the
smaller moths, by their wanting the spiral tongue. The
larva is six-footed, found at the bottom of shallow wa¬
ters enclosed in a tube, constructed of sand, straws, or
small chips of wood, and is known to fishers by the name
of caddy, or caddo, who use it as a bait for trout, after
they have taken off the tube with which it is covered.
When about to become a pupa, it shuts up the mouth
of its tube with a few' loose threads of silk, of the same
nature with that by which it connects the straws and
chips that compose its tube. The larvae of the species
which compose the first division have one or three tails,
which serve them for fins ; the pupae have six feet, and
prominent horny jaws. The larvae of the other species
are somewhat hairy, furnished with two hooks at the
tail, and with three tentacula on the fourth segment.
The pupa very much resembles the perfect insect.
* Jaw divided. Tail formed of two bristles, and ter¬
minating abruptly. Semblis.
Wings marked with many veins, forming a net-work. * bicauda-
1. A native of Europe ; in fresh waters; carrying ta.
about its eggs in a mass under its belly ; body green¬
ish.
Body black ; wings white, spotted with black. $.phalcenoi-
A native of Europe. des.
B b 2
* * Tail
10
ENTOMOLOGY.
* * Tail ivithout bristles ; the Jaw joined to the lip.
anus black ; the antennae yellow.
Europe.
32. A native of
Neuroptera.jP
wto r\£
grisea.
reticulata. Body black j the wings of a rusty colour, reticulated
with black. 4. A native of Europe.
Body gray ; the upper wings clouded, and marked
with a black spot on the edge. 6. A native of Eu¬
rope *, in fresh waters. The larva is covered with a
tube composed of grass and rushes.
Wings of a brownish brick-colour, marked with
31 species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
76. Myrmeleon, Lion-antyOv Ant-eater.
grandis.
rhombi-
ash-coloured spots. 7. A native of Europe j in fresh
waters. The larva is concealed in a cylindrical lube
formed of chips of wood.
WTings gray, marked with a white rhomboulal spot.
8. A native of Europe j in fresh waters. The larva
is lodged within a cylindrical tube, formed of bits of
grass, connected together transversely.
Mouth with a sharp horny jaw, and mandible. Lip
projecting. Feelers six. No stemmata. Antennas
thicker towards their outer edge. W ings deflected.
Tail of the male armed with a pair of pincers, com¬
posed of two filaments nearly straight.
A. 1'he posterior Feelers much longer than the rest ;
jaw furnished with one tooth i Lip membranaceous
and square, terminating abruptly, and emarginated.
50 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
73. Hemerobius.
Mouth furnished with a short horny mandible. Jaw
cylindrical, straight, and cleft. Lip prominent and
entire. Feelers four j projecting, unequal, and fili¬
form. No stemmata. Wings deflected, but not
folded. Antennae setaceous, projecting, and longer
than the thorax, which is convex.
Like the ephemera,i\\esz insects are very short-lived',
and in every state of their existence, they prey with un¬
ceasing avidity upon aphides. The larva is six-footed,
generally oval and hairy. The pupa commonly folicu-
fated. The eggs are deposited in clusters on the leaves
of plants •, each placed on a small stalk made of gum.
Many of them, when touched, have an excrementitious
smell. The follicle in which the pupa is enclosed, is of
a dense texture, formed of whitish silk. In summer, at
the end of three weeks, the hemerobius comes forth a
perfect insect. When the follicle has not been formed
till the end of autumn, the pupa remains in it the whole
winter; and does not undergo its final metamorphosis
till the ensuing spring.
* lutai'ius* Black *, wings whitish, streaked and spotted with
white. 14. A native of Europe j in fresh waters j
very common in the spring. It deposits a great num¬
ber of light brown eggs, which it attaches in clusters
to the leaves of aquatic plants by means of a glutinous
matter.
B. Lip horny, round at the tip and arched.
perla.
mellano
tictos.
The insects of this family prey with the most savage
ferocity upon ants, and lesser insects ; and for the pur¬
pose of ensnaring them sink themselves into the sand,
and form a kind of funnel or pit in which they lie bu¬
ried, the head only appearing above the sand : into this
hollow such insects as wander near it are sure to fall j
and not being able to crawl up the sides of loose sand,
are seized and devoured by the lion-ant. But if the sides
of the pit do not give way, or the unlucky insect appears
to be able to make its escape, its enemy, by throwing up
with its head repeated showers of sand, forces it down
till it comes within its reach. Larva is six-footed, oval
and hairy, with exserted toothed jaws. Pupa enclosed
in a ball composed of agglutinated sand or earth.
Wings clouded with brown, marked with a white
spot on their posterior margin. 3. A native of Eu-ri‘Wtf
rope. The larva goes backwards; frequents sandy
places, where it digs pits to ensnare other insects.
'mm
B. Feelers nearly equal, and filiform ; the Jaw fringed;
Lip horny, round and entire.
A. Lip cylindrical, membranaceous, and marked with
rings. Semblides.
The upper wings transparent, marked at the baselongicer
with a double yellow spot j the under wings are yellow,
and black at the base. 2. A native of Europe.
Head black and hairy.
Wings white, marked with a black spot at the edge j australis}
body variegated. 14. A native of Europe. Varie- ^
gated with brown and yellow ; the antennae of the same
length with the body, and black j club oblong.
15 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
<fai
77. Panorfa, Scorpion-fly.
Yellowish green *, wings transparent, and marked
with green veins. 2. A native of Europe j on vege¬
tables. Its eggs are set on capillary stalks.
Yellowish j wings transparent, variegated with blue
and gold, marked with whitish veins, dotted, and some¬
what hairy, the edges marked with very small black
dots. 31. A native of Europe.
versicolor. Yellow*, wings transparent, variegated with blue and
gold j the base of the abdomen, the under part, and
Mouth stretched out into a cylindrical snout, composed
of a horny substance. Mandible, without teeth. Jaw
divided at the point. Lip very long, covering the
whole mouth, and like it formed of a horny substance.
Feelers four, nearly equal. ’ Antennae filiform, and
longer than the thorax. Tail of the male notched,
of the female unarmed.
i sl
Wings equal, spotted with black. 1. A native of* comfM
Europe lives chiefly on dipterous insects. nis. jiji
Wings tapering towards the point, somewhat curved hymalfr
and fringed j female without wings. 3. A native of
Europe
:r3|ymenoptera. E N T O M
Europe. It is common when winter disappears. It is
of a brownish yellow colour above.
10 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
78. Raphidia.
Mouth furnished with an arched mandible set with teeth.
Jaw cylindrical and obtuse j lip round and entire j
all of them formed of a horny substance. Feelers
four, very short, nearly equal and filiform. Stem-
mata three. Wings deflected. Antennae filiform,
the same length of the thorax, which is lengthen¬
ed out at the anterior part, and cylindrical.
Tail of the female furnished with a loose curved
bristle.
*^hiopsis. Wings without spots. 1. A native of Europe j in
pine forests ; feeding on other insects. Larva has six
feet. The pupa active, very like the perfect insect in
every point, except that it wants wings.
H'.otata. Wings marked on the edge with a brown spot. 2.
A native of Britain. Black ; a reddish brown spot on
the head and legs, and furnished with a projecting sting
of the same length with the abdomen.
V. HYMENOPTERA.
ct/'cn
ds.
! iSiT.
Wings four, membranaceous for the most part,
of the female furnished with a sting.
Tail
79. Cynips, Gall-fly.
Mouth with a short jaw, furnished with one tooth, and
membranaceous. The mandible arched^ cleft at the
tip, and with a short, cylindrical, and entire lip, all
composed of a horny substance. Feelers four, short,
unequal and capitated. Antennae moniliform. Sting
spiral, and for the most concealed.
The numerous excrescences or galls, found on the
roots, branches, and leaves of various trees, are produ¬
ced by the puncture of these insects. The larva is
without feet, soft, cylindrical, and inhabits within the
gall, feeding on the juices of the tree. The pupa re¬
sembles the perfect insect, except in having only the
rudiments of wings.
Of a brazen colour j the abdomen conical, ascending
and joined to the trunk by a very narrow connection.
20. A native of Europe. Large ; legs of a pale colour j
the thighs black at the base.
Body black $ the abdomen of a rusty colour, and
black behind ; the legs of a rusty colour. 1. A na¬
tive of Bedeguar ; on the rose.
Black j base of the antennae and legs yellowish. 4.
l"f:arum. A native of Europe. Forms roundish and transparent
galls, about the size of a pea, on the under surface of
the leaves of the oak and comes out about the middle
of summer.
Black ; thorax marked with lines 5 legs gray j thighs
beneath black. 5. A native of Europe. Forms galls
about the size of a hazel nut, on the under surface of
the leaves of the oak.
Black j antennae and legs pale. 6. A native of
Europe. Forms globular, opake, red galls, about the
size of a hazel nut, on the under surface of the leaves
of the oak.
I Kerens
I iercus
lercus
in ira.
O L O G Y. jgy
Black j legs white j thighs brown. 7. A native of* quercus
Europe. Forms hollow galls, convex at each end, onpetioli.
the footstalks of the leaves of the oak.
Gray j wings marked with a linear cross. 8. A * quercus
native of Europe. Forms granulated connected galls,pet/wnew/f.
on the male flowers of the oak.
In galls on the bark of the oak. 9. A native of* quercus
Europe. Forms a cup-shaped gall, the disk convex and cor/fciV.
surrounded with about twenty concave dots, sunk into
the bark of the oak.
Pale; abdomen and eyes black. 10. A native o{* quercus
Europe. Forms white woolly galls on the small ramuli.
branches of the oak.
In the terminal bud of ihe quercus robur. II. A * quercus
native of Europe. Found in the large imbricated gaWsgemnue.
on the terminal buds of the quercus robur. This fly is
of a very dark green, slightly gilded. Its antennae and
feet are of a dun-colour, rather deep. It deposits its
eggs in the oak buds, which produce one of the finest
galls, leafed like a rose-bud beginning to blow. When
the gall is small, the leaves are compressed, and lie over
one another like the tiles on the roof of a house. In
the centre of the gall there is a kind of hard nucleus,
in the middle of which is a cavity, and in that is found
the little larva, which feeds there, takes its growth, un¬
dergoes its metamorphosis, and breaks through the in¬
closure in order to get out. The whole gall is often
near an inch in diameter, sometimes more when dried
and displayed, and is attached to the branch by a foot¬
stalk. (Barbut, Insect, p. 233.).
On the calyx of the oak and (egilops. 18. A native quei'eus
of Europe. Forms galls on the calyx of the quercuscalicis.
robur, sometimes used by tanners. They were called by
the Romans cerri.
Black, without spots. 12. A native of Europe.*fagi.
Forms galls of the shape of a pear, on the upper surface
of the leaves of the common beech.
Body brown. 22. Forms tenacious globular galls, rewflo/Vfl/.
about the size of a hazel nut, filled with clear oil, on
the branches of the rosmarinus chilensis.
Body black; the base of the antennae and legs of n-phragmi-
brick colour; the abdomen lengthened out into a broad tis.
tail. 25. It is lodged at the top of the stalk of the
arundo fragmitis, which becomes dilated, and grows no
higher.
28 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
80. Tenthredo, Saw-fly.
Mouth furnished with an arched mandible, formed of a
horny substance, and notched in the inside. Jaw
straight and blunt at the tip. Lip cylindrical and
divided into three. Feelers four, unequal, and fili¬
form. Wings plain and swelling out. Sting com¬
posed of two serrated laminae, slightly projecting.
Scutellum marked with two grains placed on its sur¬
face, at a distance from one another.
The male and female of many of the species of this
genus vary in colour. They feed on the leaves of va¬
rious plants ; the female uses her sting in the manner of
a saw, and cuts out spaces in the twigs or buds of trees,
for the purpose of depositing her eggs; larva cylindri¬
cal, soft, with sixteen or twenty-eight feet; feeds on the
leaves
198 E N T O M
leaves of plants, ami when touched rolls itself up spiral¬
ly. Pupa enclosed in a follicle, and is very like the
perfect insect; the eggs increase in size every day till
the larvae burst from them.
* Antennce clavatcd.
* femora- Antennae pale yellow j body black ; thighs of the
ta. hind-legs very large. I. A native of Europe 5 on the
alder and willow. Larva green, marked on the back
with a blue line, and on the sides with a yellow one.
tristis. Body black ; antennae pale yellow •, wings brown at
the tips. 56. A native of the Sundmore islands.
, Larva green, marked on the back with a blue line
fringed with black and yellow.
* vitelli- Abdomen black above, reddish on the sides ; the
iur. thighs of the hind-legs dentated. 5. A native of Eu¬
rope } on the birch and willow 5 the antennae yellow,
and black at the tip. The larva is green, and spouts
water from an opening a little above the anus.
* * Antenna; without articulations, and thicker towards
their outer edge.
* enodis. Antennae smooth $ body of a bluish black. 11. A
native of Europe ; on the willow. Larva green, dotted
with black, marked on the sides with a wrinkled yellow
line, and furnished with an acute tail.
* nstulata. Body black ; abdomen bluish ; shanks of the legs
pale. 13. A native of Europe j on the rosa canina.
Wings of a faint rusty colour, marked with a brown
spot. Larva green, marked with two white lines $ the
head of a brick-colour, marked with a dark-coloured
kanL _ -
cyanocro* Head and thorax bluish *. the abdomen of a sanron-
cea. colour. 6. A native of Britain on umbelliferous
plants : antennae black j legs of many colours.
* * * Antennce pectinated.
cephalotes. Body black*, abdomen marked with four yellow
belts. 64. A native of Europe j large $ head large,
three dots situated between the eyes j the thorax mark¬
ed on the fore part with an interrupted yellowish
streak 5 legs of a rusty colour.
* dorsata. Body whitish j head and back of the thorax and ab¬
domen black. 65. A native of Britain -, antennae
black.
* * * # Antennce feathered.
* pini. Antennae spear-shaped the thorax somewhat hairy.
14. A native of Europe very common in the fir-tree.
The male black j the thighs and shanks of the legs of
a tawney colour: female twice the size of the male
gray antennae serrated. Larva blue, and of a tawney
colour at each end.
***** Antennce filiform ; furnished ivith seven or
nine articulations.
* rustica. Body black j the abdomen marked with three yel¬
low belts j the posterior pah- being interrupted. 16.
A native of Europe -, on the woodbine. Mouth whitish j
the scutellum and thorax marked with.a yellow spot $
the legs yellow j the knees of the hind-legs black.
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera,
Larva of an ash-colour, marked with txiangular light
brown dots on the back.
Greenish yellow; legs tawney; the thighs of t\\e cynipifor.
hind-legs of a brass colour. 69. A native of Europe ; tnis.
in the pods of the vetch ; about the size of a black ant;
the thorax lengthened very much, resembling a cynips.
Female bluish green, with a metallic lustre.
Body variegated. 21. A native of Europe; on * salicis,
the poplar and willow. Larvse feeding in parallel
troops ; flat, rough, yellow, and marked on each side
rvith two rows of black dots ; head black.
Body black ; head and thorax red. 29. A native of* olni.
Europe ; on the leaves of the alder. When looked at,
it attempts to conceal itself. The antennae are black ;
the abdomen black, with a violet gloss ; the fore legs
reddish brown. y ,
Body black; belly, legs, and scutellum whitish. 35.* rapa, -V
A native of Europe ; on the leaves of the turnip.
Small; whitish beneath ; the edges of the wings black ;
the edges of the segments jof the abdomen faint yellow ;
head and thorax variegated with white. a
Body yellow; head and upper part of the thorax*' capreafi--
and abdomen black ; wings marked with a yellow dot.
55. A native of Europe ; on the willow and corinth.
The larva yearly destroys the gooseberry and red co¬
rinth, but does not injure the black corinth ; blue ; the
three first and three last segments tawney, marked with
nine lines of dots.
Body black ; the shanks and apophyses of the thighs
of the hind-legs are white on their exterior sides. 88.
A native of Europe ; on the red corinth. The larva
destroys the edges of the leaves of the red corinth ; it is
green ; the head edged with black ; the body wrinkled ;
six feet situated on the breast, are furnished with hooks ;
six on the abdomen are set close together, and two near
the tail resemble papillae.
****** Antennce setaceous, composed of many arti¬
culations.
Body blue; head red. 40. A native of Europe ; on *
the common pine. Male black ; the mouth and shanks
of the fore-legs pale yellow.
Black, with a tinge of blue ; mouth, feelers, wa&populi.
shanks of the legs yellow. 44. A native of Europe ;
on the poplar ; wings brownish ; the breast variegated
with pale yellow on each side, edged with bright yel¬
low7 ; the abdomen pale yellow ; spotted on the back
with black.
******* The following species, and other five, seem
doubtful.
' Black; legs yellow ; antennae slightly clavated. 50. intercut.
A native of Europe ; on the leaves of the burdock, the
nightshade, and the vulvaria ; it is lodged under the
cuticle of the leaf; the antennse shorter than the body,
transparent and deeply articulated ; the abdomen oval
and pointed.
140 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin, in his last edition of the System of Nature.
81. SlREX, Tailed Wasp.
Mouth furnished with a thick mandible, composed of a
horny substance, terminating abruptly at the tip ;
the
y menoptera.
the jaw bent inwards, pointed, cylindrical, and frin¬
ged, which, together with the lip, is membranaceous,
short, and entire. Feelers four ; the posterior ones
longer than the rest, and thicker on the outside.
Antennae filiform, composed of upwards of 24 articu¬
lations. Sting projecting, rigid, serrated. Abdo¬
men closely attached to the trunk, terminating in a
sharp point. Wings lance-shaped and plane.
The larva; of this genus are six-footed, soft, and cy¬
lindrical ; the head rounded : they perforate wood, and
frequently eat their way into the bowels of other insects
and their larvae, particularly caterpillars, living upon
and consuming their vitals : pupae foliculated. The
perfect insect lives on the nectar of flowers.
**/'gcts. Body black ; the abdomen yellow at the base and at
the extremity. 1. A native of Europe ; on fir trees.
*hec- Abdomen black ; thorax hairy, with a pale yellow
turn. mark before the wings. 3. A native of Europe j in
decayed timber, particularly fir wood.
pvntoma. Abdomen yellow above, marked with black rings :
head and legs pile yellow. 12. A native of Europe j
mouth, thorax, and under part of the abdomen black.
18 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
82. Ichneumon.
Mouth furnished with a jaw, straight, membranaceous,
roundish at the tip, divided, expanded, and fringed ;
the mandible arched, sharp, and smooth ; and with a
lip cylindrical, membranaceous at the tip, and margi-
nated. Feelers four, unequal, and filiform 5 situa¬
ted in the middle of the lip. Antennae setaceous,
furnished with upwards of 30 articulations. Sting
prominent, furnished with a sheath composed of two
valves.
The whole of this singular genus are parasitical, de¬
riving their nourishment from other insects. The fly
feeds on the nectar of flowers j and when about to lay
her eggs perforates the body of some other insect or its
caterpillar, with its sting or instrument at the end of
the abdomen, and there deposits them ; these, after be¬
ing transformed into larvae, prey upon the intestines of
their foster parents till they are metamorphosed into
pupee. The larva is without feet, soft, and cylindrical;
pupa sometimes naked, sometimes covered with a follicle.
It is a species of this genus which produces the animal
cotton, of which M. Baudry des Loizeres gives an ac¬
count (Vide Second Voyage a la Louisiane, par Baudry
des Lovzercs)* A worm of considerable size, which
Baudry calls fly-carrier, (well known to planters as the
manioc or indigo worm,) is at one period of the year
attacked by swarms of the ichneumon fly, which depo¬
sit their eggs in every pore of the worm. The insects
are produced all nearly at the same time, and spin each
of them a minute covering for itself. The manioc worm
is now coveied with a white case, which he with con¬
siderable difficulty shakes off, and, in a few days, the in¬
sects are again hatched from it, but in the form of flies,
leaving the animal cotton behind them. This produc¬
tion is very abundant, as M. Baudry could collect se-
l99
veral bushels of it in a short time. In his opinion, it
possesses many advantages over the vegetable cotton.
A. Scutellum whitish; the Antennae marked with white
rings.
Scutellum white; the thorax without spots ; the se-*
cond, third, and fourth segments of the abdomen paler/ws'.
yellow ; the rest white at the tip. 2. A native of
Europe ; the thighs of the four hind-legs black.
Black; the scutellum, the extremity of the vdi&o-seductor.
men, and a notched band on the anterior part of the ab¬
domen, yellow; the legs, and connection between the
abdomen and trunk likewise yellow. 221. A native
of Italy. It forms cells composed of cemented clay, in
chimneys and windows, arranged commonly in parallel
rows, forming a cylindrical nest, each containing a
brown, lucid follicle, in which the larva is lodged, to¬
gether with the body of a spider in which the egg had
been originally deposited. The upper wings are dark-
coloured towards the tip.
B. Scutellum whitish; Antennae totally black.
Black; the scutellum whitish; the divisions between equitatu-
the segments black; the second, third, and fourth seg-rius.
ments, as well as the legs, are yellow. 90. A native
of Europe. In the pupa of the phalaenct piniperda.
Black ; the scutellum yellowish ; the under part of* dimica-
the antennae reddish ; the thorax armed on each side torius.
with a prickle; the abdomen black, marked with yel¬
low belts ; anus yellow. 168. A native of Britain.
Scutellum white; the thorax spotted; abdomen
black ; the base of the second segment, the third and torius.
sixth segments yellow. 93. A native of Britain.
C. The Scutellum and Thorax of the same colour ; An¬
tennae marked with rings.
Black ; the abdomen of a rusty colour, and black at migrator.
the extremity. 116. A native of Europe.
Black ; legs reddish ; the feet of the hind-legs white * obscura¬
nt the tips. 199. A native of Britain. It smells of tor.
musk 4
D. The Scutellum and Thorax of the same colour ; An¬
tennae black.
Body and wings black, marked with a transparent t/r/i^rotor
spot like a crescent; abdomen scarlet. 28. A native
of Britain ; in gardens.
Black; legs reddish; the shanks of the hind-legs turionellae.
black, marked with white wings. 40. A native of
Europe. In the larva of moths, particularly iff the
phalaena turiondlce. Antennae of the same length with
the body ; the sting shorter than the abdomen.
Black; mouth and legs reddish; the abdomen joined * co//;-
to the trunk by a stalk, or narrow connection. 33. Apunctor.
native of Europe. In the pupae of some species of but¬
terfly.
Black; the abdomen curved like a scythe, reddish * jacida-
in the middle ; the thighs of the hind-legs clavated ; tor.
white at the base and at the extremity. 58. A native
of Europe ; in the larvae of the bee and of the sphex.
Having examined with its antennae, where the sphex is,
and ,
ENTOMOLOGY
200
atvl having discovered it, it flies away,
places its egg on it.
E. Antenna: pale yellow.
vettosui. Entirely yellow, except some black between the stem-
mata ; wings white, with yellow veins. 354. A na¬
tive of Europe.
cinctus. Black j antennae and legs of a rusty colour j wings
transparent, marked with a black speck. 60. A na¬
tive of Europe ; in gardens.
Hymenoptera, W1
wait till the poison they have infused through their
sting produce its effect. Their prey either serves, as
food for themselves or their young. Those of the divi¬
sion B. are to be found chiefly on umbelliferous plants
the larva is without feet, soft, and inhabits the body of
some other insect, on the juices of which it feeds 5 the
pupa has only the rudiments of wings ; the perfect in¬
sect deposits her eggs in the bodies of other insects.
A. Antennce setaceous; Lip entire; Tongue wanting.
Evanise.
entomology.
and returns and
F. Minute, with the Abdomen closely attached to the
Thorax.
gregariuSo Black ; the legs and side of the abdomen of a rusty
colour. 204. A native of Europe j in the larvee of
butterflies j gregarious, and very frequent in the spring.
Soon after they are hatched they spin each of them a
white follicle for themselves, which are connected to¬
gether in a cluster, from which they come forth perfect
insects.
* bedegua- Shining green ; abdomen golden-coloured. 63. A
ris. native of Europe ; in the larvae of the cynips, which
produces the galls on the rose and the oak. The sting
the same length with the body.
* galla* Of a bronze colour; abdomen black ; shanks of the
rum. legs whitish. 64* A native of Europe ; on the larvae
of the cynips, which produces the galls on the branches
of the oak.
puparum. Body blue and gold ; abdomen shining green ; and
legs pale. 66. A native of Europe ; in the larvae of
flies and butterflies.
cynipis. Green and gold ; the abdomen brown, marked with
a pale-coloured belt at the base ; legs yellowish. 68.
A native of Europe ; on the larvee of the cynips, and on
the pupse of butterflies.
globatus. Black; legs of a rusty colour. 74. A native of
Europe; in stalks of grain, within a roundish follicle,
composed of white silk, common to a number of the in¬
sects.
*glomcra- Black ; legs yellow. 75. A native of Europe ; in the
tus. larvae of butterflies. Soon after they are hatched, they
spin each of them a yellow follicle for themselves ; they
deposite their eggs on the pupae of butterflies soon after
they have changed from larvae.
418 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
83. Sphex.
Mouth furnished with an entire jaw; the mandible
curved, notched, and formed of a substance like
horn. Lip horny, and membranaceous at the tip.
Feelers four. The antennae in some species have
upwards of 10 articulations. Wings in each sex in¬
cumbent and not folded. Sting pungent and con¬
cealed within the abdomen.
The insects of this genus are the most savage and ra¬
pacious of this class of animals; they attack whatever
insects come in their way, and by means of their poi¬
sonous sting overcome and devour such as far exceed
themselves in size ; when they attack any insect, they
give one stroke, and fall down as if dead, and quietly
4
Body black ; the abdomen very short, and attached appendi-
tft the back part of the thorax by a foot stalk. 12.gaster, \
A native of Europe, America, and Africa. Sprinkled
with concave dots; the thorax flattened behind; the
abdomen oval, compressed and very smooth ; wings
transparent, short, and deflected.
IP1
B. Antennce filiform; the Lip emarginated, and fur¬
nished with a bristle on each sideTongue bent in-
■wards, and divided into three divisions for almost
half its length.
a. Abdomen attached to the trunk by a stalk or narrow
communication.
Black, hairy; the attachment of the abdomen to * sabukii
the trunk furnished with two articulations ; the second
and third segments of the abdomen of a rusty colour.
I. A native of Europe ; on sandy ground, where it
digs a hole with its fore-feet, like a dog, in which it
buries the larva of a moth, on which it deposits an egg,
and then shuts up the hole. The abdomen exceeds the
wings in length about one half, and in the male is black
on the back. H
Smooth, black ; the lip and the edges of the seg-figulus, fe
ments of the abdomen lucid. Ti. A native of Eu¬
rope ; in holes of wood, in partitions, which have been
formed and abandoned by other insects : these it cleanses
by gnawing round them ; and placing a piece of moist
clay at the bottom, sticks a spider upon it. In the body
of this spider it deposits its eggs, and then closes up the
entrance with clay. The larva is pale, and very like
the larva of a bee. Having consumed the spider, which
had been enclosed along with it, it spins a yellowish
brown membrane for itself, exactly adapted to its body.
One female sphex forms a great many nests ; she spends
no more than two days in forming any one. . .
Body black; fore-head, mouth, scutellnm, and twoimubrict
bands on the abdomen, yellow. 98. A native of Italy ;
breeds in chimneys and in windows, in the same nest
with the ichneumon sedvetor. It is about seven lines
long, dotted ; the shanks of the legs yellowish, and
black at the extremities ; wings transparent and dark-
coloured at the tips.
b. The Abdomen closely attached to the Thorax.
Downy and black; wings brown ; the anterior part* viatic^
of the abdomen of a rusty colour, marked with black
belts. 15. A native of Europe ; in sandy ground : it
digs holes in the sand, in which it buries the larva of a
moth, after it has deposited an egg on it. _ ,
Body black ; the fore part of the thorax furnished
with
Eymenoptem.
with a prickle on each side j the lip and the breast of
the colour of silver. 86. A native of England j smooth ;
wings transparent j legs reddish.
98 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
84. Scolia.
Mouth furnished with a curved sharp mandible, cre-
nated on the inside. Jaw compressed, projecting,
entire and horny. Tongue inflected and divided in¬
to three at the tip, very short. Lip projecting, mem¬
branaceous at the tip, and entire. Feelers four,
, equal, short, filiform, and situated in the middle of
the lip. Antennae thick and filiform : the first joint
longer than the rest.
i.vinacu-’ Hairy, black $ the abdomen anarked with three
aa. pair of yellow spots. 6. A fiative of Europe j
marked with a yellow spot both before and behind the
eyes.
mdri- Body black; the abdomen marked with four white
$,)!ctala. dots, the wings of a reddish brown. 22. A native of
Europe.
27 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
Ill M
85. Thynnus.
Mouth formed of a horny substance ; the mandible in¬
curved. The jaw short, and straight. Lip longer
than the jaw, membranaceous at the tip, and divided
into three, the middle division emarginated. Tongue
very short and involuted. Feelers four, equal and
filiform. Antennae filiform.
qtfatus. Abdomen black j the second, third, and fourth seg¬
ments marked with two white dots. 1. A native of
New Holland. Likewise the first segments are mark¬
ed with a white dot on the sides.
13 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
86. Leucopsis.
Mouth composed of a horny substance, and furnished
with short jaws. The mandible thick, and furnished
with three teeth at the tip. Lip longer than the
jaw $ ,membranaceous and emarginated at the tip.
| Feelers four, short, equal, and filiform. Antennae
short, straight, and clavated. Thorax furnished with
a lance-shaped scale on its under side. Sting bent
backwards, and concealed in a groove in the upper
part of the abdomen.
cmgaater Abdomen attached closely to the trunk ; scale of
the thorax half the length of the abdomen. 2. A na¬
tive of Europe ; eyes black j forehead without spots $
the posterior part of the thorax marked with a yellow
fillet, and without dots. Smaller than the common
wasp.
Three species of this genus have been described in
the last edition of the System of Nature.
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
201
87. Tiphia.
Mouth furnished with a membranaceous rounded jaw.
The mandible arched, and acute. The lip short,
furnished with three small projections, and composed
of a substance like horn. No tongue. Feelers four,
filiform, unequal, projecting, and situated in the mid¬
dle of the lip. Antennae filiform and arched.
Black j the thighs of the four hind-legs angular and * femora-
reddish. 4. A native of England. ta.
Black ; thorax spotted ; abdomen marked with five * quinque-
yellow bands, the second interrupted. 6. A native oicincta.
Europe, chiefly in England.
17 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
88. Chalcis.
I'eelers four, and equal. Antennae short, cylindrical,
and spindle-shaped ; the first articulation a little
thicker than the rest.
Shining black ; the thighs of the bind-legs tliicken-y;W^/}£7.
ed, and marked with a white dot at their extremities.
6. A native of Europe. Feet white.
7 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
89. Chrysis. Golden-jhj.
Mouth composed of a horny substance, and projecting ;
is furnished with a linear jaw, and with a lip emar¬
ginated, and membranaceous at the tip, and much
longer than the jaw. No tongue. Feelers four,
projecting, unequal, and filiform. Antennae short,
and filiform ; the first articulation longer than the
rest. Body gilt and shining. Abdomen arched
beneath, furnished with a scale on each side. The
anus (in most of the species) is furnished with small
projections. Sting is slightly projecting. Wings
plane.
The insects of this genus commonly form their nests
in holes made in walls.
Smooth, polished; the thorax green ; the abdomen * ignita.
of a golden colour, and furnished with four small pro¬
jections at the extremity. 1. A native of Europe ; in
walls.
Smooth, shining j the thorax green j the abdomen of* aurata.
a golden colour ; the anus furnished with two small
projections. 4. A native of Europe ; in walls.
Smooth, shining ; the thorax and abdomen blue ; * cyanea.
the anus furnished with three small projections. 5. A
native of Europe j in walls.
Smooth, shining green *, the thorax and superior part virulula.
of the two first segments of the abdomen gilt; the anus
furnished with four small projections. 6- A native of
Europe ; in walls of houses.
27 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
C c 90.
ENTOMOLOGY.
202
* crub/'O.
* vulga-
j i*.
ENTOMOLOGY. Hymen optera,
which are not in immediate contact with one
:Syi
90. Vespa, Wasp.
paper
Mouth composed of a horny substance. Jaw compressed.
Feelers four, unequal and filiform. Antennae fili¬
form ; the first articulation longer than the rest, and
cylindrical. Eyes large and circular. Body smooth.
Sting pungent, and concealed within the abdomen.
The upper wings are folded in the males, females,
and neuters.
These live mostly in numerous societies, constructing
curious nests or combs, generally under ground ; they
prey upon other insects, especially bees and flies, and
devour meal, bread, and fruit. The larva is soft, with¬
out feet, and feeds on the nectar of flowers and honey ;
the pupa quiescent, and has the rudiments of wings.
Some of them are solitary, others live in swarms.
A. No tongue.
* The Antennae thicker towards their outer edge.
Hornet. The thorax black, marked on the fore part
with reddish spots j there is a double dot contiguous to
the divisions between the segments of the abdomen. 3.
A native of Europe. It has its nest in hollow trees, in
out-houses, or any dry situation •, its combs are very
neatly constructed, and composed of a substance like
coarse paper, or decayed parchment. They prey on
other insects, particularly on bees. Their sting is very
painful. . .
Thorax marked on each side with a small interrupted
line*, the scutellum marked with four spots; the divi¬
sions between the segments of the abdomen dotted with
black. 4. A native of Europe, about houses ; they
prey on flies, and rob bee-hives. They live in swarms
composed of males, females, and neuters. The male has
a yellow head, and long antennae ; an abdomen com¬
posed of seven yellow segments, marked with black
triangular spots/ They are destitute of stings, but are
longer and larger than the neuters, though smaller than
the females. The female has short antennae; lip yellow ;
abdomen composed of six segments, marked on the
sides with two black dots, and is furnished with a sting.
There are frequently between two and three hundred
females, and as many males, in a swarm of wasps. A
single female in the spring that had been impregnated
in the preceding autumn, lays the foundation of a swarm.
It makes itself a hole in some dry situation, or fixes on
a mole hole, where it hastily builds a few cells, and de¬
posits its eggs; which in the course of about twenty
days, pass through their different changes, and become
perfect insects. Almost the whole of those produced
from the first deposited eggs are neuters. As soon as
they are fit to fly about, they commence their labours,
enlarge their hole by removing the earth with their
mouth, go out in quest of materials for forming new
cells which are composed of small fibres of wood, ce¬
mented together by a glutinous substance formed within
the body of the animal. They may frequently be seen
on rails, posts, &c. on reeds, or stalks of decayed ve¬
getables, gnawing off small particles, which they convey
to their nest, and deliver to those occupied in the con¬
struction of the work. The external covering of their
nest is formed of several layers of thin leaves resembling
another, and in that way they prevent external moisture
from penetrating into the cells, which are arranged in
flat combs placed over one another, each story being
supported by a number of very neat pillars. The fe¬
male continues to deposit her eggs, which are oblong
and yellowish, during the whole summer, to the amount
of many thousands. A few hundreds of those that are
last deposed, produce males and females, which are
impregnated in the autumn, and which, should they
survive the winter, lay the foundation of new swarms
in the spring. All the neuters and males perish in the
beginning of winter.
Body black; the thorax is marked with two dots; * par ieiu
the scutellum is likewise marked with two dots, the ab¬
domen with five yellow bands, the first of which is at
a distance from the rest. 6. A native of Europe;
about houses. It forms its nest in holes in wood.
Black; thorax marked with two pale yellow spots;
the abdomen marked with four yellow bands, the first
at a considerable distance from the rest. 8. A native
of Europe, in walls ; the scutellum without spots ; the
shanks of the legs yellowish.
First segment of the abdomen funnel-shaped; the *
second bell-shaped, and very large. 11. A native oi tata.
Europe, in gardens. It attaches its nest, which is
globular, and constructed of the same materials with
that of the common wasp, to the branches of trees ; the
abdomen black, the segments yellow at the edges; the
first and second marked with two dots.
* *
Antennae filiform. Crahrones.
The abdomen marked with two yellow bands; the
anus furnished with three small projections ; wiags
black, white at the edge. 98. A native of Europe.
Thorax without spots ; the abdomen marked on eachy^^
side with five yellow spots ; legs black. 101. A na¬
tive of Europe, in sandy situations. Head large, ter¬
minating abruptly in the fore part; mouth of a silver
colour ; the spots on the abdomen uniting so as to form
a band.
B. The tongue bent inwards, and divided into three at
the point. Bombyces.
The upper lip conical and divided; the abdomen
black, marked with waved yellowish bands. 152. A
native of Europe, on sand hills. Their nests contain
only a single larva.
Black; lip roundish ; the abdomen matked with d\xfasciatas
yellow bands ; the first five of which are interrupted.
15'7. A native of Europe, covered with ash-coloured
down ; the thorax spotted with brown, the antennae
black, the first articulation yellow below, the last of a
rusty colour; lip and legs yellow, the thigh black : the
anus furnished with three small productions.
The lip nearly conical ; the thorax brown, spottedrtfieor*1
with yellow ; abdomen black, marked with six yellow
bands ; antennae and legs of a rusty colour. 156. A
native of Europe ; head brown ; mouth yellow : the
bands on the abdomen broad, the first four inter¬
rupted.
160 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin in the last edition of the System of Nature.
9r»
ymenoptera.
203
ENTOMOLOGY.
pr. Apis, Bee.
Mouth formed of a substance resembling horn j the lip
and jaw membranaceous at the tip ; tongue bent in¬
wards. Feelex*s four, unequal and filiform. Wings
plane. The females and neuters have a pungent sting
concealed within the abdomen.
The insects of this genus live some of them in large
societies, and some are solitary ‘y their food is the nectar
of flowers, honey, and ripe fruit ; the larva is soft and
without feet; the pupa resembles the perfect insect. The
larvae of the neuters are very numerous, and placed in
hexagonal cells ; the larvae of the males are turgid and
obtuse in the fore-part, and tapering behind.
A. The Tongue divided into Jive at the point ; the
Feelers very short.
*entun- Black; the under part of the abdomen covered with
darts. yellow wool. 4. A native of Europe. It forms se¬
veral nests under ground, very neatly composed of the
leaves ot roses. 1 here are several species which form
similar nests in the trunks of trees or in walls, compo¬
sed sometimes of the leaves of the rose, at other times
of those of the horse chesnut.
f'luncta- Black, covered with ash-coloured hairs ; abdomen
black; the segments of the abdomen marked on each
side with a white dot ; the scutellum entire. $9. A
native of Britain ; on flowers.
ttllijica. Common Honey Bee. Downy; the thorax grayish ;
abdomen brown ; thighs of the hind-legs fringed with
hairs; on the inside marked with transverse striee. 22.
A native of Europe ; in hollow trees ; but they are more
frequently domesticated, and kept in hives. This well
known and busy insect lives in great swarms, composed
of females or queens, males or drones, and neuters or
working bees. The female is larger and longer than the
rest, the abdomen being about one-third longer than the
wings ; the antennae have ten articulations ; the feet
reddish. The males are larger than the neuters; their
wings are longer than the body ; their antennte have
eleven articulations ; the trunk is covered with long
hairs, and is of a tawney colour. The neuters as well
as the females are gray on the thorax, and are furnish¬
ed with a sting, of which the males are destitute ; their
antennae have fifteen articulations ; they are furnished
with two stomachs. A swarm consists commonly of
one female, from ICOO to 15CO males, and of nearly
20,000 neuters (vide Bee). They construct regular
combs, composed of hexagonal cells, with wax which is
formed within the body of the insect. Reaumur and
others have supposed, that the wax was formed from
the farina of flowers, which the neuters collect and
carry home on their legs, and their opinions have been
implicitly follow’ed. But Mr Huber, member of the
Society of Natural Philosophy and Natural History of
Geneva, by a set of very accurate experiments and ob¬
servations, has clearly proven that the wax is formed
from honey (vide Journal de Physique, fyc. Pluviose
An. XII.). We shall give here his own account of the
experiments he has made. “ It has been thought strange
that the word wax should seldom occur in a book which
treats of bees alone ; hut nevertheless, as in the course
of my observations I had not attended to the products
of their industry, I could only have repeated what had
been said by Swammerdam and Reaumur, and that did
not seem to me to be necessary. I knew that these in¬
sects collected abundantly upon the antherae of flowers ;
that they are acquainted with the method of opening
them, ol gathering their dust, keeping it in the cavi¬
ties of their hind legs, and carrying it to their hives.
It had been observed that the particles of this dust
swell in water, and that when one of them bursts, an
oily liquor runs out, which floats on its surface, but did
not mix with it. From these experiments, repeated on
the dust of a great number ot flowers, it was concluded
that they contain the principle of wax ; but it was ad¬
mitted that these must undergo a peculiar elaboration
in the body of the bee, since, according to the experi¬
ments of Reaumur, a flexible wax could not be made
from the dust of the antherse. It will he seen here from
several passages in my work that I had adopted this
opinion ; a single observation of Burnons, (the name
of Mr Huber’s secretary), changed all my ideas. The
true origin of wax might have been sooner known, had
there been any suspicion that it was not already disco¬
vered. I shall now state how I was led to doubt, and
what I have done to verify my new conjectures.
“ I was in Switzerland in 1793 • farmer of the
estate on which I resided had many bees ; and the
greater part of his hives having been stocked in former
years, the combs with which they were filled reached
to the stands, consequently there was no room to con¬
struct new ones. We remarked, however, that the
working bees carried in a considerable quantity of this
fecundating powder. rIhere was also in the same apiary,
some swarms of that year, the hives having only been
stocked a day or two ; in some of them the combs were
only begun ; in others they were larger ; hut in all of
them there were vacancies to fill up, and much work
to do. We observed with astonishment, that the bees
of these swarms did not carry in the pollen ; and that,
nevertheless, they worked with activity in the construc¬
tion of new combs, and in lengthening those already
commenced. Where, therefore, did they procure ma¬
terials for their edifices ? After these observations, we
suspected that it was not from the dust of the stamina,
and that they had a very different use for it than that
for which it was believed to be intended. We, how¬
ever, found that it was impossible to explain these ex¬
traordinary facts, without abandoning the hypothesis
of Reaumur, by supposing that the bees of the old hive#
stored up so much pollen in their combs for their future
wants, while those of the new swarms did not carry it
outwardly on their legs, in the infancy of their esta¬
blishment, because they had no cells in which they could
deposit it; it might be sufficient to enable them to con¬
struct their combs, if they were at liberty to fly to the
flowers, procure their pollen, and return to their hives
after having filled their stomachs, where it must be
elaborated, and converted into perfect wax. It was to
obviate these doubts, that I undertook the following
experiments.
“ First Experiment.—On bees in confinement, with
honey alone for their nourishment. Must pollen he ate
by bees, to be in a state to produce wax P This was
the first question which I thought it necessary to investi¬
gate : the method of trying the experiment was obvious ;
C c 2 it*
204
E N T O M
it was only required to keep the bees within their hives,
and thus prevent them horn collecting or eating the fe¬
cundating powder. On the 24th ot May, Buinons
lodged a swarm in a straw-hive, vyith as much honey
and water as was necessary for their consumption •, and
he closed the doors, so that the bees could not get out,
and the air be at the same time renewed.
“ At first the bees were very uneasy, but became calm
on removing the hive to a cool dark place j their cap¬
tivity lasted five days ; they were permitted to come out
into a room, the windows of which were shut j we then
examined the hive more conveniently. We first noticed
that there was no honey left in the vessel which had been
filled with it, with the sole intention of feeding the con¬
fined bees 5 and were more astonished to see five combs
of the most beautiful wax, suspended from the root of
the hive ; they were perfectly white, and very brittle.
This result was very remarkable j however, before form¬
ing a conclusion from it, that the honey with which
these bees were fed, bad enabled them to produce the
wax, it was necessary to inquire, whether it could not
also be explained in another manner. The bees which
I had employed had doubtless collected the dust while
they were at liberty. They might have done so the
evening before, or on the very same day of theii con¬
finement, and might have enough in their stomachs,
and in the cavities of their legs, to extract from it ail
the wax which we found in their hives. Lut if it was
true that it had been obtained from the fecundating
powder, previously obtained, this source was not inex¬
haustible, and the bees being unable to procure anymore,
they would soon cease to construct combs, and fall into
the most complete inaction. It was necessary, therefore,
to repeat the same trial, to render it decisive.
“ The 28th, Bunions returned this swarm intoits hive j
after having taken out all the combs, he shut them up
as before, with a fresh supply of honey. Tins experi¬
ment was not long, for on the evening of the second day
we perceived the prisoners working with new wax. J he
next clay the hive was inspected, and we found five
combs, as heavy and as regular as those made during the
first captivity. We afterwards repeated this experi¬
ment five times successively, with the same bees, and
the same precautions : we always found that the honey
had disappeared, and that new wax was produced. T his
result was so invariable during this long seclusion, that
we could no longer doubt that the honey alone had sup¬
plied them with'all the elements of their wax, without
the assistance of the fecundating dust.
“ Second Experiment.—On .a hive from which honey
was excluded, and in which only pollen and fruits, for
the nourishment of the bees, were left, I thought it
would not be useless to make the inverse of the preced¬
ing experiment •, it would show me whether the pollen
could not supply the want of honey, when the bees
were deprived of it, and enable them to produce
“ I therefore enclosed a swarm in a bell-glass, in which
had been placed a comb, whose cells contained only
pollen, and the sole nourishment of the bees was fruit.
it ^hese bees did not make combs, nor did they form a
single cell during eight days, which was the time of
their captivity. I was going to repeat this experiment,
when Burnons remarked, that the free bees were, in
some measure, in the same state as those we had con-
31
O L O G Y. Hymenoptera. :Jf!]
fined-, there being no honey at that time in the flowers,
they found only pollen, and did not work in wax.
“ It may perhaps be asked, how I was satisfied of
this: to which I answer, bees wax is white at first, the
cells soon become yellow j and in time, this coioui
grows browner ; and in older hives have acquired a
blackish tinge. It is, therefore, very easy to distinguish
the new cells from those which had been some time
formed, and consequently to know whether the bees are
really making combs, of whether that work is suspend¬
ed j it is sufficient to raise the hives, and to notice the
lower edge of the combs.
“ The odour exhaled by the hives, and the shape of the
bees, are indications, by which it may always be known
whether there is honey in the flowers: if they are com¬
bined, there can be no further doubtj and, particularly,
if a great number of bees return to the hive, which are
remarkable for the bulk and form of their bellies.
These which are filled with honey, have the abdomen
cylindrical j the name of wax-making bees belongs to'
them exclusively: the bellies of the labouring bees,
which have other functions, always preserve their ovoid
form, and their volume is never sensibly augmented j
the name of niirsing bees is proper for these.
“ The farmers of the neighbouring villages kept their
bees in baskets, or in cases ot different forms j and I
was able to visit a very great number, without going to
any great distance from my habitation.
“ In 1793, an intemperate spring had retarded the
separation of the swarms j there had not been any in
the country before the 24th of May j but towards the
middle of June there were several in the vicinity of my
residence. At that time the fields were covered with
flowers, the bees collected much honey, and the new
swarms worked at the wax with vigour..
“ On the 18th, Burnons visited 65 hives j at the en¬
trance of all of them he observed wax-making bees.
Those which returned to old hives, not having to con¬
struct cells, deposited their honey in the combs, or dis¬
tributed it among their companions j those belonging to
the young swarms converted their honey into wax, and
hastened^to construct combs for the reception of their
young bees.
“ It was showery on the 19th 5 the bees went abroad,
but brought home only pollen. T he weather w as cold
and rainy until the 27th. We were desirous of know¬
ing if this had prevented their working. On the 28th,
alfthe hives were lifted. Burnons found that the work
had been stopped; the combs which he had measured
on the 19th, were not at all increased, and were of a
citron yellow ; nor was there a single white cell in any
of these hives.
“ On the first of July, the chesnuts and limes were m
blossom ; the thermometer indicated the twentieth de¬
gree ; the wax-making bees re-appeared ; they carried
away great quantities of honey, which, as he had before
observed, was employed in augmenting the provisions
of the old hives, and enabling the young sWarms to
construct new combs. The greatest activity was observ¬
able among them ; the gathering of honey* and the
production of wax continued, until the middle of this
month. July 16th, the heat remained the same; the
field flowers,* as well as those of the chesnut and limes,
were completely withered ; they yielded no more honey,
their pollen alone attracted the working bees, and they
collected
iymenoptera.
E N T O M
collected it abundantly ; but tiiere \vas not any ivax
produced j tbe combs were not lengthened ; those of
the young swarms did net fill more than two-thirds of
their hives. .
“ August 9th. It bad not rained for six weeks j tbe
heat was very powerful, nor was there any dew to al¬
lay it during the night j the black wheat, which had
been in flower for some days, did not ofl’er any honey
to the bees j they found only pollen.
“ On the 10th of August, it rained for several hours j
next day, the black wheat had the odour of honey } in
fact it might he seen glittering in the expanded flowers.
The bees found enough to feed them, but too little to
induce them to work at new wax.
“ On the 14th, the drought recommenced, and lasted
to the end of the month ; no more honey appeared up¬
on the flowers 5 and when we visited the 65 hives for
the last time, we found, 1st, That the bees had not pro¬
duced any wax after the middle of July. 2d, That
they had stored up a great quantity of pollen. 3d,
That the supply of honey was much lessened in the old
hives, and that hardly any remained in the new swarms,
that which they had collected in the spring having been
employed in the preparation of wax. The pollen, there¬
fore, has not this property, and no farther doubt re¬
mained on this head. This year had not been stormy, and
I have since ascertained, by a great number of observa¬
tions, that electricity is singularly favourable to the se¬
cretion of honey by the flowers ; the bees never collect
it in greater abundance, nor is the preparation of wax
ever more active, than when the wind is in the south,
the air humid and warm, and a storm gathering.
“ Heat too long continued, and the drought which is
the consequence of it, cold rains, and principally a
north wind, suspend it entirely.
“ Third Experiment. On the use which the bees
make of the fecundating powder. In the second ex¬
periment, the bees did not touch the pollen which I
had placed within their reach, and as its quantity was
not sensibly diminished during this trial, I was induced
to believe it was not an aliment proper for them.
“ I alsoknew that the new swarms were liable to perish
from hunger in the middle of summer, and even when
the country was covered with flowers, if a particular
temperature, which is too uncommon in our climate,
did not favour the secretion of honey in their nectaria.
What, therefore, is the use of the pollen they collect
with such avidity during eight months of the year, and
of which they lay up such abundance (a) ? This ques¬
tion remained to be investigated.
“ I had a hive in divisions, the queen of which was
barren ; its combs did not contain any pollen, but they
had much more honey \ the two narrowest sides of this
hive were formed of panes or glass, through which the
surfaces of the exterior combs might be seen, and the
conduct of the bees observed.
“ I took away the queen on the 16th of July 5 but to
console the working bees, I removed the first and
O L O G Y.
twelfth combs, in which there was not any thing to
interest them ; and I supplied their places with two
combs, the cells of which were filled with eggs and
worms of all ages. I carefully cut away all the cells
in which pollen could be perceived, and shut up the hive
with a grating. My intention will be guessed j I wished
to know whether these insects could support their young
without this fecundating powder. The next day nothing
extraordinary occurred } the bees sat on their eggs, and
seemed to nurse them.
“ On the 18th, after sunset, a great noise was heard
in the hive. Anxious to see what occasioned it, we open¬
ed the shutters, and observed that all was in confusion 5
the incubation was stopped5 the bees ran over the combs
in disorder j we saw thousands precipitate themselves on
the stand, those which were nearest to the mouth eager¬
ly gnawing the grating j their intention was no longer
doubtful, they wished to get out of their confinement.
“ I was fearful of destroying them by continuing to
prevent them from yielding to their instinct 5 they were
therefore set at liberty. The whole swarm came uut,
but the hour was unfavourable to their collecting : the
bees did not go far from the hive, the darkness and
the chilness of the air soon compelled them to return,
and probably calmed their agitation 5 for we saw them
quietly reascend their combs, and order appeared, to us,
to be re-established. This moment was taken to close
the hive again. On the 19th, we saw two royal cells
begun on one of the combs of the nursery : the even¬
ing of this day, and at the same hour as the day before,
we heard a great tumult in the closed hive j it was in a
general confusion, and we were again obliged to permit
the swarm to come out. The 20th was the fifth day of
their captivity. We thought it had been of sufficient
duration, and were also very impatient to examine the
nursery, and to see what was the cause of this periodical
agitation of these bees : Bunions therefore opened the
first and twelfth windows, and drove the bees from the
combs, suflering them to take their flight in a room, the
windows of which were shut. He first noticed that the
royal cells had not been continued, that they did not
contain any worm, and that there was not an atom of
the jelly which serves for the nourishment and the cra¬
dle of the larvae of the queens. He sought in vain for
eggs, for worms, and for the liquid in the common
ceils j all had disappeared. Had these worms died of
hunger ? Had we, by withdrawing the fecundating
powder, deprived the bees of every means of nourishing
the larvae ?
“ To ascertain this, it would be sufficient to restore
them their pollen, and observe the issue. I he bees
were, therefore, again returned to their prison, after
having substituted young worms for those which had
been suffered to die.
“ On the 22d, we found that the bees had fastened
these combs, and that they were again in a state of in¬
cubation ; we then gave them some pieces of combs in
which other bees had stored up the fecundating powder j
and
(a) Reaumur was of opinion that the bees of a well-stocked hive, might collect at least a hundrea pounds
of this substance in the course of a year j but having remarked that the weight ot wax, fabricated in the same
time, did not exceed two pounds, he concluded that the bees extract only a very small portion of the true wax
from this native wax, that the greatest part of it is required for their nourishment, and that the rest is dischaiged
from their bodies in the form of excrement.
2g6
ENTOMOLOGY.
and tlie better to observe what they did with it, we took
some of the pollen out of the cells, and laid it exposed
on the stand of the hive. In a few minutes, the bees
discovered the pollen in the combs, and that which we
had taken out; they took it grain by grain in their
jaws, and conveyed it into their mouths; those which
had eaten most voraciously reascended the combs, and
placed themselves, at first, upon the cells of the young
worms, which they entered head foremost, and remain'
ed there a greater or less length of time. One of the
windows of the hive was now opened cautiously, Bur¬
nous powdered the bees which ate the pollen, and
watched them for some hours j he observed that the
marked bees always reascended the nursery, and im¬
mediately entered the cells of the young bees.
“ The 23d, we found the royal cells begun.
“ The 24th, we drove the bees from off the young
worms *, and we remarked,
“ 1 st. That all of them had the jelly, as in the
common hives.
“ 2d. That the worms had grown larger, and were
forwarder in their cells.
“ ^d. That others had been shut up again : and,
“ 4U1. That the royal cells had been lengthened.
“ The 25th, we withdrew the pieces of comb which
we had placed on the stand, and found that the quan¬
tity of pollen was certainly diminished ; we afterwards
replaced them in the hive with other cells filled with
the fecundating powder.
“ The 26th, the royal cells had been dosed during
the night, as well as several of the common ones.
“ The 27th, I restored these bees to liberty. Bur-
nons examined the cells with the greatest attention, and
found jelly in all those which still contained worms,
but most of them were shut with a lid of wax : he ex¬
amined some of the latter, and found the worms em¬
ployed in spinning cocoons of silk.
“ All the worms therefore had been tended as in the
natural hive. In this second trial we did not perceive
any disorder in this hive ^ there had not been the least
agitation : it is true some of the working bees attempt¬
ed to go out in the course of the day ; but finding it im¬
possible, they reascended the combs quietly, which were
never left for an instant. The hive being abundantly
supplied with honey, and with the pollen necessary for
their young, left them nothing to wish for; and they
were still more happy when a queen was born, who af¬
terwards became pregnant, and laid a great number of
eggs. After these two experiments, there could be no
more doubt that the fecundating powder was the ali¬
ment proper for the young beo'i, and that the want ot
this substance was the cause ot their death, and of the
evident anguish of their nurses during their first cap¬
tivity.
FourthExperiment.—On bees deprived of honey and
pollen, and which it u'as attempted to feed with sugar.
I wished to know, if it was the saccharine part of the
honey which enabled the bees to produce wax. Bur-
nons confined a swarm in a glazed hive; one pound of
Canary sugar was their sole aliment. He put a second
swarm into another hive, and endeavoured to feed them
with very coarse raw sugar ; and to obtain a term of
comparison, a third swarm was shut up in the same man¬
ner, and fed with honey. The bees of the three swarms
produced wax; those fed with the different qualities of
1 4
Lfymenoptera, ify
sugar produced it sooner than the swarm which had on¬
ly had honey, and they produced a greater quantity,
A pound of Canary sugar reduced to syrup, and clari¬
fied with white of egg, yielded 10 gros, 52 grains, of a
wax not so white as that which the bees extract from
honey. An equal weight of raw sugar, gave 22 gros
of very white wax. Maple sugar produced the same
effect. This experiment having been repeated seven
times successively, always employing the same bees, we
could not doubt that sugar contains the principles of
wax ; and concluded that it was the saccharine part of
the honey which had this property.
“ Conclusion. These observations shew,
“ 1st. That the wax comes from the honey.
“ 2d. That the honey is also a food of the first ne¬
cessity to the bees.
“ 3d. That flowers do not always contain honey, and
that the secretion of honey depends in a great measure
on the state of the atmosphere.
“ 4th. That it is the saccharine part of the honey
which enables the bees to produce wax.
“ 3th. That raw sugar yields more wax than honey
or refined sugar.
“ 6th. That the dust of the stamina does not contain
the principles of wax.
“ 7th. That this dust is not the food of the adult bees,
and that they do not collect it for themselves.
“ 8th. That the pollen affords the only aliment which is
proper for their young ; but that this substance must un¬
dergo a peculiar elaboration in the stomachs of the bees,
to be converted into an aliment ; which is always ap¬
propriated to their sex, their age, and their wants ; since
the best microscopes do not shew the particles of pollen,
or their coverings in the liquor, prepared by the work¬
ing bees.”
Hairy, black ; wings of a violet colour. 38. A na- violace*.
tive of Europe, and of India. It pierces the trunks of
decayed trees, or posts, and forms longitudinal excava¬
tions, in which it constructs several nests ; having placed
one at the bottom of the hole, it deposits an egg in it,
fills it w'ith a mixture of honey and pollen ot flowers,
closes it up, and commences another; it proceeds in this
way till the cells occupy the whole length of the perfo¬
ration ; the eggs are so placed in the cells, that the
Lead of the larva points downwards towards the exit.
Humble-bee. Hairy, black; thorax marked with a terrestru.
yellow belt ; anus white. 41. A native of Europe.
It forms a nest at a considerable depth under ground,
and collects a good quantity of honey.
Hairy, black ; the anus of a tavvney colour. 44. A-ktpularia.
native of Europe ; in heaps of stones, or in old walls.
It collects a considerable quantity of honey.
Black ; slightly covered with reddish hairs ; abdomen^ratox.
smooth, marked with three bands, white above, and red¬
dish beneath. 147. A native of Europe. It somewhat
resembles A. mellifica, but less. It comes out very ear¬
ly in the sprink.
lidii
0ti
itfit
•|W
B. T/ie Tons;ue divided into three at the extremity.
Th; Lip furnished on each side with two membrana¬
ceous bristles. And rena?.
Abdomen brown, marked witli five whitish belts ; the bidentat^
anus furnished with two small projections. 136. A
native of America. It forms its nest in walls, of leaves
of
Eymenoptera.
:7iroa.
of trees neatly folded up } the fore legs are long and
yellow j the feet fringed.
Black 5 anus of a rusty colour. 137. A native of
Europe; in groves.
* * Lip without bristles, compressed, and entire ; pos¬
terior Feelers longue-shaped. Nomadae.
ttica. Covered with ash-coloured hairsj the abdomen smooth
and black j the second and third segments of the abdo¬
men of a rusty colour. 200. A native of Europe j
in groves.
nriegata. The thorax and abdomen variegated with white ; the
legs of a rusty colour. 24. A native of Europe. It
sleeps all night fixed to the flowers of the geranium
phcrum. The scutellum sometimes of a rusty colour,
and sometimes white ; the first and second segments of
the abdomen marked with two white spots j the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth, marked with four.
; snb. Very hairy, and black ; the jaws broad, and marked
on the outside with elevated lines, and rounded at the
points; wings of a reddish violet-colour. 214. A na¬
tive of the south of. America. One of the largest of
this genus.
92. Formica, Ant, or Emmet.
Feelers four, unequal, with cylindrical articulations,
placed at the tip of the lip, which is cylindrical, and
nearly membranaceous. Antennae filiform. A small
erect scale placed between the thorax and abdomen.
The females and neuters have a sting concealed with¬
in the abdomen. The males and females have wings ;
the neuters none.
This is a gregarious, and proverbially industrious fa¬
mily, consisting, like bees, of males, females, and neute rs.
The last are the well known little insects, who construct
the nests or ant-hills, who labour with such unremitting
assiduity for the support of themselves and the idle
males and females, and who guard with such ferocity
the larvae, or what are commonly called ant eggs.
They wander about all day in search of food or materials
for the nest, and assist each other in bringing home what
is too cumbersome for such as have attempted it. They
every day bring out of the nest, and expose to the warmth
of the sun, the new hatched larvae, and feed them till
they are able to provide for themselves. In the evening
they consume together whatever has been collected du¬
ring the day, and do not, as is commonly supposed, lay
up any store for the winter, but probably become torpid
or die. They are peculiarly fond of aphides, and are
themselves eagerly sought after by the ant-eaters, and
various birds. The puncture inflicted by their sting,
occasions a hot painful itching sensation. They con¬
tain a peculiar acid. See Chemistry Index,
yercula- Black ; the abdomen oval ; legs of a rusty colour.
1. A native of Europe, and America; lodge in the
trunks of decayed trees.
v ticci. Of a rusty colour; the abdomen oval and black. 23.
A native of Europe ; runs very quickly ; the tip of the
jaws black ; the abdomen smooth.
V®1 Black; the thorax compressed; the legs of a rusty
colour. 3. A native of Europe ; it lodges in sandy
hills, in woods ; it is large, and has no sting.
ENTOMOLOGY.
207
Black; the mouth, the tip of the thorax, and legs,
of a rusty colour. 4* -A- native of Europe; in woods.
Of a brick colour ; eyes black ; a black dot under * rubra.
the abdomen. 7. A native of Europe. It lodges
under stones in woods. They inflict a very painful
puncture.
Black ; two knots on the filament which connects the * ceespi-
abdomen to the trunk ; the scutellum furnished with turn.
two small projections. 11. A native of Europe; in
dry meadows, under moss. The males and females, in
the month of August, leave their nest about mid-day,
when the weather is serene, and fly about in the air.
The abdomen oval.
1 he thorax marked with raised dots; the filamentow/f/twa.
which joins the abdomen to the thorax is furnished with
two knots ; the body of a brick colour; the abdomen
small. 12. A native of America. It is very destruc¬
tive to all sorts of provisions. Small. The abdomen
brown, covered with white hairs scarcely perceptible.
Black ; abdomen oval and hairy. 50. A native oivaga.
Europe; on decayed trees. It gnaws holes in the wood
under the bark, and forms a number of passages for
itself.
Black, smooth ; the scale placed between the thorax glabra.
and abdomen, furnished with two small projections ; the
divisions between the segments of the abdomen whitish ;
legs reddish. 53. A native of Europe.
55 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature-
93. Mu TELL A.
Mouth formed of a substance like horn ; without a
tongue. Jaw membranaceous at the tip. Lip pro¬
jecting, resembling an inverted cone ; at the extre¬
mity of which are placed four unequal feelers, with
conical articulations. Antennae filiform. Wings
wanting in most species. Body downy. The pos¬
terior part of the thorax turned back. The sting is
pungent, and concealed within the abdomen.
Scarlet; the abdomen marked with a black belt, l.occidenta-
A native of Europe. The antennae, eyes, legs, and Ay.
under part of the body black ; the sting long and fili¬
form.
Black ; the base of the abdomen marked with two diademu.
yellow dots ; the middle with an interrupted yellow
streak; the extremity with a small white line. 10. A
native of South America. Large ; the lower part of
the head marked with a white band ; tbe thorax mark¬
ed with two white lines, and with white on the infe¬
rior part.
Bluish; the abdomen marked with a large golden-owroto.
coloured spot. 13. A native of New Holland.
Black; the thorax reddish; the edges of the seg-* evroptea
ments of the abdomen white. 4. A native of Europe;
in woods of maple.
Hairy, black ; the thorax reddish ; the abdomen halenris.
marked with two white dots, and with a white band
on the posterior part. 15. A native of Europe ; tbe
upper part of the shanks brown.
27 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature, published by
Gaiolia,
YL
208
* bo vis.
ENTOMOLOGY. Diptera,
in the sack, and to crawl out of it when about to change
VI. diptera.
WiNGS two. Poisers clavated 5 one placed behind
each wing under a little scale.
94. Oestrus. Gad-fiy, Breeze.
A sucker drawn back within the lips, which are con¬
nected, and furnished with a small pore. Feelers
two, of two articulations, orbicular at the tip, and
seated in a depression on each side ot the mouth.
Antennae short and setaceous.
The face of this singular genus is broad and depress¬
ed, and has some resemblance to the ape. They are.
extremely troublesome to horses, sheep, and cattle, de¬
positing their eggs in different parts of their bodies, and
occasioning painful tumours, and even death. The larva
is without feet, thick, short, soft, and composed of se¬
veral segments ; they are sometimes furnished with
hooks. They lurk within the bodies, or under the skin,
of horses, oxen, &c. and feed on their juices during
the winter. The pupa is without feet, oval, and in¬
capable of motion, covered with a hard light brown
crust. The perfect insect lives but for a short time.
Wings brown, without spots : the abdomen black,
white at the base, and of a tawney colour at the ex¬
tremity. I. A native of Europe. It deposits its
eggs on the backs of oxen, and lodges them under
the skin. The larva, when young, is smooth, white,
and transparent; as it advances in age, it becomes
brownish, and when full grown and ready to be
changed into a pupa, it acquires a dark-hrown colour.
It is lodged in a sack formed in the cellular substance
immediately under the skin, and occasions a very con¬
siderable tumour on the back 0! the animal. Ihe sack
communicates with the air by a very narrow opening,
next to which the anus of the animal is placed. Through
the anus a yellow purulent matter is discharged j and
near the anus are situated two spiracula. There is a
Small indentation on the opposite extremity of the lar¬
va, which is situated at the bottom of the sack, sur¬
rounded by two or three papilloe, which forms the mouth.
It has a number of dots on its surface, disposed in
transverse interrupted lines. 'I wo distinct and differ¬
ent kinds of lines are seen on each segment •, the upper¬
most of them is narrower, and consists of larger dots.
Underneath this is a broader line, and the dots consi¬
derably smaller. The first are easily seen, by using
the lens, to be hooks bent upwards, or towards the tail
of the insect. On examining the broader line of small
dots, with a tolerably powerful magnifier, they are also
found to be hooks, but turned in an opposite direction,
that is, downwards in the sack, and towards the head
of the insect. These hooks, it is probable, are occa¬
sionally erected by the muscles of the skin ; and ac¬
cording to the series of them used by the larva, it is
raised or depressed in the sack ; and by this motion,
and consequent irritation, a more or less copious secre¬
tion of pus is occasioned for its sustenance.
This singular arrangement of hooks round the body
of the larvae, in this instance, serves the same purpose
as the legs in other larvae, enabling them to move about
into pupae. ...
Thev never change .heir skin like most other larvae,
the same serving them through their growth ; and it at
length also serves to form the shell of the pupa. After
leaving the sack, and previous to their becoming pupae,
they contract themselves, and assume a different figure.
They continue in the state of pupae from about the
latter end of June until about the middle of August,
when the fly appears. Full grown larvae are sometimes
to be met with on the backs of cows in the month of
September, which probably remain in the state of pupae
till the ensuing spring. The perfect insect, on leaving
the hard crust which surrounds it, forces open a very
remarkable, marginated, triangular valve, which may
be traced in the skin of the larvae, and is situated on
one side of the smaller end.
The oestrus bovis, in its perfect state, is the largest
of the European species of this genus, and is very beau-
tiful.
The pain it inflicts in depositing its eggs is much
more severe than any of the other species. When one
of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is easily known
by the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd :
the unfortunate object of attack runs bellowing from
among them to some distant part of the field, or the
nearest water, while the tail, from the severity of the
pain, is held, with a tremulous motion, straight from
the body, in the direction of the spine ; and the head
and neck are also stretched out to the utmost.. The
rest, from fear, generally follow to the water, or disperse
to different parts of the field. When the oxen are.
yoked to the plough, the attack of this fly is attended
with real danger, as they become perfectly uncontroul-
able, and will often run with the plough directly for¬
wards, through the hedges, or whatever obstructs their
wav. There is provided, on this account, a contrivance
in many ploughs, to set them immediately at liberty.
The "strongest and healthiest beasts seem constantly
to be preferred by it, and commonly have the greatest
number of bolts, wormuls, or warbles, on their backs ;
dealers are frequently guided in their choice of cattle
by this circumstance. The female fly is very quick in
performing the operation of depositing her eggs:, she
does not appear to remain on the back of the animal
more than a few seconds.
Gray, marked with a white band, and dotted with buccalnu
black.' 6. A native of Carolina.
Black, hairy ; wings of a sooty colour •, their outer frow/tf.
edge bright black *, head, thorax, scutellum, and anus,
grayish-yellow. 7. A native of Lapland. The larvae
occupy the frontal sinus of the rein-deer j the animal
sometimes in the spring, forces out great clusters of
larvae by sneezing. This is the largest species of the
genus.
Wings without spots; the thorax yellow, marked
with a black hand ; the abdomen tawney, and bright
yellow at the extremity. 2. A native of Lapland. It
deposits its eggs on the back of the rein-deer. Such is
their dread of it, that they every year leave the woods,
and take refuge in the mountains. A very great pro¬
portion of them fall victims to this insect, before they
are three, years old. Those who escape with life are
verv much"emaciated, and have their skins spoiled.
Bolts.
2-9
:>iptera. E N T O M
Botls. Wings whitisli, marked with a black band in
the middle, and two black dots. A native of Europe.
{Vide Transactions of the Linnsean Society, vol. iii.
p. Tb6 forehead white and downy j top of the
head brown $ the eyes black, and distant from one ano¬
ther ; thorax brown, with a dark-coloured centre ; the
abdomen yellowish brown, the divisions between the
segments of the abdomen marked with black spots and
dots; the scutellum furnished with two tufts of hair;
wings marked near the base with a very small black
dot, in the middle with a black band, and towards the
extremity with two black spots. The male is distin¬
guished by a brighter yellow; the female by a deeper
brown, and by the extremity of the abdomen, which is
long, bent inwards, and black, terminating in a bifid style.
It deposits its eggs on the hairs of the knees or sides of
horses, which, when the animal licks itself, are con¬
veyed by the tongue into the stomach. The body of
the larva is composed of eleven segments, all of which,
except the two last, are surrounded with a double row
of horny bristles directed towards the truncated end,
and are of a reddish colour except the points, which are
black. Hrese larvae attach themselves to every part of
the stomach, but are generally most numerous about
the pylorus; and are sometimes, though much less fre¬
quently, found in the intestines. Their numbers in the
stomach, are very various, often not more than half a
dozen; at other times more than an hundred ; and if some
accounts might be relied on, even a much greater
number than this. They hang most commonly in
clusters, being fixed by the small end to the inner mem¬
brane of the stomach, to which they adhere by means
of two small hooks or tentacula. When they are re¬
moved from the stomach they will attach themselves to
any loose membrane, and even to the skin of the hand.
For this purpose they sheath or draw back the hooks
almost entirely within the skin, till the two points come
close to each other ; they then present them to the
membrane ; and keeping them parallel till it is pierced
through, they expand them in a lateral direction, and
afterwards, by bringing the points downwards towards
themselves, they include a sufficient piece of the mem¬
brane, and remain firmly fixed for any length of time.
These hooks, the better to adapt them to this purpose,
appear to have a joint near their base.
The larvee attain their full growth about the latter
end of May, when they quit their hold of the internal
membrane of the stomach, and pass along with the
food through the intestinal canal. From the end of
May till the beginning of July they may be seen in the
dung which drops from the horse; when they reach'
the ground they seek out some convenient situation, and
become pupae, and remain in that state for about six
or seven weeks. The mode pursued by the perfect in¬
sect to obtain for its young a situation in the stomach of
the herse, is truly singular, and is effected in the fol¬
lowing manner.—When the female has been impreg¬
nated, and the eggs are sufficiently matured, she seeks
among the horses a subject for her purpose; approach¬
ing it on the wing, she holds her body nearly upright
in the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for the
purpose, curved inwards and upwards: in this way she
approaches the part where she designs to deposit the
egg ; and suspending herself for a few seconds before it,
Fol, Vfll. Bart E f
O L O G Y.
suddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to
the hair; she hardly appears to settle, but merely
touch the hair with the egg held out on the projected
point of the abdomen. The egg is made to adhere by
means of a glutinous liquor secreted with it. She then
leaves the horse at a small distance, and prepares a se¬
cond egg, and poising herself before the part, deposits it
in the same way. The liquor dries, and the egg be¬
comes firmly glued to the hair: this is repeated by va¬
rious flies till 400 or 500 eggs are placed sometimes on
one horse.
, I he inside of the knee, or those parts of the body of
the animal that are liable to be licked, are chosen bv
the fly from instinct, as the proper places for depositing
its eggs. The well-known disease in horses called the
bolts,' which frequently proves fatal, is supposed to be
occasioned by the larvae of this insect.
Wings without spots ; the thorax of a rusty colour; nasalis.
abdomen black, covered with yellow hairs. 3. A native
of Europe. This insect is said to deposit its eggs in the
nostrils of horses, mules, asses, and of goats; and the
larvae occupy the fauces. Body black ; thorax desti¬
tute of furrow's; the head and abdomen covered with
yellow hairs, except the first segment, which is covered
with white ones.
Thorax yellow, marked with a black band; vi\x\g&* hcemor-
white, marked with black bands. 4. A native of £u- rhoidalis.
rope. It deposits its eggs on the lips of horses, occa¬
sioning a titillation, which causes the animal, when at¬
tacked by it, to move his head about violently, and
gallop about with every appearance of distress. The
larva of this insect needs not to he particularly described,
as it resembles in almost every respect that of the equi.
Its habits are the same, being seen in the stomach of the
horses, occupying the same situation as those of the equi,
from which they can only be distinguished by their
smaller size and greater whiteness. When it approaches
maturity it acquires a red colour. It is frequently seen
adhering to the extremity of the rectum; which cir¬
cumstance, along with its colour, has occasioned it to
receive the name of lueinorrhoidalis. In about two days
after it has left the body of the horse, it is changed in¬
to a pupa, in which state it remains nearly two months.
Wings faintly dotted; the abdomen variegated with* ovis.
white and black. 5. A native of Europe. The larva
occupies the frontal sinus of the sheep; they are flai
on the one side ; and convex on the other; of a whitish
colour; and nearly of the same size with the larvae of
the 0. equi. When young these larvae are perfectly
white and transparent, except the two horny plates,
which are black. As they increase in size, the upper
side becomes marked with two transverse brown lines on
each- segment, and some spots are seen on the sides.
When full grown they fall through the nostrils, and
change to the pupa state, lying on the earth. The in¬
sect deposits its eggs on the inner margin of the nostrils
of the sheep. The moment the fly touches that part of
the sheep, they shake their heads, and strike the ground
violently with their fore feet; at the same time hold¬
ing their noses close to the earth, they rnn away, look¬
ing about them, on every side, to see if the fly pursue.
They do not, like the horses and cows, take refuge in
the water; they have recourse to a rut, or dusty road,
or a gravel pit, where they crowd together during the
•D d heat
210
ENTOMOLOGY.
heat of the ilay, with their noses helil close to the
ground, which renders it difficult for the fly convenient¬
ly to get at the nostril.
untilopce. Wings dotted with brown, and marked with a brown
band ; body hairy, of a grayish yellow colour j the ab¬
domen marked with three rows of blackish spots. 8.
A native of Asia. It deposits its eggs under the skin
of the back of the antelope. About the size of the
mvsca carnaria.
fasiiculo- Yellow and downy ; the anus furnished with three
siis. tufts of black hairs. 9. A native of Siberia ; head
and eyes black.
hominis. Entirely brown. 10. A native of South America.
Deposits its eggs under the skin of the abdomen of the
natives, or of people residing in countries where they are
prevalent. The larvae continue six months under the
skin ; if they be disturbed, they penetrate deeper, and
produce very troublesome ulcers which sometimes prove
fatal.
10 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
95. Tipula, Crane-fly.
Mouth furnished with a very short proboscis, membra¬
naceous, and grooved on the back, receiving a
bristle •, with a short sucker without a sheath ; and
with feelers two, equal, filiform, and longer than the
head. Antennae in most of the species filiform.
Most of this genus have a great resemblance to the
vnat. They feed on various substances. The larva is
soft, without feet, and cylindrical ; its head is furnished
with a small projection, and terminates abruptly j they
feed on the roots of plants; they are eagerly sought
after by crows and other birds. The pupa is cylindri¬
cal, and is furnished with two horns on the anterior ex¬
tremity, writh small projections behind.
Djptera.
Wings transparent and shining ; body of a brownish * regela.
ash colour. 21. A native of Europe. This species
appears very early in the spring; and may be seen dan¬
cing in the air in great numbers in mild weather.
B. IFings incumbent. Culiciformes.
Thorax greenish ; wings white, marked with a black *plumosa,
dot j the antennse feathered. 26. A native of Europe j
in marshy places.
Greenish j wings spotted', the forelegs very long.
27. A native of Europe ; on the sea coast.
Black, smooth ; wings white, marked with a blackyoAnwaff.
dot j the antennm short 5 legs black. 41. A native of
Europe in shaded places.
Black, smooth-, wings. transparent, marked with a.* pcmona,
black dot j the thighs of a rusty colour. 101. A na¬
tive of Britain, and Norway j on the flowers of fruit
trees.
Black, silky. 45. A native of Europe; on theflorilega.
flowers of fruit trees, which it injures very much. It
frequently blasts the hopes of the farmer.
Wings transparent ; the outer edge black. 46. A * hortuk-
native of Europe. It is very destructive to asparagus, «o.
and to the flowers of fruit trees. 'I he thorax and ab¬
domen sometimes black, sometimes red.
Wings of an ash colour; the thorax and abdomen
yellow. 123. A native of Chili. This insect has ^.fera.
very pleasant smell, and is made use of by the young
girls of Chili for perfuming their clothes.
Of a tawney colour ; wings white and transparent,* tritki.
hairy on the margins ; the eyes black. A native of
England. Larva leaps; without feet; is orange-colour¬
ed, and marginated; the margin folded with papillae ;
the head acute ; the tail terminating abruptly. The
pupa is narrow, acute at both ends, and reddish.
126 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
* pectini-
cornis.
/tor to-
A. Wings expanded.
The antennae pectinated ; the wings marked with a
black spot; the thorax yellowish. 1. A native of
Europe ; in moist places. The abdomen reddish at
the base, marked with a yellow band in the middle,
black at the tip.
* oleracea. Wings transparent, with a brown nb along the edge.
5. A native of Europe. It does a great deal of mis¬
chief in gardens, corn fields, and meadows, by consum¬
ing the roots of pot-herbs, growing corn, and grass.
Wings transparent, sprinkled with very faint spots. 6.
X native of Europe ; in gardens, destroying the crops.
trianeu- One half of the wings brown, marked with white
laris. triangular spots, m. A native of Scotland.
* rarie- Black ; the base and sides of the abdomen red, spot-
gata. " ted with yellow. 7. A native of Europe ; in gar-
*pratensis The thorax variegated ; abdomen brown, spotted
1 with yellow on the sides; the forehead tawney. 10.
A native of Europe ; in meadows. It is very de¬
structive to the roots of grass.
Wings transparent, marked on the edge with a brown
spot ; the abdomen yellow, marked with three brown
lines. 12. A native of Europe. Very destructive to
the roots of plants, and much sought after by crows.
rum.
*
eornicina.
96. Diopsis.
The head furnished with two filiform horns, without
articulations, much longer than the head, on the tops
of which the eyes are placed.
I. A native of North America and Guinea. Red-
dish ; antennse very small and setaceous ; the horns ofnea.
a rusty colour ; the eyes which terminate tlm horns are
globular and black ; the thorax black; furnished with
two yellow tapering projections behind, and with a
single one on each side ; wings transparent, and marked
with a black dot before ; the abdomen clavated, and
attached to the trunk by a narrow stalk : the two last
segments of the abdomen black ; the legs yellow' ; the
thighs of the legs clavated. It resembles an ichneumon^
and is about the size of the red ant.
Only one species of this genus has been described
in the last edition of the System of Nature.
97. Musca, Fly.
Mouth furnished with a fleshy projecting proboscis, with
two equal lips, with a sucker furnished with bristles,
and with two short feelers. Antennse short (in most
species).
Elies live chiefly in dunghills ; their larvse are without
/ feet,
21 I
i. E N T O M
feet, composed of several segments, nearly cylindrical,
and becoming smaller behind. The larvae of the flies
of the first and second divisions, live in the water, have
a breathing hole at their head, are bearded, and live
on aquatic animalculae j those of the fourth division live
on rubbish j those of the third on dung, putrid animal
substances, and on small insects ; some of them parti¬
cularly on aphides : they remain fixed on a leaf, and
with their snout collect and devour the aphides. The
pupce are immoveable, and most of them covered with
a hard skin j the pupae of the flies of the first and se¬
cond divisions are cylindrical, and covered with the skin
of the larvae, which becomes hard.
A. The Sucker composed of a single valve; the An¬
tenna; connected at the bases, and sharp at the points.
Bibiones.
*Ylebeja. Of an ash colour, and hairy ; the abdomen conical ;
the edges of the segments white. I. A native of the
north of Europe. The thorax is sometimes yellow, and
abdomen of a rusty colour.
^targi- Black j the abdomen conical •, the edges of the seg-
«»?. ments white; the wings spotted. 130. A native of
Europe.
O L O G Y.
169. A native of Europe. The sides of the lips of a
shining silver colour.
Shining ; the thorax blue ; the abdomen green. 65-, * cadave-
A native of Europe ; on carrion. rina.
The thorax black’; the abdomen shining blue; the* vomito-
forehead tawney. 67. A native of Europe and Ame-rr’a.
rica ; on carrion ; they consume dead bodies very quick¬
ly ; they likewise feed on milk.
Black; the thorax marked with pale lines ; the carnaria
domen shining, and chequered. 68. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on carrion. The eyes reddish ; the anus tawney.
The larvae likewise infest bee-hives.
Common house-fly. The thorax marked with lines ; * domesti-
the abdomen chequered, and pale on the under side at cm
the base. 69. A native of Europe and America ; in
houses. The larvae live in horse dung.
Brown ; the thorax blue and downy, marked witholea;.
three eminences ; the tip of the scutellum and thighs
yellow. 390. A native of Europe ; very destructive
to olives. The female deposits a great number of eggs
in the month of July, on the fruit of the olive ; the lar¬
vae consume the pulp.
** The Antenna furnished with a naked bristle.
B. Sucker without a sheath.
a. Those which have a single bristle.
f The Antenna pointed and connected at the base.
Stratiomyes.
* \amce' The scutellum pale yellow, and furnished with two
It , small projections; the abdomen black, marked on the
sides with yellow bands. 3. A native of Europe ; on
flowers. The larva lives in fresh water.
mimosa. Body black ; the scutellum without projections ; the
abdomen white, and black at the extremity. 22. A
native of Europe. The forehead yellow ; the joints of
the legs white ; the shanks of the legs pale.
\yllciia. The scutellum marked with six projections; the ab¬
domen and thighs yellow. 166. A native of Britain ;
on hedges. Wings of a faint rusty colour ; incumbent
and plain ; the nerves of the wings marked with a
brown dot in the middle ; the poisers yellow; the feet,
and lower extremity of the shanks of the legs, brown.
m Orea, Black; antennse cylindrical and perfoliated ; wings
white. 24. A native of Europe ; on the flowers of
apple trees. It drinks the nectarious juice, and lodges
all day long within the flower; it is very small, and not
larger than a common flea; body oblong; legs long.
ft The Antenrue short and educated, furnished with a
bristle.
* Feathery, or with hairy feathered Antenna.
* jiawV, Brown; the abdomen transparent, marked with three
black belts. 61. A native of Europe ; in thickets.
*plucens Black ; the first segment of the abdomen white, and
transparent. 62. A native of Europe ; in shaded
places.
* war. Shining green; legs black. 64. A native of Eu¬
rope ; on carrion.
w'ema. Thorax of a shining copper colour; the abdomen of
a greenish yellow with a metallic lustre; legs black.
Smooth, black; the abdomen wrinkled on the uyyzvfenestrala.
side, marked with white steaks; wings brown. 14. A
native of Europe ; in windows.
Blackish ; the tip of the scutellum of a faint brick* larva-
colour; the abdomen chequered. 78. A native oirum.
Europe ; on the caterpillars of moths and butterflies,
and likewise on the roots of cabbage and colewort, ren¬
dering the root knotty; the tips and base whitish ; tho¬
rax black, marked with lines.
Black; the abdomen of an ash-colour, marked with* radkutn
black bands. 79. A native of Europe ; on the roots
of the radish.
Hairy and whitish, marked with a black line on \A\znapobras-
back, with several black lines along the sides. 208.
A native of Europe ; on the roots of the turnip, which
it destroys, and causes to appear as if rotten ; it attacks
those turnips chiefly that have been sown in light sandy
soil. The larva is white, without feet; the head is
pointed and tipt with black; it undergoes its transfor¬
mation about September. Pupa is oblong, brown, com¬
posed of several segments, and becomes a perfect insect
in May.
Of an ash colour; the thorax marked with five black^/wtua/A.
spots ; the abdomen marked with very faint spots. 83.
A native of Europe. It is to be seen flying about in
swarms before rain.
Hairy and ash-coloured ; the extremity of the thighs * rapax.
and shanks of the legs of a rusty colour. 212. A na¬
tive of Britain ; and feeds on other flies.
Black; the abdomen pale; the eyes of a rusty co-* ceZ/wm.
lour. 87. A native of Europe ; in cellars.
Black; the abdomen of an ash-co!our; the w'mgs* mettori-
yellowish at the base. 88. A native of Europe.ca.
They fly about very much in the air immediately before
rain, and collect about the mouths of horses in great
swarms, particularly about the summer solstice. The
larvge are sometimes found in the human stomach.
Shining black, eyes brownish; wings shining re&avena,
and green, 216. A native of Europe; in oats, which it
D d 2 destroys
212
E N T O M
destroys by gnawing tlie stalks when young. Larva
yellowish and without feet.
* frit. Black j the poisers and feet ot the hind legs, and ab¬
domen, pale green, po. A native of Lurope } on the
ears of barley. It is so frequent in Sweden, that it has
* been calculated that one-tenth of the grain is consumed
by it annually.
*p'Wiilio- Black ; the under part of the head, and two lines on
nis. the thorax, yellow \ the poisers white 5 the legs of ^an
ash-colour, and black at the tip. 217. A native of Eu¬
rope. The larva has a sharp head, black at the extre¬
mity 5 the body white, composed of ten segments ; it is
changed into a pupa about the end of May. I he pupa
is yellow, shining, and composed of several segments j
the perfect insect appears about the middle of June.
At what time it deposits its eggs is not well ascertain¬
ed. The larvae are perceived early in the spring, in
the centre of the stalks of wheat and rye, very near the
root. In all probability the eggs have been deposited
in the month of October, or end of September, as the
early sown grain is found to be most affected. MHute
wheat is more liable to be injured than red. The stalks
in which the larva is lodged, do not advance in growth,
hut continue dwarf, whence the insect has received the
name of pumilionis. The stalks become yellow in the
beginning of summer, and decay } others commonly
spring up from the same root, and supply their place.
This insect first attracted notice in England in the spring
of the year I79i> when it excited some alarm, as fears
were at first entertained that it wras the Hessian fly,
which had done so much mischief in America. Some
plants of infected wheat were sent to Mr Markwick by
a friend in the neighbourhood of Battle. Mr Mark-
W'iek succeeded in obtaining the perfect insect fiom
them, of which he has given an account, {f ide Trans¬
actions of the Linnean Society, p. >]6. tab. 15O Some
of the infected wheat was likewise sent by Arthur
Young to Sir Joseph Banks, who ascertained the insect
to be the musca pumilionis described in Gmelin’s Sys¬
tem of Nature, and not the Hessian fly. An account
of this fly, and pf the mischief caused by it, was first
published in the Transactions of the Royal Academy ot
Sciences at Stockholm for the year 177^)
Bje.rkander, who discovered it on the young shoots of
the rye, in the month of May } and in such quantity,
that in some fields he found three or four stalks affect¬
ed in a square foot.
pctronclla. Livid 5 the forehead red *, the legs long, and of a
light red colour ; the joints of the legs black. 96. A
native of Europe. It may be seen running about on
the surface of stagnant water.
sonc/ii. Wings transparent, marked on the edge with a blacic
spot •, the eyes green. 121. A native of Europe *, on
the receptacles of the flower of the sow-thistle. 1 borax
brown, with a pale scutellum •, the abdomen black, oval,
and greenish beneath ; the edges of the segments whit¬
ish ; tail with an obtuse style ; wings with trvo brown
nerves j legs of a brick colour.
O L O G Y.
Sucker furnished with three bristles. Ragiones.
Diptera
Black 5 the divisions between the segments of the Colombo,'
abdomen, the shanks of the legs, and feet white. 324. schcnsis.
A native of Europe and Asia. It is about half the size
of the common gnat, and is most frequent in the begin¬
ning of spring and end of summer, in Servia, Russia, and
Siberia, where it insinuates itself into the bodies of cat¬
tle, which it frequently destroys, as its bite proves fa¬
tal in a few hours. Smoke is very offensive to it $ and
in the places where it prevails the people have recourse
to it, as their only mode of defence.
Antennae, body, and wings hairy. 3^5' papatasu
of Europe. It is very troublesome in Lombardy in the
night time, during the whole summer. It is very mi¬
nute j eyes black, dotted with white j the wings, when
the insect is at rest, diverge so as to form an obtuse
angle ; the abdomen red.
Black j the abdomen long, slender, and tapering to- acununat
wards the extremity 5 the wings spotted, the thighs
reddish yellow \ the shanks of the legs and feet brown¬
ish. 226. A native of Europe.
c. The Sucker furnished with four bristles. Syrphi.
|| Bristle of the Antennae feathery.
Black ; the abdomen hairy, and reddish behind. 25. * bomly-
A native of Europe } among bushes. Ians.
The anterior part of the thorax yellow 5 the extre- * apiana,
mity of the abdomen white ; the wings of a rusty co¬
lour at the tip. 528. A native of Europe *, the pos¬
terior part of the thorax, the forehead, and abdomen
black } wings obscure.
|] The Bristle of the Antenna simple and smooth.
vermilioi Of an ash-colour *, the abdomen marked with three
rows of black dots ; the thorax spotted j the wings
without spots. 17. A native of Europe j in loose
sand.
Black, without hairs, the sides of the thorax marked conopsea.
with yellow lines, the abdomen with three yellow lines.
21. A native of Europe ; among bushes.
The thorax marked with four yellow lines ; the ;i\h\o-* pendula
men with three interrupted yellow bands. 28. A na¬
tive of Europe. The larva lies in stagnant water, and
is suspended by a long filiform tube through which it
breathes.
Thorax gray j the abdomen brown 5 the thighs o[*tenax.
the hind legs compressed. $2. A native of Euio^pe j
in dunghills, in necessaries, and in putrid water. The
larva is very tenacious, and difficultly destroyed by
pressure.
Very slightly hairy, black ; tbe thorax without spots pyrastn
the abdomen marked with six white circular spots. 51.
A native of Europe j and feeds on the aphides on the
leaves of the pear tree.
Black ; not hairy j the thorax spotted ; the abdomen *mertMS
marked with four yellow belts, the scutellum yellow, tri.
54. A native of Europe ; on flowers, chiefly on tbe
mint. The perfect insect feeds on honey, the larva on
aphides.
Faked; yellow; the upper part of the abdomen .w/taZrtf-
brown ; the thorax marked with three brown lines.
60. A native of Europe ; in meadows, where it leaps
about on the ground like a grasliopper ; the longitudinal
line on the thorax, somewhat broad, marked with an
oblong black spot, and with a black line on each side
towards its extremity ; poisers white.
36°
1
i
213
ENTOMOLOGY.
')iptera.
360 species of tills genus have been described In the
last edition of the System of Nature, published by
Gmelin,
98. Tabanus, Ox-fnj.
Mouth furnished with a straight, projecting, and mem¬
branaceous proboscis ; with a small and oval head j
with two equal lipsj with along projecting sucker,
which can he concealed in a groove on the back of
the proboscis. Sheath of one valve, and furnished
with five bristles. Feelers two, equal, clavated, and
sharp at the points. Antennae short, cylindrical, ap¬
proaching to one another, pointed, and composed of
seven articulations.
These insects live by sucking out the blood of various
animals, of which they are very greedy. The larvte
are found under ground, in moist meadows : the colour
of the eyes vanishes when the insect is dead, but may be
restored by placing it in warm water.
bovimis. Eyes greenish ; the back of the abdomen marked
with long triangular white spots. 4. A native of Eu¬
rope. It is very troublesome to horses, and horned cat¬
tle j their bite is painful; they even molest the human
species in very warm rveather j they are most frequent
in moist situations,
Vu'Cindi- Eyes green *, the segments of the abdomen yellow
on the edges : legs reddish. 7. A native of Europe.
They Wound the tender horns of the rein-deer, and spoil
their shape ; they are met with in Italy, and the south¬
ern parts of Europe, as well as in Lapland.
mucens. Black •, eyes marked with hands ; first segment of the
abdomen bluish j the shanks of the legs pale.
oagantis The anterior parts of the eyes green, marked with
three tawney bands ; the abdomen marked on both sides
with rusty-coloured spots. 25. A native of Britain.
'tropicus. Eyes marked with three purple bands ; the sides of
the abdomen of a rusty colour. 14. A native of Eu¬
rope } very troublesome to cattle, especially to horses,
immediately before rain.
I wltivialis Eyes green, marked with four waved bands 5 wings
dotted with brown. 16. A native of Europe—This
little animal fixes on the hands, face, and legs, and
excites a painful inflammation in the part where it has
drawn blood.
8 ca-culi. Eyes green, dotted with black j wings without spots,
k 17. A native of Europe. It is extremely trouble¬
some in hot weather, especially before rain, fixing on
the hands and face, or any uncovered part •, it draws
blood very dexterously, and leaves an inflamed bloody
puncture behind.
38 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature published by
Gmelin.
99. Culex, Gtiat.
Mouth furnished with a sheath of one piece, flexible,
and set with five bristles. Feelers two, composed of
three articulations. Antennae filiform.
The insects of this genus live on the juices of the
larger animals, and are eagerly sought after by poultry,
and small birds. The larva lives in stagnant waters, and
has a small cylindrical respiratorytube, near the tail j the
head is armed with hooks to seize on the aquatic insects
upon which it feeds j it is devoured by ducks, and wa¬
ter fowl. The pupa is curved and oval, with respira¬
tory tubes near the head. They continue but a short
time in the state of larva and pupa. The perfect insect
deposits her eggs in clust'ers on the surface of the water,
where they remain for a few days until they are hatch¬
ed. Gnats in this country, however troublesome they
may be, do not make us feel them so severely, as the
musquito does in foreign parts.
Of an ash colour; the abdomen marked with eight * p/pietis.
brown rings. 1. A native of Europe, and the north¬
ern parts of Asia and America ; in the neighbourhood
of fresh waters, and in marshy places. It is larger in
more southerly climates, and its bite occasions more
pain and inflammation. When on the wing it makes a
constant shrill noise, whence it has received its name
pipiens. The male is not easily distinguished from the
female by its pectinate antennas : it is more trouble¬
some, and its bite more painful, than that of the female.
Ducks, and other aquatic fowls, feed their young with
them ; difterent species of the libellula likewise devour
them. They sometimes insinuate themselves into the
lungs and intestines of quadrupeds, where their bite ex¬
cites a fatal inflammation. The natives of countries
where they are very troublesome, have recourse to the
smoke of different vegetables as a defence. In warm cli¬
mates they are frequently compelled to make use of
gauze curtains, which they draw close round them when
asleep. They are said to shine in the dark.
Brown; the abdomen and feet marked with whiteawnw/afk?.
rings ; the wings spotted. 8. A native of the north
of Europe ; the snout half the length of the body.
Brown ; the thorax faintly marked with lines. 3. * hijurca-
A native of Europe ; in marshy situations. tus.
Brown; wings white, marked with three obscure*^Jz///cr/n’s
spots. 10. A native of Europe ; it creeps about a
great deal ; its bite is succeeded by a brown spot.
13 species of this genus have been described by Gme¬
lin, in the last edition of the System of Nature.
ioo. Empis.
Sucker with a sheath of one piece, furnished with three
bristles, and an inflected proboscis. Feelers short,
and filiform. Antennae setaceous.
The minute insects which compose this genus, live
by sucking out the blood and juices of other animals.
Black; wings nearly round, and of a rusty colour. * borealis.
1. A native of Europe; they may be seen dancing in
the air in great numbers in the evening when the wea¬
ther is good.
Black; the hind legs long and feathered. 2. A* pennipes
native of Europe ; it is frequently found on the leaves
of the geranium sylvaticum, and cardatnine pratensis.
Livid ; thorax marked with lines, the base of the * hvida* ,
wings and legs of a rusty colour. 3. A native of Eu¬
rope ; it is frequently to he found on the heraclntm
spondylium ; the upper part of the abdomen very dark x
brown; wings oblong, marked with brown veins.
214. E N T O M
* cinerca. Of an ash colour j thorax without spots; legs pale *,
wings brown at the tip. 9. A native of Europe j on
umbelliferous plants.
19 species of this genus are described in the edition
of the System of Nature published by Gmelin.
f,-
101. Stomoxys.
Sucker consisting of a sheath of one piece, and fur-
nished with enclosing bristles. Feelers two, short,
bristle-shaped, and composed of three articulations.
Antennae setaceous.
The insects of this genus live by sucking the blood
and juices of other animals 5 those of the division rhtn-
gice principally attack insects of the orders lepidoptei'a
and diptera.
A. The Sheath convoluted, and hent at the base, with
an angular Jlexure, and furnished with two bristles.
* colei- Gray; antennae slightly feathered j legs black. 4.
tram. A native of Europe. It resembles the common fly
very much in every respect, except in the snout, and
in having the segments of the abdomen marked with
two black spots. It is very troublesome to horned cat¬
tle ; bv getting about their feet, it causes them to kick,
and stamp with their feet: before rain it bites more
frequently. It does not spare the human species, parti¬
cularly in autumn.
* irritans. Of an as^ colour, and somewhat hairy j the abdomen
* spotted with black. 5. A native of Europe. This
species is very frequent, and troublesome to cattle ; by
fixing on their backs, it causes them to keep their tails
almost in constant motion to lash it oil.
vunsens. Of an ash colour, with black thighs. 6. A native
' ' * of Europe. It is very troublesome to cattle, resembles
St. irritans, but much smaller wings j whitish, without
spots ; the abdomen sometimes of dark colour.
B. Sheath covering the mouth, and furnished with
bristles. Rhingise.
* rostrata Thorax faintly marked with lines $ the snout, legs,
‘ ' * ‘= and abdomen of a brick colour. 8. A native of Eu¬
rope. Very troublesome to cattle ; about the size of
the common fly j wings pale.
/• , Thorax marked with lines j abdomen black, marked
inea.a. ^ ^ s;des with yellow spots. 9. A native of Eu¬
rope. The lip long, yellow, with a black emarginated
tip. and formed of a horny substance enclosing the pro¬
boscis. The antennae black, with a rusty-coloured
knob, and furnished with a bristle j the thorax marked
with four white lines •, the scutellum of a brick colour j
winffs whitish $ legs yellow ; the thighs marked with a
white belt.
O L O G Y. Diptera.
The insects of this genus live by sucking the blood
and juices of other animals.
A. Sucker furnished with a short valve of one piece,
and with a single bristle.
Blackish j back part of the head vesicular, the ab- * yesmila*
domen yellowish and black at the base. 4. A native ws.
of Europe } in groves.
Black j six segments of the abdomen yellow on the macroce.
edges } antennae and legs reddish. 5* A native of Y.n-phalus,
rope $ in groves.
B. The Sucker bent both at the middle and at the base,
with an angular flexure. Sheath consisting of two
pieces, the t wo pieces which compose the Sheath equal.
Myopee.
Of a rusty colour ; the abdomen cylindrical, and bent * ferrug\.
inwards ; the forehead reddish. 8. A native of Eu- nea.
rope $ in groves.
Abdomen cylindrical, and bent inwards} body black.
2. A native of Europe ; among bushes.
14 species of this genus are described in the edition
of the System of Nature published by Gmelin.
103. Asilus.
Mouth furnished with a sucker, composed of a horny
substance, projecting, straight j consisting of two
pieces, and turgid at the base. Antennse filiform.
They prey on other insects, especially'those of the le*
pidopterous and dipterous orders.
The abdomen hairy ; on the fore part there are three * crabro-
of the segments black } behind yellow and bent inwards, nijormis.
4. A native of Europe. The larva lies under ground.
This is the largest species of the genus which is to be
met with in Britain. Its sting is very painful.
Hairy, black j the thorax white at the base. 19. A epiphiutn
native of Europe.
Hairy, black } with a whitish band. 7. A native* ater. ~
of Europe. It rests by leaning on its breast, with its
legs spread. Claws white.
Black *, wings black } the forehead white. 22. K diadem.
native of Europe. Band and wings wholly black.
Of an ash colour, without hairs ; legs of a rusty co- * tipuloi-
lour*, feet black. 14. A native of Europe. des.
Black ; the thorax marked on each side with an ash- striatus.
coloured fine 5 the poisers yellow. 44. A native of
Europe.
Gmelin has described 48 species of this genus, in his
last edition of the System of Nature.
104. Bombylius, Buz fly.
Only 9 species of this genus have been described by
Gmefin in the last edition of the System of Nature.
102. Conops.
Mouth furnished with a projecting snout, which is bent
with an angular flexure. Antennw clavated, and
pointed at the extremity.
Mouth furnished with a sucker, very long, setaceous,
straight, and composed of two valves, the valves un¬
equal, and likewise with three bristles. Feelers two,
short, and hairy. Antennae tapering towards the
point, and connected at the base.
The species of this genus feed on the nectarious juice
of flowers, which they collect when on wing.
Humble
215
.iptera. E N T 0 M
hfiajor. Humble Bee. Wings with a broad black waved out¬
er edge ; body black, with thick yellowish down. I.
A native of Europe.
hnedius. Wings dotted with brown; body yellowish and white
behind. 2. A native of Europe. It is to be met
with very early in the spring.
nnimus. Wings brownish at the base; body yellowish, and
hairy ; snout and legs black. 7. A native of Europe.
Very small; antennae black ; wings white.
kiseus. Hairy; wings white, brown at the base; thorax
black, marked with white lines ; abdomen grey. 11.
A native of Europe; on compound flowers. Wings
marked with two black dots in the middle.
irescens. Wings white, without spots; body hairy, and green¬
ish ; the snout short. 12. A native of Europe; on
flowers. Thickly covered with greenish hair.
There are 15 species of this genus described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
105. Hippobosca.
Mouth furnished with a short, cylindrical, straight
sucker, composed of two equal pieces. Antenme fi¬
liform. Legs furnished with many claws.
The species of this genus live on the blood of other
insects.
* juina. Horse-fly. Wings obtuse ; thorax variegated with
white ; legs terminating in four claws. 1. A native
of Europe and America.—They are very troublesome
to horses ; they hide themselves under the hairs, and
attach themselves firmly to the skin, by means of their
crooked claws.
* vicu- Wings obtuse ; thorax of one colour. 2. A native
/i,^ of Europe ; on the bodies of various birds, especially
swallows. Wings longer than the body by one half,
marked with black veins ; the hind part of the abdo¬
men flattened and dotted.
*[ irundi- Wings tapering towards the extremity ; legs termi-
LL nating in six claws. 3. A native of Europe ; on the
bodies and nests of swallows.
* vim. No wings. 4. A native of Europe ; among the
wool of sheep. The abdomen distended, pale, obtuse,
marked on each side with a double waved white line,
and on the back with a red spot; legs hairy, the claws
set in pairs.
There have been only five species of this genus hi¬
therto described.
VII. APTERA.
Wings none in either sex.
106. Lepisma.
Mouth furnished with four feelers, two setaceous, and
two capitated. Lip membranaceous, round, and
emarginated. Antennae setaceous. Body covered
with scales laid over one another, like tiles on the
roof of a house. Tail furnished with bristles. Legs
six, formed for running.
These in their various stages of existence prey upon
O L 0 G Y.
sugar, decayed wood, and putrid substances. The lar¬
vae and pupae are six-footed, active, and swift.
Scaly, and resembling silver; tail triple. 1. A na- * saccha-
tive of America; among sugar. They have been in-rinum.
troduced into Europe, and are frequently to be met with
among books and furniture. They run very quickly,
and are not easily caught. Antennas whitish, of the same
length with the body. It is furnished with two scutella
which enclose the thorax ; two segments of the abdomen
less than the rest; the tail furnished with three long
bristles standing at a distance from each other, and
with two pair of very small ones under the anus.
Leaping ; tail triple ; segments of the abdomen hairy * polypus.
on each side beneath. 2. A native of Europe ; in
sandy situations, among stones and rubbish, and takes
prodigious leaps by means of the springs under its tail ;
brownish ; the antennae the length of the body; the
fore feet placed very near the mouth ; each segment of
the abdomen is furnished with a spine beneath.
Naked ; tail triple. 3. A native of Europe. It terrestre.
resembles the podura, but larger, wholly white, and cy¬
lindrical ; the antennae obtuse, and half the length of
the body.
There are seven species of this genus described by
Gmelin.
107. Podura, Spring-taiL
Mouth furnished with four feelers, slightly clavated ;
the lip divided. Eyes two, composed of eight facets.
Tail forked, bent under the body, and acting like a
spring. Legs six, formed for running.
The insects of this genus, through all their stages,
feed on vegetables. The larva and pupa have six fe.et,
and are active, and very much resemble the perfect
insect.
Nearly globular, and green. 1. A native of Eu- * viridis.
rope ; on plants of different kinds, especially on the
seminal leaves of the buck wheat [polygonium flcigopy-
rum.)
Oblong, and ash coloured, with black marks. 6. * nivalis.
A native of Europe ; among bushes, in wood. It is
frequently to be seen in the winter on the snow, in the
footsteps of men and other animals.
Black, and lives in water. 12. A native of Eu-
rope. Assembles in troops, early in the morning, on
the banks of pools and fish-ponds.
White ; lives on land. 13. A native of Europe ‘flflmetaria
found very early in the spring on recently ploughed
land.
31 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
108. Termes, White Ant.
The mouth furnished with two jaws, formed of a horny
substance. Lip likewise formed of a horny substance;
is divided into four, the division linear and sharp-
Feelers four, equal and filiform. Antennae monili-
form in most species. Eyes two.
These insects might with more propriety be placed
undei
2l6
fatale.
)
E N T O M
under the order Neuroptera or Hymenoptera, most of
them having either two or tour wings in the perfect
State. They are very destructive, and destroy provi¬
sions, cloths, furniture, books, and timber of whatever
magnitude, leaving a thin shell not thjeker than paper ,
in houses they are not only troublesome, but dangerous,
as they destroy the beams which support the floors and
roofs, and occasion them to fall in.
Brown above j the thorax is composed of three seg¬
ments j wings pale, furnished with arib or nerve of abrick
colour. 1/A native of India and Africa. Larva small,
about a quarter of an inch long, furnished with six feet,
pale with a roundish brick-coloured head, without eyes ”,
mandible short and strong, antenme as long as the tho¬
rax 5 the abdomen oval. Pupa larger”, about half an
inch long, with a very large oval polished head, with¬
out eyes ”, jaws projecting, as long as the head, forked,
without teeth, sharp and black J thorax and abdomen
palish. The perfect insect both male and female has a
brown head, antennae yellowish and globular, promi¬
nent black eyes, the segments of the thorax margined,
the abdomen variegated with white streaks, wings twice
the length of the body, legs yellowish. Of the white
ant we have a very curious and interesting description,
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1781, by Mr
Henry Smeathman of Clement’s Inn. According to
this account, the works of these insects surpass those
of the bees, wasps, beavers, and other animals, as much
at least as those of the most polished European nations
excel those of the least cultivated savages. With re¬
spect to the interior construction, and the various mem¬
bers and dispositions of the parts of the building, they
may come into comparison with some of the most cele¬
brated works of man himself. The most striking parts
of these structures are the royal apartments, the nur¬
series, magazines of provisions, arched cuambcrs and
galleries, with their various communications ; the ranges
of Gothic shaped arches, projected, and not formed by
mere excavation, some of which are two or three feet
high, but which diminish rapidly like the arches of
aisles in perspective } the various roads, sloping stair¬
cases, and bridges, consisting of one vast arch, and
constructed to shorten the distance between the several
parts of the building, which would otherwise communi¬
cate only by winding passages. In some parts near
* Senegal, their number, magnitude, and close arrange¬
ment, make them appear like the villages of the na¬
tives. But these and many other curious instances of
the great sagacity and powers of.these insects cannot
be understood, without viewing the plates in which
their feeble frames, and comparatively stupendous
works are delineated. See Phil. Ivans, above reterred
to. The economy of these industrious insects appears
to have been very attentively observed by the ingenious
author, as well as their buildings. I1 here aie thiee
distinct ranks or orders of them, constituting a well
regulated community. These are, first, the larvae, la¬
bourers, or working insects ; second, the pupae, soldiers,
or fighting order, who do no kind of labour, and are
about twice a!?, long as the former, and equal in bulk to
about fifteen of them ; and lastly, the winged or perfect
insect, which may he called the nobility” of the state,
for they neither labour nor fight, being scarcely able to
defend themselves. These only are capable of being
elected kings or queens j and nature has so ordered it,
3
O L O G Y. Apte
that they emigrate within a few weeks after they are
elevated to this state, and either establish new king¬
doms, or perish within a day or two. The first order,
the working, are most numerous, being in the propor¬
tion of ICO to one soldier. In this state they are about
a quarter of an inch in length, and twenty-five of them
weigh about a grain, so that they are not so large as
some of our ants. See Plate HI. fig. 1. and 2. The
second order, or soldiers, have a very different form
from the labourers, and have been by some authors sup¬
posed to be the males, and the former the neuters j but
they are, in fact, the same insects as the foregoing, only
they have undergone a change of form, and approached
nearer to the perfect insect. They are now much
larger, being haj.f an inch long, and equal in bulk to
15 of the labourers, (fig. 3. and 4.). The third order,
the insect in its perfect state, varies its form still moie.
The head, thorax, and abdomen, differ almost entirely
from the same parts in the labourers and soldiers j and
besides this, the animal is now furnished with four fine
large brownish, transparent wings, with which it is at
the time of emigration to wing its way in search of a
new settlement.. It differs so much from the other two,
that they have not hitherto been supposed to belong to
the same community. In fact, they are not to be dis¬
covered in the nest, till just before the commencement
of the rainy season ; when they undergo the last change,
which is preparative to the formation of new colonies.
They are equal in bulk to two soldiers, and about 30
labourers (see fig. 5.), and by means of the wings with
which they are furnished, they roam about for a few
hours, at the end of which time they lose their wings,
and become the prey of innumerable birds, reptiles, and
insects ”, while probably not a pair out of many millions
of this unhappy race, get into a place of safety, fulfil
the first law of nature, and lay the foundation of a
new community. In this state, many fall into the
neighbouring waters, and they are eaten with avidity
by the Africans. The author found them delicate,
nourishing, and wholesome, without sauce or other
help from cookery, than merely roasting them in the
manner of coffee. The few fortunate pairs who happen
to survive this annual massacre and destruction, are
represented by the author as being casually found by
some of the labourers, that are continually running
about on the surface ofthe ground, and are elected kings
and queens of new states. Those who are not so elect¬
ed and preserved, certainly perish, and most probably in
the course of the following day. By these industrious
creatures, the king and queen elect are immediately
protected from their innumerable enemies, by being in¬
closed in a chamber of clay, where the business of pro¬
pagation soon commences ”, their voluntary subjects,
then employed in constructing wooden nurseries, or
apartments entirely composed of wooden materials,
seemingly joined together with gum. Into these they
afterwards carry the eggs produced from the queen,
lodging them there as "fast as they can obtain them
from her. The author even furnishes us with plausible
reasons to believe, that they here form a kind of gar¬
den for the cultivation of a species of microscopical
mushrooms, which Mr Konig, in an Essay on the East
Indian Termites, read before the society of naturalists
of Berlin, conjectures to be the food of the young in¬
sects. But perhaps the most wonderful, and at the
'same
ra. Ap'
'Ptera' ENTOMOLOGY.
same time best authenticated part of the history of these
singular insects is that which relates to the queen or
mother of the community in her pregnant state. After
impregnation, a very extraordinary change begins to
take place in her body, or rather in her abdomen only.
It gradually increases in bulk, and at length becomes
of such an enormous size as to exceed the bulk of the
rest of her body 1500 or 2000 times. She becomes
1000 times heavier than her consort, and exceeds
20,000 or 30,000 times the bulk of one of the labour¬
ers. In this state, the matrix has a constant peristaltic
or undulating motion, the consequence of which is (as
the author has counted them), (fig. 8.) the protrusion
of a great many thousands of eggs in twenty-four hours.
These eggs, says the author, are instantly taken from
her body by her attendants, of whom there always are
a great number in the royal chamber and the galleries
adjacent, and carried to the nurseries, which are some¬
times four or five feet distant in a straight line. Here,
after they are hatched, the young are attended and
provided with every thing necessary, until they are
able to shift for themselves, and take their share of the
labour of the community. Many curious and striking
particulars are related of the great devastations com¬
mitted by this powerful community, which construct
roads, or rather covered ways, diverging in all direc¬
tions from the nest, and leading to every object of plun¬
der within their reach. Though the mischiefs they
commit are very great, such is the economy of nature,
that it is probably counterbalanced by the good pro¬
duced by them, in quickly destroying dead trees, and
other substances, which, as the author observes, would,
by a tedious decay, serve only to encumber the surface
of the earth. Such is their alacrity and dispatch in this
office, that the total destruction of deserted towns is so
effectually accomplished, that in two or three years a
thick wood fills the space, and not the least vestige of a
house is to he discovered. From the many singular ac¬
counts here given of the police of these insects, we shall
mention one respecting the different functions of the
labourers and soldiers, or the civil and military establish¬
ments in this community, on an attempt to examine their
nest and city.
On making a breach in any part of the structure
•with a hoe or pickaxe, a soldier immediately ap¬
pears and walks about the breach, as if to see whether
the enemy has gone, or to examine whence the attack
proceeds. In a short time he is followed by two or
three others, and soon alter by a numerous body, who
rush out as fast as the breach will permit them, their
numbers increasing as long as one continues to batter
the building. During this time they are in the most
violent agitation and bustle, while some of them are em¬
ployed in beating with their forceps upon the building,
*0 as to make a noise that may be heard at three or
four feet distance. On ceasing to disturb them, the
soldiers retire, and are succeeded by the labourers, who
hasten in various directions to the breach, each with
a burden of mortar in his mouth ready tempered.
Though there are millions of them, they never stop or
embarrass each other*, and a wall gradually arises that
fills up the chasm. A soldier attends every 600 or 1000
of the labourers, seemingly as a director of the works j
for he never touches the mortar, either to lift or carry
it. One in particular places himself close to the wall
Vol. VIII. Part l. t
which they are repairing, and frequently makes the
noise above mentioned ; which is constantly answered
by a loud hiss from all the labourers within the dome }
and at every such signal they evidently redouble their
pace, and work as fast again. The work being com¬
pleted, a renewal of the attack constantly produces
the same effects. The soldiers again rush out and then
retreat, and are followed by the labourers loaded with
mortar, and as active and diligent as before. Thus,
says the author, the pleasure of seeing them come out
to fight or to work alternately may be obtained as often
as curiosity excites or time permits j and it will cer¬
tainly be found, that the one order never attempts to
fight, or the other to work, let the emergency be ever
so great. The obstinacy of the soldiers is remarkable.
They fight to the very last, disputing every inch of
ground so well as often to drive away the negroes,
who are without shoes, and make the white people bleed
plentifully through their stockings. Such is the
strength of the buildings erected by these puny insects,
that when they are raised to little more than half
their height, it is always the practice of the wild bulls
to stand as centinels upon them while the rest of the
herd is ruminating below. When at their full height
of ten or twelve feet, they are used by Europeans as
places to look out from over the top of the grass, which
here grows to the height of thirteen feet, upon an
average. The author has stood with four men on the
top ot one of these buildings, in order to get a view of
any vessel that might come in sight. These termites
indeed are frequently pernicious to mankind, but they
are also very useful and even necessary j one valuable
purpose which they serve is to destroy decayed trees
and other substances, which, if left on the surface of the
ground in hot climates, would in a short time pollute
the air. In this respect they resemble very much the
common flies, which are regarded by mankind in gene-
1 al as noxious, and at best as useless beings in the crea¬
tion j but it is certainly for want of consideration.
There are not probably, in all nature, animals of more
importance ; and it would not be difficult to prove, that *
we should feel the want of one or two species of large
quadrupeds much less than one or two species of these
despicable looking insects. Mankind, in general, are
sensible that nothing is more disagreeable than putrid
substances, and nothing more pestiferous.
Of a brick colour above, head black ; antennae yel- destrue*
low. 4. A native of America, Africa, and India, tor.
They build strong oval nests round the branches of
trees. It very much resembles the T. fatale^ but is
only half the size, the lower stemmata are impressed
with a dot on the centre ; wings brownish, marked with
a yellowish rib. Larva pale brown ; head black, conic,
and projecting forwards.
Black j segments of the abdomen tipt with white \arda.
legs pale. 5. A native of Africa j and resembles in
economy the T. fatale. It builds a nest of a cylindri¬
cal shape, two or three feet high, of brown clay and
vegetables mixed up together, with a round vaulted
dome, surrounded by a prominent terrace. Larvae or
labourers have a pale bead, without eyes j mandibles
short, furnished with teeth j thorax and abdomen oval,
grayish lead colour 5 legs of a brick colour. Pupae or
guards have a very large brick-coloured head, clavated '
and swelled out before, oval and extended behind j
£ e mandible
2l8
E N T O M
ipte
mordax.
capense.
fatidicum
* pulsato-
rium.
divinato-
rium.
mandible projecting and forked j antennae of a '
colour, as long as the head, without eyes ; thorax sma ",
abdomen oval, grayish lead colour ; legs of a brick-
colour. Perfect insect less than the former ones, with
incumbent black wings, and pale brick-coloured legs.
Black; segments of the abdomen tipt with white ;
legs black. 6. A native of Africa. Builds cylindri¬
cal houses. Larva and pupa like the last, but much
les=.
Pale yellow; wings transparent, edged with brown.
7. A native of India and Africa. Larva furnished
with two black eyes ; and wanders about in the day¬
time in troops like the common ant.
. Abdomen oval; mouth pale ; eyes brown ; antennae
setaceous. 3. A native of Europe.
Abdomen oblong ; mouth red ; eyes yellow ; anten¬
nae setaceous. 3. A native of Europe and America.
Frequent in houses, in old books, wood, decayed fur¬
niture, museums, and is rarely found with wings. Ihe
female beats like the ticking of a watch, and is often
mistaken for the ptinus pulsator.
Abdomen transversely furrowed ; mouth brown ; eyes
black. 7. A native of Europe ; found in books, and
is very active and lively. Body whitish.
These eight species are all that have been described
by Gmelin : other two, the morio jlavicolle} have
been described since.
106. Pf.diculus, Louse.
Mouth furnished with a sucker, which the insect can
stretch out or draw back at pleasure ; without feelers
or proboscis. Antennoe of the same length with the
thorax. Eyes two. Abdomen flattish. Legs six,
formed for running.
The insects of this genus live by sucking the juice*
of animals. The larvae and pupae have six feet, and
are active, resembling the perfect insect.
Abdomen ash-coloured, and lobed. 1. There are
two varieties of this species, the one softer and whiter,
occupying the body and clothes, the other harder and
darker-coloured, occupying the heads of those that do
not attend to cleanliness, particularly of children.
*hum(inus The louse which infests the human body makes a
verv curious appearance through a microscope. It has
such a transparent shell or skin, that we are able to dis¬
cover more of what passes within its body than in most
other living creatures. It has naturally three divisions,
the head, the breast, and the tail part. In the head
appear two fine black eyes, with a horn that has five
joints, and is surrounded with hairs standing before each
eye, and from the end of the nose or snout there is a
pointed projecting part, which serves as a sheath or case
to a piercer or sucker, which the creature thrusts into
the skin to draw out the blood and humour which are
its destined food ; for it has no mouth that opens in the
common way. This piercer or sucker is judged to be
700 times smaller than a hair, and is contained in an¬
other case within the first, and can be drawn in or thrust
out at pleasure. The breast is very beautifully marked
in the middle ; the skin is transparent, and full of little
gits; and from the under part of it proceed six legs,
O L O G Y. Aptera, 'I1
each having five joints, and their skin all the way
resembling shagreen, except at the ends, where it is
smoother. Each leg terminates by two claws, which
are hooked, and are of an unequal length and size.
These it uses as we would a thumb and middle finger:
and there are hairs between these claws as well as all
over the legs. On the back part of the tail there may
be discovered some ring-like divisions, and a sort ot
marks which look like the strokes of a rod on the hu¬
man skin : the belly looks like shagreen, and towards
the lower end it is very clear and lull of pits : at the
extremity of the tail there are two semicircular parts
all covered over with hairs, which serve to conceal the
anus. When the louse moves its legs, the motion ot
the muscles, which all unite in one oblong dark spot
in the middle of the breast, may be distinguished per¬
fectly, and so may the motion of the muscles of the
head when it moves its horns. We may likewise see
the various ramifications of the veins and arteries, which
are white, with the pulse regularly beating m the ar¬
teries. But the most surprising of all _ the sights
is the peristaltic motion of the guts, which is con¬
tinued all the way from the stomach down to the
anus. If one of these creatures be placed on the back
of the hand, when hungry, it will thrust its sucker into
the skin ; the blood which it sucks may be seen passing
in a fine stream to the fore part of the head, where
falling into a roundish cavity, it passes, again in a fine
stream to another circular receptacle in the midde ot
the head ; from thence it runs through a small vessel
into the breast, and then to a gut which reaches to the
hinder part of the body, where, in a curve, it turns a
little upwards; in the breast and gut the blood is
moved without intermission with a great force, especial¬
ly in the gut, where it occasions such a contraction ot
the gut, as is very surprising. In the upper part oi
the crooked ascending gut above mentioned, the pro¬
pelled blood stands still, and seems to undergo a sepa¬
ration, some of it becoming clear and waterish, while
other black particles are pushed forwards to the anus.
If a louse is placed on its back, two bloody darkish spots
appear, the larger in the middle of the bodj, the les¬
ser towards the tail: the dark bloody spot, in or over
which the bladder seems to lie. This motion ot the
systole and diastole is best seen when the creature be¬
gins to grow weak ; and on pricking the white bladder,
which seems to be the heart, the creature instantly
dies. The lower dark spot is supposed to be the ex¬
crement in the gut. . * r
The posterior part of the abdomen emargmated ; legs • pubis.
formed like claws. 2. A native of Europe. It is
found about the hairs of the groin, and sometimes,
though rarely, on the eyebrows of people who do not
attend to cleanliness. The antennae have five articu¬
lations ; the hind part of the abdomen hairy. . . ,
The abdomen orbicular, marked with a white line; nemm
scutellum composed of three lobes ; the snout white,
a. A native of America. It gets into the legs ot the
naked inhabitants, where it draws blood, and depositing
its eggs in the wound occasions foul and malignant ulcers.
8. A native of Europe ; on sheep.
The abdomen is marked with eight transverse rusty-* dis¬
coloured lines. 9. A native of Europe j on horned
cattle. 66_
feri/C
uter a.
E N T O M
66 species of this genus are described in the last edi¬
tion of the System of Nature, all of which occupy the
bodies of diiferent animals.
110. PulEX, F/ea.
Mouth without jaws or feelers. The snout long, and
bent inwards. A sheath of two pieces, consisting of
five articulations, covered at the base with two oval
scales, and furnished with a single bristle. Lip round,
fringed with sharp points, which are bent backwards.
Antennae moniliform, projecting, and becoming
thicker towards their outer side. Eyes two. Ab¬
domen compressed. Legs six, formed for leaping.
The genus piilex is rather doubtful j it approaches in
many respects to the insects of the order hemiptera.
They live on the juice and blood of other animals.
Larva without feet, cylindrical, active, and furnished
with two spines under the tail.
itans. The snout shorter than the body. x. This fami¬
liar insect is to be met with everywhere $ it lives by
sucking the blood of other animals, and is very trouble¬
some to many of them, especially to the hare and rabbit.
They deposit smooth round eggs at the roots of the
hair of the animals on which they feed, on blankets,
and articles made of wool, fur, &c. From these eggs
are hatched the larvae, resembling small white shining
worms, which feed on the scurfy substance adhering
to the cuticle of animals, or on the downy matter col¬
lected on clothes. About a fortnight after they are
hatched, they acquire a considerable size, and become
very active ; when disturbed they roll themselves up
•into a ball. After they have acquired their full size,
they retire into some undisturbed situation ; they form
small bags for themselves composed of silky threads,
which they spin from their mouths. These bags are
very white internally j but on the outside they are of
the colour of dust, and are very little discernible. They
remain in the state of pupa about 14 days. It continues
to be of a white colour till the second day before its
escape from the bag, when it acquires a dark colour,
becomes firmer, and is transformed into a perfect in¬
sect.
The flea, when viewed in the microscope, exhibits a
very singular appearance. It is covered all over with
black and hard scales, which are curiously jointed, and
folded over one another, so as to comply with all the
nimble motions of the creature. These scales are po¬
lished, and are beset about the edges with short spikes
in a very beautiful and regular order. Its neck is
finely arched, and somewhat resembles the tail of a
lobster. Its eyes are very large and beautiful. The
sucker contains a couple of lances or darts ; which,
after the sucker has made an entrance, are thrust far¬
ther into the flesh, to make the blood flow from the ad.
jacent parts, and occasion that round red spot, with a
hole in the centre of it, which remains for some time
alter the puncture of a flea, commonly called Jlea-bite.
A proper view of the sucker with its two lances is not
easily obtained, as the insect puts out its sucker only at
the time of feeding. The best way of obtaining a view
is to cut o(F the head, and subject it to the microscope
by itself. There is an hospital at Surat where a number
O L O G Y. 219
of fleas are kept, and some poor creature, for pay, al¬
lows himself to be fixed down and fed upon by them.
Chigur. Snout of the same length with the body.penetrans.
2. A native of America. This insect is very trouble¬
some in the sugar colonies, penetrating into the feet of
the inhabitants, where it lodges its eggs and causes ma¬
lignant ulcers. Body reddish brown. The female pro¬
duces a very great number of eggs, and when pregnant
the abdomen swells to 100 times the size of the rest of
the body. It penetrates chiefly under the nails of the
toes, and eats its way onwards, depositing its eggs, which
are exceedingly minute, in a hag. It is discovered by
the uneasy itching it occasions, and must be extracted
with great caution and dexterity j for if the bag he
burst, and if any of the eggs or animals remain, a very
troublesome ulcer ensues, which sometimes renders the
limb useless. The slaves who go barefooted are chiefly
exposed to this calamity, and they are most dexterous
at extracting them.
There are only two species of this genus described
in the last edition of the System of Nature published
by GmeJin,
in. AcARUS, Tick or Mile.
Mouth without a proboscis. The sucker with a cylin¬
drical sheath, composed of two pieces. Feelers two,
compressed, equal, and of the same length with the
sucker. Eyes two, placed on the sides of the head.
Legs eight.
The insects of this genus are very minute, and very
prolific : they abound everywhere *, most of them live
on the juices of other animals. The larva and pupa
have six feet, (those of the division trombidium have
eight feet) ; they are active, and very much resemble
the perfect insect.
A. The Antennce are filiform, compressed ; and of the
same length with the legs.
Transparent $ convex above and flattened beneath ; ursellus.
marked in the middle with a blackish spot. 36. It is
very common in waters, on the mucus which covers the
spawn of frogs. Very small, slow, inoffensive, and legs
terminating in three nails.
Oval, almost globular; abdomen marked at the base* ricinus,
with a round brown spot; antennae clavated. 7. A
native of Europe ; it is very common on oxen and
dogs.
Second pair of legs very thick. 8. A native of* crassi-
Europe ; and very common. It is active, gregarious,yje.t.
frequently to be found in gardens among the earth in
spring.
Thorax angularly cruciform ; the legs, terminating * -
in hooks, and longer than the body. 9. It is found tilionis.
on the body of the bat {yespertilio murinus) of an un¬
common figure, resembling the phalangium. It cannot
walk on a flat surface.
Commonly called Fed Spider. Transparent and red- tclarius.
dish ; the abdomen marked on each side with a brown
spot. 14. A native of Europe ; on various plants, par¬
ticularly those that are not exposed to the weather, or
shut up in hot-houses. It forms webs of parallel threads,
by which it sometimes suffocates plants in green-houses.
Ee2 It
220
E N T 0 M
It is frequently to be found on the leaves of the lime-
tree in autumn.
Cheese-Mite. Whitish ; head and thighs of a rusty
colour } the abdomen bristly. 15. A native of Eu¬
rope) in flour, cheese, &c. which have been long
kept. The cheese-mite is a very minute species ; to
the naked eye they appear like moving particles of
dust. But the microscope shows them to be perfect ani¬
mals, having as regular a figure, and performing all the
functions of life as perfectly, as creatures that exceed
them far in size. The head is small in proportion to
the body, and has a sharp snout 5 they have two small
eyes, and are very quick-sighted, when they have once
been touched by a pin, they artfully avoid another touch.
The extremities of their legs are furnished with two little
claws, with which they take hold of any thing. "Ihe
hinder part of the body is plump and bulky, and ends
in an oval form, from which issue out some long hairs.
Other parts of the body are thinly beset with long
hairs. The males and females are easily distinguished.
The females are oviparous ; and from their eggs the
voung ones are hatched, in the space of 1 2 or 14 days
in warm weather, but in colder weather longer time
becomes requisite. They are very minute when first
hatched, and cast their skin several times before they
arrive at their full growth, but do not materially change
their appearance. They are very tenacious of life, and
may be kept alive several months without food. Mr
Leeuwenhoek had one that lived 11 weeks on the end of
a pin, on which he had fixed it for microscopical observa¬
tions. They may be kept a long time between two
concave glasses, and occasionally subjected to the micro¬
scope. In this way they may be seen in coitu, conjoin¬
ed tail to tail, and this is performed by an incredibly
swift motion. They are very voracious animals, and
have been often seen eating one another. Their man¬
ner of eating is by thrusting one jaw forward and draw¬
ing the other back alternately, and in this manner, as
it were, grinding their food) after they have done feed¬
ing they seem to ruminate.
^Itch-insect. White ) legs reddish; the four posterior
legs are furnished with a very long bristle. 50. In the
pustules occasioned by the itch. It is generally thought
to be the cause of the itch, though some hold a con¬
trary opinion *, the manner, however, in which the
itch is communicated, seems to confirm the former
opinion.
Abdomen oval and obtuse, furnished with four
bristles the -same length with the body, which incline
downwards. 16. It is found in cream that has been
long kept, and in milk vessels that have not been kept
clean.
<S if sentence Legs furnished with two bristles; the abdomen oval,
furnished behind with four horizontal bristles of the
same length with the body. 17. It is found in casks
and vats, in which beer has been kept; they are most
frequently found about the top or near any chink in the
vessel; they are likewise found very frequently within
the cask, and are said to walk about on the top of the
beer from 10 o’clock at night till 10 o’clock in the
morning; during the day they conceal themselves in
the chinks of the cask.
The abdomen turgid and red, and dark-coloured on
the sides. 23. It is found on the fruit of the corinth
and gooseberry.
O L O G Y. Aptera
The abdomen reddish ; the hind-legs very long and* muaa-
24. A native of Europe; on different spe-ruw.
seabiei.
* lac tis.
filiform,
cies of flie3
Abdomen red, marked on each side with scarlet ^
dots.
26. It is to be found on bees, wasps, dragon-tewiw/j.
flies, &c.
Oval, and reddish ; the anus whitish. 27. It is * cvleop.
found on many insects, particularly on the common tratwrum
black beetle ; which, on that account, has been called
the lousy beetle: they run very quickly.
The posterior part of the abdomen crenated ; the acu-sanguisw
tellum oval, and somewhat tawney ; the snout divided gw#,
into three. 6. A native of America ; they fix on the
legs of travellers and suck the blood ; they adhere so
closely, that they are removed with difficulty ; the fore¬
legs are furnished with short prickles, near their junction
with the body.
The first pair of legs very thick, and furnished with erudiiut,
claws ; the second pair very long, and furnished with
two bristles at the extremity. 62. Found in books kept
in clamp places, particularly about the backs, where ths
sheets have been glued together. It is very injurious,
and not visible without the help of a glass.
Hemispherical, pale, and smooth. Legs equal. ^l.acarcriM,
It is found in troops on the body of the acarus cras-
sipes.
Oval; furnished with several long hairs at the ex-clestruttor
tremity of the abdomen ; the legs are furnished with a
single bristle. 61. Found on the bodies of insects and
other subjects of natural history which are kept in too
moist places, and is more destructive to museums than
even the ptinusfur, and not visible to the naked eye.
* bai ca-
rum.
hctu
01
toil
B. Antennce setaceous. Trombidia.
The abdomen hairy, red, and obtuse behind; thetinctorm
fore legs whiter than the rest. 20. A native of Suri¬
nam and Guinea; very hairy; it becomes white when
immersed in spirits of wine.
The abdomen of a blood colour, flat, and downy,* AoAwn
turned up behind. 22. A native of Europe andrew#.
America ; is said to be poisonous if swallowed.
82 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
112. Hydrachna.
Head, thorax, and abdomen united. Feelers two, joint¬
ed. Eyes two, four, or six. Legs eight.
The insects of this genus are inhabitant* of the
water, swim with great velocity, and prey on the
larvte of tipulee and monoculi. They deposit red spheri¬
cal eggs, which in about a month acquire a linear form,
and produce six-footed larvae furnished with a single
proboscis, which, after they have changed their skin
several times, become perfect insects furnished with
eight feet.
A. Eyes ttvo.
* Those which are furnished with a Tail.
Globular; eyes red. 1. It is to be found in ditches * globed
containing water: male greenish and spotted; female
bluish and without spots, and double the size of the
male.
Oval,
221
it cinator Oval, red, and black behind; furnished with a
yellow cylindrical tail, and straightened at the base. 3.
It is found on the banks of rivers 5 black beneath, eyes
reddish, legs black.
IfiUator. Purple and globular, furnished with a papilla on
each side of the tail ; legs black. 12. It is to be
found early in the spring in overflowed meadows.
* * Fu rcatae. Back marked with a fork.
iMsipes. White and oval ; the disk black and marked with a
reddish fork, and furnished with papillae near the anus}
fore legs thick. 13. It is found in fish ponds and ditches
containing water ; the legs twice or thrice the length of
the body, which renders it easily to be distinguished. It
is transparent; breast whitish; eyes black; when walk¬
ing freely, it directs its legs forwards; after it has gone
a few steps, it extends its legs horizontally, and rests
as if it were dead, and a little afterwards it renews its
motion.
xivicorms Reddish and oval; marked with a yellow fork, feel¬
ers clavated, legs pale. 13. It is found in marshes;
eyes small and black, feelers and legs white.
* * * Glabra’.
* piciens.
i 1 sfcolor.
Round and red, marked with several spots ; the eyes
placed on the under part of the body. 23. It is to
be found in ditches full of water ; it resembles the II.
maculata in every respect, except the positions of the
eyes ; flattish, wrinkled, full of dimples, marked with
nine spots ; eyes blackish ; legs yellowish.
Nearly square, marked with white, blue, and brown
spots. 44. It is found in places overflown with wa¬
ter ; white above, brown beneath, edge yellowish ; the
feelers and legs white and transparent.
B. Byes four.
Round, brown, and very white in the middle. 45.
It is to be found, though rarely, in moist places; eyes
black, feelers pointed, legs pale and transparent.
Oval and red ; marked on the back with black spots.
48. It is found in wet ditches ; shining ; eyes black ;
legs yellow and transparent; feelers yellow, sometimes
long, 4f metimes short.
C. Byes six.
Round and red, marked with several spots. 49. It
is found in woody marshes ; smooth, somewhat depres¬
sed, marked with more than ten obscure spots, black¬
ish beneath ; eyes black ; feelers very small, tipt with
black ; legs yellow.
49 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
93. Phalangium.
Mouth furnished with two filiform feelers ; the mandible
composed of a substance like horn ; the second joint
furnished with a sharp tooth, moveable, and furnish¬
ed with a claw. Antennae none. I wo eyes on the
top of the head contiguous, and two lateral eyes.
Legs eight. Abdomen (for the most part) round.
The insects of this genus in their various stages of
transformation prey on the smaller insects and worms ;
the larvas have eight feet, active, and resemble the per¬
fect insect.
A. Sucker a conical tube. Pycnogona.
Feelers four; body filiform ; legs very long. 1. A* grcssipet
native of the north of Europe ; found in the Norwe¬
gian seas ; very slow, and very minute ; it is composed
of several articulations, and has a very narrow linear
tail; it enters the shells of muscles, and consumes their
contents.
Feelers two; body oval. 6. It is found in the* batona-
north seas, under stones; it is red on the back, the rum.
sucker projecting, straight, obtuse at the extremity, and
perforated with a round entire perforation ; the feelers
inserted at the base of the sucker, and almost equalling
it in length ; the legs jointed and angular.
B. Without a sucker.
Body oval and black; the under part of the body»j©rw.
and legs pale. 10. A native of Europe ; it is to be,
found on rocks.
Long-legged spider, or shepherds spider. Abdomen * opilio.
oval and gray, beneath white. A native of Europe
and America ; wandering about in the night time.
Abdomen inverted, oval and flattish ; claws smooth, * cancroi-
the fingers hairy. 4. A native of Europe ; in confin-efc#.
ed shaded places, in boxes and damp cellars ; it feeds
on termites and mites, and moves like a crab ; it is de¬
structive to collections of dried plants ; it likewise en¬
ters the skin of the human body, and excites a very
painful pimple about the size of a pea.
Abdomen cylindrical, the claws smooth; head fa'c-acaroidfs.
nished with an appendage. 5. A native of America ;
in confined places in tropical countries. Its bite is said
to be dangerous; yellowish, the claws oval.
Claws notched, and hairy ; body oblong. 15. Aarantvidts
native of Italy, Africa, Persia, and the southern shores
of the Volga ; its bite occasions very violent pain, livid
tumors, delirium, and sometimes death ; soft, lurid, and
woolly, the claws very turgid.
15 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin in the last edition of the System of Nature.
114. AranEA, Spider.
Mouth furnished with short horny jaws; the lip round
at the tip. Feelers two, bent inwards ; jointed and
very sharp at the extremity : in the m*les they are
clavated, and have the organs of generation placed
in them. Antennae none. Eyes eight; -jometimes six,
though seldom. Legs eight. The anus is furnished
with papillae, with which the insect spins threads,
and forms its web.
These insects, through every stage of their existence,
prey upon other insects, especially those of the order
Diptera ; they even do not spare those of their own
genus or species : from the papillae at the end of the ab¬
domen they throw out at pleasure a number of fine
threads, which they unite in various ways for the pur¬
pose of entangling their prey. They every year cast
their old skin, which they perform by suspending them¬
selves in some solitary corner, and creeping out of it.
The young ones have the power of ascending the air to
222
entomology.
a great height; to accomplish which, they climb up
some eminence, and are wafted about by the winds,
filling the air with their threads. They are destroyed
by the sphex and ichneumon.
' Linnaeus has subdivided this genus according to the
number and position of their eyes.
gentle sudorific j thorax marked with a large depressed
circular spot ■, abdomen oval; legs equal.
*j. Eyes placed thus, : :
Aptera, |¥
ijrJo
A. Eyes eight.
fasciala.
1. Eyes placed thus, : ” :
Of a silver colour-, the abdomen marked with yel¬
lowish bands; the legs surrounded with brown rings.
48. A native of the island of Madeira.
* diadana Abdomen nearly globular and reddish j brown, mark¬
ed with a white cross composed of dots.. 1. A native
of Europe, on trees it is a very beautiful insect.
* aquatica Brown *, abdomen oval and of an ash colour j the
back brown, marked with two dots. . 39. A native or
Europe, in stagnant waters, where it dives to the bot¬
tom in search of its food. It takes up its winter quar¬
ters in an empty snail shell, the aperture of which it
closes up with a web j jaws black, claws red.
2. Eyes placed thus, : :
Thorax hairy, and of an ash colour the abdomen
oval, black, and spotted with red. 95. A native of
America j large, the thorax oval, legs black, thighs
•P Abdomen oval and brown, marked with five black
spots nearly contiguous, the anterior ones larger than
the others. ” 9. A native of Europe, in houses, and
about windows j feeds chiefly on flies.
Black, thorax marked with a white line on the back.* dorsalis
79. A native of Britain.
Marked with triangular black spots on the back ot tarantula
the abdomen} the legs spotted with black. 34-
native of the south of Europe, particularly Italy and
Barbary. It is found in caverns'in argillaceous soil 5
its bite was formerly supposed to be curable by nothing
but music 5 though it occasions a great deal ot pain, it
is almost never fatal.
8. Eyes placed thus,
Oval and oblong j thorax hairy, white; abdomen *n&pulchra.
legs black, marked with yellow bands. 32. A native
of Europe.
9. Eyes placed thus,
latro.
Black, abdomen oval, forehead white, and leaps on goeztt.
its prey. 84. It is to be found frequently in woods
about Vienna ; abdomen marked with two compressed
dots. .
\o. Eyes placed thus, :'
* domesti-
3. Eyes placed thus,
* globosa. Black ; sides of the abdomen of a blood-red colour.
69. A native of Europe, in meadows.
Thorax orbicular and convex, with a transverse cen- aviculam
tral excavation. 3^* ^ ^ native of South America,
among trees, where it preys upon the larger insects,
and even small birds, dropping into their nests, and
sucking their blood and eggs ; it is of so enormous a
size, that its fangs may be compared to the talons of a
hawk, and its eyes are very large.
11. Eyes placed thus,
4. Eyes placed thus,
argentata,
Abdomen white, and brown behind, and
round the edge with six small projections. ’JO
tive of South America.
marked
, A na-
5. Eyes placed thus,
Of a grayish rusty colour, and slightly clouded ; tho- truncate
rax globular, and slightly heart-shaped ; abdomen some¬
what triangular, and marked with a faint longitudinal
cross. 85. A native of Europe, on oak and other
trees ; abdomen marked with four impressed dots on the
back ; papillae three.
fumirrata. Abdomen oval and brown, marked at the base with
two white dots. 16. A native of Europe, in mea¬
dows ; it washes near the nests of the larvae of diflei-
ent insects, and waits their coming out, when it seizes
on one after another, and sucks out their substance.
* saccata. Abdomen oval, of a brownish colour. 40. ”a*
tive of Europe, in gardens, and carries its eggs behind
it enclosed in a bag ; legs livid, marked with unequal
brown rings set close together.
Eyes placed thus, ::::
externa. Abdomen long, of a silver colour tinged with green,
the legs extended longitudinally. 22. A native ot
Europe, in woods ; its legs are applied closely to the
branches.
rtidulans. Shining black ; the abdomen hairy and black. 73.
A native of America ; it forms a nest under ground,
and spins a large cylindrical web, which is covered
with a lid; its bite is very painful, and frequently oc¬
casions fever and delirium, which is soon removed by a
12. Eyes placed thus, : :
Abdomen oval, obtusely conic behind, variegatedconiffl.
with brown and white ; beneath black. 86. A na¬
tive of Europe, among bushes ; it spins and spreads out
a web, to the surface of which it attaches the insects it
has ensnared, after it has sucked out their juice. Tho¬
rax black, slightly tinged with rusty colour, and nearly
double behind ; legs gray, marked with brown rings ;
abdomen marked with a whitish spot, beneath resem¬
bling a horse shoe ; papillae four.
13. Eyes placed thus, *. . *
Hairy; body oval, black, variegated with hxonn. albifron^
99. A native of Europe.
B. Eyes six, placed thus, •:: •
Abdomen greenish, the sides yellow,
tive of Europe; in gardens.
30. A na- * sQitoc*4 5
lata.
C. Eyes
ptera.
ENTOMOLOGY.
C. Eyes - - - - -
olosen- Abdomen oval, oblong, and silky ; marked under¬
neath near the base with two yellow dots. 29. A na¬
tive of Europe. It is found within the leaves of plants
which it rolls up.
natorin. Thorax orbicular, smooth, and black } abdomen oval,
downy and brown. 33. A native of America. It
constructs a tenacious cylindrical nest about a foot in
length, furnished with a lid.
96 species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin, in the last edition of the System of Nature.
115. Scorpio, Scorpion.
Legs eight; likewise two claws situated on the fore part
of the head. Eyes eight j three placed on each side
of the thorax, and two on the back. Feelers two,
furnished with claws, and projecting. Lip bifid.
Antennae none. Tail long, jointed, terminating in
a sharp crooked sting. On the under side, between
the breast and abdomen, are two excrescences re¬
sembling combs.
Scorpions have been conceived to be the most malig¬
nant and poisonous of all animals. Though this opinion
be now very generally exploded, there are none ot the
insects we are acquainted with so formidable. It is true
the effect of their sting differs greatly, according tp the
circumstances of the constitution of the person receiving
the wound, as well as of the animal itself, the heat of
the climate in which it lives, and the degree of violence
with which the wound may have been inflicted.
The common European scorpion certainly is not of
so terrible a nature as is commonly supposed •, its sting
bein0* very rarely productive of bad consequences.
But the large scorpions of Africa, which are said to be
nearly a foot in length, may well be supposed capable
of inflicting a wound of the most severe pungency, and
of the most dreadful malignity. The poison is evacua¬
ted through three very small Joramina near the tip of
the sting j viz. one on each side of the tip, and the
other on the upper part. A diversity of opinion has
, subsisted among naturalists, relative to the slit or fora¬
men in the fangs of spiders, through which their poison
is evacuated-, and the same variety of opinion has pre¬
vailed with respect to the foramina in the scorpion’s
sting. The celebrated Redi', assisted by the best micro¬
scopes he could procure, was not able to discover them,
though he was well convinced of their existence, from
having perceived the minute drop of poison exsude from
near the tip of the sting. Others have denied the exist¬
ence of the foramina j but Valisnerius and Leeuwenhoea
have both described two, viz. one on each side of the
tip, and which in shape are inclining to triangular ; be¬
sides these a third has sometimes been seen, so that the
sting of the scorpion can with greater facility discharge
hair. In about an hour after the animal seemed greatly
swollen and very sick. He then cast up whatever he
had in his bowels, and for about three hours continued
vomiting a whitish liquid. The belly was always great¬
ly swollen when the animal began to vomit, but this
operation always seemed to abate the swelling ; thus al¬
ternating for the space of three hours. The poor ani¬
mal after this fell into convulsions, bit the ground, drag¬
ged himself along on his fore feet, and at length died five
hours after he had been stung. There was no partial
swelling round the wound inflicted, as is usual after the
sting of a wasp or bee; but the whole body was inflated,
and there only appeared a red spot on the places stung.
Two days afterwards the same experiment was tried on
another dog, and even with more aggravated cruelty;
yet the dog seemed no way offended by the wounds, but
howling a little when he received them, continued alert
and well after them, and soon after was set at liberty,
without shewing the smallest symptoms of pain. The
experiment was repeated with fresh scorpions upon seven
other dogs, and three hens, but not the smallest deadly
symptom was seen to ensue. He put three scorpions and
a mouse into the same vessel, and they soon stung the
little animal in different places. The mouse thus as¬
saulted, stood for some time on the defensive, and at last
killed them all one after another, and did not seem to
have received any material injury itself, at least no fatal
consequences followed, though it had received several
severe wounds. From hence it appears, that many cir¬
cumstances which are uterly unknown must contribute
to give efficacy to the scorpion’s venom. Whether the
nature of its food, long fasting, the season, age of the
insect, or the part of the body which it wounds, add to
or diminish'the malignity of the poison, still remains to
be ascertained. The insects employed by Maupertuis
were newly caught, seemingly vigorous, and were of
different sexes. The result of these experiments may
serve to shew, that many of the boasted antidotes which
are given for the cure of the scorpion’s sting, owe their
success more to accident than to their own efficacy.
The scorpions of tropical climates are very large, and
perhaps more venomous. Helbigius, who resided long
in the east, says that he was often stung by the scorpion,
and never suffered any material injury from the wound,
though a painful tumour generally ensued, which was
cured by rubbing with a piece of iron or stone, as he
had seen the Indians do, until the part became insensi¬
ble. Seba, Moore, and Bosnian, give a very different ac¬
count of the scorpion’s malignity; and assert that without
the speedy application of proper remedies, the wound
proves fatal. Several fabulous anecdotes have been re¬
corded of these animals by the older writers on natural
history, which are totally unworthy of notice. The
most remarkable of these is, that scorpions sometimes
commit suicide, when they find themselves in a situation
from which they cannot make their escape. It is said
that a newly caught scorpion, placed in a circle formed
223
its venom, than that^ o^fanj
Jaik ^ When0 this Wad dermis pressed, the poison may be it£tail ^ the back
Manpertms „as A " Kd ^
three places of the belly, where the animal was without flies, spiders, worms, &c. and even on one another.
2 24
auitralive. The comb-llke excrescences placed between the breast
and abdomen, composed of six teeth j claws smooth. *].
A native of the South sea islands.
maurus. Comb composed of eight teeth j claws nearly heart-
shaped and pointed. I. A native of Africa.
carpathi- Combs composed of six teeth ", claws nearly heart¬
en. shaped and smooth. 2. It is found on the Carpathian
mountains, and in Switzerland.
afer. Combs furnished with thirteen teeth 5 claws nearly
heart-shaped and hairy. 3. A native of India and
Persia; and is the largest and most formidable species.
atneried- Combs furnished with fourteen teeth j the claws
nus. fringed with hair j toes filiform. 4’ native of South
America. It is eaten by the natives of California.
ckilvnsif. Combs furnished with sixteen teeth j claws sonaewhat
angular. This is a variety of the former.
europaeus. Combs furnished with eighteen teeth j claws angular.
5. A native of the south of Europe and north of Asia.
It is viviparous.
kotentotus. Combs furnished with twenty-two teeth 5. claws
smooth $ the tail rough. 8. A native of Africa, in
the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. Body of a dark
brown colour, and marked with raised lines j legs
pale.
auptrafis. Combs furnished with thirty-two teeth j claws smooth.
6. A native of Africa.
These are all the species of the scorpion that have
been described in the last edition of the System of
Nature.
116. Cancer, Crab.
Legs eight, (seldom six or ten), likewise two claws.
Feelers six, unequal. Eyes two, placed at a distance
from one another, and set on moveable stalks in most
species. Mandible composed of a horny substance,
and thick. The lip triple. The tail jointed and with¬
out a sting.
These live chiefly in water ; and feed on insects,
worms, dead fish, and dead bodies of any kind. They
every year cast their shell, which is performed with
much difficulty and pain $ during the change they be¬
come weak and sickly.
A. Antenna four.
-|- The last articulation bifid ; the Tail short.
J The Thorax smooth,
j| And entire on the sides.
eursor. The posterior parts of the sides of the thorax furnish¬
ed with sharp points j the tail bent back. I. A na¬
tive of the Mediterranean and Indian seas. About
sunset it leaves the water, and runs about the sands
with great velocity.
Thorax orbicular, unequal and fringed ; four dorsal
legs. 5. A native of America, within the shell of the»
chama laxarus, to which it gives notice of the approach
of the cuttle-fish.
Thorax orbicular, obtuse; the tail of the same length
with the body. 6. A native of the Mediterranean
seas. About the size of a pea ; the tail very obtuse ;
the legs smooth and without spines ; claws somewhat
oblong ; toes equal.
4
ENTOMOLOGY. Aptera,
Thorax nearly square; edge somewhat sharp; the legs
pennophy-
* pisum.
compressed. 8. It is found in the open sea, particu¬
larly on the fucus natans, and runs about on the surface
of the water.
Very smooth ; the anterior part of the thorax pinnothe.
tened on the sides ; the tail is carinated and knobbed r«,
in the middle. 9. A native of the Asiatic seas. It
resides within the shell of the pinna. The ancients sup¬
posed that this was a friendly connection formed for mu¬
tual defence: that the pinna being destitute of eyes, and
thus exposed, when he opened his shell, to the attacks
of the cuttle-fish and other enemies, was warned of their
approach by his little lodger, on which he immediately
shut his shell, and both were safe.
Land Crab. The first joint of the legs prickly ; the se-ruricola.
cond and third joints set with tufts of hair. 11. A native
of South America. This species resides in the woods. In
the Bahama islands they are so numerous that the
ground seems to move as they crawl about. At breed¬
ing time they generally make to the sea-shores, for the
purpose of washing off their spawn, and depositing it in
the sand, and no obstruction will make them turn aside
from the straight road, when they are on their progress
towards the sea. They are esteemed very excellent
food. They feed on vegetables, but when they have
fed on the manchineel apple they are reckoned poison¬
ous. When taken, they will seize the person’s finger with
their claw, and endeavour to escape, leaving the claw
behind, which for the space of a minute after it has
been separated from the body, continues to squeeze the
finger closely. They vary in size and colour ; the
light coloured ones being esteemed the best food.
Jj j| Thorax marked along the sides with incisions.
Thorax marked with one small projection, one of the vacant*
claws larger than the other ; the eyes long. 14. A
native of Jamaica. It conceals itself under stones, and
utters a cry when caught, and pinches severely.
The thorax furnished with two projections on each* anguh
side; claws very long. no. A native of England.
Found in the sea near Weymouth. The claws are
three times the length of the body.
Hairy; thorax notched on both sides; the hind-legsdromia.
terminating in two nails. 24. A native of the Indian
seas. Black ; the extremities of the claws smooth and
white. It is reckoned poisonous.
Common Crab. Thorax marked on each side with
nine obtuse folds; the tips of the claws black. 27. A
native of both the European and Indian seas. This is
the crab most generally used in this country for the
table ; they are in season and heaviest in the summer;
and cast their shells in the winter and spring. They
frequent rocky shores.
J J Thorax hairy or prickly on the upper side.
Thorax hairy, marked with knobs, and oval; furnish- * orantut
ed with a beak which is divided at the extremity ; claws
oval. 30. A native of the European seas. This
species is supposed to be injurious to oyster-beds; on this
account the fishermen, when they meet with them in
the course of dredging, are careful not to return them
into the water, but carry them on shore, and destroy
them.
Thorax
225
ptera.
uija.
E N T O M
Thorax prickly j claws turgid and covered with
spines ; the fingers of the claws covered with tufts of
hairs ; legs six. 41. A native of the Norwegian seas.
horridus The thorax set with spines, and covered with knobs;
claws oval ; tail carious. 43. A native of the Asiatic
and Norwegian seas. There is a large variety of this
found on the east coast of Scotland, which has its legs
and claws covered with spines.
5 $ Antennce set on stalks; the last articulation of the
posterior pair bifid; Tail long and without leaves.
Paguri Pabricii. Parasitic!.
fro. Thorax divided into four ; the tail simple and big-
bellied beneath. 56. A native of East India, in holes
of rocks. Wanders about on land by night in search
of cocoa-nuts, on which it feeds. To procure them
it mounts the trees, and having detached the nuts, and
let them drop to the ground, it descends and tears them
open with its claws. This species is eatable, except
the intestines.
h nhar- Claws heart-shaped, and covered with sharp points ;
an'. the claw on the right side larger than the other. 57.
A native of the European seas. This species being
destitute of shell towards the tail, takes possession of
the empty shells of different species of cochlea, chan¬
ging from one to another as it increases in size; the tail,
which is soft and without a shell, is furnished with a
hook to secure itself in its habitation.
(.genes. Claws smooth and downy; the claw on the left side
larger than the other. 53. A native of the Ameri¬
can and Asiatic seas. It occupies the empty shells of
different species of cochlea.
« utmor- Downy, covered with a hemispherical cap. A na-
t m. tive of the Mediterranean sea. It is of a dirty gray co¬
lour; hemispherical and without spines. It very much
resembles a skull or death’s head, whence it has re¬
ceived its name; it is about the size of a chesnut. The
cap proceeds, as it were, from the hind legs, and
is turned over the body ; the fingers of the claws
equal and naked at the tips; the extremity of the legs
sharp.
T"anei- Claws rough ; the tail callous at the extremity, and
f his. furnished with a hook. 143. It is found in the fissures
of the rocks on the sea-shore near Edinburgh. It oc¬
cupies the empty shells of the nerita or turbo.
*xtgosus.\ Thorax wrinkled, ciliated, and prickly on the fore
part; the beak furnished with three small projections,
the claws filiform. 149. A native of the Mediterra¬
nean and north seas. It is found on the sea-shore near
Banff in Scotland. This is the C. Banjjius of Pennant,
and the C. Jdrachiatus of Shaw.
$ § § Antennce set on stalks, the posterior pair clejt;
Tail long.
| The shell of the Thorax covering the Thorax com¬
pletely. Astaci. Lobsters.
[j The posterior Antenme bifid.
mma- Lobster. Thorax smooth ; the beak notched on the
ru sides, marked on the upper side, at the base, with a
double tooth. 62. It inhabits the sea, on rocky shores.
This is reckoned the most delicate species; and is most
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
O L O G Y.
in request for the table. They chiefly frequent deep
clear water. They are taken in wicker-baskets, with
holes on the sides, which allow the lobsters to enter, and
prevent their egress ; or with small nets attached to
iron hoops. They breed in the summer months, and
deposit many thousands of eggs in the sand. They cast
their shell annually, and when any of their legs or claws
happen to be torn off they grow again. They are in
season from October to May. Lobsters are said to be
very much alarmed at thunder, so much so as sometimes
to cast their claws.
Crawfish. Thorax smooth, the beak notched on the* astacus.
sides, with a single tooth on each side at the base. 63.
It inhabits fresh waters; it lodges in holes in the clayey
banks of rivers or lakes. It is reckoned a delicacy, and
is much in request as food.
Antennae projecting; beak tapering towards the tx-* halecutn.
tremity ; eyes globular and prominent. 156. A na¬
tive of the north seas. This little animal is very abund¬
ant, and is the principal food of the herrings and cod¬
fish.
|| || The posterior Antennce divided into three.
Prawn. Thorax smooth ; the beak serrated above,* quilla.
beneath furnished with three small projections ; the
edge of the thorax furnished with five small projections.
66. Native of the European seas. The beak is
sometimes straight, sometimes crooked. There is a
smaller variety of this, called in London the white
shrimp, which is white when boiled. Prawns are much
relished by most people ; and are very abundant in
sandy shores.
Shrimp. Thorax smooth; beak short and entire ;* c/’o/igora
the moveable toe of the claw longer than the other. 67.
A native of the northern seas. This species is reckon¬
ed the most delicious of the genus. It is very plentiful
on the sandy shores of Britain.
$ $ The shell of the Thorax not covering the Thorax
completely. Squillse Fabricii.
Claws furnished with a single fang; crooked, com-mantis.
pressed, and notched ; without a moveable toe. 76.
A native of the Mediterranean and Asiatic seas. It is
reckoned a delicacy by the Italians.
|| || || Antenna set on stalks, and simple. Gammari
Fabricii.
Claws consisting of a single fang; legs fourteen
the thighs of the hind-legs compressed and dilated.
170. A native of the north seas. Large, almost
white ; the beak short, curved, and sharp ; the tail
composed of six leaves or plates ; the last articulation
bifid.
Claws four, furnished with a single fang, and desti-*791//^.
tute of a moveable toe; legs ten. 8r. A native of
Europe. It is frequent on the sea-shore, in wells,
ditches, rivulets, and likewise in the salt lakes of Si¬
beria ; it swims on its back, and leaps. It is injurious
to fishermen by eating their nets, and also hurtful to
fishes, by exciting ulcers on their gills. It shines in
the dark.
Ff
B.
2 26
B. Antenna two.
j| Two arched Scales in place of the posterior Antenna
Scyllari Fabiicii.
* arctus T,,e sca,es of t!ie antenn8e frInge(1 with Prlckles* 75
A native of almost every sea.
ENTOMOLOGY. Apteraj
Europe ; in marshes, lakes, and rivulets : it is to be
met with throughout the whole year. The antennje
as long as the body j legs eight. -
( Scales none; Antenna fringed with thickly-set hairs.
Hippae Fabric!!.
cmcharus Thorax wrinkled and oval; claws compressed and
prickly along the edges. 72. A native 01 i-outh A-
merica and India.
|| || Antenna nearly clavated.
Antenme stiff j tail bifid. 18. Inhabits, though ctavigtr,
rarely, the rivers of Germany ; and glides slowly along,
alternately on its back, belly, and sides ; and some¬
times raises itself upright. Upper part of the body
white, beneath red ; legs eight j tail very small and
without articulations.
l8r species of this genus have been described by
Gmelin, in the last edition of the System of Nature.
117. Monoculus.
Legs formed for swimming; very long ; from four to
eight. Body covered with a shell, composed of from
five to ten segments, growing smaller towards the
tail. Antennae two; those of the male thicker and
shorter than those of the female. In some species
they are wanting. Sometimes one eye, more tre-
quently two, approaching very near to one another.
Feelers four, constantly in motion while the amraal
is swimming ; the posterior pair are very sma , an
bent like hooks.
§ § § Antenna dilated.
Antennae short; tail furnished with two sharp points, crassim
19. A native of Europe; in marshes. It is very rare.?«S‘
Body composed of five segments ; the antennae swelling
from the base to the middle, and becoming sharp to¬
wards the extremity.
§ § § § The tip of the Antenna terminating in three
points. 1
Antennae very small and straight; body without ar-cmticcrn
ticulations ; claws smooth ; tail furnished with two
bristles. 20. Inhabits salt water.
§ § § § § Antenna bent backwards.
The insects of this genus live in water; some of them
are found in the sea, others in rivers, but most of them
in stagnant waters; they have been called monocuh from
the circumstance of some of them having but one eye,
or two eyes placed so close together as to appear but one.
Some of them are viviparous, some oviparous.
Antennae short; body without articulations, furnish- cheliftr.
ed with claws; tail furnished with two bristles. 21.
Inhabits salt water.
§§§§§§ Antenna of the (male') furnished with little
hooks.
A. Those which have one Eye.
§ Body covered with a hard Crust.
I Antenna none. Polyphemus Mulleri,
The bristles of the tail very short. 22. Inhabits brevm
salt marshes. It very much resembles the M. quadri-nis.
cornis; the top of the antennae in the female larger,
and forked at the extremity.
sculus. Feelers two, long and divided; tail inflected. 10.
A native of Europe. To be found in lakes and
marshes from May to September. It swims on its back,
frequently in large swarms ; eye very black, occupy¬
ing almost the whole of its head.
-j- f Those which have a bivalved Shell.
% Head exposed; two-branched Antenna ; legs from
eight to twelve. Daphniae Mulleri.
J X Antenna two or four. Cyclopes Mulleri.
§ Tail bent inwards.
The posterior part of the shell set with sharp points.
1  I.   " n * a f* Q n fl Ifl
§ Antenna four.
* auadi i- Tail straight, and divided at the extremity. 6. A
J2 native of Europe; in ,'vatets Bodygtaytsh or
greenish, smooth or covered with hair ; legs eight and
hairy. Female with an oval bag on each side ot the
tail, which contain the eggs. The antennae in the male
are much thicker and shorter than in the female ; the
4. It is found everywhere in stagnant waters, and in
great abundance. It is a frequent cause of the water
assuming the colour of blood. The shell is yellowish ;
the abdomen, intestines, and ten legs red. The female
is three times the size of the male ; and produces from
eight to twelve green eggs; the back is marked with a
large square spot resembling a saddle.
tail is composed of four articulations; in the female it
is furnished with two small spines. When viewed in
the microscope they are found to have two eyes placed
very close together. They are very frequent even in
the purest water, and are often swallowed along with it.
-j- f Antenna two.
§ Antenna linear.
* rnbens. Heddish ; tail straight and forked, 13. A native of
§ § Tail bent downwards.
The shell without prickles; the head furnished wither^
two short projecting horns. 29. A native of the north nus.
of Europe ; in lakes and rivers. White and oblong y
very transparent; viviparous, and furnished with twelve
hairy feet.
$ § § Tail bent backwards.
Tail bent backwards. 5. A native of Europe ; mpedic
fresh water. f f
H H
ji)tera. E N T O M
§ § § § Tail straight.
The anterior angles of the shell furnished with a tuft
of bristles. 30. A native of Europe j in stagnant
waters ; transparent, of an oblong oval form $ antennae
divided into three, furnished with eight or more hairy
legs ; the extremity of the tail terminating in two
hooks.
J % Head concealed; Antennae two^ and hairy; Legs
eight. Cytherae Mulleri.
i«V/«V. Shell kidney-shaped and downy. 31. A native of
Europe $ found on various species oi Jucus and con¬
ferva ; the extremity of the antennae terminating in
three points j the fore-legs formed like hooks.
|| j| |] Head concealed; Antennae two, like hairs ; Legs
four. Cyprides Mulleri.
i'mcha- Shell oval and downy. 7. Found in clear stagnant
cis. waters *, the antennae white or yellowish, and stretched
out; swims very swiftly, with ten bristles. It is green,
opaque ; feet yellowish ; abdomen nearly bilobed and
orange-coloured, marked in the middle with a black
circle. It conceals itself within its shell, and swims on
its belly. It resembles a muscle in miniature, is very
minute, and seldom exceeds the tenth part of an inch.
f f f Those with shells consisting of one valve.
Legs four ; Antennae two. Amymonae Mulleri.
*htyrus. Shell oval; antennae obtuse, and extended in a ver¬
tical direction. 46. It is frequent in clear fresh wa¬
ter $ it is agitated at intervals with a tremulous motion ;
the shell is flat and membranaceous j antennae rigid, fur¬
nished with three very short bristles at the extremity j
the fore-legs thick and bifid *, tail terminating abruptly,
eight-cleft in the middle. The insect is transparent.
|| || Legs six; Antennae two. Nauplii Mulleri.
wcteatus Shell orbicular, and without spines or bristles. 52.
It is rare ; found in clear fresh water j the shell very
transparent $ the antennae resembling legs; the legs
terminating in three bristles j the eye not conspicuous.
B. Eyes two. Binoculi.
f Those with shells composed of one valve.
§ Eyes two, placed beneath ; Antennae two ; Legs four
to eight. Arguii Mulleri.
^dyhi- Legs eight. 55. Found in rivers.
§ $ Eyes situated on the back ; Antennae two or six:
Legs varying in number. Limuli Mulleri.
phe- Shell orbicular j suture in the middle of the form of
k a crescent; tail triangular, long and tapering. 1. A
native of the Indian seas, particularly in the neighbour¬
hood of the Molucca islands. It is likewise found on
the shores of Carolina. It is the largest of all known
insects j sometimes it grows to the length of four feet.
It is frequently found in pairs, male and female. It is
O L O G Y. 227
very rarely found among petrifactions. There are
seven spines on the anterior part of the back of the
shell: legs 14.
Shell oblong j the suture before of the form of a* apus.
crescent $ tail composed of two bristles. 3. A native
of Europe $ in ditches, ponds, &c. 5 and though dried
in summer, when the water has evaporated, yet they
revive when the water returns. This is the largest
species to be found in Britain.
§ § § Eyes placed on the sides ; Antennae t wo, setaceous;
Legs eight or ten. Caligi Mulleri.
Body short j tail bifid, and composed of one thin flap. * piscinus.
2. A native of the European seas. Found on flound¬
ers, cod-fish, salmon, &c. adhering on the outside be¬
tween the scales j running swiftly both on the fish and
on the water.
f f Those with Shells composed of two valves ; Head
not inclosed within the shell; the Eyes placed on the
sides ; Antennax two or four, resembling hairs, and
placed beneath; Legs eight and more. Lynceae
Mulleri.
Tail inflected ; shell globular. 60. A native of Eu- * spheeri-
rope. It is found about the edges of stagnant waters, ct/s.
and among duck-weed. It is very minute $ the shell
is reddish 5 antennae two j legs twelve ; tail furnished
with a small hook at the extremity and concave beneath j
the ovaria green.
66 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
118. Oniscus.
Jaw terminating abruptly, and furnished with small
teeth. Lip bifid. Feelers unequal, the posterior ones
being longer than the others. Antennae setaceous. .
Body oval. Legs fourteen.
The species of this genus feed on the leaves of plants,
on filth, and on the juices of animals j some of them are
very injurious to the fruit of wall-trees; they under¬
go no other change but a change of skin. They are
found under stones, in old walls, houses, and woods j
some species live in water.
Abdomen covered with two thin plates; the tail se- * asilus.
mioval. 1. A native of the European seas. Vivipa¬
rous $ and is very injurious to fishes.
Antennae four; tail long and sharp. 5. Inhabits* ewfowow.
the sea. It swims very quickly. It lives on crabs and
fishes ; the fishermen dislike it very much.
Oval, and of a brownish ash-colour; tail obtuse and * amroc/#-
entire. 15. A native of Europe ; under stones. "When lo.
touched it rolls itself up into a hard motionless ball ;
from which circumstance it has received the name of
armadillo.
Oval; tail obtuse, furnished with two simple append-* asellus.
ages. 14. A native of Europe; in houses, walls,
woods, &c. The young are contained in a follicle of
four valves on the abdomen of the mother. This spe¬
cies was formerly used in medicine.
38 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
F f a i i £.
228
lip. SCOLOPENDRA.
lagura.
Antennae setaceous. Feelers two, filiform 5 articulated
and connected within the jaws. Lip divided and
marked with small projections. Body flattish. Legs
very numerous j one on each side ot each of the seg*
ments of the body.
These insects live in decayed wood, about houses,
under stones, and some of them in fresh water. They
feed on other insects in every stage of their existence.
The larvae diftef but little from the perfect insect, e.x-
cept that they have fewer feet. The pupae likewise
are active, and very much resemble the perfect insect.
All the Kuropean species are small, but in tropical
countries they are to be seen a foot long and an inch
and a half in circumference.
Twelve legs on each side } body oval j tail furnished
with a white tult of hairs. 1. A native of Europe }
in mossy ground.
* forficata Legs fifteen on each side. 3. A native of Europe
and America. Very frequent under stones.
gigantea. Legs seventeen on each side. 4. A native of Ame-
rica. v
trior sit ant. Legs twenty on each side j eyes eight. 5. A na¬
tive of America and India. Body composed of 22
segments j the antennae consisting of 20 articulations.
It is much dreaded on account of its bite, which is said
to be poisonous. o * • r
* electrica Legs 70 on each side body linear.. 8. .A native ot
Europe ; in close damp places, and shines in the dark.
Legs 76 on each side. 9. A native of Asia. It
Chines in the dark like the lampyris ; it is said that this
insect has dropt from the air into a ship IOO miles from
land, in the Indian and ^Ethiopian seas. Head oval,
yellowish, and marked with two grooved lines, and a
third transverse line j body filiform, and is about the
ENTOMOLOGY. Aptera.
thickness of a goose-quill, marked with twTo parallel
yellow lines *, antennae tapering, of a rusty colour, and
consisting of 14 articulations.
I 2 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
phor.pho-
tea.
120. JULUS.
Antennae moniliform. Feelers two, filiform and joint¬
ed. Body semicylindrical. Legs very numerous,
two on each side of every segment of the body.
The insects of this genus feed on other insects, parti¬
cularly acari. The larva and pupa have many feet,
are active, and resemble the perfect insect.
Legs 20 on each side. 1. A native of the Euro- ovalis,
pean seas.
Legs 134 on each side. 9. A native of America.
This is the largest species of the genus. It bites se¬
verely, but is not poisonous.
Legs 120 on each side. 5* ^ native of Europe j
in sandy places, and on the hazel.
12 species of this genus have been described in the
last edition of the System of Nature.
The following table exhibits the number of species
included under each order.
COLEOPTERA
Hemiptera
Lepidoptera
Neuroptera
Hymenoptera
Hiptera
Aptera
In all
4087
1427
2570
174
1265
692
679
10,894
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Though the definition of an insect which we have
already given from Linnaeus be perfectly correct, (viz.
a small animal breathing through pores on its sides,
furnished with many feet and moveable antennae, cover¬
ed with either a hard crust, or a hairy skin), it may
not be improper to mention, moie at large, those cir¬
cumstances which form the line of distinction between
insects and other animals.
1. Insects are not furnished with red blood, but in¬
stead of it their vessels contain a transparent lymph.
This may serve to distinguish them from the superior
animals, but it is common to them with many of the
inferior ; though Cuvier has lately demonstrated the ex¬
istence of a kind of red blood in some of the vermes.
2. They are destitute of internal bones, but in place
of them are furnished with a hard external covering to
which the muscles are attached, which serves them both
for skin and bones ; they are likewise without a spine
formed of vertebrae, which is found in all the superior
classes of animals.
3. They are furnished with articulated legs, six or
more •, this circumstance distinguishes them from all
other animals destitute of a spine formed of vertebrae.
4. A very great number of insects undergo a meta¬
morphosis : this takes place in all the winged insects.
5. They frequently change their skin in the progress
of their growth.
6. A very great number of insects are furnished with
jaws placed transversely.
7. The wings, with which a very great number of
insects are furnished, distinguish them from all other
animals which are not furnished with a spine composed
of vertebrae.
8. Insects are oviparous; scorpions and aphides du¬
ring the summer months are viviparous.
9. Insects have no nostrils.
10. Insects are destitute of voice.
11. They are not furnished with a distinct heart com¬
posed of ventricle and auricle.
12. Incubation is not necessary for hatching their
eggs.
The Organization of Insects.
When we wish to become thoroughly acquainted
with natural objects, we must not confine ourselves to
an examination of their external appearance and confi¬
guration,
Ge
Ob!
ti
ENTOMOLOGY,
l&encral guration, but ought to examine their internal structure
Observa- and their component parts j and extend our inquiries to
tions. every thing which relates to them. Insects, like all
other organized bodies which form the animal and ve¬
getable kingdoms, are composed of fluids and solids.
In the four superior classes of animals, viz. quadru¬
peds, birds, reptiles, and fishes, the bones form the
most solid part, and occupy the interior part both of
the trunk and limbsj they are surrounded with muscles,
ligaments, cellular membrane, and skin. The matter
is entirely reversed in,the class of insects; the exterior
part is most solid, serving at the same time both for skin
and bones j it enclose the muscles and internal organs,
gives firmness to the whole body, and by means of its
articulations, the limbs, and different parts of the body,
perform their various motions. In many insects, such
as the crab, lobster, &c. the external covering is very
hard, and destitute of organization ; it is composed of a
calcareous phosphate, mixed with a small quantity of ge¬
latine, formed by an exudation from the surface of the
body. As its great hardness would check the growth of
the animal, nature has provided a remedy*, all of these
crustaceous insects cast their shell annually. The skin
of most of the other insects, though composed likewise
of calcareous phosphate, is softer and organized, being
formed of a number of thin membranes adhering close¬
ly to one another,- and putting on the appearance of
horn. It owes its greater softness to a larger proportion
of gelatine. The muscles of insects consist of fibres
formed of fasciculi ; there are commonly but two mus¬
cles to produce motion in any of their limbs, the one an
extensor, the other a flexor. These muscles are com¬
monly attached to a tendon composed of a horny sub¬
stance, connected to the part which they aie destined
to put in motion. The articulations of insects are
formed in a variety of ways ; Cuvier, in his Compa¬
rative Anatomy, tom. i. page 445. has given a very
minute account of them. Though Linnaeus, and seve¬
ral others following him, have asserted that insects have
no brain, yet it is certain that at least a number of
the larger kind, as the lobster, crab, &c. have a soft
substance similar to brain, from which the optic and
other nerves take their rise ; besides, when this sub¬
stance is irritated, the animal is thrown into convul¬
sions j hence we would conclude, that insects have a
brain as well as the animals of the four superior classes,
though it be smaller in proportion to their body.
In most insects the brain is situated a little above the
oesophagus ; it divides into two large branches, which
surround the oesophagus, and unite again under it, from
which junction a whitish nervous chord proceeds, cor¬
responding to the spinal marrow of the superior animals,
which extends the whole length of the body, forming
in its course twelve or thirteen knots or ganglions, from
each of which small nerves proceed to different parts of
the body. Those who deny that insects have no brain,
lay much stress on this circumstance, that many insects
are capable of funning about after they have been de¬
prived of their heads ; the hippobosca, in particular, is
frequently instanced, which moves about quite readily,
and is even said to copulate after its head has been cut
off. The ganglions which are formed in the course of
the larger nerves, perform in a great measure the func¬
tion of the brain, indeed each of these ganglions may be
viewed as a subordinate brain j in this way it may be
2 29
easily conceived how the various parts which derive General
their nerves from any one of these ganglions, mav be Observa-
enabled to perform their dift’erent functions, after they i*®*1*-
have been separated from the other parts of the body, *
and deprived of all connexion with the brain.
Whether insects be endowed with any senses different
from those of the superior animals, cannot easily be as¬
certained, because we are only acquainted with the five
which we ourselves enjoy. It appears pretty evident
that they possess vision, hearing, smell, and touch j as
to the sense of taste we are left to conjecture, for we
are acquainted with no facts, by which we can prove
that insects enjoy the sense of taste, nor do we know of
any by which we can prove that they do not.
The eyes of insects are of two kinds; the one com¬
pound, composed of a number of lenses, large, and only
two in number ; the other are small, smooth, and varv
in number from two to eight. The small lenses which
form the compound eyes are very numerous $ they
amount in some insects to many hundreds. Leeuwen¬
hoek has counted 800 of them in the eye of a fly.
Pugett says he observed upwards of 14,000 in the eye
of a butterfly. The eyes of insects are without eye¬
lids, and are covered externally with a hard smooth
substance. Cuvier has given the anatomy of the eye of
a dragon-fly. The internal surface of the lenses is cover¬
ed with a black varnish. Under each of the lenses of
which the eye is composed, there is a small nervous
fibre, attached to the edge of the black covering which
lines the internal surface of each lens by one extremity,
and by the other to a membrane which is of the same
extent with the cornea, which Cuvier calls the choroide.
It is easily detached from the small nervous fibre, and
appears to the naked eye, finely radiated with black
and white; behind this there is still another membrane
composed entirely of medullary substance, which is con¬
nected on each side with the hemisphere of the brain.
Whether insects from the compound nature of their
eyes see objects multiplied, or enjoy only single vision,
cannot be ascertained ; were objects to fie seen multi¬
plied in proportion to the vast number of lenses of which
the eyes of insects are composed, vision would certainly
be very confused ; and were we to be guided by analo¬
gy, we might naturally enough suppose that insects saw
objects single with their compound eyes, as we ourselves-
see objects single with two eyes.
The eyes of insects, according to Swammerdam, do
not contain the same humours which are found in the
eyes of animals which compose the superior classes.
The external membrane which covers the eyes, varies
in colour in difl’erent insects; in many of the dipterous
insects, particularly the gad-fly, it fs agreeably varie¬
gated.
The far greater number of insects have only two
eyes, like the animals of the superior classes ; some have
three, e. gr. the scolopendra ; some four, e. gr. gyrinus;
some six, e. gr. scorpions ; some eight, e. gr. spiders.
The eyes of insects are commonly immoveable; crabs,
however, have the power of moving their eyes.
That insects are endowed with the sense of hearing
can no longer be disputed, since frog-hoppers, crickets,
&c. furnish us with undeniable proofs ot the fact. Na¬
ture has provided the males of these insects with the
means of calling their females, by an instrument fitted
to produce a sougd, which is heard by the latter. 1 he-
Eiais
ENTOMOLOGY.
male ami female death-watch give notice of each others
presence, by repeatedly striking with their mandibles
against old wood in houses, or decayed trees, their fa¬
vourite haunts. Their ears have been discovered to be
placed at the root of their antennae, and can be di¬
stinctly seen in some of the larger kinds, as the lobstei.
That insects enjoy the faculty of smelling, is very
evident. It is the most perfect of all their senses.
Beetles of various sorts, nitidulce, the different species
of dertnestes, sylphs, files, &c. perceive at a very con¬
siderable distance, the smell of ordure and dead bodies,
and resort in swarms to the situations in which they occur,
either for the purpose of procuring food or laying their
eggs. The common blue flesh-fly, is attracted by the
strong smell of the arum dracuntium, which very much
resembles that of carrion, and deposits its eggs on it:
these flies are likewise deceived, and deposit their eggs
on the flowers of the stapelia hirsuta, which has a very
cadaverous smell. But though we can thus easily
prove the sense of smell among insects, it is difficult
to discover the seat of that particular sense. Several
naturalists have supposed that it resides in the antennae.
Dumeril, in a disertation published in 1799, attempts
to prove, that it must be situated about the entrance of
the spiracula or respiratory organs, as Baster had previ¬
ously supposed. Notwithstanding his arguments, Ta-
treille is still disposed to follow the opinion of those who
believe the antennae to be the organs of smell. His
reasons for favouring this opinion are :—
1. Smell is produced by the action of air, impreg¬
nated with odoriferous particles, on the nervous or ol¬
factory membrane, which transmits the sensation.
If insects be endowed with an organ, furnished with
similar nerves, capable of receiving impressions fiom air
charged with odoriferous particles, such organs may be
regarded as that of smell. Should the antenna; present
a tissue of many nerves, what inconvenience can result
from supposing that this tissue is capable of transmitting
odour P Would not this hypothesis, on the contrary, be
more simple, and more consonant to anatomical princi¬
ples, than that which fixes the seat of smell at the en¬
trance of the spiracula ?
2. Many male insects have their antennae more de¬
veloped than the females j a fact easily explained, if
we admit that these organs are the seat of smell.
3. It is certain that most of those insects which live
or deposit their eggs on putrid animal or vegetable mat¬
ters, stagnant waters, &c. are almost uniformly distin¬
guished by a greater developement of the antennae j
such, for example, as the beetle, sylphs, leather-eaters,
tipuiee, &c. These required a more perfect sense ol
smell, and are organized accordingly.
4. A great many insects which are entirely rapaci¬
ous, have simple antennas 5 and those which are charac¬
terised by similar manners, and which are sedentary,
have none at all •, as for instance some of the spiders.
5. Insects discover their habitations and food by the
sense of smell. Latreille deprived several insects of
their antennae, and found they instantly fell into, a
state of stupor or derangement, and seemed to be in¬
capable of recognising their haunts or their food,
though placed close by them. Such experiments de¬
serve to be prosecuted. With this view, were the an-
tennse of dung-beetles to be coated with varnish, and
the animals placed near excrement (their usual iood),
3
a decisive proof would be obtained ; for were they rea- General
dily to find their way to the excrement, it may be fairly °^Ja*
inferred that the antennae were not the organs of smell. , f
Should the reverse take place, an opposite conclusion
might naturally be drawn.
6. Nerves terminate the antennae, the articulations of
which, though externally covered with a pretty thick
membrane, are hollow, lined within with a soft sub¬
stance, which is often of a watery consistence, the ex¬
tremities of which, when exposed to the au, may re¬
ceive impressions from it.
Some have imagined the antennae to be the organs
of touch •, but Latreille contends that such an opinion is
by no means supported by facts, and alleges that the
shortness of the antennae in most species, and the way
in which most insects carry their antennae, seem to prove
the contrary. He thinks their antennae ill adapted to
become the organs of touch, because they have a hard
and scaly covering. He is rather inclined to believe
that the sense of touch, at least in certain species, is si¬
tuated in the paws or extremities of the fore legs. Ihe
palpi or feelers in spiders and some other insects, seem
to possess the sense of touch in an eminent degree ; but
many are disposed to consider these palpi rather as the
organs of taste. Though we have no direct proof that
insects enjoy the sense of taste, yet we may naturally
enough suppose that they do, both from analogy and
from the circumstance that most insects prefer some
particular kinds of food to all others 5 many of them
will rather die of famine, than eat any other kind .of
food than that which is peculiar to them. The superior
part of the oesophagus has been supposed by some to
be the seat of the organ of taste.
Aliment of Insects.
INSECTS feed on a great variety of substances there
are few things either in the vegetable or animal king¬
doms which are not consumed by one or other of them.
The leaves, flowers, fruit, and even the ligneous parts of
vegetables, afford nourishment to a very numerous.class •,
animal bodies both dead and alive, even man himself,
is preyed on by many of them; several species of the
louse, of acarus, of the gnat, and the common flea, draw
their nourishment from the surface of his body 5 the. g»-
our or chiegoe, [pulex ulccrans'), penetrates the cuticle,
and even enters his flesh. A species of gad-fly (ccstrus
hominis) deposits its eggs under his skin, where the lar¬
va; feed ; the phalena pinguinalis frequently finds its
way into his stomach, where it sometimes proves a fatal
lodger. Other caterpillars insinuate themselves, into
diflerent cavities of his body. All the inferior animals
have their peculiar parasitical insects which feed on
them during their life.
There are some insects which can feed only on one
species. The caterpillars both of moths and butterflies,
which feed on the leaves of some particular vegetable,
would die without being able to taste any other. There
are others which can make use of two or three kinds 01
vegetables, but which never attain full perfection, except
when they are fed on one particular kind ; for example,
the common silk-worm, which eats readily all the species
of mulberry, and even common lettuce, neither attains
so great a size, nor produces so much silk, as when fed
on the white mulberry. Although that species of coc¬
cus
E N T O M
General cus which produces the lac, feeds on thecas reltgiosa,
Observa- ficus inclica, rhamnus jujuba, and plaso Hort. Malabar.
t‘oas‘ yet the lac collected from theficus religiose/, is very much
v superior in quality. That species of coccus which pro¬
duces the cochineal, if it will at all feed on any other
species of vegetables, never affords a dye equal to that
which is to be obtained from it when fed on that parti¬
cular species of cactus called coccimllifera by Linnaeus.
There are a great many which feed indiscriminately on
a variety of vegetables, which from that circumstance
receive the title ofpolyphaga. Almost all herbivorous
insects eat a great deal, and very frequently; and most
of them perish if deprived of food, for but a short time.
Carnivorous insects can live a long while without food,
e. g. the carubus, dyliscus, cicindela, spiders, &c. As
many insects cannot transport themselves easily in quest
of food, to places at a distance from one another, nature
has furnished the perfect insects of many species with an
instinct, which leads them to deposit their eggs in situ¬
ations where the larva, as soon as hatched, may find that
kind of food which is best adapted to their nature.
Most of the butterflies, though they flutter about
and collect the nectarious juice of a variety of flowers
as food for themselves, always deposit their eggs on or
near to those vegetables destined by nature to become
the food of their larvae. The various species of fc/r/zew-
mon deposit their eggs on the bodies of those insects on
which their larvae feed. The sirex (tailed wasp) and
sphex are likewise careful to deposit their eggs in situa¬
tions where their larvae, when hatched, may find sub¬
sistence. The ichneumon seductor, after having killed
an insect (most commonly a spider) deposits an egg on
it, and then shuts it up in a cell which it forms of clay.
The likewise deposits its eggs on the body
of spiders which it has killed, and encloses it in a cell
composed of clay. Some insects, at difl’erent periods of
their existence, make use of aliment of very different
properties: the larvae of some are carnivorous, while
the perfect insect feeds on the nectarious j uice of flowers:
e. g. sirex, ichneumon, &c. The larva of most of the
lepidopterous insects feed on the leaves and young shoots
of vegetables, while the perfect insects either take no
food at all, or subsist on the sweet juice which they ex¬
tract from flowers ; indeed the construction of their
mouths prevent them from taking any other than fluid
food.
The alimentary organs may be divided into four
parts, i. Those of Mastication ; 2. Deglutition ; 3.
Digestion ; and, 4. Excretion. The organs of mastica¬
tion vary considerably in different insects. Amongst
those animals, some subsist on solid food ; therefore
must be furnished with tentacula (or pincers) for its
comminution. Others subsist on liquid food ; and are
furnished with suckers, which vary in form in dift’er-
ent insects. Sometimes with a trunk formed of a
double sheath twisted in a spiral form, as is to be seen
in the butterfly and the sphinx. Sometimes with a sharp
stiff’ beak bent towards the breast; such as in the bug,
the frog-hopper, and boat-fly. At other times with a
fleshy proboscis ending in two moveable lips, or in a
sucker composed of several syphons, inclosed in a sheath
consisting of two valves, which is the case in the dip¬
terous insects ; such as the common fly, the horse fly,
the gnat, &c.
Amongst insects which have jaws, some, such as
231
tions.
O L O G Y.
those of the orders Coleoptera and Aptera, have these General
parts hard and composed of a horny substance, and sub- OW-rva-
sist on matters of a considerable degree of tenacity.
Those coleopterous insects which have six feelers feed
on living insects ; and those which have only four, feed
on putrid animal or vegetable substances. The other
insects furnished with jaws (such as many of the order
Srlymenoptera), have these parts soft and membranaceous,
and consequently subsist on liquid or very succulent food.
There are no salivary glands to be met with in the
mouths of insects, but a set of floating vessels secrete a
fluid, varying in colour in different insects, very similar
to saliva.
The organs of deglutition present nothing very re¬
markable. The cesophagus is a straight short tube,
reaching from a little way under the brain to the first
ganglion of the nerves, which perhaps may be consider¬
ed as the cerebellum of insects. In the insects without
jaws, deglutition is performed by a tube composed of
annular muscular fibres. The trunk of the butterfly,
the proboscis of the common fly, and the beak of he¬
mipterous insects, may be considered as part of the
oesophagus projecting beyond the mouth.
The organs of digestion consist of the stomach and
intestinal canal. The stomach of insects varies very
much according to the nature of the aliment on which
they subsist. Sometimes it is single, frequently double,
at other times manyfold. The greater number of in¬
sects have a single stomach, which is sometimes entire¬
ly membranaceous, sometimes muscular, and at other
times it is merely the continuation of the oesophagus
without any perceptible dilatation. Those insects which
have a dilated membranaceous stomach, subsist com¬
monly on the juices of vegetables; such as the bees,
which suck the nectar of flowers, the butterflies &c.
Their stomachs are almost always dilated, owing to the
disengagement of gas from the substances they contain.
Those which are furnished with a muscular stomach,
such as the bug, the boat-fly, and almost all the he¬
mipterous insects, feed on animal substances. Finally,
those which have no dilatation in the oesophagus so as
to form an evident stomach, commonly feed on the
leaves and roots of vegetables, such as the cock-chaffer
and all the beetles. The whole of the alimentary canal
in these insects is very long, without any perceptible en¬
largement. The double stomach is to be found in
those coleopterous insects which feed on other live in¬
sects, such as the cicindela, carabus, atlelabus, &c. all
of them are likewise distinguished by six palpoe. The
first of their two stomachs is muscular, and is a sort of
gizzard, the muscles of which are composed of slender
fibres. The second is a long membranaceous canal,
which appears villous when examined by the micro¬
scope ; this villosity at first sight may appear singular,
but a little attention to the manner in which nutrition
goes on in insects, will suggest an explanation of this
peculiarity. When we consider that circulation pro¬
ceeds very slowly, and that the nutritive fluids must be
nearly in a state of stagnation, digestion could not
proceed without the assistance of absorbent tubes, which
may take up these fluids. We may naturally enough
suppose this villosity to be nothing else, but a number
of absorbent vessels which take up the nutritive part of
the circumambient fluid. Those insects which have
many stomachs may be called ranimating, because they
have.
2^2
ENTOMOLOGY.
have the power of causing the food to return from the
stomach to be chewed over again j such as the grass¬
hopper, cricket, &c.
The mole cricket has a long ccsophagus terminating
in a round membranaceous stomach, which may perhaps
be compared to the first stomach of the ruminating ani¬
mals of the class Mammalia; where the food is accu¬
mulated, to be thrown back into the mouth, again to
undergo a farther mastication. .
A short intestine proceeds from this into a second
stomach much less than the former, but muscular and
apparently thicker, and furnished with parts which re¬
semble the grinders in the stomach of crabs. They are
small laminx, resembling saws, disposed in five longitu¬
dinal rows, each composed of from ten to twelve small¬
er laminae, which perform assort of peristaltic motion
by means of the muscular action of the stomach j and it
appears pretty evident that the action of those laminae
is exerted on the food contained in the stomach. The
other two stomachs are very similar, and placed one op¬
posite to the other at the opening of the intestine which
corresponds to the duodenum of the superior animals *,
they are wrinkled and thicker than the first stomach,
but not so thick as the second.
This apparatus is to imbibe some part of the fluid
from the aliment. .
In the grasshopper the stomachs are similarly arran¬
ged. The cricket has to the number of five small and
slender stomachs j indeed the two first seem only to be
simple dilatations of the oesophagus.
In the cock-roach there is only one stomach, which is
very large, and almost entirely membranaceous j at the
extremity of which, there is'a number of partial en¬
largements which may be considered as so many sto¬
machs. The stomachs of the larvae frequently ditter
from those of their perfect insects j viz. the alimentary
ctinal of the caterpillar differs very much from that ot
the butterfly j and the intestinal canal ol the grub dit-
fers widely from that of the beetle. t
' The oesophagus of the grub of the scarabams nasicor-
nis dilates suddenly, forming a cylindrical stomach
which is furnished with three ranges of caecum, which
have their extremities simple and loose. The intestine
proceeds in a straight line from the stomach j then hav¬
ing formed a doubling, becomes larger, and puts on
the appearance of a colon, four times the length of the
stomach; on which is to be perceived two tendinous
lines. At the extremity of the colon there is a consi¬
derable dilatation; beyond which it becomes slender,
and forms the rectum. The intestinal canal of the
scarabceus melolontha, or cock-chafler, is almost exactly
similar; but nothing analogous to this structure is ob¬
servable in the perfect insect. The intestines ot the
scarabceus melolontha, and sc. nasicornis are very long,
very much contorted, and equal throughout their whole
length.
The larva of the hydrophilus has a very evident sto¬
mach, and a very short intestine. In the perfect insect
the intestine is long, without any visible enlargement or
stomach, which may be accounted for, perhaps, in this
wav * the larvae subsist on animal food, while the per¬
fect insects feed on vegetables. The examples we have
just given are striking. It may be remarked, that when¬
ever the larvae and the perfect insect subsist on the same
kind of food, the difference in structure is less remark-
4
able *, only the intestinal canal is longer in the perfect General
7 J Ohserva-
insect.
The anus or the posterior orifice of the intestinal ca-  
nal, not only affords a passage for the excrement, but
encloses the extremities of the parts ot generation.
There are neither kidneys, bladder ot urine, pancreas,
nor any of the conglomerated glands observable in
animals of the superior classes, to be found in insects.
Instead of the liver, there is a number of small float¬
ing filaments which surround the intestinal canal for al¬
most two-thirds of its length. Ihere is a great quan¬
tity of fat in many insects, particularly in those which
spend a considerable, portion ot their lives in a torpid
state. It is contained in loose membranes that fill up
the intervals between the bronchiae. This fat in cater¬
pillars is very white, and both in taste and consistence
very much resembles that ot other animals. I he quan¬
tity is so considerable in some insects as to equal one-
third of the bulk of the body. All the insects which
undergo a metamorphosis, are abundantly supplied with
this fat; without it, indeed, they seem unable to go
through their destined changes; for it has been obser¬
ved, that those caterpillars which have been fed on by
the larvse of the various species of ichneumon, though
they may survive the ravages of these parasitical insects
till they are changed into pupae, commonly die before
they become perfect insects.
The Respiration of Insects.
Respiration is the act of inhaling and exhaling the
air into, and out of the lungs. Quadrupeds, birds, and
most of the amphibia, breathe through the mouth and
nostrils. The air when received into the lungs is mix¬
ed with the blood, and imparts to it something neces¬
sary, and carries off something noxious.
Some authors have asserted that insects have no lungs.
But late experiments and observations show, that no
species wants them, or at least something similar to
them; and in many insects they are larger in proportion
to their bodies than in other animals. In most of them
they lie at or nearer to the surface of the body, and send
out lateral pores or tracheEe. The respiration of insects
has attracted the attention of many naturalists, particu¬
larly Swammerdam, Malpighi, Reaumur, Lyonnet,
Muschenbroeck, Degeer, Bonnet, Vauquelin, &c.
From their observations it may be interred,
1. That insects do not breathe through the mouth or
nostrils.
2. That there are a number of vessels for the recep¬
tion of air placed along on each side of the body, which
are commonly called spiracula, which are subdivided
into a number of smaller vessels or bronchiae.
* 3. That the vessels or tracheae which proceed from
the pores on the sides, are not composed of a simple
membrane, but are tubes formed of circular rugae.
4. That the spiracula are distinguishable, and are
covered with a small scaly plate, with an opening in
the middle like a button hole, which is furnished with
membranes, or threads, to prevent the admission of
extraneous bodies. _
Reaumur is of opinion that the air enters by the
spiracula into the tracheae and bronchise ; and is ex¬
pired through small pores on the skin, without return¬
ing by the same way through which it entered. Were
Observa¬
tions.
E N T O M
lieneral thi8 case» ^ie respiration of insects would differ
ibserra- from that of other animals. Degeer seems to entertain
tions. the same opinion with Reaumur, from the account he
» r * has given of the manner in which caterpillars breathe ;
but thinks that inspiration and expiration through the
spiracula and bronchia take place in the pupa. Lyonnet
is not of the same opinion with Degeer, on account of
an experiment made on the pupa of the sphinx. He
supposes that this pupa lives for a certain time without
respiration, and that the two anterior spiracula, which
are the largest, and enclose the posterior ones, only
serve the purpose of allowing the superabundant mois¬
ture to exhale, and to permit the external air to enter
in its stead. Some experiments of Muschenbroeck
seem to confirm the opinion of Lyonnet with regard to
the pupa.
Perhaps nature, with that foresight which is observ¬
able in all her works, has taken care to form the pupa
so as to require but a small quantity of air, and may
have included in its body every thing necessary to en¬
able it to undergo the change of its condition. The
pupa of most insects is certainly very torpid, and little
capable of receiving external impressions. The experi¬
ments of Malpighi and Reaumur have established the
fact that insects must respire. Oil applied to the spira¬
cula causes these animals to fall into convulsions, in¬
duces a general or partial paralysis, or causes their
death.
Vauquelin, the celebrated chemist, has made several
experiments on the respiration of the green grashop-
per. The male of this insect being put into six cubic
inches of oxygen gas (the purity of which was ascer¬
tained), lived eighteen hours. The oxygen gas was
changed into carbonic acid gas j it rendered lime water
turbid, but did not extinguish a lighted candle j after
the carbonic acid bad been absorbed by means of fixed
alkali, the combustion of the candle was more vivid
than in common air. He found that the insect respir¬
ed fifty or sixty times in a minute ; but when put into
oxygen, its respiration became about twelve times more
frequent, being interrupted at last almost continually,
because it was on the point of undergoing asphyxia.
The air in which the insect had died, being washed
with alkali, underwent a diminution of five per cent,
and the vapour of ammonia could not again revive the
insect.
A female insect being put into eighteen cubic inches
of common air, lived thirty-six hours; its respiration
was not altered as to frequency ; the bulk of the air
was not diminished at the death of the animal, but it
extinguished a candle even after it had been washed in
lime water ; this is a new proof that oxygen is neces¬
sary to the life of insects; and when.the atmospheric
air contains but little, of it, that insects would soon die.
This female grashopper being placed in sulphur¬
ated hydrogen gas, was seized with asphyxia instantly,
and could be revived by no stimulus. Ihese experi¬
ments not only prove that insects respire, and that oxy¬
gen is that part of the air which is necessary to their
existence, but that carbonic acid or azote is fatal to
them. The spiracula are neither of the same form, nor
similarly situated in every insect; the larvte of the com¬
mon fly have several of these organs placed at the pos¬
terior extremity of their bodies ; they are most frequent¬
ly six.
* Vol. VI LI. Part I. f
O L O G Y.
233
Circulation and Secretion of Insects.
General
Observa¬
tion*.
All the animals of the two first classes have a double
circulation ; their hearts consist of two distinct auricles
and ventricles. The heart in the amphibia has two dis¬
tinct auricles without any communication ; and under
these there is the appearance of two ventricles similar
in shape to those of the former class; but they may be
considered as one cavity; for the ventricle sends out
not only the pulmonary artery, but likewise the aorta ;
for there is a passage in the septum, by which the ven¬
tricles communicate freely, allowing the blood to pass
from the left into the right one.
The heart of fishes has but one auricle and one ven¬
tricle, and one great artery which conveys the blood
to the gills. The circulation in insects differs consider¬
ably from that of the superior animals. In the lobster,
and others of the larger insects, when a piece of the
shell is broken, the pulsation of the heart is seen dis¬
tinctly, and that sometimes for several hours after it
has been laid bare. A long delicate vessel runs along
the back parallel to the intestines of many insects, par¬
ticularly caterpillars, in which an alternate contraction
and dilatation is perceptible. The heart, or principal
artery which performs the function of the heart, seems
to be composed of a great number of small hearts, con¬
nected together, which transmit the blood from one to
another. Rut when this vessel is injected it becomes
continuous, and the small hearts disappear. In the ca¬
terpillar the pulsation begins at the posterior part, and
proceeds from one segment to another, till it arrive at
the head. Reaumur has alleged, that the pulsation of
this artery changes its direction in the pupa, and that
the blood is propelled from the head towards the tail:
he says this may be plainly observed in a pupa newly
stripped.
Lyonnet denies the accuracy of Reaumur’s observa¬
tions ; and says that he found a species of caterpillar,
the pupa of which is very transparent, in which the
longitudinal artery was to be seen very distinctly ; hav¬
ing examined it carefully, a few days after its change,
he ascertained that the motion of the artery had not at
all changed its direction, and that it still continued to
move from the tail towards the bead as in the caterpil¬
lar. Further observations can alone determine which
of these two opinions is the most correct. One anato¬
mist has lately asserted that the dorsal canal observable
in insects, serves the purpose of respiration. Cuvier has
proved, that the conglomerate glands which are to be
met with in all the animals that have a heart, do not
exist in insects ; but instead of them, that they are fur¬
nished with very long slender vessels which float in the
internal cavities of the body, without being even con¬
nected into fasciculi; from this circumstance Cuvier is
disposed to believe that insects have no heart. It is by
means of these fine tubes that the different fluids are
secreted, which are peculiar to various kinds of insects.
Some insects discharge an acrid and fetid fluid, others
discharge an oil of a very pleasant smell.
The bee, the wasp, the sphex, the crysis, have tno
vessels situated at the bottom of their sting, which con¬
tain a very acrid fluid, secreted from the mass of blood,
which the animal discharges at pleasure through a per¬
foration in the sting; it is this fluid which causes the
G g pain,
E N T O M
(Jeneral pain, inflammation, and swelling, which iollow a wound
Oliserva- inflicted by these in'sects.
In the scorpion, there is a fluid of a very malignant
* nature, which the animal discharges at pleasure through
its sting j under certain circumstances, this imul pro¬
duces fatal effects. Some of the spiders discharge a fluid,
which renders their bite dangerous. The aranea avicu-
hiria, and the tarantula, in particular, are well known*,
even the common spiders inflict a fatal wound on toe
insects they entangle in their web. The silk of the
common silk-worm and other caterpillars, according to
Malpighi, Lyonnet, and others, is a fluid contained in
two vessels, which are of a considerable size at the ex¬
tremity, and taper towards the mouthy and become very
slender. . ...
The carabus and dytiscus contain an acid which
reddens the infusion of litmus. The ant contains an acal
well known to chemists.
The acrid matter contained in the body of the hjtta
vesicatoria, is used in medicine, and forms the best
epispastic we are acquainted with.
Generation of Insects.
Insects are the only animals without vertcbise in
which the sexes are distinguished. Copulation per¬
formed in them by the introduction of the parts of ge¬
neration.of the male into those of the female. ^
All insects are either male or female, except in a few
of the genera of the order Hymenoptera (such as the
bee, ant, &c.), where individuals are to be found, which
are neither male nor female } and, on that account, call¬
ed neuters. Among the bees, the neuters form the far
greater part of the community, and perform the ciEce
of labourers. Among the ants, the neuters are very
numerous, and constitute the only active members ot
the society. It has been alleged that these neuters are
nothing but females, whose parts have not been deve¬
loped for want of proper nourishment. Olivier, how¬
ever, after strict examination, is disposed to think them
really different, though he does not adduce facts suffi¬
cient to establish his opinion.
The parts which distinguish the male from the
female, may be divided into two classes, viz. I . Those
which are not directly connected with generation. 2.
Those which are absolutely necessary for the purposes
of generation. The circumstances which have no direct
communication with generation, which serve to point
out the distinction between the sexes, are, r. lhe dif¬
ference of size observable in the male and female.
2. The brightness of the colour in each. 3. The form
and number of articulations of the antennas. 4. I he
size and form of their wings. 5. The presence or absence
of a sting. The male is always smaller than the female.
The female ant is nearly six times larger than the
male. The female cochineal is from 12 to 15 times
the size of the male. The female termes is 200 or 300
times the size of the male. The colours of the male
are commonly much more brilliant than those of the
female ; this is particularly the case in iepidopterous in¬
sects. In some insects, the colour of the male is totally
different from that of the female. The antennEe of the
male are commonly of a different form, and larger than
those of the female, frequently the males are furtvish-
fed with wings, while the females have none j the
O L O G Y.
lampyris, coccus, and blatlet, and several moths, afloid
an example of this. The female bee is furnished with
a sting, while the male is destitute of one. I he males
of some insects are furnished with sharp prominent
points, resembling horns, situated either on the head or
breast, which are either not perceptible or very faintly
marked in the female. The parts essential to genera¬
tion afford the best distinguishing mark. In most in¬
sects they are situated near the extremity ot the rectum.
By pressing the abdomen near to the anus they may
frequently be made to protrude. But the parts ot ge¬
neration are not always situated near the anus. In the
spiders they are situated in the feelers. In the hbcG
lula, the male organ is situated in the breast, while
that of the female is placed at the anus.
Organs of Generation.
In male insects, the organs which serve for the pre¬
paration of the semen, bear some resemblance to tliose
organs in the animals which compose the class Mam¬
malia. All of them have four organs, two o{ which
may be compared to the testicles, and the other two to
the vesiculce senunales. rIhey vary very much in foim
in different species. During the period the male is
usually employed in impregnating the female, these
parts are very distinct 5 after that, they disappear total¬
ly. In the larger aquatic insects, (particularly in the
hydrophilus) besides these four organs already mention¬
ed, there are other two small vesicles, which may be
compared to the prostate gland of the superior ani¬
mals. The vasa deferentia in the hydroplulus are some¬
what reflected, its testicles are very large, and terminate
in a very slender folded filament. In the grashopper.
these four organs are likewise found, but the vesicuhv
seminales are of a compound nature *, the testicles
have a good deal the appearance of those ot the mam-
They are of an oval form, and are fixed to the inside
of the back, their convex surface is covered with seve¬
ral tubes of a bright golden colour. After these yellow
tubes have been removed, the testicles are easily unfold¬
ed ; like all the other secretory organs of insects, they
seem to be nothing but a collection of convoluted ves-
sels. The vesiculce seniifi(ilesr which are attached to the
testicles, are formed into clusters. In the season of co¬
pulation, they increase in bulk so much as nearly to
occupy three-fourths of the abdomen *, they are full 0
a limpid fluid, which is the semen.
The vasa deferentia, which in most insects are very
short, in the blalta mucronata are of a considerable
length, and form several convolutions before they ar¬
rive at the penis. . .
The penis, in insects, is either single or double. 1 Iiose
which have a single penis, have it placed at the poste¬
rior extremity of the abdomen \ in tlm hbellula, how¬
ever, it is placed at the anterior part: it is membrana¬
ceous externally *, internally it is composed of a substance
analogous to the co?pus cavernoswn of other animals j
its form is either cylindrical or conical *, it is funushed
with two scales, one on each side, which form a sort of
wedge j this wedge being introduced into the vagina of
the female, and the scales being separated by means 01
particular muscles, which are situated at their base, open
the vagina, and make way for the introduction of the
Gcnml
Ob*miu
liens.
ENTOMOLOGY.
penis. Tills singular construction is perhaps owing
to the want of a proper erection.
Insects which have a double penis (such as the
spider) have this organ placed at the extremity of the
feelers of the lower jaw j these feelers are large in the
male. During copulation, they are introduced into two
vaginae situated in the anterior part of the abdomen of
the female. In these insects, the two small scales are
likewise to be found, which serve to open the vagina of
the female.
The female is furnished with two ovaj'ta; they are
long tubular canals, in which the eggs are arranged like
a string of beads. The eggs which are situated next the
opening into the oviduct, are largest, and they diminish
gradually as they recede from it, till they disappear al¬
together. The tubular canals unite, and terminate in a
common canal, which communicates with an oblong
cavity, analogous to the uterus. It is in this cavity
that the semen of the male is deposited. Malpighi
asserts that the fluid penetrates into the oviduct, by
means of a canal of communication, and that the eggs are
fecundated the instant they pass the mouth of this canal,
as they proceed towards the external oritice.of the uterus.
In viviparous insects, such as \X\e hippobosca, scorpion,
&tc. the ovaria are different. Sometimes the little ani¬
mals are arranged in clusters , at other times they com¬
pose a spiral cord, the length of which corresponds to
the number and size of the foetus.
Copulation is not performed exactly in the same way
by all insects. In most of the species, the male mounts
on the back of the female $ but the spiders, dragon-flies,
and some others, have a mode of performing copulation
peculiar to themselves. After copulation, they soon
begin to lay their eggs. Some deposit their eggs gra¬
dually, one after another; others discharge them all at
once, for example, the ephemera, the very short dura¬
tion of whose existence renders this necessary. But
the far greater number of insects lay them one by one.
There are some which lay a considerable number at the
same time. The large blue flesh-fly {musca carnaria)
when it finds carrion in a proper state for the reception
of its eggs, deposits a good number of them at once in
the same place ; hut when it does not find a proper si¬
tuation in which to deposit its eggs, it can refrain for
some time, till it find a proper place and opportunity.
There are some insects that do not lay their eggs till
a very long time after copulation ; bees, wasps, &c. are
impregnated before winter, but do not lay their eggs
till spring.
Eggs of Insects.
The eggs of insects are of two sorts; the first mem¬
branaceous, like the eggs of the tortoise and the other
reptiles ; the other covered with a shell like those of the
birds; their figure varies exceedingly; some are
round, some elliptical, some lenticular, some cylindrical,
some pyramidal, some flat, some square, but the round
and oval are the most common. The eggs of insects
seldom increase in size, from the time they have been
deposited by the parent till they are hatched. Those
of the tenthredo, however, and of some others, are ob¬
served to increase in bulk.
At first there is nothing to be perceived in the eggs
of insects but a watery fluid : and after some little time
an obscure point is observable in the centre ; which, ac-
according to Swammerdam, is not the insect itself, hut
only its head, which first acquires consistence and colour.
And the same author alleges, that insects do not in¬
crease in hulk in the egg, but that their parts only ac¬
quire shape and consistence. Under the shell of the
egg there is a thin and very delicate pellicle, in which
the insect is enveloped, (which may be compared to the
chorion and amnios which surround the foetus in qua¬
drupeds. The little insect remains in the egg till the
fluids are dissipated, and till its limbs have acquired
strength to break the egg, and make its escape. The
different species of insects remain enclosed in the egg
for very different periods. Some continue enclosed on¬
ly a few days, others remain for several months. The
eggs of many insects remain without being hatched
during the whole winter; and the young insects do not
come forth from them till the season at which the leaves
of the vegetables on which they feed begin to expand.
When the insects are ready to break their prison, they
commonly attempt to pierce the shell with their teeth,
and form a circular hole, through which they put forth
first one leg, and then another, till they extricate them¬
selves entirely.
Number of Insects.
Ixsects are by far the most numerous class of animals.
About eleven thousand species have been described by
Gmelin in the last edition of the System of Nature.
A great many more have been described by other na¬
turalists since the publication of that work, and a very
considerable number are to he met with in the cabinets
of the curious, which have not as yet been described by
any author.
In those parts of the world which we are best ac¬
quainted with, we may easily suppose that many species
of insects exist which have hitherto escaped notice. The
minuteness of some insects makes them easily overlook¬
ed ; the agility of others renders the catching of them
difficult. The retired situations which many of them
haunt favour their concealment. In the unexplored
parts of America, Africa, and Asia, many hundred
species must exist utterly unknown to naturalists. All
these circumstances render it very probable that not
one half of the insects which exist in the world have
hitherto been described,
Utility of Insects.
Insects afford nourishment to a great number of the
superior animals ; many of the fishes, reptiles, and birds,
draw the principal part of their sustenance from that
source. The immense swarms of different species of
crab which abound in every sea, directly or indirectly
form the principal part of the food of the cod, haddock,
herring, and a great variety of fishes. The sgake, li¬
zard, frog, and many other reptiles, feed both on land
and aquatic insects. Gallinaceous fowls, and many of
the small birds, &.c. feed on insects. Swallows, indeed,
feed entirely on winged insects. rlhey aflord loot! bke-
wise to many of the mammalia, &c. to many species of
the bat, to the ant-eater, &c. and even to man himself.
Many species of crab, viz. lobster, common crab,
shrimp, prawn, land-crab, &c. are reckoned delicacies.
The larvae of some coleopterous insects and locusts
form part of the food of man.
Insects likewise, by consuming decayed animal and
G g 2 vegetable
256 E N T O M
Hiitory. vegetable matter, wblcli Ifleft to untlergo the putrefac-
v*”" 1' live process, on the surface of the ground, might taint
the atmosphere with pestilential vapours, preserve the
air pure for the respiration of man and other animals.
Preservation of Insects in Cabinets.
In collecting insects, both male and female ought if
possible to be procured j and the time of the year when
they are taken ought to be noted. Specimens with in¬
jured wings or antennae must be rejected.
For collecting insects in their perfect state, a sort
of forceps are made use of, which have their extremi¬
ties covered with gauze. Besides these, the entomo¬
logist, in his walks, should be furnished with a pin¬
cushion, stored with pins of various sizes, and a tin
box lined with cork, of a convenient size for the pocket
in which the insects when caught are to be placed ; the
lepidopterous insects being first carefully killed by
squeezing their thorax, lest their fluttering should in-
jure their wings. Coleopterous insects are most expe-
ditiously killed by being immersed in boiling water ;
and those who prefer this method may carry them home
without injury in common pillboxes. Most insects are
killed with a few drops of spirit of turpentine j the le-
pidoptera and hymenoptera may easily be killed by be¬
ing stuck through with a pin dipt in aquafortis. W hen
the insects are killed they are to be transfixed with
pins, their wings, antennae, and feet spread out and
kept displayed. In some of the lepidoptera, two spe¬
cimens should be preserved ; the wings in the one dis¬
played, and in the other placed as much as possible in
their natural position.
Insects may likewise be collected by breeding them
from their larvae $ and this, when it is convenient, is by
O L O G Y.
far the best method for procuring fine specimens; it is History,
chiefly practised with the lepidopterous kinds. Wfhen
the caterpillars are taken, they are to be fed on the
leaves of the plant or tree on which they were found,
and kept in a box with some moist earth at the bottom ,
they will afterwards turn into a chrysalis, either by go¬
ing into the earth, by spinning a web and enclosing
themselves in it, or by changing into a pupa obtecta^
according to their kinds. Having continued in this
state their appointed time, the perfect insect will come
forth, and must then be killed before it has injured its
wings by flying.
Lepidopterous insects are likewise to be collected in
their pupa state, by seeking for them under the pro¬
jections of garden walls, pales, and out-houses, summer¬
houses, &e. or by digging for them in the winter
months under the trees they feed on. Wrhen thus dug
up, they are to be put into a box with moist earth, and
kept till they come out.
When the insects are prepared in this manner, they
are to be placed in the cabinet, which may consist of
boxes or drawers deep enough to hold a long pin, and
lined on the bottom with cork, or with wax j the in¬
sects of each order in drawers by themselves ; and the
different genera close together. Fhe generic and tri¬
vial name of each insect is to be written on a piece of
paper, fixed to the bottom by the same pin which sup¬
ports the insect. The drawers must be made to shut
very close, so as to exclude the dust and minute insects j
some cover them with glass. A little camphor in each
drawer is likewise useful.
Insects of the aptera order, such as spiders, scolo-
pendr*, juli, &e. are best preserved in some kind of
spirits. The onisci and cancri may be preserved like
beetles.
HISTORY OT ENTOMOLOGY.
THOUGH the attention of man must have been
attracted by the vegetables and animals with which he
found himself surrounded, and by the earth and mine¬
rals on which he trod, even at the very earliest periods
of human society, yet a very considerable time must
have elapsed before any attempts were made at ar¬
rangement or classification. Aristotle was the first (as
far as we know) who deserved the name of natural
historian j his arrangement of animals was the only one
followed for many centuries. He divided all animals
into viviparous and oviparous j the first contained qua¬
drupeds, the second birds, fishes, and insects. Under
insects were comprehended all small animals whose bo¬
dies were divided into segments. This definition of in¬
sects was followed by all natural historians down to the
time of Linnaeus.
Theophrastus, the disciple of Aristotle, the only other
person among the ancient Greeks who deserves the
name of natural historian, bestowed the most of his at¬
tention on vegetables and minerals. Pliny has given us
an account of all that was known in natural history
down to his own times. Though he has mentioned many
insects, owing to his want of method little is to be learnt
from him respecting entomology. Dioscorides, who
was nearly contemporary with Pliny* has confined him¬
self chiefly to natural history connected with medicine.
He h as given an enumeration of all the natural bodies
which entered into the materia medica. On the revi¬
val of learning in Europe, writers on natural history
seemed to have confined themselves to writing commen¬
taries on the ancients ; and nothing was done in ento¬
mology till the times of Gesner, who was the greatest
naturalist the world had seen from the time of Aristotle,
and who was the first who made a collection of the ob-
jets of natural history, and formed a museum. He was
born in Zurich in 1516, and died in 15^5' Aldrovan-
dus lived nearly about the same time with Gesner, and,
like him, formed a museum which served for the foun¬
dation of the public museum at Bologna, where many
specimens may be still seen marked with the venerable
hand of the first collector. Gesner formed his zoology
on the principles of Aristotle: his history of animals is
very voluminous. Aldrovandus made a collection of
all that had been written on natural history before his
own time, without discriminating truth from fiction.
He has given a methodical arrangement of insects in
the seventh book of his large work published in 1602.
He followed nearly the same arrangement with Gesner.
Gesner, in conjunction with some other natural histori¬
ans. wrote a treatise on insects, which was published by
Mouffet,
ENTOMOLOGY.
MoufFet, an English physician. About this time our
countryman, the illustrious Harvey, ventured to con¬
trovert Aristotle’s erroneous opinion with respect to
equivocal generation. Though his aphorism, omnia ex
ovo, at first met with great opposition, it was at last es¬
tablished by his own experiments and those of Rhedi and
Malpighi. From this period the writers on entomo¬
logy have been numerous j we shall content ourselves
here with giving little more than an enumeration of the
principal works on the subject.
Agricola, in a work entitled de Animantibus Sub-
terraneis, published in 1549, ^,as g‘ven a methodical ar¬
rangement of insects : he divides them into, 1. Creep¬
ing insects j 2. Flying insects ; and 3. Swimming in¬
sects. After giving this arrangement, he proceeds to
give an account of each species.
A work entitled Theatram Insectorum TJiamcc Mouf-
feti opera concinnatum, Loud. 1634, the joint labour
of several of the most eminent natural historians who
lived about the middle of the sixteenth century, though
not published till 1734, about 30 years after the death
of Moufiet, by whose care the work had been abridged,
and prepared to meet the public eye, is the next worthy
of notice. It is divided into two books j the first treats
of winged insects j the second of insects without wings:
these two grand divisions are subdivided into several
families, characterized by the number and position of the
legs. There is but little method displayed in the ar¬
rangement of the insects which compose the difi'ex-ent
families.
Aldrovandus divides insects into terreslria et aquatica
(land insects, and aquatic insects). The different orders
and subdivisions of these two classes, are for the most
part determined by the number, nature, and position of
their wings and legs. He calls his first order Favifica,
(those which form combs). As to the rest, according
to his own declaration, he follows Aristotle.
Wolfang Frenzius, in his Historia Animalium sacra,
published in 1612, has divided insects into three classes,
viz. 1. Aeria, (such as fly) ; 2. Aquatica, (such as in¬
habit the water) 5 3. Terrea et Reptentia, (such as
creep about, or are lodged in the earth). His descrip¬
tions are much more accurate than those of any of the
authors who preceded him.
John Johnston has borrowed freely from his prede¬
cessors, in his Historia Naluralis Insectorum, publish¬
ed in 1653. divides insects into terrestria and
aquatica, (into land and aquatic insects) ; the land in¬
sects he divides into three orders : 1. Such as have
wings and legs; 2. Such as have legs without wings ;
and 3. Such as have neither wings nor legs. These
three orders occupy his three first books j his fourth
contains aquatic insects.
Walter Charleton follows the system of Aldrovandus
in bis Onomasticon 'Loicon, published in 1668.
Jo. Goodart published Metamorphosis et Historia
Naturalis de Insectis, 8vo. Mediob. 1667.
Likewise in 1675,a work of his appeared, de Insectis
in Methodum reductis, opera Mart. Leister. Ebor. In
this work insects are divided into ten families : The 1st
includes butterflies with erect wings j 2d, Butterflies
with horizontal wings ; 3d, Butterflies with deflected
wings j 4th, Libelluloe, (dragon-flies) ; 5th, Apes,
(bees); 6th, Coleopterous insects; 7th, Locusts, and
jjrashoppers; 8th, Flies corresponding to the order
T 237
diptera of Linnaeus ; 9th, Millepeds ; and loth, Spi- History,
ders. This work is full of typographical errors and —y—>
mistakes in natural history.
The discovery of the microscope in 1618, tended
greatly to the advancement of entomology, as by means
of it the most minute parts of insects could be viewed,
and their organization examined. Naturalists were
much engaged in making microscopic discoveries, par¬
ticularly Borel, Rhedi, Swammerdam, Bonanni, Bono-
mo, Leeuwenhoeck and Joblot.
John Swammerdam, in his Riblia Naturee, published
in 1669, has divided insects into four classes.
John Ray published his Histona Insectorum, Lond.
1710. This work was properly the joint production of
J. Ray and Francis Willoughby. These illustrious
friends laboured together with uncommon ardour in
the study of nature.. Heath carried off Willoughby in
the prime of life, before he had properly digested what
the industry of his early years had collected ; and his
labours would have been lost to the world, and his
name might have sunk in oblivion, but for the friend¬
ship of Ray. So close was the intercourse between these
two naturalists, and so intimately were their labours
blended together, that it is not easy to assign each his
due share of merit. Indeed Ray has been so partial to
the fame of his departed friend, and has cherished his
memory with such affectionate care, that we are in
danger of attributing too much to Mr Willoughby,
and too little to himself. Though what Hr Herham
asserts be not correct, that Mr Willoughby had taken
the animal kingdom for his task, and Mr Ray the ve¬
getable one, yet it is generally agreed, that the Historia
Insectorum is principally to be ascribed to Willoughby.
In that work insects are divided into Transmutabilia et
Intransmutabilia, (those which undergo a metamorpho¬
sis, and those which undergo none). These two grand
divisions are subdivided into several orders, which are
ascertained by the number of their legs, or total want of
legs; by tbe places which they inhabit; by their size;
by the configuration of the various parts of the body ;
by the smell which they diffuse, &c. The transmutabi¬
lia are divided into four orders. 1. Vaginipennes, (those
which have their wings covered with a sheath). 2. Pa-
piliones, (lepidopterous insects). ^.Quadripennes, (those
which have four wings) ; and 4. Bipennes, (those which
have two). The papiliones, qu\idripennes, and bipennes
are again subdivided into families, the characters of
which are taken, either from the appearance and con¬
formation of their larvae, or from the form, colour, and
different properties of the perfect insect.
Eleazar Albin published a natural history of English
insects in 1720. He likewise published the Natural
History of Spiders in 1^6.
Antony Valisnieri, in his work entitled Esperienxe
e Osserva%ioni intorno agli Insetti, published in 1730,
has divided insects into four orders, according to the
situation in which they pass their lives.
Mary Sybelle Merian, published in 1730, Histoire
d'Insectes d’’Europe et de Surinam. She likewise pub¬
lished in 1703, Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamen-
sium ad vivum picta et descripta ; and in 1717, Eru-
carum Ortus.
George Bernard Rhump published in I7°5* and
again in 1741, a work entitled Amboinischs Ravitut-
hammer.
Han*
238
History,
E N T O M
Hans Sloane, in the years 1707 and 1725, published
a Voyage to the Islands of Madeira, Barbadoes, ISevts,
Saint Christophers and Jamaica.
Henry Ruisch in 1710 and 1718 published Iheatrum
Universale omnium Animahum. .
J. Petiver published in 1715 his leones et fSomtna
Aquatiliinn Animahum Amboinev.
Richard Bradley published in 1721 his Philosophical
Account of the Works of Nature.
Linnjeus, the most celebrated natural historian the
world ever produced, in his first edition of the Systerna
Nature?, published in 1735, divided insects into four
orders, from the number and different appearances of
their wings ; 1. Colcopiera ; 2. Angioptera ; 3. Hemip-
tera ; and 4. Aptera. This was but an imperfect sketch,
a first essay. In the subsequent editions of the System of
Nature which he published, to the number of twelve,
he completed the arrangement of insects, of which we
need say nothing here, as we have followed it in pre-
ference to all others ; and most authors who have writ¬
ten on the subject for more than half a century past,
have’; either followed it closely, or with very slight al¬
terations. His extensive genius embraced all the three
kingdoms of nature. In botany and entomology m
particular he far excels all who went before him, and
as vet remains unrivalled. Writers on entomology be¬
came so numerous after Linnseus had published his
System of Nature, and established entomology on a solid
foundation, that a mere enumeration of their names
and titles of their books would occupy more room than
we can afford to bestow on the article *, we shall there¬
fore only notice a few of the most remarkable. ^
Charles Degeer, in his Memoires pour servir a PHis-
toiredes Insectes, in 1752,has arranged insects into four¬
teen orders, distinguished by the different appearances
of the various parts which compose their bodies, parti¬
cularly the elytra, wings, and most remarkable parts of
the head. He published again in 1778. v
M. de Reaumur published his Memoires pour servir a
PHistoire des Insectes at Paris in 1737- No one has
paid so much attention to the habits of insects, and to
every thing that concerns them, as Reaumur. He ought
to be read by every student of entomology.
John Retzius has simplified the arrangement ot
Degeer in a small work entitled Genera et Species
Insectorum. But although in this arrangement he has
followed the method of Begeer, the terms he has made
use of are principally those of Linnseus. His 14 orders
are 1. Lepidoptera. 2. Alinguia. 3. Neuroptera.
4. Hymenoptera. 5. Siphonata. 6. Dermaptera.
7. Hemiptera. 8. Coleoptera. 9. Hasterata. 10. 1 ro-
hoscidea. II. Suctoria. 12. Ancenata. 13. Atra-
chelia. 14. Crustacea.
M. Geoffroy, in his Histoire Abrege oes Insectes, pub¬
lished at Paris in 1762, has divided insects into six or¬
ders 5 Coleopteres, Hemipteres, Tetrapteres ailes fari-
neuses, Tetrapteres ailes nues, Dipteres, and Apteres.
He determined his families by the number of the arti¬
culations of the feet, and his genera by characters drawn
from all the parts of the body. He has formed a great
number of new genera. . _
John Antony Scopoli, in his Entomologia Larniohca,
published in 1762, has followed the arrangement of
Linnseus, and only changes the names of some ot the
orders > c. g. Proboscidea, instead of Hemiptera ; Acu-
O L Q G Y.
leata, instead of Hymenoptera *, Halterata, instead of History,
Diptera ; and Pedestiia, instead of Aptera.
J. C. Schseffer published in 1766, FJementa Entomo-
logica, 135 iabulce cere excussce; he follows in many
points the method of Linnaeus. He divides insects into
seven classes. 1. Coleoptero-macroptera. 2. Coleop-
tero-microptera. 3. Ilemiptera. 4. Hymeno-lepidop-
tera. 5. Hymeno-gymnoptera. 6. Diptera; and 7.
Aptera. His first and second classes correspond with
the Coleoptera of Linnseus 5 the fourth with the Lepi¬
doptera, and the fifth with the Hymenoptera.
John C. Fahricius is the founder of a new system of
Entomology, which he published in his Systema Natures
177?. He discriminates his orders and genera, by the
parts of the month, {instrumenta cibaria). He after¬
wards published Species Insectorum, Entomologia Syste¬
matica, and Mantissa Insectorum.
The arrangement of Fabricius has acquired great re¬
putation, especially on the continent. It may not there¬
fore be amiss to give a slight view of it. He divides
insects into eight classes.
Class I. EleutheraTA, Mouth armed with jaws.
and four or six feelers. The jaws naked
and free.
Class II. Ulanata. The jaws covered with an ob¬
tuse helmet.
Class III. SYNISTATA. The jaws united with the
Up.
Class IV. Agonata. The under jaw yvanting.
Class V. Ukogata. Mouth armed with jaws and
two feelers; the under jaw generally
furnished with a small unguis or nail.
Class VI. Glossata. Mouth furnished with feelers,
and a spiral tongue.
Class VII. Rhyngota. Mouth furnished with a snout,
and an articulated sheath.
Class VIII.'Aktliata. Mouth furnished with ahaus-
tellum and a sheath not articulated.
In a supplement to his Entomologia Systematica, he
has divided insects into thirteen orders. 1. Eleutherata.
2. Ulonata. 3. Synistata. 4. Piezata. 5. Odorata.
6. Mitosata. 7. Unogata. 8. Polygonata. 9. Kiel,
stagnatha. 10. Exochnata. II. Glossata. 12. Rhyn-
gola. 13. Anthiata. He has lately published a work
entitled Systema Eleutheratorum, no more than two
volumes of which have as yet made their appearance.
Moses Harris published an Exposition of English
Insects, &c. with coloured plates, 1776.
Jo. Christ published Philosophia Entomologica sistens
scientice fundamenta, &c. Hamb. 1778, 8vo.
Archiv. der Insektengeschichte herausgege bervon.
Job. Caps. Fuesly. Zurich, 1781.
Er. Paulla, v. Schrank ; Emmwratio Insectorum Au-
stries indigenorum. Aug. \ indel. 1781.
P. Sim. Pallas ; leones Insectorum. Hamb. 1781.
A. W. Knock j Beytrarge %ur Insektengeschichte,
1781. -
James Barbut published the Genera Insectorum
Linnreus, exemplified by various specimens of English
insects drawn from nature. Lend. 1781.
John Nepomuk de Laicharting, has divided insects
into ten orders, characterised by the configuration of va¬
rious parts of the body. He adheres pretty closely to
r the
O I! IJ E K I. C O 1.1’> OP T T. U A .
Fig.j6. .
S C All-in An I S IIFAl CTliE S, HKIICXTIjES Jin E 'TEE .
Fig.jJ.
A- J1 Tlj'jn. J-rtUjt /
Fig.12.
Q
Q QG»
3 Qq
Fig. 3.
K JVTC )M ( )l A )0 V.
Fig.a.
i*late can.
Fig .8.
Fig 14.
!igA. Fig. 2.
Fig.j.
iltiiii
Fig.it).
Carabus viUAiAR]s, CommonCarajsi s.
Fig. 17.
Fig-9-
W’1
ENTOMOLOGY.
PLATE CCW.
Fiq.ZO. jhajsttis Bisrjiros^.
ORDER II. IIK M 11’TERA.
M.1YTIS SlCClFOLIA. the. WALKING LEAF.
FUJ .22.
JFOFOJFFICTA JlOAT FLIT.
ENT OM OL O Cr Y.
PLATE CCV.
ORDER JII. JjEX'IDOPTEKA .
Fiff. 20. 1‘sipil.io.
JLiwraved J^Uson JEdrnT
ENTOMOLOGY.
PLATE CCVI.
Em/na-eg Vy W.^trcKboHEHn1:
W’
ENTOMOLOGY.
toryf the method of Lianceua. His orders are, I. Scai’abse-
’ymm in/ oides. 2. Grylloides. 3. Cimicioides. 4. Papilionoides.
5. Libeliuloides. 6. Vespoides. 7. Muscoides. 8. Can-
croides. 9. Aranoides, and 10. Oniscoides.
Olivier, in 1780, published Eniomologie, ouHisloire
Naturelle de$ Imectes, in 3 vols. 4to. Paris. In 1790,
in the Dictionaire des Insectes, forming a part of the
Encyclopedic Methodiquc, he has given an arrangement
of insects little difl’erent from that of Linnaeus. He has
added one order which he calls Orthopteres, distinguish¬
ed by the mode of folding the lower wings, and a part
on the head, which he terms galea. He has likewise
subdivided the order Aptera, into Arachnides and Crus-
taces. Latreille in 1795, in a work entitled Freds da
Caractcre des Genres, divides insects into two grand di¬
visions, viz. tnsectes ailes, ct insectes apteves (winged
insects, and insects without wings). These two grand
divisions he subdivides into 14 orders. 1. Coleopteres.
2. Orthopteres. 3. Hemipteres. 4. Neuropteres. 5.
Lepidopteres. 6. Suceurs. 7. Thysanoures. 8. Pa¬
rasites. 9. Acephales. 10. Entomostraces. 11. Crus-
taces. 12. Myriapodes. Since that he has published
a more detailed account of this method in a work enti¬
tled les Genres et les Families des Insectes.
Clairville in 1795, in the introduction to \i\sEntojno.
logic Helvetique, has given an arrangement of insects,
in which he dift'ers from Linnoeus almost in nothing, ex¬
cept in the names of his orders, viz. Elytropteres, Dic-
239
tyopteres, Thlebopteres, Haltipteres, Lepidoptercs, History.
Heminopteres, Ilophoteires, and Pododuneres. v~ ,J
Link, in his Magasin sur Thiergeschite, has divided
insects into eleven orders j he follows de Laicharting
almost in every thing, even in the names of his or¬
ders ; he has indeed added an order which he calls
Pediculoides.
Cuvier and Dumeril, in their Comparative Anatomy,
have very nearly followed the method of Linnaeus j they
have however divided the order Aptera into two, viz.
Gnathaptera and Aptera j they have likewise altered the
arrangement of the orders, and have placed those first
which contain insects furnished with jaws, viz. Gnathap¬
tera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and Or-
thoptera ; and have thrown those last which are desti¬
tute of jaws, viz. Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and
Aptera.
We shall refrain from noticing those authors who have
written partial treatisesj though there are several works
of that kind which the entomologist might peruse with
advantage, such as the Fauna Suecica, published in 1761
by Linnaeus, at Stockholm. Fauna Germanica, by
Panzer. La Faune Parisienne de Walknair. Kirby’s
Monographia apum Anglia’. Latreille’s treatise on Ants.
See a more detailed historical account of the writers
on this science, in the article Entomology, Supple¬
ment.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate CCIII.
Fig. 1. Antennae pectinate, or feathered 5 as in the
phalana, moths.
2.     PERFOLiATiE, or perforated 5 as in
the dermestes and dytiscus.
3. . ' FISSILES, or fissile, divided into la¬
minae at the extremity, as in the scarabai,
beetles.
4. ■  CLAVAT/E, or club-shaped, as in the
papilio, butterfly.
5.  moniliformes, like a necklace of
beads •, as in the chrysomela.
6.     SETAGE^E, setaceous, or bristle-sha¬
ped ; as in many of the phalcena.
7. ——   aristatas, furnished with a lateral
hair, as in the fly.
8. 9. a, Caput, the head.
b, Palpi, or feelers,
r, Antennae, or horns.
(/, Oculi, the eyes.
e, Thorax.
f, Scutellum, or escutcheon. -
g, Pectus, or breast.
h, Sternum, or breast-bone.
i, Abdomen, and its segments.
k, Anus.
/, Elytra, or shells.
m, Membranous wings.
n, Pedes, or feet, which are natatoiiL
10. 0, Femur, or thigh.
р, Tibia, or leg.
y, Tarsus, or foot,
r, Unguis, or clawr.
11. o, The anterior part of the wing.
b, The posterior part.
с, The exterior part.
d, The interior part.
e, The margin.
f, The disk or middle.
g, Oculus, or eye.
12. 13, 14, 15. Represent the insect in its egg,
caterpillar, pupa, and perfect
state.
Order I. Coleoptera. Fig. 16. Scarabceus. Fig. 17,
Ptinus. Fig. 18. Puprestis. Fig. 19. Carabus.
Order II. Fig. 20. Mantis. Fig. 21. Fulgora.
Fig. 22. Notonecta. Fig. 23. Cimcx. Fig. 24. Aphis.
Fig. 25. Coccus.
Order III. Fig. 26. Papilio. Fig. 27. Sphinx.
Fig. 28. Phalana.
Order IV. Fig. 29. Libellula. Fig. 30. He me ro¬
bins. Fig. 31. Panorpa.
Order V. Fig. 32. Tenthredo. Fig. 33. Ichneu¬
mon. Fig. 34. Chrysis. Fig. 35. Formica.
Older VI. Fig. 36. Oestrus. Fig. 37. Tipula.
Fig. 38. Asilus.
Order VII. Fig. 39. Lepisma. Fig. 40. Aranea. .
Fig. 41. Scorpio. Fig. 42, Cancer. Fig. 43. Scolo-
pendra.
INDEX.
[ 24° ]
ABDOMEN, p.
Acarus, 4 219
Ac/iivi, a subdivision of papilio, 183, 184
Actceon, largest coleopterous insect
known,
Aculeus,
Adonidum, species of coccus,
Afer, species of scorpio,
Aliment of insects,
Alurnus,
Animal cotton,
Ant,
Ant-eater,
Ant-eogs,
Ants do not store up for the winter,
Antennce,
use of,
Anthrenus,
Anus,
Apalus,
Aphides, propagation of,
Aphis,
Apiarius, species of attelabus,
Apis,
Apt era,
Aranea,
Armadillo, species of oniscus,
Asilus,
Astacus,
Atlas, species of phalaena,
Atrops, species of sphinx,
Attacos, a subdivision of phalasna,
Attelabus,
Auriculana, species of foificula,
Avicularia, species of aranea,
J47:
IS2
147
I76
224
230
I.??
I99
207
I96
207
ib.
146
230
*56
146
160
I7J
ib.
162
203
215
221
227
214
225
190
188
189
161
170
222
B
Barbed,
Back,
Beak,
Bee,
Beetle,
Blatta,
Blistering-fly.
Blossom-eater,
Boat-Jly,
Bombyces, division of phalasna,
Bombylius,
Bond,
Bostrichus,
Botts,
Bovinus, species of tabanus,
Bovis, species of oestrus,
Breast,
Breexe,
Brentus,
Bruchus,
Bug,
146
ib.
ib.
INDEX.
Bug, when introduced into Europe, p.
Bull-comber,
Bullhead,
Buprestis,
Butter-fly,
Buz-fly,
Byrrhus,
203
J52
17I
169
ib.
173
189, 190
214
160
*54
209
213
208
146
208
160
174
152
167
166
182
214
156
159
157
176
i?5
ib.
214
263
177
224
221
J73
183
165
146
167
211
156
164
157
213
202
203
162
Colombaschensis, species of musca, p. 21:
Compai'ativc quantity of wax made
from sugar and from
honey, 20c
Conops, 21..
Cossus, species of phalsena, eaten by
*59
173
Cacao, species of bruchus,
Cacti, species of coccinella,
a species of coccus,
Caddo,
Caddy,
Calcitrans, a species of stomoxys,
Calopus,
Cumpescane, cochineal.
Cancer,
Cancroides, species of phalangium,
Candelaria, species of fulgora,
Candidi, a subdivision of papilio,
Cantharis,
Capitate,
Carabus,
Carnaria, species of musca,
Carrion-beetle,
Carrion-eater,
Cassida,
Ccecutiens, species of tabanus,
Cells of wasps, how formed,
Centuncularis, species of bee,
Cerambyx,
Cerraria, a species of phalsena,
Cerella, a species of phaltena,
Chalcis,
Cheese-mite.
Chela,
Chermes,
Chermes grains,
Chigur,
Chrysalis,
Chrysis,
Chrysomela, ’
Cicada,
Cicindela,
Cimex,
Circulation of fluids in insects,
Clavaied,
Claw,
Clock-beetle,
Coccinella,
Coccus,
Cochineal,
falsely supposed a vegetable
production, 177
introduced into Bengal, 178
Cock-chaffer, 1 S3
Cock-roach, 17I
Coleoplera, i47j 1i2
192
194
201
220
147
176
182
219
147
201
I58
173
266
J74
233
146
M7
J53
*57
176
ib.
the Romans,
Cow-burner,
Crab,
Crabro, species of vespa,
Crane jly,
Crangon, species of cancer,
Cratwgi, a species of papilio,
Craw-jish,
Cricket,
Cryptocephalus,
Cuckow-spit,
Cucujus,
Culex,
Culinaris, a species of tenebrio,
Curculio,
Cynips,
Danai, a division of papilio,
Day-fiy,
Death-watch,
Dentated,
Dermestes,
Destructor, a species of acarus,
species of termes,
Deflected,
Diamond- beetle,
Diop sis,
Diptera,
Domestica, species of musca,
Domesticus, species of gryllus,
Dooi'-beetle,
Dragon-fly,
Drone-bee,
Dung-beetle,
Dysenterica, species of acarus,
19:
i6t>
22.
202
21c
22;
171
258
VI
l6J
an
168
160
197
183,185
195
\h
ifj
m
154
220
217
146
160,161
310 i*
147, 208 ;
211
171
>53
194
203
133
220
Ear-wig,
Economy of termes fatale,
E later,
Elytra,
Emmet,
E?npis,
Ephemera,
Equi, species of oestrus,
Equina, species of liippoboscs,
Equites, a division of papilio,
Erodius,
Eruca,
Eyes of insects,
Experiments of Maupertuis on
pions, •
Extremities,
270
216
165
M7
207
2ij
193
209
213
229, M0
SCOl*
223
f
4
index.
F
v'ina of flowers, the food of the
young bees, p. 205
iirimlts, a species of phalaena, 193
astigzata, 147
iita/e, a species of termes, 216
•i$ta, a species of mantis, a Hotten¬
tot deity, 171
eelers, 146
vale bee, 203
estivi, a division of papilio, 183, 188
icus indica, food of the lac insect, 180
religiosa, food of the lac insect, ib.
species of coccus, ib.
lield-cricket, 172
igulus, a species of sphex, 200
hform, 146
treft/, a 64
Jsstle, 146
.lea, 219
lowers do not always contain honey, 208
,iy, 210
creeps, 147
.rficula, 170
.rmica, 207
hrmicarius, species of attelabus, 161
species of myrmeleon, 148
'hforia, species of vespa, 202
Aii, species of musca, 212
Xog-hopper, _ 173
Xurnentarius, a species of curcuiio,
injurious to corn, 160
Ugora, 172
i//o, largest British scarabseus, 153
jjrca, 147
C 1-jhj, 20 S
t 197
(ihnmarvs, species of cancer 225
( a subdivision of papilio, 183, 186
(imetree, a division of phalaena, 189, 192
(hveration of insects, 234
nmeratus, a species of ichneumon, 200
Ci w-worm,
(- ilon,
w,
kden-fltf,
\ina-fina, compared with grana-syl-
vestris,
compared with Bengal
cochineal,
sylvestris improveable,
Jj^nanus, a species of curcuiio, in¬
jurious to grain,
'ndla, a species of phalsena,
GnUotalpa, a species of grylius,
vmllus,
G 1 lac,
G- ’mis,
164
159
2x3
201
179
180
179
H
nidations of the white ant,
norrhoidalis, a species of oestrus,
■'if ores,
Huk-moth,
OL. VIIL Part I.
160
144
172
171
180
iSS
ENTOMOLOGY.
Haptali, a division of phalsena, p. 190, 194
Ileaidvig of insects, 229
Heliconii, a division of papilio, 183, 185
Hemelytra, 147
Hemiptera, 171
Hemerobius, j ^5
Hippobosca, 215
Hispa, 139
Ulster, 133
Hominis, a species of oestrus, 210
Honey-bee, 202
Horia, 165
Hornet, 202
Horse-fly, 219
House-bug, 174
House-ci'icket, 172
Housefly, 211
Humble-bee, 206
Humuli, a species of phalaena, 194
Hyalina, a species of fulgora, 173
Hydrachna, 220
Hydrophilus, 167
Hymenoptcra, 147, 197
Ichneumon, 199
Ihcis, a species of coccus, 182
Imago, 147
Imperialis, a species of curcuiio, 161
Incumbent, 146
Insect, definition of, ib.
Insects, characters of, 148
classification of, 147
Ir rvtans, a species of pulex, 219
a species of stomoxys, 214
Itch insect, 220
lulus, 228
Jaculator, a species of ichneumon, 199
Japonica, a species of lampyris, 164
Jarpeada, a kind of cochineal, 177
Lucanus,
Lytta,
M
Lacca, 180
Lac insect, ib.
Ladybird, 137
Lady-cow, j 36
Lampyris, 164
Land crab, 224
Lanternuvia, a species of fulgora, 173
L a 71 thorn-fly, 172
Larva, 147
Latro, a species of cancer, 225
Leather-eater, 134
Lectularius, a species ofeimex, 174
211
209
147
187
Lepidoptera,
Lepisma,
Leptura,
Leu cop sis,
Libellula,
Lion-ant,
Lobster,
Locust, »
Locustee,
Long-legged spider,
Louse,
Lousy beetle,
147, 192
J63
201
I94
196
225
172
ib.
221
2l8
241
p. 154
169
181
175
203
169
171
177
224
146
203
194
169
183
147
212
177
172
219
172
168
146
226
J70
I9I
207
Machaon, a species of papilio,
Macrocephalus,
Male bee,
Manticora,
Mantis,
Mastique cochineal,
Maurus, a species of scorpio,
Maxilla,
May hug,
Mellifica, a specis of apis,
Melonella, a species of phalsena,
Mcloe,
Melolontha,
Melyris,
Metamorphosis,
Meteovdca, a species of musca,
Method of rearing cochineal,
Migratorius, a species of gryllus,
Mite,
Mole-cricket,
Molitor, a species of tenebrio,
Moniliform,
Monoculus,
Mordella,
Mori, a species of phalaena,
Morio, a species of apis,
Morsitans, a species of scolopendra, 228
Moth, 183
Musca, 210
Musquito, 21’]
Mutil a, 207
Myrmeleon, 196
N
Navalis, a species of cantharis, inju¬
rious to oak timber, 16 g
Necydalis, 164
iVcgra, a kind of cochineal, 177
Nepa, 174
Neuroptcra, 147, 194
Neuter bee, 203
Neuters*, 147
Nibbler, 170
Nidulans, a species of aranea, 222
Nympha, 147
Nymphalis, a division ef papilio, 183, 186
Nitidula, 164
Noctilucus, a species of elater, 166
Noctuev, a division of phalsena, 189, 193
Nopal, food of the true cochineal, 177
Notonecta, 173
Notoxus, 162
Number of bees in a hive, 203
of species of insects, 228, 235
of bolts in the stomach of
horses, 209
Nursing bees, 204
O
Ocelli, 14*7
Oestrus, 209
Oleracea, a species of tipula, 210
Ole/'aceus, a species of cimex, 174
Qniacus, ' 227
H h Opatrum,
242
Opatrum, p. 156
OpiliOj a species of pbalangium, 221
Organizatwi of insects, 228
Organs of digestion of insects, 237
generation 234
mastication, 23 x
Orientalis, a species of blatta, 17*
Orniy a species of cicada, larva eatable, 173
a species of oestrus, 209
Ox-fly, ' 213
ENTOMOLOGY.
Red spider, ?• 219
Rein-deer go to the mountains to shun
the oestrus, 208
Renagrida, a kind of cochineal, 177
Respiration of insects, 232
Reversed, 14^
Rhamnus jujuba, food of the lac in¬
sect, 180
Rhinomacer, 161
Robiniee, a species of bruchus, intro¬
duced into Europe from
Pagurus, a species of cancer, 225
Palpce, 146
Panorpa, 196
Papilio, 182
ParapleciictiSy a species of curculio, sup¬
posed to be the cause
of staggers in horses, 160
Parnassii, a division of papilio, 183, 185
Pastel, a preparation of coccus ilicis, 182
Pattsus,
Pediculus,
P ectinated,
Penetrans, a species of pulex,
Pei'foliated,
P halangium,
Phalcena,
Phalerati, a subdivision of papilio,
Phosphoria, a species of scolopendra,
Phosphorius, a species of elater,
Phryganea,
Pilularius, a species of scarabseus,
Pimelia,
Pincers,
Pinguinalis, a species of phaleena,
sometimes found in the
human stomach, 193
Pinnophylax, a species of cancer, 224
Pipiens, a species of culex, 213
Pisi, a species of bruchus, introduced
into Europe from America, 159
Plant-lice, 179
Pleheii, a division of papilio, 183, 187
America, 159
Rosmarini, a species of cynips, 197
Rostrata, a species of stomoxys, 214
Rove-beetle, 157
Rurales, a subdivision of papilio, 183
Ruricola, a species of cancer, 224
S
159
218
146
219
146
221
189
183
228
166
195
153
168
M7
Pneumora, 171
Podura, 215
Polonicus, a species of coccus, 176
Polyphemus, a species of monoculus, 227
Prawn, 225
Preservation of insects in cabinets, 236
Pterophori, a division of phalsana, 190,194
Ptinus,
Pubis, a species of pediculus,
Pulex,
a species of rnonoculus,
Pulsatorius, a species of termes,
Pumilionis, a species of musca,
Pyratides, a division of phalsena,
Q
189,
Queen bee,
Quercus gemmse, species of cynips,
folite,
R
Raphidia,
Sabulosa, a species of sphex,
Saccharinum, a species of lepisma,
Sanguisugus, a species of acarus,
Saw-fly,
Scabiei, a species of acarus,
Scat'abceus,
Scheefferi, a species of scarabteus,
Scarlet grain of Poland,
Scolia,
Scolopendra,
Scorpio,
Scorpion fly,
Scutellum,
Secalis, a species of phalaena,
Secretion of insects,
Seductor, a species of ichneumon,
Segetis, a species of elater,
a species of curcuho, destruc
tive to grain,
Senses of insects,
Serropalpus,
Setaceous,
Sexes of insects,
Shanks,
Shepherd'1 s spider,
Shrimp,
Silk, by whom first made,
Silk-worm,
Sirex,
Siro, a species of acarus,
Skipper,
133 Snout,
218 Soothsayer, a species of mantis,
219 Spanish fly,
227 Sparkler,
218 Sphex,
2X2 Sphinx,
193 Spider,
Spiracula,
Splendidula, a species of lampyris,
203 Spring-tail,
197 Spumaria, a species of cicada,
ib. Squilla, a species of cancer,
Stag-beetle,
197 Staphilinus,
200
21S
220
197
220
152
153
176
201
228
223
196
146
*93
233
199
166
161
229
163
146
147
ib.
221
223
191
ib.
198
146
165
146
171
169
166
200
i87
221
146
164
215
i73
225
i54
170
Index.
State of the atmosphere most favour¬
able for the secretion of
honey, p. 205;
Stem?nata,
Sternum, ib„
Sting, ^ _ 147'
of the European scorpion not
so dangerous as is commonly
supposed, 22
Stipitati, 14
Stomoxys, 214
Sulcata, a species of pimelia, i6t
Sycophanta, a species of carabus,
Sylpha, ijt
Sylvester, a species of cochineal, ly
Tabanus,
Tail,
Tailed wasp, 198
Tapczella, a species of phalsena, 194
Tarandi, a species of oestrus, 208
Tarantula, a species of aranea, 222
Telarius, a species of acarus, 219
Tenebrio, 168
Tenthedro, 197
Termes, 215
Terrestris, a species of apis, 206
Tetrascale cochineal, 177
Thorax, 14^
Thrips, 182
Thynnus, 201
Tick, 219
Tinece, a division of phaleena, 190,192
Tiphia, 201
Tipula, 2io
Tortrices, a division of phaltena, 189
Tritici, a species of phalsena, 194
a species of tipula, 2io
Tritoma, 1
Tives, a subdivision of papilio, 183
Trompe, a species of oestrus,
Trunk,
Turnip-fly, ^
Verrueivorus, a species of gryllus, 172
Vesicatoria, a species of lytta, 169
Vespa, _ 202
Vitellinee, a species of tenthredo, 19°
Vine-fretter,
Violacea’, a species of aphis,
Vitis, a species of aphis,
Vocans, a species of cancer,
Vulgaris, a species of vespa, 202
Vulgata, a species of ephemera, used
as manure by the inhabi¬
tants of Carniola, ^
Urbieola, a subdivision of papilio,
Vrticce, a species of papilio, 18
Use the bees make of the farina 01
flowers,
Utility of insects,
Warbles,
Wasp,
W
203
235
308
202
Water-ckk
Index.
,ater-clock%
nter-Jlea,
iter-scorpion,
ax formed from honey,
making bees,
I hevil,
p. 167
J55
J74
203
204
160
ENTOMOLOGY.
Whirlcr,
Wings,
erect,
deflected,
White ant,
eaten by the Africans,
P- MS
146
ib.
ib.
215
216
2 43
Y
Youngest and most vigorous cattle at¬
tacked by the breeze, p. 208
Z
163
Zomtis, j|3>
ENT
, intrepas ENTREPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or go-
li ing, that is neither walk nor trot, but has somewhat of
EBtry- , an amble.
This is a pace or gait of such horses as have no reins
or back, and go upon their shoulders ; or, of such as
are spoiled in their limbs.
ENTRING LADDERS, in a ship, are of two sorts j
one used by the vessel’s sides, in a harbour, or in fair
weather, for persons to go in and out of the ship: the
other is made of ropes, with small staves for steps j and
is hung out of the gallery to enter into the boat, or to
come aboard the ship, when the sea runs so high that
they durst not bring the boat to the ship’s side for fear
of staving it.
ENIROCHUS, in Natural History, a genus of ex¬
traneous fossils, usually of about an inch in length, and
made up of a number of round joints, which, when se¬
parate and loose, are called trochitce: They are compo¬
sed of the same kind of plated spar with the fossil shells
of the echini, which is usually of a bluish-gray colour,
and very bright where fresh broken ; they are all stri¬
ated from the centre to the circumference, and have a
cavity in the middle.
The entrochi are found of all sizes, from that of a
pin’s head to a finger’s length, and the thickness of
one’s middle finger ; and are plainly of marine origin,
having often sea-shells adhering to them. They are
sometimes known by the name of St Cuthbert’s beads,
anti are usually found in limestone.
ENTRY, in Law, signifies taking possession of lands
or tenements, where a person has a right so to do.
Entry of an Heir, in Scots Law, that form of law
by which an heir vests in himself a proper title to his
predecessor’s estate.
Bill of Entry, in commerce. See Bill.
In making entries inwards, it is usual for merchants
to include all the goods they have on board the same
ship in one bill, though sometimes they may happen to
be upwards of 20 several kinds: and in case the goods
are short entered, additional or post entries are now al¬
lowed j though formerly the goods so entered were for¬
feited. As to bills of entry outwards, or including
goods to be exported, upon delivering them, and pay¬
ing the customs, you will receive a small piece of a
parchment called acocket, which testifies your payment
thereof, and all duties for such goods.
If several sorts of goods are exported at once, of
which some are free, and others pay customs j the ex¬
porter must have two cockets, and therefore must make
two entries; one for the goods that pay, and the other
for the goods that do not pay custom.
Entries of goods, on which a drawback is allowed,
must likewise contain the name of the ship in which the
EON
goods were imported, the importer’s name, and time of Entry
entry inwards. The entry being thus made, and an II
oath taken that the customs for those goods were paid Eonian‘-
as the law directs, you must carry it to the collector
and comptroller, or their deputies 5 who, after exami¬
ning their books, will grant warrant, which must be
given to the surveyor, searcher, or land-waiter, for them
to certify the quantity of goods ; after which the cer¬
tificate must be brought back to the collector and
comptroller, or their deputies, and oath made that the
said goods are really shipped, and not landed again in
any part of Great Britain.
ENVELOPE, in Fortification, a work of earth,
sometimes in form of a simple parapet, and at others
like a small rampart with a parapet: it is raised some¬
times on the ditch, and sometimes beyond it.
EN VIRONNE', in Heraldry, signifies surrounded
with other things : thus, they say, a lion environne
with so many bezants. See Bezants.
ENUMERATION, an account of several things,
in which mention is made of every particular article.
Enumeration, in Rhetoric, a part of peroration : in
which the orator, collecting the scattered heads of what
has been delivered throughout the whole, makes a brief
and artful relation or recapitulation thereof.
ENVOY, a person deputed to negociate Some affair
with any foreign prince or state. Those sent from the
courts of Britain, France, Spain, &c. to any petty
princes or state, such as the princes of Germany, the
republics of Venice, Genoa, &c. go in quality of en¬
voys, not ambassadors; and such a character only do
those persons bear, who go from any of the principal
courts of Europe to another, when the affair they go
upon is not very solemn or important. There are en¬
voys ordinary and extraordinary, as well as ambassa¬
dors j they are equally under the protection of the law
of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of ambassadors
only differing from them in this, that the same cere¬
monies are not performed to them.
ENVY, in Ethics, pain felt, and malignity con¬
ceived, at the sight of excellence or happiness in an¬
other. See Emulation.
EON, or jE,oN. See JEon.
EONIANS, in church-history, the followers of Eon,
a wild fanatic of the province of Bretagne, in the 12th
century, whose brain wFas disordered. He concluded
from the resemblance between eum, in the form for
exercising malignant spirits, viz. Per eum, quiventurus
est judicare vivos et mortuos, and his own name Eon,
that he was the son of God, and ordained to judge
the quick and dead. Eon, however, was solemnly con¬
demned by the council at Rheims, in 1148, at which
Pope Eugenins III. presided, and ended his days in a
H h 2 miserable
E P A
[ 244
miserable prison. He left behind him a number of fol¬
lowers and adherents, whom persecution and death so
weakly and cruelly employed could not persuade to
abandon his cause, or to renounce an absurdity which,
says Mosheim, one would think could never have gam¬
ed credit, but in such a place as Bedlam.
EORIA, in Mythology, a feast celebrated by the
Athenians in honour of Rrigonus, who, by way ol pu¬
nishment for their not avenging the death of his father
Icarus, engaged the gods to inflict the curse on their
daughters, that they should love men who never return¬
ed their passion. rIhe feast was instituted by the cider
of Apollo.
EOSTKE, in Mythology, a Saxon goddess to whom
they sacrificed in the month of April, called the month
of Eostra ; and thence the name Easter, which the Sax¬
ons retained after their conversion to Christianity, ap¬
plying it to the festival celebrated in commemoration of
our Saviour’s resurrection.
EPACRIS, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria class. See Botany Index.
EPACTS, in Chronology, the excess of the solar
month above the lunar synodical month, and of the
solar year above the lunar year of twelve synodical
months j or of several solar months above as many
synodical months, and several solar years above as
many dozen of synodical months.
The epacts, then, are either annual or menstrual.
Menstrual epacts are the excesses of the civil or ka-
lendar months above the lunar month. Suppose, e. gr.
it were new moon on the first day of January 5 since
the lunar month is days 12I1. 4^ 3^> ant^ rnon^1
of January contains 31 days, the menstrual epact is I
day Ilh. ij' 57".
Annual epacts are the excesses of the solar year above
the lunar. Hence, as the Julian solar year is 365 days
6h. and the Julian lunar year 354 days 8h. 48' 38",
the annual epact will be 10 days 2ih. iP 22; j that is,
nearly 11 days. Consequently the epact of 2 years is
22 days; of 3 years, 33 days ; or rather 3, since 30
days make an embolismtc or intercalary month.
Thus the epact of 4 years is 14 days, and so of the
rest ; and thus every 19th year, the epact becomes 30
or o ; consequently the 20th year the epact is 11 again ;
and so the cycle of epacts expires with the golden num¬
ber, or lunar cycle of 19 years, and begins with the
same, as in the following table :
]
Gold.
Numb.
Epacts.
XI
XXII
111
XIV
XXV
VI
XVII
Gold.
Numb.
8
9
10
11
12
13
Epacts.
xxvm
IX
XX
I
XII
XXIII
Gold.
Numb.
14
15
16
17
18
J9
Epacts.
IV
XV
XXVI
VIII
XIX
XXX
Again, as the new moons are the same, that is, as
they fall on the same day every 19 years, so the dif¬
ference between, the lunar and solar year is the same
E P A
every 19 years. And because the said difference is al- Epact*,
ways to be added to the lunar year, in order to adjust Epamincn..
or make it equal to the solar year; hence the said dif- ^
ference respectively belonging to each year of the
moon’s cycle is called the epact of the said year, that is,
the number to be added to the said year, to make it
equal to the solar year ; the word being formed from
the Greek nrciyu, induco, intercalo.
Upon this mutual respect between the cycle of the
moon and the cycle of the epacts, is founded this rule
for finding the Julian epact, belonging to any year of
the moon’s cycle. Multiply the year given of the
moon’s cycle into 11 : and if the product be less than
30, it is the epact sought ; if the product be greater
than 30, divide it by 30, and the remainder of the di¬
vidend is the epact. For instance, I would know the
epact for the year 1712, which is the third year of the
moon’s cycle. Wherefore 3 t‘Pat,f' f°r
for IIX3 = 33» an(f 33 being divided by 30, there is
left 3 of the dividend for the epact. But the difference
of the Julian and Gregorian years being equal to the
excess of the solar above the lunar year, or 11 days, it
happens that the Gregorian epact for oos year is the
same with the Julian epact for the preceding yeai.
EPAMINONDAS, a celebrated Theban, the son
of Polymnus, and one of the greatest captains of anti¬
quity. He learned philosophy and music under Ly¬
sis, a Pythagorean philosopher ; and was from his in¬
fancy inured to all the exercises of body and mind.
He was learned, generous, well-skilled in war, brave,
modest, and prudent ; and had such a regard for truth,
that he would not tell a falsehood even in jest. He ser¬
ved first under the Lacedsemonians ; saved the life of
Pelopidas their chief, who received in a battle seven or
eight wounds ; and contracted a strict friendship with
that general, which lasted till his death. At his per¬
suasions, Pelopulas delivered the city of Ihehes fiotn
the yoke of the Spartans, who had rendered themselves
masters of Cadmea, which occasioned a bloody war be¬
tween the two nations. Epaminondas was made ge¬
neral of the Thebans ; on which he gained the cele¬
brated battle of Leuctra, in which Cleombrotus, the
valiant king of Sparta, was killed. He then ravaged
the enemy’s country, and caused the city of Messenc
to be rebuilt and peopled, At length, the command
of the army was given to another, because Epaminon¬
das had kept his troops in the field four months longer
than he had been ordered by the people ; hut, instead
of retiring in disgust, he now served as a common sol¬
dier, and° distinguished himself by so many brave ac¬
tions, that the Thebans, ashamed of having deprived
him of the command, restored him to his post, in order
to carry the war into Thessaly, where his arms were
always victorious. A war breaking out between the
Elians and the inhabitants of Mantinea, the Thebans
took the part of the former. Epaminondas then resol¬
ved to endeavour to surprise Sparta and Mantinea ; hut
not succeeding, he gave the enemy battle, in which he
received a mortal wound with a javelin, the bearded
iron remaining in the wound. Knowing that it could
not be drawn out without occasioning immediate death,
he would not suffer it to he touched, but continued 10
give his orders: and on his being told, that the enemy
were entirely defeated, “ I have lived long enough (he
iMpn
larmnon
das
heiiieri-
E P H [
- cried), since I. die without being conquered ; and at the
same time he plucked the javelin from his wound, and
expired, 363, B. C.
EPANALEPSIS. See Oratory, N° 73.
EPANODOS. Ibid. N° 73.
EPANOUTHOSIS. Ibid. N° 73.
EPARER, in the manege, signifies the flinging
-of a horse, or his yerking and striking with his hind¬
legs.
EPAULEMENT, in Fortification, a work raised to
cover sidewise, is either of earth, gabions, or fascines
loaded with earth. The epaulements of the places of
arms for the cavalry, at the entrance of the trenches,
are generally of fascines mixed with earth.
EPAULETTES, are a kind of shoulder-knots
chosen for the soldiers, which are to be of the colour
of the facing, with a narrow yellow or white tape
round it, and worsted fringe j those for the officers are
made of gold or silver lace, with a rich fringe j they
are badges of distinction worn on one or both shoulders.
Those of the dragoon-guards, horse, and dragoons,
are worn on the left shoulder : the light dragoons, and
oflicers of grenadiers, have one on each shoulder:
those of the battalion wear one on the right shoulder
only, which is to be made of embroidery or lace with
a gold or silver fringe. Those of the royal regi¬
ment of artillery are to he gold and embroidery, with
gold fringe or scarlet cloth, and worn on the right
shoulder.
EPENTHESIS, in Grammar, the interposition or
insertion of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word 5
as aliuum, for alitum; relligio, for religio; i/idupcra-
tor, for imporaler, &c.
EPEUS, of the line of Endymion, the inventor of
the battering-ram, an engine of great service in sieges
to make a breach. He is thought to have built the
Trojan horse, and to have founded the city of Mata-
pontum.
EPHA, or Ephah, in Jewish antiquity, a measure
for things dry, equal to 3 pecks and 3 pints.
EPHEBiEUM, in antiquity, the place where the
ephebi or youth exercised 5 or, as some say, where those
who designed to exercise met, and agreed what kind of
exercise they should contend in, and what should be
the victor’s reward.
EPHEBI, among the Athenians, a designation gi¬
ven to their young men when they arrived at 18 years
of age, at which time they had their names entered in
a public register.
EPHEDRA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia class, and in the natural method ranking under
the 51st order, Coniferce. See Botany Index. ,
EPHEMERA, from “ a day j” a diary fe¬
ver, or a fever of one day’s continuance only. In this
case, such a heat as attends an excess of wine, a pulse
somewhat full and quick, but soft and regular, a slight
headach, a nausea and restlesness, are all the symp¬
toms, and which terminate without any sensible eva¬
cuation. If it continue to the third day, it is not a
diary fever ; and if the constitution is very dry, a hec¬
tic is to be dreaded.
Ephemera, the Day-fiy, a genus of insects belong¬
ing to the order of neuroptera. See Entomology
Index.
EPHEMERIDES, in Astronomy, tables calculated
245 ] E P H
by astronomers, shewing the present state of the hea- Ephemeri-
yens for every day at noon ; that is, the places where- des,
in all the planets are found at that time. It is from Ephesus,
these tables that the eclipses, conjunctions, and aspects —v'—'
of the planets are determined ; horoscopes or celestial
schemes, constructed, &c. We have ephemerides of
Origan, Kepler, Argoli, Heckerus, Mezzarachis,
Ming, De la Hire, Parker, &c. S. Cassini has cal¬
culated ephemerides of the sidera medictea or satellites
of Jupiter, which are of good use in determining the
longitude.
In England, the Nautical Almanack, or Astronomi¬
cal Ephemeris, published annually by anticipation, un¬
der the direction of the commissioners of longitude, is
the most considerable. In France, celestial epheme-
iides have been published by 1VI. Desplaces every ten
years, from 1715 to 1745 ; they were afterwards con¬
tinued by the Abbe Caille, with many additions ; of
which an account may be seen in the History of the
Academy of Sciences for 1743. The Academy of
Sciences have likewise published annually, from the
beginning of the present century, a kind of ephemeris
under the title of Connoissance des Terns.
EPHESUS, a city of antiquity, much celebrated
on account of its temple of Diana, and for being
the most famous mart or staple town of Hither Asia.
Ephesus was in ancient times the metropolis of all
Asia. Stephanus gives it the title of Fpiphunestates, or
most illustrious: and Pliny styles it the ornament of
Asia. The ancient city stood about 50 miles south of
Smyrna, near the mouth of the river Cayster, and the
shore of the Icarian sea, which is a bay of the vEgiean;
but as it has been so often destroyed and rebuilt, it
is no easy matter to determine tbe precise place. Most
of our modern travellers are of opinion, that the an¬
cient city stood more to the south than the present j
which they argue from the ruins that still remain.
Ephesus was, in ancient times, known by the names of
Alopcs, Ortygia, Morges, Smyrna, Tracha-a, Samornion,
and Ftelo. It was called Ephesus, according to Ue-
raclides, from the Greek word ephesus, signifying per¬
mission ; because Hercules (says he) permitted the Ama¬
zons to live and build a city in that place. Others tell
us, that Ephesus was the name of the Amazon that
founded the city j for Pliny, Justin, and Orosius, un¬
animously affirm that it was built by an Amazon j
while others bestow this honour upon Androclus, the
son of Codrus king of Athens, who was the chief of
the lonians that settled in Asia. But, in matters of so
early a date, it is impossible to come at the truth, and
therefore not worth our while to dwell on such fruit¬
less inquiries. What we know for certain is, that
the city, which in the Roman times was the metro¬
polis of all Asia, acknowledged Lysimachus for its
founder; for that prince, having caused the ancient
city to be entirely demolished, rebuilt, at a vast ex¬
pence, a new one, in a place more convenient, and
nearer the temple. Strabo tells us, that, as the inha¬
bitants shewed a great reluctance to quit their an¬
cient habitations, Lysimachus caused all the drains
that conveyed the water into the neighbouring fens
and the Cayster to be privately stopped up; where¬
by the city being on the first violent rains in great
part laid under water, and many of the inhabitants
drowned, they were glad to abandon, the ancient and
retire
E P H [ 246 ] E P H
Ejihcsut. retire to the new city. This new Ephesus was greatly
■' damaged by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius,
but by that emperor repaired and adorned with several
stately buildings, of which there are now but few ruins
to be seen, and scarce any thing worthy of ancient E-
phesus. The aqueduct, part of which is still standing,
is generally believed to have been the work of the Greek
emperors ; the pillars which support the arches are of
fine marble, and higher or lower as the level of the wa¬
ter required. This aqueduct served to convey water
into the city from the spring of Halites, mentioned by
Pausanias. The gate, now called by the inhabitants,
lor what reason we know not, the Gate of Persecution^
is remarkable for three bas-reliefs on the mould, of an
exquisite taste. The port, of which so many medals
have been struck, is at present but an open road, and
not much frequented. The Cayster was formerly na¬
vigable, and afforded a safe place for ships to ride in,
but is now almost choked up with sand.
But the chief ornament of Ephesus was the temple
of Diana, built at the common charge of all the states
in Asia, and for its structure, size, and furniture, ac¬
counted among the wonders of the world. This great
edifice was situated at the foot of a mountain, and at
the head of a marsh; which place they chose, if we
believe Pliny, as the least subject to earthquakes. This
site doubled the charges j for they were obliged to be
at a vast expence in making drains to convey the water
that came down the hill into the morass and the Cay¬
ster. Philo Byzantius tells, us, that in this work they
used such a quantity of stone, as almost exhausted all
the quarries in the country ; and these drains or vaults
are what the present inhabitants take for a labyrinth.
To secure the foundations of the conduits or sewers,
which were to bear a building of such a prodigious
weight, they laid beds of charcoal, says Pliny, well
rammed, and upon them others of wool. Two hun¬
dred and twenty years, Pliny says 400, were spent in
building this wonderful temple by all Asia,. It was 425
feet in length, and 200 in breadth, supported by 127
marble pillars, 70 feet high, of which 27 were most
curiously carved, and the rest polished. These pillars
were the works of so many kings, and the bas-reliefs
of one were done by Scopas, the most famous sculptor
of antiquity y the altar was almost wholly the work of
Praxiteles. Cheix-omocrates, who built the city of
Alexandria, and offered to form Mount Athos into a
statue of Alexandei", was the architect employed on
this occasion. The temple enjoyed the privilege of an
asylum, which at first extended to a furlong, was after¬
wards enlarged by Mithridates to a bow-shot, and dou¬
bled by Mark Antony, so that it took in part of the
city: but Tiberius, to put a stop to the many abuses
and disorders that attend privileges of this kind, re¬
voked them all, and declared, that no man guilty of
any wicked or dishonest action should escape justice,
though he fled to the altar itself.
The priests who officiated in this temple were held
in great esteem, and trusted with the care of sacred
virgins, or priestesses, but not till they were made eu¬
nuchs. They were called Estiatores and Essence^ had a
particular diet, and were not allowed by their consti¬
tutions to go into any private house. They were
maintained with the profits accruing from the lake Se-
liuusis, and another that fell into it, which must have
2
been very considerable, since they erected a golden sta- Ep!ia#s
tue to one Artemidorus, who being sent to Rome, re- v—
covered them after they had been seized by the farm¬
ers of the public revenues. All the lonians resorted
yearly to Ephesus with their wives and children, where
they solemnized the festival of Diana with great pomp
and magnificence, making on that occasion rich offei--
ings to the goddess, and valuable presents to her priests.
The asiarchae, mentioned by St Luke, were, accord¬
ing to Beza, those priests whose peculiar province it was
to regulate the public sports that were annually per¬
formed at Ephesus in honour of Diana : they were
maintained with the collections made during the sports j
for all Asia flocked to see them. The great Diana of
the Ephesians, as she was styled by her blind adorers,
was, according to Pliny, a small statue of ebony, made
by one Canitia, though commonly believed to have been
sent down from heaven by Jupitei’. This statue was
first placed in a niche, which, as we ai’e told, the Ama¬
zons caused to be made in the trunk of an elm. Such
was the fii'st rise of the veneration that was paid to
Diana in this place. In process of time the venera¬
tion for the goddess daily increasing among the inha¬
bitants of Asia, a most stately and magnificent temple
was built near the place where the elm stood, and the
statue of the goddess placed in it. This was the first
temple j but not quite so sumptuous as that which we
have described, though reckoned, as well as the second,
among the wonders of the world. The second, being
that above described, was remaining in Pliny’s time
and in Strabo’s; and is supposed to have been destroy¬
ed in the reign of Constantine, pursuant to the edict
by which that emperor commanded all the temples of
the heathens to be thrown down and demolished : the
former was burnt the same day that Alexander was
born, by one Erostratus, who owned on the rack, that
the only thing which had prompted him to destroy so ex¬
cellent a work, was the desire of transmitting his name
to future ages. Whereupon the common council ofAsia
made a decree, forbidding any one to name him 5 but
this prohibition served only to make his name more
memorable, such a remarkable extravagance, or rather
madness, being taken notice of by all the historians
who have written of those times. Alexander offered
to rebuild the temple at his own expence, provided the
Ephesians would agi’ee to put his name on the front;
but they rejected his offer in such a manner as prevent¬
ed the resentment of that vain prince, telling him, that
“ it was not fit one god should build a temple to ano¬
ther.” The pillars, and other materials that had been
saved out of the flames, were sold, and also the jewels
of the Ephesian women, who on that occasion willing¬
ly parted with them} and the sum raised from thence
served for the carrying on of the woi'k till other con¬
tributions came in, which in a short time amounted
to an immense treasure. This is the temple which Stra¬
bo, Pliny, and other Roman writers speak of. It
stood between the city and the port, and was built, or
rather finished, as Livy tells us, in the reign of King
Servius. Of this wonderful structure there is nothing
at present remaining but some ruins, and a few broken
pillars.
The lonians first settled at Ephesus under the con¬
duct of Androclus, who drove out the Carians and Le-
leges, by whom those places were possessed at his ar¬
rival.
E P H [ 247 ]
;;phesus. rival. Tlie city, whetberjbuilt by him, as Strabo af- piace for some time.
1 firms, or by Croesus or Ephesusj long before the lo
nic migration, as others maintain, became soon the
metropolis ol Ionia. It was at first governed by An-
droclus, and his descendants, who assumed the royal
title, and exercised the regal authority over the new
colony : whence, even in Strabo’s time, the posterity
ot Androclus were styled kings, and allowed to wear
a scarlet robe, with a sceptre, and all the ensigns of the
royal dignity. In process of time, a new form of go¬
vernment was introduced, and a senate established j but
when, or on what occasion, this change happened, we
know not. This kind of government continued till the
time of Pythagoras, who lived before Cyrus the Great,
and was one ot the most cruel and inhuman tyrants we
read of in history $ for having driven out the senate,
and taken all the power into his own hands, he filled
the city with blood and rapine, not sparing even those
who fled to the temple of Diana for shelter. Pytha¬
goras was succeeded by Pindarus, who bore the same
sway in the city ; but treated the citizens with more
numanity. In his time Ephesus being besieged by
Croesus king of Lydia, he advised the inhabitants to
devote their city to Diana, and fasten the wall, by a
1 ope, to the pillars of her temple. They followed Ins
advice, and were, from reverence to the goddess, not
only treated with great kindness by Croesus, but resto¬
red to their former liberty. Pindarus being obliged
to resign his power, retired to Peloponnesus. He was,
according to ^Elian, grandson to Alyattes king of Ly¬
dia, and Croesus’s nephew. The other tyrants of Ephe¬
sus mentioned in history, are, Athenagoras, Comes,
Aristarchus, and Hegesias j of whom the last was ex¬
pelled by Alexander, who coming to Ephesus, after
having defeated the Persians on the banks of the
Granicus, bestowed upon Diana all the tributes which
the Ephesians had paid to the Persians, and establish¬
ed a democracy in the city. In the war between Mi-
thridates and the Romans, they sided with the former,
and, by his directions, massacred all the Romans that
resided in their city $ for which barbarity they were
severely fined, and reduced almost to beggary by Syl-
!a, but afterwards treated kindly, and suffered to live
according to their own laws, as is plain from several
ancient inscriptions and medals. The Ephesians were
much addicted to superstition, sorcery, and curious arts,
as the scripture styles them : whence came the pro¬
verb “ Ephesian letters,” signifying all sorts of spells
or charms.
In the time of the apostle Paul, Ephesus retained a
great deal of its ancient grandeur. But it was a ruinous
place, when the emperor Justinian filled Constantinople
with its statues, and raised his church of St Sophia up¬
on its columns. Since then it has been almost quite
exhausted. Towards the end of the nth century, a
Turkish pirate, named Tangripermes, settled there.
But the Greek admiral, John Ducas, defeated him in
a bloody battle, and pursued the flying Turks up the
Maeander. In 1306, it was among the places which
suffered from the exactions of the grand duke Roger 5
and two years after, it surrendered to Sultan Saysan,
who, to prevent future insurrection, removed most of
the inhabitants to Tyriaeum, where they were massacred.
Ephesus appears to have subsisted as an inconsiderable
E P H
But now, the Ephesians are only Tphtw%
a tew Greek peasants, living in extreme wi’etchedness, [|
dependence, and insensibility 5 the representatives of Ephraim,
an illustrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their
greatness ; some, the substructions of the glorious edi¬
fices which they raised j some, beneath the vaults of
tne stadium, once the crowded scene of their diversionsj
and some, by the abrupt precipice, in the sepulchres
which received their ashes.
EPHETiE (from “ I send forth”), in anti¬
quity, a sort of magistrates among the Athenians, in¬
stituted by King Demophoon, to take cognizance of
murder, manslaughter, and chance-medley.
_ Their number was 100, whereof 50 were Athe¬
nians, and 50 Argians : they were not admitted to the
post till upwards of 50 years of age. Draco new-mo¬
delled it, excluded the Argians out of it, and made it
to consist of 51 Athenians, each above 58 years of age:
Bbbo Emmius de Rep. Athen. says, he transferred to
them part of the jurisdiction of the Areopagites. See
Areopagus.
EPHOD, in Jewish antiquity, one part of the
priestly habit; being a kind of girdle, which, brought
from behind the neck over the two shoulders, and hang- '
ing down before, was put across the stomach, then car¬
ried round the waist, and made use of as a girdle to
the. tunic.—There were two sorts of ephods, one of
plain linen for the priests, and the other embroidered
for the high-priest.
EPHORf, in Grecian antiquity, magistrates esta¬
blished in ancient Sparta to balance the regal power.
Ihe authority of the ephori was very great. They
sometimes expelled, and even put to death the kings,
and abolished or suspended the power of the other ma¬
gistrates, calling them to account at pleasure. There
were five of them, others say nine. They presided in
the public shows and festivals. They were entrusted
with the public treasure*, made war and peace; and
were so absolute, that Aristotle makes their govern¬
ment equal to the prerogative of a monarchy. They
were established by Lycurgus, according to the gene¬
rality of authors : though this is denied by others, who
date their origin 130 years after the time of that legi¬
slator. Thus Plutarch, in his Life of Cleomenes,
ascribes their institution to Theopompus king of Spar¬
ta ; which is also confirmed by the authority of Ari¬
stotle.
EPHORUS, an orator and historian of Cumae In
-iEolia, about 352 years before Christ. He was dis¬
ciple to Isocrates, by whose advice he wrote a history
which gave an account of all the actions and battles
that bad happened between the Greeks and barbarians
for 750 years. It was greatly esteemed by the ancients;
but is now lost.
EPHRAIM, in Ancient Geography, one of the di¬
visions ol Palestine by tribes : Ephraim and the half
tribe of Manasseh are blended together by the sacred
writer, and it only appears that Ephraim occupied the
more southern, and the half tribe of Manasseh the more
northern parts, but both seem to have extended from
the J ordan to the sea. Ephraim also denotes a king¬
dom, on the separation of the 10 tribes from the house
of David, called also the kingdom of Israel and Sa¬
maria.
EPHRATA,
Ephrala
.11
Epicedon.
E P I [ 248 ] E P I
EPHRATA, a small town of Pennsylvania in Ame¬
rica, and the principal settlement of the religious sect
called Dunkards or Tunkers. See Tunkers.
EPHREM Syrus, an ancient Christian writer, in
the fourth century, deacon of Edessa, was born at Ni-
sibe in Syria. He was greatly esteemed by St Basil,
St Gregory Nyssen, and other great men. He wrote
against the opinions of Sabellius, Arius, Apollonarius,
the Manichees, &c. and acquired such reputation by
bis virtue and his works, that he was called the doctor
and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in 378. The
best editions of his works are, that of Oxford, in 1708,
in folio, and that of Rome, from 1732 to J73^>
Syria, Greek, and Latin, 6 vols folio.
EPHYDOR, in antiquity, an officer in the Athe¬
nian courts of justice, who was to provide the plaintiff
and defendant with equal water hour-glasses. When
the glass was run out, they were not permitted to
speak any farther j and, therefore, we find them very
careful not to lose or mispend one drop of their water.
Whilst the laws quoted by them were reciting, or if
any other business happened to intervene, they gave or¬
ders that the glass should be stopped.
EPJBA1YE, E5r«€*l«M, among the Greeks, marines,
or soldiers who served on board the ships of war. They
were armed in the same manner as the land-forces, on¬
ly that more of them wore full or heavy armour.
EPIBATERION, a poetical composition, in use
among the ancient Greeks. When any person of con¬
dition and quality returned home after a long absence
or journey into another country, he called together
Lis friends and fellow citizens, and made them a speech,
or rehearsed them a copy of verses, wherein he return¬
ed solemn thanks to the immortal gods for his happy
return ; and ended with an address by way of compli¬
ment to his fellow-citizens.—These verses made what
the Greeks call sxi««TS|i<>y, epibalerium, of iTr&anu, “ I
go abroad.” At going away they had another, called
apohateriunu
EPIBATER1UM, a genus of plants belonging to
the monoecia class. See Botany Index.
EPIC, or Heroic, Poem, a poem expressed in nar¬
ration, formed upon a story partly real, and partly
feigned j representing, in a sublime style, some signal
and fortunate action, distinguished by a variety of great
events, to form the morals, and affect the mind with
the love of heroic virtue.
We may distinguish three parts of the definition,
namely, the matter, the form, and the end. The mat¬
ter includes the action of the fable, under which are
ranged the incidents, episodes, characters, morals, and
machinery. The form comprehends the way or man¬
ner of the narration, whether by the poet himself, or
by any persons introduced, whose discourses are related-
to this branch likewise belong tire moving of the pas¬
sions, the descriptions, discourses, sentiments, thoughts,
style, and versification j and besides these, the similies,
tropes, figures, and, in short, all the ornaments and de¬
corations of the poem. The end is to improve our
morals and increase our virtue. See Poetry.
EPICEDON (formed of e?n, upon, and fu¬
neral), in the Greek and Latin poetry, a poem, or
poetical composition, on the death of a person.—At
the obsequies of any man of figure, there were three
kinds of discourses usually made ; that rehearsed at his
4
bustum or funeral pile, was called nenia ; that engraven Eplccdoa
on his tomb, epitaph ; and that spoken in the ceremony . B
of his funeral, epicedion. We have two beautiful epice- P'stetus-
dions in Virgil, that of Euryalus and that of Pallas.
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehear¬
sed during the funeral solemnity oi persons of distinc¬
tion.
EPICHARMUS, an ancient poet and philosopher,
born in Sicily, was a scholar of Pythagoras. He is
said to have introduced comedy at Syracuse in the
reign of Hiero. Horace commends Plautus for imi¬
tating him, in following the chase of the intrigue so
closely as not to give the readers or spectators time
to trouble themselves with doubts concerning the dis¬
covery. He wrote likewise treatises concerning phi¬
losophy and medicine } but none of his works have
been preserved. He died aged 90, according to La¬
ertius, who has preserved four verses inscribed on his
statue.
EPICHIROTONIA, among the Athenians. It
was ordained by Solon, that once every year the laws
should be carefully revised and examined ; and if any
of them were found unsuitable to the present state
of affairs, they should be repealed. This was called
tTri^ti^olovix rwv vopuv, from the manner of giving their
suffrages by holding up their hands. See a farther
account of this custom in Pott. Archseol. Graec. lib.
cap. 26. tom. i. p. 242.
EPICOENE, in Grammar, a term applied to nouns,
which, under the same gender and termination, mark
indifferently the male and female species. Such in La¬
tin is aquila, vespertilio, &c. which signify equally a
male or female eagle or bat.
Grammarians distinguish between epicccne and com¬
mon. A noun is said to be common of two kinds,
when it may be joined either with a masculine or a fe¬
minine article ; and epicoene, when it is always joined
to some of the two articles, and yet signifies both gen¬
ders.
EPICTETUS, a celebrated Stoic philosopher, born
at Hierapolis in Phrygia, in the first century, was the
slave of Epaphroditus, a freedman and one of Nero’s
guard. Domitian banishing all philosophers from
Rome, about the year 94, Epictetus retired to Nico-
polis in Epirus, where he died in a very advanced age;
and after his death, the earthen lamp he made use of sold
for 3000 drachmas. He was a man of great modesty }
which was eminent in his own practice, as well as in his
recommendation to others : hence he used to say, “ 1 hat
there is no need of adorning a man’s house with rich
hangings or paintings, since the most graceful furniture
is temperance and modesty, which are lasting ornaments,
and will never be the worse for wearing.” Of all the
ancient philosophers, he seems to have made the near¬
est approaches to the Christian morality, and to have
had the most just ideas of God and providence. He
always possessed a cool and serene mind, unruffled by
passion ; and was used to say, that the whole of mo¬
ral philosophy was included in these words, support and
abstain. One day, his master Epaphroditus strove in
a frolic to wrench his leg 5 when Epictetus said, with
a'Smile, and free from any emotion, “ If you go on, you
will certainly break my leg: but the former redoubling
his effort, and striking it with all his strength, he at last
broke the bone; when all the return Epictetus made was,
7 « Did
E
“ Did not I tell
PI [ 249 ]
Sir, that you would break my rals of Epicurus.
1 ictftus, xj*1’ x lCM ^°U' 7   J~~ **v
|«icureaa leg r INIo man was more expert at reducing the rigour
M losopliy. of the maxims of the Stoics into practice. Pie con-
ju—y formed himself strictly, both in his discourse and be¬
haviour, to the manners of Socrates and Zeno. He
waged continual war with fancy and fortune 5 and it is
an excellence peculiar to himself, that he admitted all
the severity of the Stoics without their sourness, and
reformed Stoicism as well as professed it; and besides
his vindicating the immortality of the soul as strenu¬
ously as Socrates or any Stoic of them all, he declared
openly against self-murder, the lawfulness of which was
maintained by the rest of the sect. Arrian, his disciple,
wrote a large account of his life and death, which is
lost ; and preserved four books of his discourses and
his Enchiridion, of which there have been several edi¬
tions in Greek and Latin ; and, in 1758, a translation
of them into English was published by the learned and
ingenious Miss Carter.
EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrine or sy¬
stem of philosophy maintained by Epicurus and his
followers.
His philosophy consisted of three parts ; canonical,
physical, and ethereal. The first was about the canons
or rules of judging. The censure which Tully passes
upon him for his despising logic, will hold true only
with regard to the logic of the Stoics, which he could
not approve of, as being too full of nicety and quirk.
Epicurus was not acquainted with the analytical method
of division and argumentation, nor was he so curious
in modes and formation as the Stoics. Soundness and
simplicity of sense, assisted with some natural reflec¬
tions, was all his art. His search after truth proceed¬
ed only by the senses ; to the evidence of which he gave
so great a certainty, that he considered them as an in¬
fallible rule of truth, and termed them the first natural
light of mankind.
In the second part of this philosophy he laid down
atoms, space, and gravity, as the first principles of all
things : he did not deny the existence of God, but
thought it beneath his majesty to concern himself with
human affairs : he held him a blessed immortal Being,
having no affairs of his own to take care of, and above
meddling with those of others.
As to his ethics, he made the supreme good of man
to consist in pleasure, and consequently supreme evil in
pain. Nature itself, says he, teaches us this truth ; and
prompts us from our birth to procure whatever gives
us pleasure, and avoid what gives us pain. To this end
he proposes a remedy against the sharpness of pain :
this was to divert the mind from it, by turning our
whole attention upon the pleasures we have formerly
enjoyed. He held that the wise man must be happy as
long as he is wise ; the pain, not depriving him of his
wisdom, cannot deprive him of his happiness.
There is nothing that has a fairer show of honesty
than the moral doctrine of Epicurus. Gassendus pre¬
tends, that the pleasure in which this philosopher has
fixed the sovereign good, was nothing else but the high¬
est tranquillity of mind, in conjunction with the most
perfect health of body : but Tully, Horace, and Plu¬
tarch, as well as almost all the fathers of the church,
gives us a very different account of it : indeed the na¬
ture of this pleasure, in which the chief happiness is
supposed to be seated, is a grand problem in the mo-
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
E P I
Hence there were two kinds of E- Epicurus
picureans, the rigid and the remiss : the first were those (}
who understood Epicurus’s notion of pleasure in the ^pidaurus.
best sense, and placed all their happiness in the pure v
pleasures of the mind, resulting from the practice of
vn tue 5 the loose or remiss Epicureans, taking the words
of that philosopher in a gross sense, placed all their hap¬
piness in bodily pleasures or debauchery.
^^lEURUb, the greatest philosopher of his age, was
born at Gargettium in Attica, about 340 B. C. in the
109th Olympiad. He settled at Athens in a fine garden
he had bought; where he lived with his friends in great
tranquillity, and educated a great number of disciples.
They lived all in common with their master. The re¬
spect which his followers paid to his memory is admi¬
rable : his school was never divided, but his doctrine
was followed as an oracle. His birth-day was stilt
kept in Pliny’s time ; the month he was born in was
observed as a continual festival ; and they placed his
picture everywhere. He wrote a great many books,
and valued himself upon making no quotations. He
raised the atomical system to a great reputation, though
he was not the inventor of it, but had only made some
change in that of Democritus. As to his doctrine con¬
cerning the supreme good or happiness, it was very
liable to be misrepresented, and some ill effects pro¬
ceeded from thence, which discredited his sect. He
was charged with perverting the worship of the gods,
and inciting men to debauchery; but be did not^for-
get himself on this occasion ; he published his opi¬
nions to the whole world ; he wrote some books of de¬
votion ; recommended the veneration of the gods, so¬
briety, and chastity ; and it is certain that he lived in
an exemplary manner, and conformably to the rules of
philosophical wisdom and frugality. Timocrites, a de¬
serter of his sect, spoke very scandalously of him. Gas¬
sendus has given us all he could collect from the
ancients concerning the person and doctrine of this
philosopher; who died of a suppression of urine,
aged 72.
. EPICYCLE, in the ancient astronomy, a little
circle whose centre is in the circumference of a greater
circle : or it is a small orb or sphere, which being fix¬
ed in the deferent of a planet, is carried along with it;
and yet, by its own peculiar motion, carries the pla¬
net fastened to it round its proper centre.
It was by means of epicycles that Ptolemy and
his followers solved the various phenomena of the
planets, but more especially their stations and retrogra-
dations.
EPICYCLOID, in Geometry, a curve generated
by the revolution of the periphery of a circle, along
the convex or concave side of the periphery of another
circle.
EPICYEMA, among Physicians, denotes a super-
fetation ; being a false conception or mole happening
after the birth of a regular foetus.
EPIDAURUM, Epidaurus, or Efitaurum, in
Ancient' Geography, a town of Dalmatia, on the Adria¬
tic, built the same year, as is said, with Dyrrachium,
430 years after the destruction of Troy : a considerable
town formerly, but now reduced to a small village, cal¬
led Ragusi Vecchio; distant six miles from the modern
Ragusi. E. Long. 199. Lat. 42°. 20'.
EPIDAURUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
I i Argolis,
E P I [ 250 ] E P I
Argolis, in Peloponnesus, on the Saronic bay, to the
south of the promontory Spirceum; called sac it'd, be¬
cause of the religious veneration paid to YEsculapius,
whose temple stood at the distance of five miles from
the town. The Romans, during a pestilence, being
advised to convey the god to Rome, sent a ship with a
solemn embassy, for his conveyance j but while the Epi-
daurians were in suspense to part with him, a huge ser¬
pent sailed to the ship ; and being taken for the god,
was carried to Rome in great solemnity. Epidaurus
stood in a recess of the bay, fronting the east j and was
fortified by nature, being inclosed by high mountains
i-eaching to the sea, and rendering it difficult of access.
It had several temples, and in the acropolis or citadel
was a remarkable statue of Minerva. 1 he site is now
called Epi thavro. The traces are indistinct, and it
has probably been long deserted. I he harbour of
Epidaurus is long. Its periplus or circuit was 15
stadia or near two miles. The entrance is between
mountains, and on a small rocky peninsula on the left
hand are ruins of a modern fortress. This, it seems,
was the point on which a temple of Juno stood. It is
frequented by vessels for wood or corn. I he grove
of iEsculapius was inclosed by mountains, within
which all the sacrifices as well of the Epidaurians as
of strangers were consumed. One was called Titthion j
and on this the god when an infant was said to have
been exposed, and to have been suckled by a she-goat.
He was a great physician, and his temple was always
crowded with sick persons. Beyond it was the dormi¬
tory of the suppliants; and near it, a circular edifice
called the T/iokis, built by Polycletus, of white marble,
worth seeing. The grove, besides others temples, was
adorned with a portico, and a fountain remarkable for
its roof and decorations. The bath of iEsculapius was
one of the benefactions of Antoninus Pius, while a Ro¬
man senator; as was also a bouse for the reception 0
pregnant women and dying persons, who before were re¬
moved out of the inclosure, to be delivered or to expire
in the open air. The remains are heaps of stones,
pieces of brick wall, and scattered fragments of mar¬
ble ; besides some churches, or rather piles of rubbish
miscalled, being destitute of doors, roofs, or any kind
•f ornament. "The statue of AEsculapius was ha.t as
big as that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. It was
made of ivory and gold, and, as the inscription proved,
by Thrasymedes son of Arignotus of Paros. He was
represented sitting, holding his staff, with one ban on
the head of a serpent, and a dog lying by him. I wo
Argive heroes, Bellerophon combating with the mon¬
ster Chimsera, and Perseus severing the head of Medusa,
were carved on the throne. Many tablets described
the cures performed by the deity, yet he had not e-
scaped contumely and robbery. Dionysius deprive
him of bis golden beard, affirming that it was unseem¬
ly in him to appear in that manner when his father
Apollo was always, seen with his face smooth. Sylla
amassed the precious offerings belonging to him and to
Apollo and Jupiter at Delphi and Olympia, to pay
bis army before Athens. The marks in the walls tes¬
tified that a great number had been plucked down.
A few fragments of white marble exquisitely carved
occur in the heap of the temple. The inclosure of the
Semple once abounded in inscriptions. In the second
century six marbles remained, on which were written Epidwriw
in the Doric dialect the names ol men and women who ft
had been patients of the god, with the distemper each , t r^o:^
had laboured under, and the remedies he had directed. :
Dr Chandler found only a couple of votive inscriptions,
and two pedestals of statues, one of which represented a
Roman, and was erected by the city of the Epidau¬
rians. The stadium was near the temple. It was of
earth, as most in Greece were. At the upper end are
seats of stone, but these were continued along the side*
only a ft w yards. A vaulted passage leading under¬
neath into the area, now choked up, was a private way
by which the agonothetae or presidents with the priest*
and persons of distinction entered. Two large cistern*
or reservoirs remain, made by Antoninus for the recep¬
tion of rain water. Beyond them is a dry water¬
course, and m the mountain side on the right hand are
the marble seats of the theatre, overgrown with bushes.,
The springs and wells by the ruins are now supposed to
possess many excellent properties. To these and a
good air, Dr Chandler thinks, with the recreations of
the theatre and of the stadium, and to the medicinal
knowledge and experience of the priests, may be attri¬
buted both the recovery of the sick and the reputation
of ALsculapius.
Epidaurus, with the surname Zfwerr/, to distinguish
it from the Epidaurus of Argolis ; called so, either from
its meadows or its commodious harbours (Stepbanus,
Apollodorus) : a town of Laconia, on the Ionian sea,
to the south of the Sinus Argolicus, situated where
now Molvasia stands, in the Morea. E. Long. 23- 3®*-
Lat. 35. 40. ....
EF1DEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, festivals kept
in honour ot Apollo and Diana, at the stated seasons,
when those deities, who could not be present every¬
where, were supposed to visit different places, in order
to receive the vows of their adorers.
EPIDEMIC, among physicians, an epithet of dis¬
eases which at certain times are popular, attacking
great numbers at or near the same time.
& EPIDENDRUM, a genus of plants, belonging tn
the gynandria class ; and in the natural method ranking
under the seventh order, Orchidecz. See Botany In¬
dex.—This is the plant which produces the fruit called
vanilla, and which is used in perfuming chocolate, to¬
bacco, and snuff.
EPIDERMIS, in Anatomy, the cuticle or scarf-skin.
See Anatomy Index. The word is formed of the Greek
%TSi, on, over ; and liopsc, skin.
EPIDICASIA, among the Athenians. Daugh¬
ters inheriting their parents estate were obliged to
marry their nearest relation which gave occasion to
persons of the same family to go to law with one ano¬
ther, each pretending to be more nearly allied to the
heiress than the rest. The suit was called iTrlinittrm
: and the virgin, about whom the relations contest¬
ed, iviitztf'
EPIDIDYMIS, in Anatomy, a little round body, on
the back of each testicle; called also parastata. Se*
Anatomy Index. <
EPIGAEA, a genus of plants, belonging to the de-
candria class; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany Index.
EPIDQTiE, certain deities who Resided over the
growtb
E P I [ 251 ] E ? I
growth of children. They were worshipped by the La-
9 cedaemonians, and chiefly invoked by those who were
persecuted by the ghosts of the dead, &c.
EPIGASTRIC region, a part or subdivision of
the abdomen. See Anatomy Index.
EPIGLOTTIS, in Anatomy, one of the cartilages
of the larynx or windpipe. See Anatomy Index.
EPIGONI, the sons and descendants of the Grecian
heroes who were killed in the first Theban war. The
war of the Epigoni is famous in ancient history. It
was undertaken ten years after the first. The sons of
those who had perished in the first war, resolved to
avenge the death of their fathers, and marched against
Thebes, under the command of Thersander j or, ac¬
cording to others, of Alcmaeon the son of Amphiaraus,
about 1307 years before Christ. The Argives were
assisted by the Corinthians, the people of Messenia,
Arcadia, and Megara. The Thebans had engaged all
their neighbours in their quarrel, as in one common
cause. These two hostile armies met and engaged on
the banks of the Glissas. The fight was obstinate and
bloody, but victory declared for the Epigoni, and some
of the Thebans fled to lllyricum with Ltodamas their
general, while others retired into Thebes, where they
were soon besieged, and forced to surrender. In this
war TEgialeus was the only one who was killed, and
his father Adrastus was the only one who escaped alive
in the first war. This whole war, as Pausanias ob¬
serves, was written in verse ; and Callinus, who quotes
some of the verses, ascribes them to Homer, which opi¬
nion has been adopted by many writers. “ For my
part (continues the geographer), I own, that next to
the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, I have never seen a
finer poem.” The descendants of the veteran Mace¬
donians, who served under Alexander the Great, and
who had children by Asiatic women, were also called
Epigoni, (Justin).
EPIGRAM, in Poetry, a short poem in verse, treat¬
ing only of one thing, and ending with some lively,
ingenious, and natural thought or point. The word is
formed of tirtfoftfix inscription, of tTrif^xcpiif to inscribe
or write upon.
Epigrams, then, originally signify inscriptions 5 and
they derive their origin from those inscriptions placed
by the ancients on their tombs, statues, temples, trium¬
phal arches, &c. These, at first, were only simple
monograms : afterwards, increasing their length, they
made them in verse, to be the more easily retained :
Herodotus and others have transmitted to us several
of them. Such little poems retained the name of epi¬
grams, even after the design of their first institution
was varied, and people began to use them for the rela¬
tion of little facts and accidents, the characterizing of
persons, &c. The point or turn is a quality much in¬
sisted on by the critics, who require the epigram con¬
stantly to close with something poignant and unexpect¬
ed, to which all the rest of the composition is only pre¬
paratory $ whilst others, on the contrary, exclude the
point, and require the thought to be equally diffused
throughout the poem, without laying the whole stress
on the close : the former is usually Martial’s practice,
and the latter that of Catullus.
The Greek epigrams have scarce any thing of the
point or briskness of the Latin one: those collected
in the Anthology have most of them a remarkable air
of ease and simplicity, attended with something just and
witty j such as we find in a sensible peasant, or a child
that has wit. They have nothing that bites, but some¬
thing that tickles. Though they want the salt of Mar¬
tial, yet to a good taste they are not insipid j except a
few ot them, which are quite flat and spiritless. How¬
ever, the general faintness and delicacy of the peasan¬
try in them has given occasion for a Greek epigram, or
epigram a la Greque, to denote, among the French, an
epigram void of salt or sharpness.
I be epigram admits ot great variety of subjects:
some are made to praise, and others to satirize 5 which
last are much the easiest, ill-nature serving instead of
point and wit. Boileau’s epigrams are all satires on
one or another ; those of Des Reaux are all made in
honour of his friends ; and those of Mad. Scudery are
so many eloges. The epigram being only a single
thought, it would he ridiculous to express it in a grezt
number of verses.
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquarians, denotes the
inscription of a building, pointing out the time when,
the persons by whom, the uses, and the like, for which
it w'as erected.
EPILEPSY, in Medicine, the same with what is
otherwise called the falling-sickness, from the patient’s
falling suddenly on the ground. See Medicine Index.
EPILOBIUM, the Willow Herb ; a genus of
plants belonging to the octandria class j and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 17th order, Cahyean*
themes. See Botany Index.
EPILOGUE, in Oratory, the end or conclusion of
a discourse, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of
the principal matters delivered.
Epilogue, in dramatic poetry, a speech addressed
to the audience, after the play is over, by one of the
principal actors therein \ usually containing some reflec¬
tions on certain incidents in the play, especially those
in the part of the person that speaks it $ and having
somewhat of pleasantry, intended to compose the pas¬
sions raised in the course of the representation : A prac¬
tice which is ridiculed by the Spectator; and compared
to a merry jigg upon the organ after a good sermon,
to wipe away any impressions that might have been
made thereby, and send the people away just as they
came.
EPIMEDIUM, Barren-wort j a genus of plants,
belonging to the tetrandria class ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 24th order, Corydales. See
Botany Index.
EPIMENIDES, an ancient poet and philosopher,
was born at Gnossus in Crete. Contrary to the custom
of his country, he always wore his hair long $ which,
according to some, was because be was ashamed of
being thought a Cretan : and indeed he does not seem
to have had a high opinion of his countrymen, if that
verse cited by St Paul be, as it is generally believed to
be, his j “ The Cretans are always liars, evil beasts,
slow bellies.” Many stories are related of him, too
wonderful to merit attention j however, his reputation
was so great over all Greece, that he was there esteem¬
ed a favourite of the gods. The Athenians being af¬
flicted with the plague, and commanded by the oracle
to make a solemn lustration of the city, sent Nicias,
the son of Niceratus, with a ship to Crete, to desire
Epimcnides to come to them. He accepted their in-
I i 2 vitation,
E P I [25
£pimenu!es vltatlon, accompanied the messengers to Athens, per¬
formed the lustration of the city, and the plague ceased.
H
n lui mt-'ii uic lusiirtiiuu ui —f-, —   
F.’iiphaaius. jjere |ie c0„(racted an acquaintance with Solon, whom
v he privately instructed in the proper methods for the
regulation of the Athenian commonwealth. Having
finished his business at Athens, the citizens ottered him
many valuable presents and high honours, and appoint¬
ed a ship to carry him back to Crete ; but he return¬
ed their presents, and would accept of nothing except
a little branch of the sacred olive preserved in the ci¬
tadel ; and desired the Athenians to enter into an al¬
liance with the Gnossians. Having obtained this, he
returned to Crete } where he died soon after, aged
years: or as the Cretans, consistently with their
character, pretended, 299. He was a great poet, and
wrote 5000 verses on “ the genealogy of the gods,”
6500 “ on the building of the ship Argo and Jason’s
expedition to Colchis,” and 4000 “ concerning Minos
and Rhadamanthus.” He wrote also in prose, “ Con¬
cerning sacrifices and the commonwealth of Crete.
St Jerome likewise mentions his “ hook of oracles and
responses.” The Lacedemonians procured his body,
and preserved it among them by the advice of an ora¬
cle 5 and Plutarch tells us, that he was reckoned the
seventh wise man by those who refused to admit Peri-
ander into the number.
EPIMETHEUS, a son of Japetus and Clymene,
one of the Oceanides, who inconsiderately married
Pandora, by wdiom he had Pyrrha, the wife of Deu¬
calion. He had the curiosity to open the box which
Pandora had brought with her, and from thence issued
a train of evils, which from that moment have never
ceased to afflict the human race. Hope was the only
one which remained at the bottom of the box, not
having a sufficient time to escape, and it is she alone
who comforts men under misfortunes. Epimetheus
was changed into a monkey by the gods, and sent into
the island Pithecusa.
EPIPHANIUS, St, an ancient father of the
church, born at Besanducan, a village in Palestine,
about the year 332. He founded a monastery near
the place of his birth, and presided over it. He was
afterwards elected bishop of balamis j when he sided
with Paulinus against Meletius, and ordained in Pale¬
stine Paulinian the brother of St Jerome 5 on which a
contest arose between him and John bishop of Jerusa¬
lem. He afterwards called a council in the island of
Cyprus, in which he procured a prohibition of the
reading of Origen’s writings •, and made use of all his
endeavours to prevail on Theophilus bishop of Alex¬
andria to engage St Chrysostom to declare in favour
of that decree : but not meeting with success, he went
himself to Constantinople, where he would not have
any conversation with St Chrysostom ; and formed the
design of entering the church of the apostles to publish
his condemnation of Origen ; but being informed of
the danger to which he would be exposed, he resolved
to return to Cyprus; but died at sea in the year 403.
His works were printed in Greek, at Basil, 1544? jn
folio ; and were afterwards translated into Latin, in
which language they have been often reprinted. Peta-
vius revised and corrected the Greek text by two manu¬
scripts, and published it together with a new translation
at Paris in 1622. This edition was reprinted at
Qologne in 1682.;
2 ] E . p 1
EPIPHANY, a Christian festival, otherwise called Epiphany 1
the Manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, observed on || u«
the sixth of January, in honour of the appearance of %ir»s.
our Saviour to the three magi or wise men, who came W^r‘*JI(
to adore him and bring him presents. The feast of epi¬
phany was not originally a distinct festival; but made a
part of that of the nativity of Christ, which being cele¬
brated 12 days, the first and last of which w'ere high
or chief days of solemnity, either of these might pro¬
perly be called epiphany, as that word signifies the ap¬
pearance of Christ in the world.
The word in the original Greek, iTrttpxna, signifies
appearance or apparition; and was applied, as some cri¬
tics will have it, to this feast, on account of the star |!ti
which appeared to the magi.—St Jerome and St Chry¬
sostom take the epiphany for the day of our Saviour’s
baptism, when he was declared to men by the voice, Hie
est jilius mens dileclus, in quo mihi complacui: “ This
is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.” And
accordingly it is still observed by the Cophlae and Ethi¬
opians in that view. Others contend, that the feast of
Christmas, or the nativity of our Saviour, was held in
divers churches on this day ; which had the denomi¬
nation epiphany or appearance, by reason of our Savi¬
our’s first appearance on earth at that time. And it
must be allowed, that the word is used among the an¬
cient Greek fathers, not for the appearance of the star
to the magi, but for that of our Saviour to the world :
In which sense St Paul uses the word epiphania in his
second epistle to Timothy, i. 10.
EPIPHONEMA. See Oratory, N° 96.
EPIPHORA, in Medicine, a preternatural defluxion
of the eyes, when they continually discharge a sharp
serous humour, which excoriates the cheeks. See, Me¬
dicine Index.
EPIPHYSIS, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
EPIPLOCELE, in Medicine, is a kind of hernia
or rupture, in which the omentum subsides into the
scrotum.
EPIPLOOMPHALON, in Medicine, an hernia
umbilicalis, proceeding from the omyntum falling into
the region of the umbilicus or navel.
EPIPLOON. See Omentum, Anatomy Index.
EPIRUS, a district of ancient Greece, bounded
on the east by Etolia, on the west by the Adriatic, on
the north by Thessaly and Macedon, and on the south
by the Ionian sea. This country was anciently go¬
verned by its own princes, in which state it made a
very considerable figure. The country, according to
Josephus, was first peopled by Dodanim the son of
Javan and grandson of Japhet. The people were very
warlike ; but they continued in their savage state
long after their neighbours were civilized ; whence the
islanders used to threaten their offenders with transpor¬
tation to Epirus. Their horses were in great request
among the ancients, as well as the dogs produced in
one of the divisions called Mohssus ; and hence these
dogs were called by the Romans Molossi.
The history of Epirus commences with the reign of
Pyrrhus the son of Achilles by Deidamia the daughter
of Lycomedes king of Scyros. He is said to have behaved
with great bravery at the siege of Troy, but it would ap¬
pear that he behaved with no less barbarity. After the
city was taken, he is said to have killed old King Priam
with his own hand ; .to have thrown Astyaoax the son
of
E P 1 [ 253 1 E P I
ifpiius. °f Hector and Andromache headlong from a high
—v / tower $ and sacrificed Polvxena the daughter of Priam
on the tomb ot his father. He carried Andromache
with him into Epirus, where lie settled by the advice of
the famous soothsayer Helenus, one of Priam’s sons,
who had served during the Trojan war both under his
father and himself. The only remarkable period of
the history of Epirus is the reign of Pyrrhus II. who
made war upon the Romans. He rvas invited into
Italy by the Tarentines j and embarked about 280
B. C. After having escaped many dangers by sea, he
landed in that country, and with great difficulty gained
a victory over the Romans 5 but he was afterwards
ttec/Jonee. utterly defeated by themf, and obliged to return in¬
to his own country. 'lo retrieve his honour, he then
undertook an expedition against Macedon ; where he
overthrew Antigonus, and at last made himself mas¬
ter of the whole kingdom. He then formed a design
of subduing all the other Grecian states; but met
with such an obstinate resistance at Eacedeemon,
that he was obliged to drop the enterprise ; and was
soon after killed at the siege of Argos by a woman,
who from the wall threw a tile upon his head. Dei-
damia, the grand-daughter of Pyrrhus, was the last
that sat on the throne of Epirus. She is said to have
been murdered after a short reign ; upon which the
Epirots formed themselves into a republic.
Ender the new form of government Epirus never
made any considerable figure, but seems rather to have
been dependent on the kingdom of Macedon. The
Romans having conquered Philip king of that country,
restored the Epirots to their ancient liberty ; but they,
forgetful of this favour, soon after took up arms in fa¬
vour of Perseus, As a punishment for tins ingratitude,
the Romans gave orders to Pauius Emilius, after the
reduction of Macedon, to plunder the cities of Epirus,
and level them with the ground. This was punctually
executed throughout the whole country on the same
day and at the same hour. The booty was sold, and
each foot-soldier had 2C0 denarii, that is, six pounds
nine shillings and two pence, and each of the horse
the double of the sum. An hundred and fifty thou¬
sand men were made slaves, and sold to the best bid¬
der for the benefit of the republic. Nor did the ven¬
geance of Rome stop here; all the cities of Epirus, to
the number of 70, were dismantled, and the chief men
of the country carried to Rome, where they were tried,
and most of them condemned to perpetual imprison¬
ment. After this terrible blow, Epirus never recover¬
ed its ancient s2ilendour. Upon the dissolution of the
Achaean league, it was made part of the province of
Macedon ; but when Macedon became a diocese, E-
pii us was made a province of itself, called the province
of Old Epirus, to distinguish it from New Epirus, an¬
other province lying to the east of it. On the division
of the empire, it fell to the emperors of the east, and
continued under them till the taking of Constantinople
by the Latins, when Michael Angelus, a prince nearly
related to the Greek emperor, seized on Etolia and
Epirus, of which he declared himself despot or prince ;
and was succeeded by his brother Theodorus, who took
several towns from the Latins, and so far enlarged his
dominions, that, disdaining the title of despot, he as¬
sumed that of emperor, and was crowned by Deme¬
trius archbishop of Bulgaria. Charles, the last prince
of this family, dying without lawful issue, bequeathed Epirus,
Epirus and Acarnauia to his natural sons, who were Episco-
driven out by Amurath the second. Great part of, Pac>- ^
Epirus was afterwards held by the noble family of the
Castriots $ who, though they were masters of all Alba¬
nia, yet styled themselves princes of Epirus. Upon the
death of the famous George Castriot, surnamed Scan-
derbeg, Epirus fell to the Venetians, who were soon dis¬
possessed of it by the Turks j in whose hands it still con¬
tinues, being now known by the name of Albania, which
comprehends the Albania 0! the ancients, all Epirus, and
^that part of Dalmatia which is subject to the Turks.
EPISCOPACY, that form of church-government,
in which diocesan bishops are established as distinct from
and superior to priests or presbyters. We have already
observed, that it is a long time since the ministers
of religion have been distinguished into different or¬
ders, and that it has been much controverted whether
the distinction he of divine or human right j whether it
was settled in the apostolic age or afterwards (See Bi- r
shop). This controversy commenced soon after the Re- Commence
formation ; and has been agitated with great warmth ment of the
between the Episcopalians on the one side, and the Pres- cP18coral
bytenans nni[ Independents on the other. Among the*°”Sy°"
Protestant churches abroad, those which were reformed
by Luther and his associates were in general episcopal;
whilst such as follow the doctrines of Calvin have for
the most part thrown off the order of bishops as one
of the corruptions of popery. In England, however, the
controversy has been considered as of greater import¬
ance than on the Continent; for it has there been stre¬
nuously maintained by one party, that the episcopal order
is essential to the constitution of the church j and by
others, that it is a pernicious encroachment on the
rights of men, for which there is no authority in scrip¬
ture. Though the question has for some time lain al¬
most dormant, and though we have no desire to revive
it 5 yet as a work of this kind might perhaps be deem¬
ed defective, did it contain no account whatever of a
controversy which has employed some of the ablest wri¬
ters of the past and present centuries, we shall give a
fair though short view of the chief arguments by which
the advocates of each contending party have endeavour¬
ed to support their own cause, leaving our readers to
judge for themselves where the truth lies. See Inde¬
pendents and Presbyterians.
The Independent maintains, that under the gospel xhe Inde¬
dispensation there is nothing which bears the smallest pendent
resemblance to an exclusive priesthood ; that Christ and scheme.,
his apostles constituted no permanent order of ministers
in the church j but that any man who has a firm belief
in revelation, a principle of sincere and unaffected pie¬
ty, a capacity for leading devotion and communicating
instruction, and a serious inclination to engage in the
important employment of promoting the everlasting sal¬
vation of mankind ; is to all intents and purposes a re¬
gular minister of the New Testament, especially if he
have an invitation to the pastoral office from some par¬
ticular society of Christians.
Against this scheme, which supposes the rights of
Christians all equal and common, and acknowledges no
authority in the church except what may he derived
from the election of her members, the Protestant EpiV
copalian reasons in the following manner. He admits, £pjSCopaj
as an undoubted truth, that our blessed Lord gave to arguments
none aga*nst h. .
E P I [ 254 ]
none of his immediate followers authority or jurisdiction not he
of such a nature as could interfere with the rights of
the civil magistrate, for all such authority was disclaim¬
ed by himself : “ My kingdom (said he to Pilate) is
not of this world:” and to a certain person who asked
him to decide a question of property between him and
his brother, he replied, “ Man, who made me a judge or
a divider over you ?” But when it is considered, that
Christ came into this world to “ turn men from darkness
to light, and from the power of Satan to the living
God j that he gave himself for us, that he might redeem
us from all iniquity, and purify to himself a peculiar
people zealous of good woi'ks; that of these works
many are such as unregenerate humanity has no incli¬
nation to perform, and that the doctrines which he re¬
vealed are such as human reason could never have disco¬
vered : the advocate for episcopacy thinks it was ex¬
tremely expedient, if not absolutely necessary, that,
when he ascended into heaven, he should establish upon
earth some authority to illustrate the revelation which
he had given, and to enforce obedience to the laws
which he had enacted. There is nothing, continues
he, more strictly required of Christians, than that they
live together in unity, professing the same faith, join¬
ing in the same worship, and practising the same vir¬
tues. But as men have very different passions, preju-
4 dices, and pursuits, such unity would be impossible,
ttfemtiaos were they not linked together in one society undei the
linked to- government of persons authorised to watch over the
gether in of the to prescribe the forms of public
esned° the^ worship, and to explain the nature, and inculcate the
church, the necessity of the several virtues. The society of Chri-
kingdom o/stjan5j in respect of its unity and organization, is com-
paled’ to the human body : for “ as we have many
members in one body, and all members have not the
same office ; so we being many are one body in Christ,
and every one members one of another,” (Rom. xii.
4, c.). It is called the church, the kingdom of heaven,
and the kingdom of God ; and its affairs, like those of
every other kingdom, are administered by proper offi¬
cers in subordination to the ONE Lord, who, “ when
he ascended up on high, and led captivity captive, gave
some apostles, and some prophets, and some pastors
and teachers, for the perfecting of the saints, for the
work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of
Christ:” (Ephes. iv. 8.—13.). That those various or¬
ders of ministers were vested with real authority in the
church might be inferred from principles of reason as
well as from the dictates of revelation. A society
without some sort of government, government without
laws, or laws without an executive power, is a direct
The church absurdity. Where there are laws, some must govern,
governed and others be governed j some must command, and
by proper ol},er3 obey *, some must direct, and others, submit to
direction. ” This is the voice oi nature; it is likewise
the language of scripture. “ Obey them (says the in¬
spired author of the epistle to the Hebrews) who have
the rule over you, and submit yourselves j for they
watch for your'souls as they that must give account.”
A text which shows that the authority of the ministers
of religion was distinct from fhat of the civil magi¬
strate, whose duty is to watch, not for the souls, but for
the lives and properties, of his subjects.
Of the society thus constituted, it was not, as of a
philosophical sect, left to every man’s choice whether or
E P I
would become a member. All who embrace E^isc*.
pacy.
heaven, and
the king
dmn iff
Qvi.
•dicer*.
the faith of the Redeemer of the world are required to ^
be baptized, under the pain of forfeiting the benefits of g
redemption : but one great purpose for which baptism All chri
was instituted, is to be the rite of initiation into tbestiansie.
church of Christ j for by one spirit are we all bapti-quired u,
zed into one body, whether we be Je'v8_or ^en^^es’i)eri
whether we be bond or free,'’ (1 Cor..xii. I30‘ ^church,
baptism, whatever be the importance, it is evident, that
to receive it, is not, like the practice of justice, or the
veneration of the Supreme Being, a duty resulting from
the relations of man to his Creator and fellow-crea¬
tures j that its whole efficacy, which in scripture is said
to be nothing less than the remission of sins, is derived
from positive institution ; and therefore, that the exter¬
nal rite can be of no avail, but when it is administered
in the manner prescribed, and by a person authorised
to administer it. That all Christians are not vested
with this authority, as one of the common privileges of
the faith, appears from the commission which our Savi- 7
our after his resurrection gave to his apostles. At AH Chri.
that period, we are assured that the number of his fol-*1^”*^
lowers was not less than five hundred; yet we find, ta ad mini-
that to the eleven disciples only did “he come and ter the i»,
speak, saying, All power is given unto me in heavencrameau,
and in earth j go- ye, therefore, and teach all nations,
baptizing them in the name of the lather, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost.”
Of the 500 disciples there is surely no reason to be¬
lieve that there were not many well qualified to instruct
either a Jew or a Gentile in the doctrines of the gos¬
pel ; and it is certain, that any one of them could have
washed his convert with water in the name of the Holy
Trinity as well as St Peter or St John ; but such an
unauthorised washing would not have been Christian
baptism, nor of equal validity with it, any more than
the opinion of a lawyer at the bar is the judgment of a
court of justice, or of equal obligation. It is the com¬
mission of the sovereign which gives force to the judge¬
ment of the court ; it is the commission of Christ
which gives validity to baptism. The same reasoning
is applicable to the Lord’s supper, which, if it be not
administered by those who have authority for such ad¬
ministration, cannot be deemed a sacrament of Christ’s
institution.
These two rites are the external badges of our pro¬
fession. By the one, we are incorporated into that so¬
ciety of which our Redeemer is the head and sove¬
reign : in the celebration of the other, we have a right
to join, whilst of that society we continue members.
But if by an open and scandalous disregard of the pre¬
cepts of the gospel, we should prove ourselves unworthy
of’its privileges, the same persons who are authorised
to admit us into the church, are likewise vested with
authority to cast us out of it: for to them were given
“ the keys of the kingdom ol heaven (or the church),
with assurance, that whatsoever they should bind ou
earth, should be bound in heaven 5 and whatsoever they
should loose on earth, should be loosed in heaven,”
(Mat.xviii.18.). As baptism is tobe administered solong
as there shall be persons to be enlisted under the ban¬
ners of Christ, and the Lord’s Supper to be celebrated
so long as it shall be the duty of soldiers to adhere to
the standard of their leader and their head j and as it is
likewise to be feared that there will never come a tune
woeu
J iiili
Hit
d
fail
In!
Ms
list
IFlpisca-
pacy.
iiristians
a body
a not
9
„,tln»rity
tl’overn
t(i church
E P
when ail Christians shall
tion wherewith they are called ;” it follows, that this
power of keys, which was originally given to the a-
postles, must continue in the church through all ages,
even unto the end of the world. But as we have seen,
that it was not at first intrusted to all the disciples in
|.n^common, as one of the privileges inseparable from their
i raber un*7Pro^eS3’on» an<i as no body of men can possibly tratisfer
i thority ofan authority of which they themselves were never pos-
fiieh they sessed; it is certain, that even nowit cannot, by the
ure never election of one class of Christians, be delegated to an-
IMessed. 0ther, but must, by some mode of succession, be derived
from the apostles, who were sent by Christ as he was
sent by his Father. To argue from the origin of ci¬
vil to that of ecclesiastical government, although not
very uncommon, the Episcopalian deems extremely fal¬
lacious. Of the various nations of the world, many of
the sovereigns may indeed derive their authority from
the suffrages of their subjects ; because in a state of na¬
ture every man has an inherent right to defend his life,
liberty, and property ; and what he possessed in his own
person, he may for the good of society transfer to an¬
other: but no man is by nature, or can make himself,
  a member of the Christian church ; and therefore au-
be de- thority to govern that society can be derived only from
Hid only him by whom it was founded, and who died that he
Mu Christ, might “ gather together in one all the children of
God.”
Against such reasoning as this it hath been urged,
that to make institutions, which like baptism and the
Lord’s supper are generally necessary to the salvation
of all Christians, depend for their efficacy upon the au¬
thority or commission of * particular order, appears in¬
consistent with the wisdom and goodness of God ; as
by such an economy an intolerable domination would
be established over the souls of men, and the purpose
for which the Saviour of the world died might be in
some degree defeated by the caprice of an ignorant and
arbitrary priesthood. The objection is certainly plau¬
sible ; but the Episcopalian affirms, that either it has no
weight, or militates with equal force against the wisdom
of Providence in the government of this world.—In
every thing, he observes, relating to their temporal
and to their spiritual interests, mankind are all subject¬
ed to mutual dependence. The rich depend upon the
poor, and the poor upon the rich. An infant neglect¬
ed from the birth would barely cry and cease to live ;
nor is it easily to be conceived, that in the more rigid
climates of the earth a full-grown man could provide
even the necessaries of mere animal life. Of religion,
it is certain that in such a state nothing could be
known ; for there is not the smallest reason to imagine
that any inxlividual of the human race—an Aristotle, a
Bacon, or a Newton, had he been left alone from his
infancy, without culture and without education,—could
ever, by the native vigour of his own miml, have dis¬
covered the existence of a God, or that such specula¬
tions as lead to that discovery would have employed any
portion of his time or his thoughts. Even in civilized
society it would be impossible, in the present age, for
any man, without the assistance of others, to under¬
stand the very first principles of our common Christi-
**ity 5 for the scriptures, which alone contain those
principles, are written in languages which are now no¬
where vernacular.. In the fidelity of translators, tliere-
, 10
objec-
tiii an-
>nred.
I [ 255 ] ,E p 1
walk worthy of the voca- fore, every illiterate disciple of Jesus must confide, for r.pbc®-
the truth of those doctrines which constitute the foun- prey,
dation ol all his hopes ; and as no man ever pretended 1 ''
that the Christian sacraments are more necessary to sal¬
vation than the Christian faith, the Episcopalian sees
no impropriety or inconsistency in making those per¬
sons receive baptism and the Lord’s supper by the mi¬
nistration of others, who by such ministration must of
necessity receive the truths of the gospel. „
By such arguments as these does the Episcopalian A perma-
endeavour to prove that Christ constituted some per-nent.
manent order of ministers in the church, to whom *n comtitowd*
the externals .of religion the great body of Christiansb^Cbrivt!
are commanded to pay obedience; and thus far the
Presbyterian agrees with him ; but here their agree¬
ment ends. They hand in hand attack the Independ¬
ent with the same weapons, and then proceed to attack
each other. The one maintains, that originally the of¬
ficers ol the Christian church were all presbyters or el¬
ders of one order, and vested with equal powers ; whilst
the other holds, that Christ and his apostles appointed
divers orders of ministers in the church ; that of these
orders the highest alone avas empowered to ordain
others ; and that therefore obedience, as to those who
watch for our souls, can be due only to such as are
episcopally ordained. rj
In behalf of the Presbyterian plea it is urged, that the The Prc*-
titles of bishop and presbyter, being in the New Testa-hjteriaa
ment indifferently given to the same persons, cannotPleai
be the titles of distinct ecclesiastical officers; which
appears still more evident from the ordination of Timo¬
thy, who, although he was the first bishop of Ephesus,
received his episcopal character by the imposition of the
hands of the presbytery.—That one and the same man
is, in the New Testament, styled sometimes a bishop and
sometimes a presbyter, cannot be denied; but although
every apostolic bishop was therefore undoubtedly a
presbyter, it does not of course follow, says the Epis¬
copalian, that every presbyter was likewise a bishop.
In the Old Testament, Aaron and his sons are without
any discrimination of order frequently style and
in the New, both St Peter and St John call themselve*
presbyters, as St Paul, upon one occasion, styles hitn-
self a deacon—'thouttiet (Epb. iii. 7.) : yet no man ever
supposed those apostles to have been such ecclesiastical
officers as modern presbyters and deacons ; and it is
universally known, that in the Jewish priesthood there
were different orders, and that Aaron was of an order
superior to his sons. This being the case, the presby- ,,
ters, by the laying on of whose bands Timothy was Episcopal
made a bishop, may have been of the same order with
St Peter and St John ; and if so, it follows that his or-aga*8st *ti
dination was Episcopal. At all events, we are certain,
continues the advocate for Episcopacy, that it was not,
in the modern sense of the word, Presbyterian ; for the
gift, which in the first epistle is said to have been ” gi¬
ven by prophecy with the laying on of the hands of the
presbytery,” is in the second said to have been “ in him
by the putting on of the hands of St Paul.” And here
it is worthy of observation, that the preposition used in
the former case is pfiet, which signifies concurrence ra¬
ther than instrumentality ; but that in the latter is
which, as every Greek scholar knows, is prefixed to
the instrumental cause by which any thing is effected :
#0 that whatever may have been the order of the pres¬
byters
E P I
Episco¬
pacy.
[ 256 ] E P I
to have been claimed particular respect, as he evidently does, from
what was in his own apostleship no particular distinc¬
tion. At that very early period, therefore, there must
have been in the church secondary a,^o$\.\zs, if they may
be so called, upon whom, by imposition of hands, or
by some other significant ceremony, the eleven had
conferred that authority which was given to them by
their Divine Master. Such were Matthias and Bar¬
nabas ; such likewise were Timothy, Titus, and the an¬
gels of the seven churches in Asia, with many others
whose names and offices are mentioned in the New
Testament.
That Matthias and Barnabas were of the apostolic
order, has never been controverted j and that Timothy
and Titus were superior to modern presbyters, is evi¬
dent from the offices assigned them. Timothy was, Matthia*
by St Paul, empowered to preside over the presbyters Barnabas,
of Ephesus, to receive accusations against them, to ex- Timothy,
hort, to charge, and even to rebuke them ; and Titus ^ltus? ani*
was, by the same apostle, left in Crete for the express t (ie,,an»els
’ ■' „ . f. % , . . . . r ot the seren
purpose or setting things m order, and ordaining
byters in every city. To exhort, to charge, and with Asia, U.
authority to rebuke one’s equal, is certainly incongru-
ous •, and therefore the Episcopalian thinks the powers
conferred on Timothy altogether inconsistent with that
parity of order and of office for which his antagonists
so strenuously plead. Even the commission given to
Titus appears in his eyes by much too extensive for a
Presbyterian minister, who, after having ordained in
one city, could not have proceeded to ordain in another
without the consent and assistance of his brother and
fellow-labourer-. With respect to the angels of the A-
siatic churches, he observes, that in the Old Testament
the title of angel is sometimes given to the Jewish high-
to heaven.* apostolic order of Christian ministers, could overthrow priest, and particularly by the prophet Malachi, who
the principles upon which the disciples of George Fox calls him “ the messenger (xyyiX»s) of the Lord of
eject the use of that rite which our Saviour instituted
14
Three or¬
ders of
Christian
ministers
during our
Saviour’s
stay upon
byters who concurred, St Paul appears
the sols ordainer. But by the confession of all parties,
St Paul was a bishop in the highest sense in which that
word is ever used *, and the powers of the episcopate
not being parcelled out among various partners, of
whom each possesses only a share, the imposition of his
hands avas sufficient for every purpose which could
have been effected by the hands of the whole college of
apostles.
It appears, therefore, that from the promiscuous use
of the titles bishop and presbyter, and from the ordina¬
tion of Timothy, nothing can with certainty be concluded
on either side of this celebrated question. But if, in¬
stead of resting on mere words, which when taken alone
and without regard to the context, are almost all of
ambiguous signification, we attend to some important
facts recorded in the New Testament, the Episcopalian
thinks we shall in them discover sufficient evidence
that the government of the primitive church w'as pre-
latical.
During our Saviour’s stay upon earth, it is unde¬
niable that he had under him two distinct orders of
ministers—the twelve, and the seventy and after his
ascension, immediately before which he had enlarged
the powers of the eleven, we read of apostles, presbyters,
and deacons, in the church. That the presbyters were
superior to the deacons, and the apostles superior to
both, is universally acknowledged ; but it has been
said, that in Scripture we find no intimation that the
apostolic order was designed for continuance. A
Quaker says the same thing of water-baptism j and
fc
tiffa
earth; and the Episcopalian observes, that it would be difficult
likewise af-j0 p0;n(. out by what passage of Scripture, or what
ceruionTn- reasoning, those who upon this plea reject the
The apo¬
stolic or
highest or¬
der design¬
ed to be
permanent.
for the initiation of mankind into his church. They
were the eleven alone to whom Christ said, “ Go ye
therefore and teach all nations, baptising them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost:” and therefore, although we frequently find
presbyters and deacons administering the sacrament of
baptism, we must conclude, that as a judge admini¬
sters justice by authority derived from his sovereign, so
those inferior officers of the church administered bap¬
tism by authority derived from the apostles. Indeed,
had they pretended to act by any other authority, it
is not easily to be conceived how their baptism could
have been the baptism instituted by Christ •, for it was
not with the external washing by whomsoever perform¬
ed, but with the eleven and their successors, that he
promised to be “ always, even unto the end of the
world.”
That the eleven did not consider this promise, or the
commission with which it was given, as terminating
with their lives, is evident from their admitting others
into their own order •, for which they had competent
authority', as having been sent by Christ as he was sent
by his father. When St Paul, to magnify his office
and procure to it from the Galatians due reverence,
styles himself, “ an apostle not of men, neither by man,
* but bv Jesus Christ and God the Father,” he must
have known some who derived their apostolic mission
by man; otherwise he could with no propriety have
3
Hosts 5” and that the angels of the churches mention¬
ed by St John, were Christian high-priests, or bishops
presiding over more than one congregation, as it is af¬
firmed by all the ancient writers, cannot, he thinks, be
denied by any man who will take the trouble to com¬
pare Scripture with Scripture. We read (Acts xix. 10.
and 20.), that “ in the space of two years all they
who dwelt in Asia heard from St Paul the word of the
Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks j and that there the
word of God grew mightily and prevailed;” but with
what truth or propriety could this have been said, if at
the time of St John’s writing the Apocalypse, which
was 30 years after St Paul’s death, all the Christians
of Proconsular Asia were comprised in seven congrega¬
tions, which assembled, each with its pi’oper pastor, to
perform, in one place, the duties of public worship ? In
a word, the advocate for Episcopacy insists, that no
man, who reads without prejudice the acts of the apo¬
stles, the epistles of St Paul, and the Apocalypse of
St John, can seriously believe that Timothy, Titus, E-
paphroditus, Sosthenes, and Silvanus, with the angels of
the seven churches in Asia, were mere presbyters, or
that the government of the church was, in those days,
by a college of elders.
' When from the inspired penmen of the New Testa¬
ment he proceeds to examine the succeeding writers of
the Christian church, the Episcopalian finds such mul¬
tiplied and concurring evidence of the apostolic institu¬
tion of episcopacy, as he thinks it impossible to resist
without
ill);
E P I
[ 257 ] E P I
)is«o- without denying the truth of all ancient history, and
tacy. even shaking the pillars of revelation itself j for “ in
v..~Y—the noble army of martyrs,” the witnesses of the epis¬
copal government of the church are earlier, and by far
more numereus, than those who testify that the gospel
of St Matthew was written by that apostle, or that the
book of the Apocalypse is canonical Scripture. The au¬
thority of the fathers indeed is at present very low \ but
should they be allowed to be as fanciful divines and as
bad critics as their worst enemies are pleased to repre¬
sent them, this would detract nothing from their evi¬
dence when they bear witness to the constitution of
the church in their own times j for of their integrity
there can be no doubt: and what the Episcopalian
wants of them is only their testimony to matters of fact
which fell under the cognizance of their own senses,
and about which therefore they could not be deceived.
It is here indeed chiefly that he triumphs over his an¬
tagonists. In the second and third centuries there
was no general council, nor any Christian sovereign.
17 A prelacy therefore, he urges, could not have been
Tbdiriue universally introduced, during that period, either by a
JKE- concert among the clergy, or by the authority of the
civil magistrate. Yet that even then there was no
church under heaven, of which the government was
not episcopal, has been confessed by some of the most
learned writers among the Presbyterians themselves ;
whence he concludes that episcopacy is of divine insti¬
tution.
The candid Episcopalian, however, allows, that in
the apostolic age there may have been some churches
which at first had only bishops and deacons to perform
the offices of religion j for when the number of disci¬
ples in any place was so small that they could all meet
in one assembly, there was no necessity for any other
order of ministers: but it appears that, from the very
beginning, bishops, presbyters, and deacons, were settled
in all the larger cities of the Roman empire ; and it was
in those days an allowed maxim, that without a bishop
there could be no church. The better to understand the
original state and institution of episcopacy, it is necessary
to observe, that the empire, which contained almost
all the known part of the Christian world, was by Au¬
gustus Ca;sar divided into provinces, subjected each to
the authority of one chief magistrate, who was com¬
monly a prcetor or proconsul, and who resided in the
metropolis or chief city of the province. A province
comprehended the cities of a whole region $ and in the
age of the apostles, each city was under the immediate
government of certain magistrates within its own bo¬
dy, known by the name of /SovXn or senatus, ordo and
curia, “ the states and court of the city.” Those magi¬
strates were subordinate to ihe prcetor or proconsul: but
among them there was one superior to the rest, called
sometimes dictator and sometimes defensor civitatis,
whose jurisdiction extended not only over the city it¬
self, but likewise over all the adjacent territory. That
territory was denominated Tr^oxtrlitct, or the suburbs, and
often reached to the distance of 10 or 12 miles round
the city, and sometimes much farther, containing
1 within it many villages and small towns under the go-
yernment of the city magistrates. From some passages
•ones, in the New Testament, and from the concurring evi¬
dence of the earliest writers of the church, it appears
to have been the purpose of the apostles to settle a bi-
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
shop in every city where there was a civil magistracy : Epi^o-
but as they could not be personally present in all places picy.
at once, it was natural for them to enter upon the great 1 ■■ ■ y-——j
work of converting the nations by first preaching the
gospel in that city of each province which was the or¬
dinary residence of the governor $ because to it there
must have been the greatest resort of people, who
would carry the glad tidings with them into the coun¬
try when they returned. Accordingly, having disper¬
sed themselves over the empire, and made numbers of
proselytes in the principal cities, they fixed in each,
where they saw it necessary, a bishop, with a college of
presbyters and deaconsf and gave to those bishops, who
were at first called apostles, a commission, as the other
cities of the province should be converted, to fix in
them bishops also.
In some of the smaller cities, it is extremely probable
that a bishop and a deacon were for a short time the
only ecclesiastical officers, till the number of Christians
increased so much as to make it impossible for them
all to assemble in one house for the purposes of public
worship. rlhe bishop then ordained presbyters to of¬
ficiate in those congregations where he himself could
not be present, and to assist him in other parts of his
pastoral office j but in all their ministrations the pres¬
byters were subordinate to him, who was the chief
pastor within the city, who composed the prayers which
were offered up in public, and to whom all the other
ministers of religion were accountable for their con¬
duct. So long as the number of the faithful was con¬
fined within the walls of the city, it appears that the
bishop with his presbyters and deacons lived together
as in a college; that divine service was every Lord’s
day, or oftener, performed in what was afterwards cal¬
led the cathedral or mother-church, by the bishop him¬
self, assisted by some of his clergy; and that the congre¬
gations which met in other churches, having no fixed
pastors, were supplied by such presbyters as the bishop
chose to send to them from his own church. Whilst
matters continued in this state, the clergy had no other
jevenues than what arose from the voluntary oblations
of the people ; which were indeed so large as not only
to support them with decency, but likewise to answer
other ends of charity and munificence. They were
commonly divided into four equal parts; of which one
was allotted to the bishop, a second to the inferior
clergy, a third to the poor, and a fourth to keep the
churches in repair; and it was considered as a part of
the bishop’s duty to take care that the offerings should
be faithfully applied to these purposes.
When converts increased in number, and churches The
were built in the suburbs, each of these churches had of p«r«hel.
a fixed pastor similar to a parish-priest among us; but
still those pastors, as well as the city-clergy, ministered
in subordination to the bishop, whose authority ex¬
tended as far as the civil authority of the Roman ma¬
gistrate, within which district or diocese- it was supreme
over all orders of Christians. This every man knows
who is acquainted with ecclesiastical history; for the
bishop alone could ordain priests and deacons, administer
the rite oiconfirmation, absolve penitents who were under
church censure, and exclude from communion heretics
and notorious offenders ; and from his sentence there
lay no appeal but to a synod of comprovincial bishops.
Such synods were in each province convened by the
E k bishop
F.pis.ro-
pary.
■20
The origin
of raetropo
lit AILS.
The proba
hie onpin
of. spiritual
courts.
E P 1 [258
bishop of the cliief city 5 for the apostles having been
careful to place in those cities men of the most emi¬
nent gifts and abilities, the other bishops ot the pio-
vinces applied to them for advice upon every emeigen-
ey, and paid a particular deference to them upon every
occasion. So that though all bishops were ot equal
authority as bishops, yet when they met to consecrate a
new bishop, or to deliberate upon the affairs of the
church, they yielded a precedency to the bishop of the
metropolis, who called them together, and who sat as
president or moderator of the synod. Hence the origin
of metropolitans or archbishops; whose authority was so
considerable, that though there is not a doubt but the
election of bishops was anciently placed in the clergy
and people of the vacant diocese, yet the bishop elect
could not he consecrated without the consent of the
archbishop of the province.
In consequence of the extensive powers with which
the primitive bishops were vested, they are commonly
styled in the writings of those times presidents, provosts,
or inspectors of the church, chief priests, princes of the
clergy, and even princes of the people ; but their autho¬
rity was wholly spiritual. Those prelates, imitating
the example of their Divine Master when on earth,
neither possessed nor assumed to themselves any juris¬
diction over the properties or civil rights of men. In
consequence of St Paul’s having reprimanded the Co¬
rinthians for going to law before the unbelievers, they
were indeed often chosen as nr&fter.? of such civil dis¬
putes as arose between individuals under their episco¬
pal government 5 but on these occasions they could not
act unless the submission was voluntarily made by both
the contending parties, and then their decision was fi¬
nal. When the empire became Christian, this privi¬
lege was confirmed to them by law; for any eft;//
cause depending before a court of justice could he
withdrawn, and by the mutual consent of parties be
submitted to the arbitration of the bishop, whose
award, which in former times could be enforced only
by the terror of church-censures, was then enforced by
the secular magistrate. In m»mza/causes, where the
trial might be for life or death, they were prohibited
both by the canons of the church and by the laws ot
the state from acting as judges j and therefore they
never suffered such causes to come before them, except
when it was necessary that the person accused, if found
uuilty, should be excluded from the communion of the
faithful. But they had so many civil causes flowing
in upon them, that they were soon obliged to devolve
part of that care upon other persons, in whose know¬
ledge, prudence, and integrity, they could fully con¬
fide ? and as the persons employed to act in. the bi¬
shop’s stead were often laymen, it has been conjectured
that they gave rise to the office of lay-chancellor in the
church, and to all that train of spiritual judges and
spiritual courts against which such numbers are dis¬
posed to clamour. . , , , ,
Be this as it may, it is certain that, through the
piety and munificence of the Christian emperors, the
bishops enjoyed large revenues and many valuable pri¬
vileges ; but it does not appear that they had any rank
or authority, as barons or temporal princes, till the Go¬
thic nations, which subverted the Roman empire, had
embraced the Christian faith. As Christianity incapa¬
citated the leaders of those tribes from officiating as
]
E P I
tions.
chief priests at the religious rites which were usually E()isco.
celebrated at the opening of their public assemblies, pacy.
the bishops came naturally to discharge that duty on u_—v'—.i
such occasions, when they must have shared in the rank
by sharing in the functions ot the chief. 1 he s>tua-no cj^| i
tion in which they thus appeared at the opening of all ran’k tillaf.|
political conventions, would enable them to join wrth terthe sufc.j
much effect in the deliberations which ensued; and^s^ono(
their superior knowledge, their sacred character, and
their influence with the people, would soon acquire the conTaJ
them power equal to their rank. 1 hey must therefore sion ofihs
have been well entitled to demand admission into that^o^ci
council which was formed by the king and the lay-
chiefs at the national assemblies : and as they balanced
the authority ot those chiefs, we cannot doubt that the
king would be disposed to give the utmost effect to
their claim. Accordingly; we find the dignified cler-
qy, who received large grants of land to be held on
the same tenures with the lands of the lay-magistrates,
presiding along with those magistrates in the provincial
assemblies of every degree in all the Gothic nations,
and enjoying every advantage in point of rank and au¬
thority in their national diets. Hence the bishop ot
Rome, and several bishops in Germany, have, like the
dukes and marquises of that empire, been Sor a long
time sovereign princes ; and hence too the bishops of
England and Ireland have always sat, and have an
equal right with the lay-peers to sit, in the upper house
of parliament. It is however obvious, that, so far
as episcopacy is of apostolical institution, those peers
and princes possess not the original character in any
higher degree than the bishops in America, who are
barely tolerated, or than those in Scotland who do not
enjoy that privilege ; and that confirmation admini¬
stered, or holy orders conferred, by a persecuted pre¬
late, must he as effectual to the purposes of religion, as
if given by a German prince or an English peer.
In this short view of episcopacy, it has been our en¬
deavour to do justice to the subject, without suffering
ourselves to he influenced by partiality or prejudice.
As we are not ourselves episcopalians, we have advan¬
ced nothing of our own ; but have selected from Eng¬
lish writers, who have at different times undertaken to
defend the divine right of episcopacy, such facts and
arguments as to us appear to be of the most impor¬
tance, or to have the greatest weight, without remark¬
ing upon them, or offering any answer. The reason¬
ing employed to prove that the order of bishops was in¬
stituted by the apostles, is taken from a work prepared
for the press by Dr Berkeley prebendary of Canterbury,
and son of the celebrated bishop of Cioyne. For the
rest of the detail we are indebted chiefly to Bingham’s
Origines Ecclesiastics ; a performance in great estima¬
tion with those English divines who are commonly
known by the appellation of high churchmen. As edi¬
tors of a work of this kind, it is not our business to be
of any party, or to support, in opposition to all others,
* particular church, though that church should be our
own : We shall therefore treat independency *m\ presby¬
tery as we have treated episcopacy, by employing some
able writer of each society to plead his own cause.
Meanwhile, we shall conclude this article with a few
reflections, which, though they come from the pen of
an obscure author, deserve to be engraved deep in the
memory of every controvertist of every communion.
E P I
^'scopacy. “ On complicated questions (says a late apologist
for the episcopal church in Scotland), men will always
differ in opinion •, but conscious each of the weakness
[ 259 ]
E P I
2 3
H
Ej|copal
chit ch of
Saiaud.
titonUo- *'‘s owa understanding, and sensible of the bias
iny re- which the strongest minds are apt to receive from
cjimend- thinking long in the same tract, they ought to differ
with charity and meekness. Since unhappily there are
still so many subjects of debate among those who name
the name of Christ} it is doubtless every man’s duty,
after divesting himself as much as possible of prejudice,
to investigate those subjects with accuracy, and to ad¬
here to that side of each disputed question which, after
such investigation, appears to him to be the truth : but
he transgresses the favourite precept of his divine ma¬
ster, when he casts injurious reflections, or denounces
anathemas, upon those who, with equal sincerity, may
view the matter in a different light ; and by his want
of charity does more harm to the religion of the Prince
of Peace, than he possibly could do good, were he able
to convert all mankind to his own orthodox opi¬
nions.”
The following is a short history of the episcopal
church of Scotland, extracted from a more detailed ac¬
count by a member of that church.
The real tenets of the Scotch episcopalians, or men-
bers of what was at one period the established church of
Scotland, he observes, appear to be imperfectly under¬
stood. About the time of the reformation from popery,
the want of order and decency in the worship of the re¬
formed church was abolished in the reign of James VI.
by the establishment of episcopacy on very liberal prin¬
ciples. This mode of worship obtained the sanction of
the most respectable part of the nation, and continued
to flourish under the auspices of government, till it wTas
overthrown by the sticklers for the national covenant.
Its restoration was effected in the year 1662, and twenty-
seven years afterwards it was again abolished by the
advocates of the prince of Orange.
It may be proper to observe, that the Scotch episco¬
pal church had no public liturgy during her legal esta¬
blishment. It is indeed true, that the English book
of common prayer was used by the first reformers, and
there is reason to believe that John Knox himself was
by no means inimical to set forms of prayer nor to cle¬
rical subordination } but his successor, Andrew Melvil,
a man much inferior to him in point of erudition, intro¬
duced an equality among the clergy, and excited the
odium of the people against the liturgy to such a de¬
gree, that an attempt to modify the prayer book for the
use of the church of Scotland, was productive of the so¬
lemn league and covenant, and the subsequent ruin of
the unfortunate Charles.
During tiie reign of William III. the episcopalians
were treated with some degree of severity, because they
could not transfer that allegiance to him which they
had sworn to King James. It is said that they were
prohibited from officiating on the sabbath day, except
“ in their own hired houses, where they received such
friends as chose to come in unto them.” In this man¬
ner was their worship conducted, praying either extem¬
pore, or from premeditation, till the accession of Queen
Anne, when the English liturgy was introduced by de¬
grees into Scotland, under the sanction of an act of par¬
liament, passed on the 3d of March 1712, “ to pre¬
vent the disturbing of those of the episcopal communion
in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, in the
exercise of their religious worship, and in the use of the
liturgy of the church of England.” But as their at¬
tachment to the house of Stuart was well known, they
were, at the rebellion in 1715, laid under some re¬
straints, yet neither severe in their nature, nor of any
long continuance, since in 1720 their places of worship
■were as numerous as belore, and frequented by numbers
both of rank and respectability, many of whom held
places under government.
In England, Dr Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury,
w'lth hve other bishops, were deprived of their sees for
refusing their allegiance to King William, which occa¬
sioned a schism in the church, as they were extremely
popular. Different opinions were entertained respect¬
ing the nature and design of the Lord’s Supper, and the
controversy infected the episcopalians of Scotland. The
introduction of prayers into public worship in behalf of
departed friends, was at least a very impolitic step at
such a critical period, when every thing savouring of
popery was held in the utmost abhorrence. On the
death of Dr Rose, the proscribed bishop of Edinburg!),
the diocesan form of church government was opposed
by such of the presbyters as had been raised to the epis¬
copal dignity, and it was proposed to govern the whole
church by a college of bishops. This plan, for the
adoption of which no precedent could be found in the
annals of history, was successfully opposed by many of
the most enlightened bishops, and it was of consequence
abandoned.
The Scotch episcopalians, it is well known, were al¬
ways charged with an undue attachment to the Stuart
family, which was even considered as their most distin¬
guishing tenet } yet there is some reason to believe that
the public opinion of this matter was rather exaggerat¬
ed. They have invariably maintained that the A!~
mighty, and not the people, is the ruler of princes,
which fairly places them beyond the imputation of a
republican or levelling spirit. The several restraints
laid on Scotch episcopalians from time to time, with a
view to eradicate their attachment to the Stuart family,
were happily removed in the year 1792, and they en¬
joyed a free toleration like the rest of dissenters. It
was about this time that the clergy of this church, with
a very few exceptions, took the oaths of abjuration and
allegiance.
It is well known, it is added by the same writer, from
whose account the above is taken, that in Scotland there
are chapels quite distinct from the Scotch episcopal
church, where clergymen who have been ordained ei¬
ther in England or Ireland, make use of the liturgy of
the church of England } but as each of these is strictly
and properly independent of the rest, and under the
guardianship of no bishop whatever, those who attend
them have, in every sense of the word, a much better
claim to the appellation of congregationalists than to that
of episcopalians.
EPISCOPAL, something belonging to Bishops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in church history, an appel¬
lation given to those who prefer the episcopal govern¬
ment and discipline to all others. See Episcopacy.
By the test act, none but episcopalians, or members
of the church of England, are qualified to enjoy any
office civil or military.
EPISCOPIUS, Simon, one of the most learned
K k 3 men
Episcopacy
.11
Episcopim.
E P I [ 26,
Kpiteopius nien of the 17th century, anti the chief supporter of the
!i Arminian sect, was born at Amsterdam in 15^3*
16 j 2, he was chosen divinity professor at Ijeyden, in
’ the room of Gomarus, who resigned j and the func¬
tions of his office, with his private studies, were light
burdens to him, compared with the difficulties he sus¬
tained on account of the Arminian controversy: which,
though it began in the universities, soon flew to the
pulpits, from whence it spread and inflamed the peo¬
ple. The states of Holland having invited Episcopius
to take his place at the synod ol Dort, he went thither
accompanied by some remonstrant ministers } but the
synod would not allow them to sit as judges, nor to ap¬
pear in any other capacity than as persons summoned
before them : they submitted, were deposed from their
functions, and banished the territories of the common¬
wealth. Episcopius and his persecuted brethren re¬
tired to Antwerp j but the times growing more favour¬
able, he returned to Holland in 1626, and was made
minister of the church of the Remonstrants at Rotter¬
dam : in 1634, he was chosen rector ot the college found¬
ed by the sect at Amsterdam, where he spent the re.
maider of his days. He died in 1643 of the same dis¬
order which had killed his wife before, a retention of
urine 5 having lost his sight some weeks previous to his
end. The le°arned have bestowed great eulogiums on
Episcopius-, but he did not always write w-ith that mo¬
deration which might have been wished. His works
make two volumes in folio, of which the second consists
of posthumous publications.
EPISCOPUS, the same with bishop. See Bisho»
and Episcopacy.
EPISODE, in Poetry, a separate incident, story,
or action, which a poet invents, and connects with his
principal action, that his work may abound with a
greater diversity of events j though in a more limited
sense, all the particular incidents whereof the action or
narration is compounded are called episodes. See
Poetry.
EPISPASTIC, in Medicine, a topical remedy, which
being applied to the external parts of the body, attracts
the humours to that part.
EPISTATES, in the Athenian government, was
the president of the proedri. See Proedri.
EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church,
an officer of great dignity, who had the care of every
thing relating to faith, in the quality of censor. His
office answered very nearly to that of master of the sa¬
cred palace at Rome.
EPISTLE, denotes the same with a missive letter*,,
but is now chiefly used in speaking of ancient writings,
as the epistles of St Paul, epistles of Cicero, epistles of
Pliny, &c.
Epistlss and Gospels, in the liturgy of the church
of England, are select portions of scripture, taken out
of the writings of the evangelists and apostles, and ap¬
pointed to be read, in the communion service, on Sun¬
days and holidays. They are thought to have been
selected by St Jerome, and by him put into the lection-
arv. It is certain they were very anciently appropri¬
ated to the days whereon we now read them, since they
are not only of general use throughout the western
church, but are also commented upon in the homilies
of several ancient fathers, which are said to have been
2i
, ] E P I
preached upon those very days to which these portions Epbtie
of scripture are now affixed. [j ^
The epistles and gospels are placed in an admirable i -Spitrpli. ^
order and method, and bear a special relation to the 1
several days whereon they are read. The year is di¬
stinguished into two parts ; the first being designed to
commemorate Christ’s living among us, the other to in¬
struct us to live after his example. The former takes
in the whole time from Advent to Trinity-Sunday j the
latter, all the Sundays from Trinity to Advent. Du¬
ring the first of these seasons, the epistles and gospels
are calculated to raise in us a grateful sense of what our
Saviour did and suffered for us, and set before our eyes
his nativity, circumcision, and manifestation to the
Gentiles5 his doctrines and miracles ; his baptism, fast¬
ing, and temptation his agony and bloody sweat 5 his
cross and passion ; his death, burial, resurrection, and
ascension ; and his mission of the Holy Ghost. During
the second season of the year, the epistles and gospels
tend to instruct us in the true paths of Christianity.
See Collects.
EPISTOLARY, something belonging to an epistle.
See Epistle.
Epistolary Compositions. See Letter; and tbs
article Poetry.
EPISTROPHE. See Oratory.
EPISTYLE, in the ancient architecture, a term
used by the Greeks for what we call architrave, vix. a
massive piece of stone or wood, laid immediately over
the capital of a column.
EPITAPH (from •*•«, upon, and tet<pK sepulchre,')
a monumental inscription, in honour or memory of a
person deceased. It has been disputed whether the
ancient Jews inscribed epitaphs on the monuments of
the dead ; but be this as it will, epitaphs, it is cer¬
tain, of very ancient date, are found among thern.-*-
The Athenians, by way of epitaph, put only the name
of the dead, with the epithet xpros, signifying “ good,”
or “ hero,” and the word signifying their
good wishes : the name of the deceased’s lather and
his tribe were frequently added.—The Lacedaemonians
allowed epitaphs to none but those who had died in
battle. The Romans inscribed their epitaphs to the
manes, diis manibus} and frequently introduced the
dead by way of prosopopoeia, speaking to the living ^
of which we have a fine instance, worthy the Augustan
age, wherein the dead wife thus bespeaks her surviving
husband :
Zmmatura peri; sed tu,felicior, annos
Vive taos, conjux optime, vive meos.
The epitaphs of the present day are generally cram¬
med with fulsome compliments which were never me¬
rited, characters which human nature in its best state
could scarce lay claim to, and expressions of respect
which were never paid in the life-time of the deceased.
Hence the proverb with great propriety took its rise,
u He lies like an epitaph.”
EPITAPH, is also applied to certain eloges, either in
prose or in verse, composed without any intent to be
engraven on tombs ; as, that of Alexander,
Sujjicit huic tumulus, cut non sujftceret orbis.
and that of Newton,
Jsaacun
E P I [ 261 ] E P U
Isaacum Newton,
Quem immortalem
ipiiropus. Testantur Tetnpus, Natura, Cerium ;
Mortalem,
Hoc Marmor
Fatetur.
EPITASIS, in ancient poetry, the second part or
division of a dramatic poem, wherein the plot, entered
upon in the first part or protasis, was carried on, height¬
ened, and worked up, till it arrived at its state or height,
called catastasis.
Epitasis, in Medicine, the increase of a disease or
beginning of a paroxysm, particularly in a fever.
EPITHALAMIUM, in Poetry, a nuptial song or
composition in praise of the bride and bridegroom, pray¬
ing for their prosperity, for a happy offspring, &c.
Epithalamia were sung among the Jews, at the door
of the bride, by her friends and companions, the even¬
ing before the marriage. Psalm xlv. is an epithala-
mium. Among the Greeks the epithalamium was sung
as soon as the married couple were gone to bed, and at¬
tended with shouts and stamping of the feet to drown
the cries of the bride. They returned in the morning,
and with the same song, a little altered, saluted them
again. The evening song was called tx&ctketfux w
ftnUmet, the morning salute was called wiSktXxpuc iyt^znea.
This was the practice amongst the Romans also, but
their epithalamia were often obscene.
EPITHEM, in Pharmacy, a kind of fomentation,
or remedy of a spirituous or aromatic kind, applied ex¬
ternally to the regions of the heart, liver, &c. to
strengthen and comfort the same, or to correct some
intemperature thereof.
EPITHET, in Poetry and Rhetoric, an adjective
expressing some quality of a substantive to which it is
joined j or such an adjective as is annexed to substan¬
tives by way of ornament and illustration, not to make
up an essential part of the description. Nothing, says
Aristotle, tires the reader more than too great a redun¬
dancy of epithets, or epithets placed improperly j and
yet nothing is so essential in poetry as a proper use of
them. The writings of the best poets are full of
them.
EPITOME, in literary history, the same with
Abridgement.
EPITRITUS, in prosody, a foot consisting of three
long syllables and one short. Of these, grammarians
reckon four kinds : the first consisting of an iambus and
spondee, as salutantes j the second, of a trocheus and
spondee, as cdncitati j the third of a spondee and an
iambus, as communicans 5 and the fourth, of a spon¬
dee and trocheus, as Tncantire. See the articles Spon-
deus, Trocheus, &c.
EPITROPE. See Oratory, N° 83.
EPITROPUS, a kind of judge, or rather an arbi¬
trator, which the Greek Christians, under the domi¬
nion of the Turks, elect in the several cities, to termi¬
nate the differences that arise among them, and avoid
carrying them before the Turkish magistrates. See
Arbitrator.
Anciently the Greeks used the term in the
same sense as the Latins did procurator, viz. for a com¬
missioner or intendant. Thus the commissioners of pro¬
visions in the Persian army are called by Herodotus and
Xenophon epitropi. In the New Testament, Hctiprof
denotes the steward of a household, rendered in the |]
vulgate procurator. Epulares.
EPIZEUXIS. See Oratory, Na 68. v «  
EPOCHA, in Chronology, a term or fixed point of
time whence the succeeding years are numbered or
counted. See J£ra.
EPODE, in lyric poetry, the third or last part of
the ode, the ancient ode being divided into strophe,
antistrophe, and epode. See Ode, &c.
I he epode was sung by the priests, standing still be¬
fore the altar, after all the turns and returns of the
strophe and antistrophe, and was not confined to any
precise number or kind of verses.
The epode is now a general name for all kinds of
little verses that follow one or more great ones, of what
kind soever they be, and in this sense a pentameter is
an epode after an hexameter. And as every little verse,
which, being put after another, closes the period, is
called epode; hence the sixth book of Horace’s odes is
intitled liber epodon, “ book of epodes,” because the
verses are all alternately long and short, and the short
ones generally, though not always, close the sense of
the long one.
EPOPOEIA, in Poetry, the history, action, or
fable, which makes the subject of an epic poem. The
word is derived from the Greek fjr#;, carmen, “ verse,”
and Kcw, facio, “ I make.”
In the common use of the word, however, epoperia is
the same with epos, or epic poem itself. See the article
Poetry.
EPOPS, or Hoopoe. See Upupa, Ornithology
Index.
EPSOM, a town of Surry, about 16 miles south¬
west from London, long famous for its mineral wa¬
ters. These were discovered in 1618 , and though not
in such repute as formerly, yet they are not impaired in
virtue, and the salt made from them is famous all over
Europe, for gently cleansing and cooling the body.
The hall, galleries, and other public apartments, are
now run to decay ; and there remains only one house
on the spot, which is inhabited by a countryman and
his wife, who carry the waters in bottles to the adja¬
cent places, and supply the demands of dealers in Lon¬
don. On the neighbouring downs are annually horse¬
races $ but the inns, shops, and bowling-greens are not
near so much frequented as formerly. The market is
on Friday ; fair, July 25. The town is about one mile
and a half in semicircle, from the church to the palace
at Durdans, which was burnt down some years since,
but has been rebuilt. It was once inhabited by the late
king’s father. In Hudson’s Lane here was Epsom
Court, an ancient Saxon seat, long since converted
into a farm. Here are so many fields, meadows, or¬
chards, gardens, and the like, that a stranger would
imagine that the town was built in a wood. The popu¬
lation in 1811 was 2515.
Epsom water is easily imitated by art; i. e. by only
dissolving half an ounce of Epsom salt in a quart of
pure water, made somewhat brisk or quick by adding a
little sulphuric acid and potash, so as to let the alkali
prevail.
EPULARES, in antiquity, an epithet given to
those who were admitted to the sacred epulee or enter-
tainmentSj. .
EQU [262] EQU
LimJares tainments, it being unlawful for any to oe present at
fj them who were not pure and chaste.
Equator. EPULO, in antiquity, the name of a minister of sa-
v crifice among the Romans.
The pontifices, not being able to attend all the sa¬
crifices performed at Rome to so many gods as were
adored by that people, appointed three ministers, whom
they called epitlones, because they conferred on them
the care and management of the tpula, feasts in the so¬
lemn games and festivals. To them belonged the or¬
dering and serving the sacred banquet, offered on such
occasions to Jupiter, &c. They wore a gown bordered
with purple like the pontifices. Their number was at
length augmented from three to seven, and afterwards
by Csesar to ten. Their first establishment was in the
year of Rome 558, under the consulate of L. I urius
Purpureo and M. Claudius Marcellas.
EPULUM, in antiquity, a holy feast prepared for
the gods in times of public danger. The least was
sumptuous, and the gods were formally invited and
attended ; for the statues were brought on rich beds
furnished with soft pillows, called pulvinaria: Thus ac¬
commodated, their godships were placed on their couch¬
es at the most honourable part ol the table. The care
of the epula belonged to the epuloncs, and the gods were
plentifully served with the richest dainties, as if they
were able to eat; but the epulones performed that func¬
tion for them, and doubtless were competent proxies !
No wonder that Pliny solicited Trajan to be admitted
of their order.
Epulum is also used to signify any solemn feast;
so we meet with epuhwi Jerale^ a funeral entertain¬
ment.”
EQUABLE, an appellation given to such motions
as always continue the same in degree of velocity, with¬
out being either accelerated or retarded.
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more
things of the same magnitude, quantity, or quality.
Mathematicians speak of equal lines, angles, figures,
circles, ratios, solids.
EQUALITY, that agreement between two or more
things, whereby they are denominated equal.
EQUANIMITY, in Ethics, denotes that even and
calm frame of mind and temper, under good or bad for¬
tune, whereby a man appears to be neither puffed up
nor overjoyed with prosperity, nor dispirited, soured, 01
rendered uneasy by adversity.
EQUATIONS, in Algebra. See Algebra.
Equation of Time, in Astronomy and Chronology,
the reduction of the apparent time or motion of the
sun, to equable, mean, or true time. See Astronomy
Index.
EQUATOR, or Equator, in Astronomy and
Geography, a great circle of the sphere, equally distant
from the two poles of the world, or having the same
poles with those of the world. It is called the equator,
because when the sun is in it the days and nights are
equal; whence also it is called the equinoctial; and
when drawn on maps and planispheres, the equinoctial
line, or simply the line. Every point of the equator is
a quadrant’s distance from the poles of the world ;
whence it follows, that the equator divides the sphere
into two hemispheres, in one of which is the northern,
and in the other the southern pole.
EQUATORIAL instrument. See Astronomy Equatorial \W
Index. 11
EQUERY, or Ecury, a grand stable or lodge for jT-(luesLr‘a°. ^
horses, furnished with all the conveniences thereof; as' (
stalls, manger, rack, &.c. The word is formed from
the French escurie, which signifies the same thing.
Some again derive escurie from the Latin scuria, which
not only denotes a place for beasts to be put up in, but
also a grange or barn. But a more probable derivation
is from equile, “ a stable for horses,” of equus, “ horse.”
Some hold that the word stable, in propriety, relates
only to bullocks, cows, sheep, hogs, &c. and equery, to
horses, mules, &c.
A simple equery is that provided for one row of
horses ; a double equery that provided for two, with a
passage in the middle, or two passages ; the horses be¬
ing placed head to head, as in the little equery at Ver¬
sailles.
Under equery are sometimes also comprehended the
lodgings and apartments of the equerries, grooms,
pages, &c.
EQUERY {escuyer), is also an officer who has the
care and management of the horses of a king or prince.
EQUERIES, or Equerries, popularly called
Querries, are particularly used among us for officers of
the king’s stables, under the master of the horse, seven
in number, who, when his majesty goes abroad, ride in
the leading coach, are in waiting one at a time month¬
ly, and have a table with the gentlemen ushers during
the time, and a salary of 300I. a-year each. They
used to ride on horseback by the coach side when the
king travelled ; but that being more expensive to them
than necessary to the sovereign, it has been disconti¬
nued.
Equeries of the Crown Stable have that appellation,
as being employed in managing and breaking the sad¬
dle-horses, and preparing them for the king’s riding.
These are two in number ; the first having an annual
salary of 256I. and the second 200I. whereof one is, or
always should be, in close waiting at court; and when
his majesty rides, holds the stirrup, while the master
of the horse, or one of the equeries in his absence, as¬
sists in mounting him : and when his majesty rides, they
usually attend him.
EQUES, in antiquity. See Equestrian Order and
Equites.
Eques Auratus, is used to signify a knight-bachelor,
called auratus, q. d. gilt, because anciently none but
knights might gild or beautify their armour or other
habiliments of war with gold. In. law this term is
not used, but instead of it miles, and sometime cheva¬
lier.
EQUESTRIA, among the Romans, a place in the
theatre where the equites or knights sat.
EQUESTRIAN (eqvestris), a term chiefly used in
the phrase equestrian statue, which signifies a statue re¬
presenting a person mounted on horseback. rIhe word
is formed of the Latin cques, “ knight, horseman,” of
equus, “ horse.”
Equestrian Games, among the Romans,borse-races,
of which there were five kinds, the prodromus or plain
horse-race, the chariot-race,\A\z decursory-race about fu¬
neral piles, the ludi seviraleg, and the ludi neptunales.
Equestrian Order, among the Remans, signified
their
4
E Q U [ 263
[pcUrian their knights or equites ; as also their troopers or horse-
B men in the field ; the first of which orders stood in con-
J}U'IK>X . tradistinction to the senators 5 as the last did to the foot
military, or infantry. Each of these distinctions was
introduced into the state by Romulus.
EQUIANGULAR, in Geometry, an epithet given
to figures whose angles are all equal: such are a square,
an equilateral triangle, &c.
EQUIDISTANT, an apellation given to things
placed at equal distances from some fixed point or place
to which they are referred.
EQUILATERAL, in general, something that hath
equal sides ; as an equilateral triangle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in Mechanics, is when the two
ends of a lever or balance hang so exactly even and
level, that neither doth ascend or descend, but both
keep in a position parallel to the horizon j which is
occasioned by their being both charged with an equal
weight.
EQUIMUL TIPLES, in Arithmetic and Geometry,
are numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the
same number or quantity. Hence, equimultiples are
always in the same ratio to each other as the simple
quantities before multiplication, thus, if 6 and 8 are
multiplied by 4, the equimultiples 24 and 32 will be to
each other as 6 to 8.
EQUINOCTIAL, or ^Equinoctial, in Astrono¬
my, a great and immoveable circle of the sphere, under
which the equator moves in its diurnal motion.
The equinoctial or equinoctial line is ordinarily con¬
founded with the equator ; but there is a difference ;
the equator being moveable, and the equinoctial im¬
moveable j and the equator being drawn about the con¬
vex surface of the sphere, but the equinoctial on the
concave surface of the magnus orbis.
Whenever the sun in his progress through the eclip¬
tic comes to this circle, it makes equal days and nights
all round the globe •, as then rising due east and set¬
ting due west, which he never does at any other time
of the year. And hence the denomination from cequus
and nox, “ night quia cequat diem nocti.
The equinoctial then is the circle which the sun de¬
scribes, or appears to describe, at the time of the
equinoxes; that is, when the length of the day is
everywhere equal to that of night, which happens twice
a-year. See Equinox.
Equinoctial, in Geograpfiy. See Equator.
The shadows of those who live under this circle are
cast to the southward of them for one half of the year,
and to the northward of them during the other half j
and twice in a year, viz. at the equinoxes, the sun at
noon casts no shadow, being in their zenith.
From this circle is the declination or latitude of pla¬
ces accounted in the degrees of the meridian.
Equinoctial Points, are the two points wherein the
equator and ecliptic intersect each other: the one being
in the first point of Aries, is called the vernal point or
equinox ; and the other in the first point of Libra, the
autumnal point or equinox.
Equinoctial Dial, is that whose plane lies parallel
to the equinoctial. See Dial.
EQUINOX, or ^Equinox, in Astronomy, the time
when the sun enters one of the equinoctial points.
I he equinoxes happen when the sun is in the equi¬
noctial circle j when of consequence the days are equal
] E Q U
to the night throughout the world, which is the case
twice a-year, viz. about the 20th of'Maich and the 23d
of September, the first of which is the vernal and the
second the autumnal equinox. v
It is found by observation, that the equinoctial points,
and all the other points of the ecliptic, are continually
moving backwards, or in antecedentia, that is, westward.
Ibis retrograde motion of the equinoctial points, is that
famous and difficult phenomenon called iheprecession of
the equinoxes. See Astronomy Index.
EQUIPAGE, in the military art, denotes all sorts
of utensils, artillery, &c. necessary for commencing and
prosecuting with ease and success any military opera¬
tions. Camp and field equipage consists of tents,
kitchen-lnrmture, saddle-horses, baggage-waggons, bat-
horses, &c.
Etptinos
II
Equity.
lo EQUIP, in naval language, a term borrowed
from the I ranch marine, and frequently applied to the
business of fi tting a ship (or sea, or arming her for war.
EQUIPOLLENCE, in Logic, is when there is an
equivalence between any two or more terms or propo¬
sitions ; i. e. when they signify one and the same thing,
though they express it differently. Such propositions,
&c. are said to be equipollent.
EQUIRIA, in antiquity, a festival instituted by Ro¬
mulus, and celebrated on the 27th of February, in ho¬
nour ot Mars, at which there were horse-races,
EQUISEIUM, Horse-tail j a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia class-, and in the natural
method ranking under the 51st order, Coniftrce. See
Botany Index.
EQUITES, amongst the Romans, were persons of
the second degree ot nobility, immediately succeeding
the senators in point of rank. The equites or knights
were required to he possessed of 400 sestertia before
they could be admitted into that order 5 and when the
knights were so reduced as to fall short of the pre¬
scribed revenue, they were expunged ont of the eque¬
strian list. The equestrian revenue just mentioned a-
mounted to about 10,020 crowns.
Part of the ceremony whereby the honour of knight¬
hood was conferred amongst the Romans was the giving
of a horse j for every eqnes or knight had a horse kept
at the public charge: he received also the stipend of a
horseman to serve in the wars, and wore a ring which
was given him by the state. The equites composed a
large body ol men, and constituted the Roman cavalry;
for there was always a sufficient number of them in the
city, and nothing but a review was requisite to fit them
for service.
The knights at last grew too powerful, were a ba¬
lance for the senate and people, neglected the exercises
of war, and betook themselves to civil employments.
The equites were liable to be punished by the censors,
and to suffer degradation. They were degraded by ta-<
king from them the horse which was kept for each of
them at the public charge $ this was called equum adi-
rnere.
EQUITY, in a general sense, the virtue of treating
all other men according to reason and justice, or as we
would be gladly treated ourselves when we understand
aright what is our due. See Justice.
Equity, in jurisprudence, is defined a correction
or qualification of the law, generally made in that part
wherein it failetk or is too severe. It likewise signifies
, r the
E Q U [264
.Equity the extension of the words of the law to cases unex-
R pressed, yet having the same reason j so that where one
Equivoe- thing ;s enacted by statute, all other things are enacted
1 that are of the same degree. For example, the statute
tion.
of Glouc. gives action of waste against him that holds
lands for life or years ; and by the equity thereof, a
man shall have action of waste against a tenant that
holds but for one year, or one half-year, which is with¬
out the words of the act, but within the meaning of it;
and the words that enact the one, by equity enact the
other. So that equity is of two kinds. The one
abridges and takes from the letter of the law ; the
other enlarges and adds to it: and statutes may be con¬
strued according to equity, especially where they give
remedy for wrong, or are for expedition of justice.
Equity seems to be the interposing law of reason, exer¬
cised by the lord chancellor in extraordinary matters to
do equal justice ; and by supplying the defects of the
law, gives remedy in all cases. See CHANCERY.
Equity, in Mythology, sometimes confounded with
Justice, a goddess among the Greeks and Romans, re¬
presented with a sword in one hand and a balance in
the other.
EQUIVALENT, is understood of something that
is equal in value, force, or effect, to another.
■ Equivalence is of various kinds ; in propositions, in
terms, and in things.
Equivalent Propositions. See Equipollence.
Equivalent Terms, are where several words that
differ in sound have yet one and the same signification
as everybody was there, and nobody was absent, nihil
non, and omne.
Equivalent Things, are either motul, physical, or
statical. Moral, as when we say that the commanding
or advising a murder is a guilt equivalent to that of the
murderer. Physical,** when a man who has the strength
of two men is said to be equivalent to two men. Sta¬
tical, whereby a less weight becomes of equal force
with a greater, by having its distance from the centre
increased. . .
EQUIVOCAL terms or words, among logicians,
are those which have a doubtful or double meaning.
According to Mr Locke, the doubtfulness or uncer¬
tainty of words has its cause more in the ideas them¬
selves, than in any incapacity of the words to signify
them ; and might be avoided, would people always use
the same term to denote the same idea or collection of
ideas : but, adds he, it is hard to find a discourse on
any subject where this is the case ; a practice which can
only be imputed to folly or great dishonesty ; since a
man,-in making up his accounts, might with as much
fairness use the numerical characters sometimes for one
sometimes for another collection of units.
Equivocal Generation, the production of animals
without the intercourse between the sexes, by the in¬
fluence of the sun or stars, &c.
This kind of generation is now quite exploded by
the learned.
EQUIVOCATION, the using a term or expression
that has a double signification. Equivocations are ex¬
pedients to save telling the truth, and yet without tell¬
ing a falsity. The fathers are great patrons of equivo¬
cations and mental reservations, holding that the use
of such shifts and ambiguities is in many cases allow¬
able.
] ERA
EQUULEUS, or Ecculeus, in antiquity, a kind
of rack used for extorting a confession ; at first chiefly
practised on slaves, but afterwards made use of against
the Christians.
The equuleus was made of wood, having holes at
certain distances, with a screw by which the criminal
was stretched to the third, sometimes to the fourth or
fifth holes, his arms and legs being fastened on the
equuleus with cords ; and thus was hoisted aloit, and
extended in such a manner, that all his bones were dis¬
located. In this state red-hot plates were applied to
his body, and he was goaded in the sides with an in¬
strument called an ungula.
Equuleus, Equiculus, and Equus Minor, the
horse’s head, in Astronomy, a constellation of the north¬
ern hemisphere, whose stars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are
four, in Tycho’s four, in Hevelius’s six, and in Mr
Flamstead’s ten.
EQUUS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the
class mammalia, and order of belluse. See Mamma¬
lia Index. And for the diseases of the horse, see Far¬
riery Index.
ERA, in Chronology. See ./Era.
ERANARCHA, a public officer among the an¬
cient Greeks, whose business was to preside over and
direct the alms and provisions made for the poor. Cor¬
nelius Nepos, in his life of Epaminondas, describes his
office thus : When any person was reduced to poverty,
taken captive, or had a daughter to marry, which he
could not effect for want of money, &c. the eranarcha
called an assembly of friends and neighbours, and tax¬
ed each according to his means and estate, to contri¬
bute towards his relief.
ERANTHEMUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the diandria class. See BoTANY 7nt/car.
ERASISTRATUS, a celebrated physician, grand¬
son to the philosopher Aristotle. He discovered by
the motion of the pulse the love which Antiochus had
conceived for his mother-in-law Stratonice, and was re¬
warded with 100 talents for the cure by the father of
Antiochus. He was a great enemy to bleeding and vio¬
lent physic.
ERASMUS, Desiderius, born at Rotterdam in
1467. He lost his father and mother at 14 years of
age ; and was committed to the care of certain guar¬
dians, who would force him to be an ecclesiastic, which
he refused for a long time. However, he was obliged
to assume the religious habit among the canons regular
in the monastery of Stein near Tergou ; but afterwards
obtained a dispensation from his vows. He was the
most learned man of the age in which he lived ; and
contributed, by his example and his writings, to the
restoration of learning in the several countries in which
he occasionally resided, viz. Italy, Switzerland, Hol¬
land, France, and England: with the last, he was most
satisfied; and found the greatest encouragement from
Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More, and all the learned
Englishmen of those days. He published a great ma¬
ny books ; and died at Basil in 1536. He was buried
honourably, and his memory is still held in venera¬
tion. He had, however, many enemies ; and as be
did not embrace the reformation, and yet censured
many things in popery, he hath been treated injuri¬
ously both by the Catholics and Protestants. The works
of Erasmus in 10 vols folio were published at Leyden
in
Equttlm
Erasmus.
£r«
JfC
E^E [ 265 ] E R I
raimus in ijoG, in a very handsome manner, under the care
j| of M. le Clerc. Dr Jortin published his life in one
ection. vqI. 4t0) i758.
ERAST1ANS, a religious sect or faction which
arose in England during the time of the civil wars in
1647, thus called from their leader Thomas Erastus,
whose distinguishing doctrine it was, that the church
had no right to discipline, that is, no regular power to
excommunicate, exclude, censure, absolve, decree, or
the like.
ERATO (from I love)) in Mythology, the
name of one of the nine muses, who presided over love-
poetry. To this muse some have ascribed the inven¬
tion of the lyre and lute; and she is represented with
a garland of myrtles and roses, holding a lyre in one
hand and a bow in the other, and at her side a Cupid
with his torch. There is also a Nereid of the same name.
ERATOSTHENES, a Cy rensean philosopher, hi¬
storian, and poet; called for his learning Plato Minor.
He was keeper of the famous library at Alexandria;
and was greatly in favour with Ptolemy Euergetes, by
whose order he wrote a history of the Theban kings of
Egypt, which succession was entirely omitted by Ma-
netho. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology, and
his authority is by many preferred to that of Ma-
netho. He wrote many other things, a catalogue of
which is to be seen in Fabricius, Vossius, &c. but his
only piece now remaining entire is a description and
fabulous account of the stars. He starved himself in
old age through grief for the dimness of his sight,
about the 10th or 12th year of Ptolemy Epiphanes,
194 B. C.
ERA TOS FRATUS, an Ephesian who burnt the
famous temple of Diana the same night that Alexan¬
der the Great was born. This burning, as some wri¬
ters have observed, was not prevented or seen by the
goddess of the place, who was then present at the la¬
bour of Olympias, and at the birth of the conqueror of
Persia. Eratostratus did this villany merely to eternize
Lis name by so uncommon an action.
EREBUS (from ail?, night), in Mythology, a
term denoting darkness. According to Hesiod, Ere¬
bus was the son of Chaos and the night, and the father
of the day. This was also the name of part of the in-
feri among the ancients ; they had a peculiar expiation
for those who were detained in Erebus.
Erebus was properly the gloomy region, and distin¬
guished both from Tartarus the place of torment, and
Elysium the region of bliss: according to the account
given of it by Virgil, it forms the third grand division
of the invisible world beyond the Styx, and compre¬
hends several particular districts, as the limbus infan¬
tum, or the receptacle for infants ; the limbus for those
who have destroyed themselves ; the fields of mourning,
full of dark groves and woods, inhabited by those who
died for love ; and beyond these, an open champaign
country for departed warriors.
ERECTION, in a general sense, the art of raising
or elevating any thing; as the erection of a perpendi¬
cular, &c. It is also used in a figurative sense ; as the
erection of a bishopric, marquisate, &c.
Erection is particularly used by medical writers
for the state of the penis when swelled and distended
by the action of the muscles called srectores. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
VoL. VIII. Part I.
There is also an erection of the clitoris, which is ErecUon
performed by muscles for that purpose. }j
ERE MIT. See Hermit. ; Erigena.
ERETRIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of En- * ^
boea, situated on the Euripus, in the south-west of the
island. A very ancient city, and the largest of the
island, after Chalcis. After being demolished by the
Persians, it was restored on an adjoining spot, accord¬
ing to Strabo, who mentions a school of Eretrian phi¬
losophers there. Die Abantes of Homer were of Eu¬
boea.
ERFORT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, the capital of Thuringia, and subject
to the elector of Mentz. It is defended by good ram¬
parts ; and has a castle on an eminence, which com¬
mands the town. Its inhabitants are almost all Lu¬
therans, but its principal churches belong to the Ca¬
tholics. There are several handsome structures, both
public and private ; but the houses in general are
but indifferently built. E. Long. 11. 14. N. Lat. 50.
49’
ERGASTULUM, among the Romans, was a pri¬
son, work-house, or house of correction, where slave*
by the private authority of their masters were confined
and kept for their offences to hard labour. The
Greeks had a place of confinement of this sort called
f^RGO'F, in Farriery, is a stub, like a piece of soft
horn, about the bigness of a chesnut, placed behind
and below the pastern joint, and commonly hid under
the tuft of the fetlock. See Farriery Index.
ERICA, Heath, a genus of plants belonging to the
octandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the 28th order, Bicornes. See Botany In¬
dex.
ERIDANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of At¬
tica, falling into the Uissus.—Another Eridanus, the
more ancient name of the Padus, an appellation ascrib¬
ed by Pliny to the Greeks ; followed in this by Virgil.
It rises in Mount Vesulus, in the Alpes Cottiae, and di¬
viding the Cisalpine Gaul into the Cispadana and Trana-
padana, and swelled on each hand with no inconsider¬
able rivers from the other Alps and the Apennines,
falls by seven mouths into the Adriatic. Famous in
mythology, from the story of Phaeton ; whose sisters,
the Heiiades, were here changed into poplars, accord¬
ing to Ovid.
Eridanus, in Astronomy, a constellation of the
southern hemisphere, in form of a river.—The stars in
the constellation Eridanus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
34; in Tycho’s, 19; and in the British catalogue,
84.
ERIE, a vast lake to the westward of Pennsylvania,
in North America, situated between 8o° and 87° W.
Long, and between 410 and 420 N. Lat.
ERIGENA, or Scotus, John, a famous scholastic
divine, born about the beginning of the ninth century ;
but where, is a matter of dispute among authors. Bale
and Pits say he was horn at St David’s in Wales ;
Dempster, Mackenzie, and Henry, that he was born
at Ayr in Scotland ; which they infer from his names
Erigena and Scotus, by the latter of which he was
generally distinguished by his cotemporary writers. But
Du Pin and Sir James Ware assert that he was by birth
an Irishman ; Ireland being in those days called Scotia,
L 1 and
t
E R I
[ 266 ]
Erigena. and by the natives Erin. They agree, however, inre-
  y—1 Jating that he travelled to Athens, where he acquired a
competent knowledge of the Greek and other oriental
languages $ and that he afterwards resided many years
in the court of Charles the Bald, king of France, who,
on account of his singular abilities, treated him as his
intimate friend and companion. He slept frequently in
the roval apartment; and was constantly admitted to
the king’s table. “ We may judge (says a modern his¬
torian) of the freedom which he used with Charles,
by the following repartee. As the king and Scotus
were sitting one day at table, opposite to each other,
after dinner, drinking a cheerful glass, the philosopher
having said something that was not quite agreeable to
the rules of French politeness, the king in a merry hu¬
mour asked him, Pray what is between a Scot and a sot V
To which he answered, “Nothing but the table.” See
Henry's History of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 344, who
quotes this story from Hovedeni Anna!, ad ann. 86.
Quer. What language were they talking when this
bon mot was uttered ?
During his residence with Charles, he wrote several
books of scholastic divinity J which, though absurd
enough, were at that time not sufficiently so to secure
him from the reputation of heterodoxy \ and on that
account the pope commanded Charles the Bold to send
him to Rome but the king had too great a reward for
his companion to trust him with his Holiness. One of
the chief controversies in which Scotus was engaged,
and with which the pope was much offended, was con¬
cerning the real presence and blood of Christ in the
wafer. His opinion of this weighty matter is express¬
ed in these few words : “ What we receive corporally
is not the body of our Lord ; but that which feeds the
soul, and is only perceived by faith.” He was also en¬
gaged in two other controversies of equal importance,
but of a somewhat less delicate nature. The first was,
Whether any part of the eucharist be evacuated by
Stool P and the second, Whether Christ was born of
the Virgin Mary aperta vulva 9 Paschasius was of opi¬
nion, that this could not be without some injury to
her perpetual virginity j and therefore believed that
Christ came into the world per vulvam clausam, as he
came into the place where his disciples were assembled,
through the door, and not through the wall, without
opening the door. Concerning the first of these deli¬
cate questions, Scotus with several others declared, that
part of the eucharist was certainly evacuated by stool *,
for which they were honoured with the appellation of
Stercorists. And as to the second question, he said,
that the vulva clausa was a dangerous opinion: for it
would thence follow, that he was not horn, but
issued j non est nasci, sed erumpi. See Mackenzie,
vol. i. p. 55*
Whether this John Scotus returned to England, or
ended his days in France, is a matter of doubt. Some
of our historians tell us, that he left France in the
year 864 ; and that, after residing about three years in
Oxford, he retired to the abbey ofMalmsbury, where his
scholars stabbed him with their pen knives. There
is no foundation for this story. Probably he died
about the year 874 ; but whether U France or Eng¬
land, is uncertain, and of little importance. Some
have related, that he was invited to England by King
E B I
Alfred: but in this they confounded him with John, Erigena
abbot of Etheling, who was assassinated in 895 ; and to jj
this mistake the various accounts concerning this au- Erhan.
thor are to be attributed. Regardless of his history, he
appears from his writings to have been a man of parts,
and, in point of learning, superior to any of his co¬
temporaries. He wrote, 1. De divisions naturce, lib. v.
1. De preedestinatione Dei. 3. Excerpta de differentiis
societatibus Grceci Latinique verbi. 4. De corpore et
sanguine Domini. 5. Ambigua S. Maximi, seu scholia
ejus in difficiles locos S. Gregorii Na<zian‘zeni, Latine
versa. 6. Opera S. Dionysii quatuor in Latinam tin-
guam converse. All published. 7. De visione Dei,
and several other works, in manuscript, preserved in
different libraries.
ERIGERON, Flea-bane, a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the syngenesia class} and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 49th order, Compositce. See
Botany Index.
ERIGONE, in fabulous history, daughter to Ica-
rius, died of grief for her father’s death, was translated
into heaven, and makes the sign Virgo.
ERINACEUS, or Hedge-Hog, a genus of quad¬
rupeds belonging to the order of ferae, in the class mam¬
malia. See Mammalia Index.
ERINGO. See Eryngium, Botany Index.
ERINUS, a genus of plants belonging to the didy-
namia class > and in the natural method ranking under
the 40th order, Personatce. See Botany Index.
ERIOCAULON, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria class ; and in the natural method ranking
with the sixth order, Ensatce. See Botany Index.
ERIOCEPHALUS, a genus of plants, belonging to
the syngenesia class j and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compositce. See Botany Index.
ERIOPHORUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria class ; and in the natural method ranking
under the third order, Calamarice. See Botany Index.
ERITHALIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria class 5 and in the natural method ranking
with those of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ERIVAN, a city of Persia, in Asia, and capital of
Persian Armenia. It is a large, dirty, ill-looking place,
in which are no handsome buildings, the houses being
very mean, and raised with earth or mud j but it is
full of gardens and vineyards. It is situated in a plain
which is surrounded on all sides with mountains. Two
rivers pass near it, the Zengui to the north-west, and
the Queur Boulac to the south-west. The fortress
may pass for a town of itself; it is of an oval form, and
is four miles in circumference, containing about 800
houses. It is inhabited by none but the native Persians.
The Armenians have shops in it, where they work and
trade in the day time, but at night return to their ha¬
bitations in the city. The fortress is surrounded with
three walls, made with bricks dried in the sun, which
have battlements, and are flanked with towers, and de¬
fended with ramparts. On the north-east there is a
dreadful precipiece, above 200 yards in depth, at the
bottom of which the river runs. The garrison usually
consisted of 2000 men ; but how many there are since
the revolution is hard to say. The palace of the go¬
vernor of the province is within the fortress. The city
is
*
E R M [
n»au i3 about a cannon’s shot distant from the fortress, and
rmin. ^ie sPaGe ^etween is full of houses and markets. E.
< Long. 44. 50. N. Lat. 40. 20.
ERIPHYLE, in fabulous history, a sister of Adras-
tus king of Argus, who married Amphiaraus. She was
daughter of Talaus and Lisimache. When her husband
concealed himself that he might not accompany the
Argives in their expedition against Thebes, where he
knew he was to perish, Eriphjle suffered herself to be
bribed by Polynices with a golden necklace which had
been formerly given to Hermione by the goddess Ve¬
nus, and she discovered where Amphiaraus was. This
treachery of Eriphyle compelled him to go to the war;
but before he departed, he charged his son Alcmseon
to murder his mother as soon as he was informed of his
death. Amphiaraus perished in the expedition ; and
his death was no sooner known than his last injunctions
were obeyed, and Eriphyle was murdered by the hands
of her son.
EllIS, the goddess of discord among the Greeks.
She is the same as the Discordia of the Latins.
ERISICH1 HON, in fabulous history, a Thessalian,
son ot Triops, who derided Ceres and cut down her
groves. This impiety irritated the goddess, who afflicted
him with continual hunger. He squandered all his pos¬
sessions to gratify the cravings of his appetite, and at
last he devoured his own limbs for want of food. Some
say that his daughter had the power of transforming
herself into whatever animal she pleased, and that she
made use of that artifice to maintain her father, who
sold her, after which she assumed another shape, and
became again his property.
ERMIN. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Ermin, or Ermine, in Heraldry, denotes a white
field or fur, powdered or interspersed with black spots,
called powdering. It is supposed to represent the skin
of an animal ot the same denomination. There is
however no animal whose skin naturally corresponds to
the herald’s ermin.
The animal is milk white ; and so far is it from ha¬
ving spots, that tradition reports, that it will rather die
or be taken than sully its whiteness. Whence its sym¬
bolical use.
But white skins having for majiy ages been used for
the lining of the robes of magistrates and great men ;
the furriers at length, to add to their beauty, used to
sew bits of the black tails of those creatures upon the
white skins, to render them the more conspicuous.
Which alteration was introduced into armoury.
The sable spots in ermin are not of any determinate
number, but they may be more or less at the pleasure
of the painter or furrier.
Ermin, an order of knights, instituted in 1450 by
267 ] E R P
France. Tile collar of this order was of gold, compo- i;
sed of ears of corn in saltier ; at the end of which hung ^rpenins
the ermin, with this inscription, d ma vie. But the ^~v 
order expired when the dukedom of Bretagne was an¬
nexed to the crown of France.
Ermines, in Heraldry, the reverse of ermine, i. e.
white spots on a black field. '
ERMINITES, in Heraldry, should signify little er¬
mines, but it is otherwise ; for it signifies a white field
powdered with black, only that every such spot hath a
little red hair on each. Erminites also signify a yellow
held powdered with black, which the French express
much better by or seniee d’’ermine de sable.
ERMINOIS, in Heraldry, signifies the field or, and
the spots black.
ERNESTI, John Augustus, a late eminent Ger¬
man scholar. See Supplement.
See Alcedo> Ornithology Index.
EMUS, (of “ love”), in Mythology, one of two
chiefs over all the other Cupids, being the cause of
love. See Anteros.
EROIIA, a festival in honour of Eros the god of
love. It was celebrated by the Thespians every fifth
year with sports and games, when musicians and others
contended. If any quarrels or seditions had arisen
among the people, it was then usual to ofler sacrifices
and prayers to the god, that he would totally remove
them.
(derived from ^f, “ love;” whence tg«-
rixof), is applied to any thing which has a relation to
the passion of love. In medicine we find the phrase
delirium eroticum used for a kind of melancholy con¬
tracted through excess of love.
EROSION, among physicians, denotes much the
same with corrosion, only in a stronger degree.
EROTESIS. See Oratory, N° 94.
ERPENIUS, Thomas, in Dutch Thomas of
Erpe, a celebrated professor of the Arabic language,
was born at Gorcum in Holland in 1^84, and edu¬
cated at Leyden. He applied himself to the orien¬
tal languages at the persuasion of Joseph Scaliger;
and afterwards travelled into England, France, Italy,
and Germany, and everywhere obtained the esteem
of the learned. On his return to Holland, he was
made professor of Arabic in the university of Leyden,
and died there in 1624. He published a great many
excellent works, which spread his reputation through
the whole learned world. It is said, that the king of
Moi’occo admired so greatly the letters of Erpenius
wrote to him in Arabic in the name of the United Pro¬
vinces, that he could not cease reading them, and show¬
ing them to those who spoke that language naturally.
ERPETOLOGY.
INTRODUCTION.
animals of which we propose, under the general
title Erpetology, to give the classification and na¬
tural history, belong to the class Amphibia, and the or¬
der Reptilia, in the Linnccan arrangement. The ani¬
mals included under this class have obtained the deno¬
mination of amphibious, from the supposed circumstance
that they are equally capable of living both on land
and in the water. But in this view, the application of
the term is inaccurate, for there are few, or perhaps no
animals belonging to this class which can always exist,
L 1 2 or
E R P E T
or even perform the functions of life for any consider¬
able length of time, in the water. Many of them,
however, possess this faculty to a certain degree, and
therefore, the name has been extended to all which are
distinguished by the same peculiarity of external form,
and a similar structure of external organs.
Some naturalists have denominated this order of ani¬
mals oviparous quadrupeds. This denomination is un¬
doubtedly sufficiently characteristic j for although some
species are viviparous, and in this circumstance, as well
as being furnished with four feet, exhibit some resem¬
blance with the higher order of quadrupeds, the striking
difi’erence which is discovered by the anatomist and the
physiologist, affords unequivocal and decided marks of
distinction. From the structure, habits, and general
economy of this order ot animals, we derive characters
which are sufficiently distinctive between it and the
class of birds, to which the term oviparous is strictly
applicable. This denomination, therefore, which is al¬
so employed by the Count de la Cepede, is sufficiently
characteristic of the class of animals which are includ¬
ed under it.
The word reptile, by which this order of animals has
been distinguished by Linnaeus, seems not to be liable
to much objection. All the individuals of which it is
composed have short legs, and these are placed at a
great distance from each other, and so weak, that they
are unable to support the weight of the body. The
gray lizard, for instance, which is one of the most active
of the tribe, is obliged to support itself on its belly, as
soon as its progressive motion is greatly diminished $ so
that it employs its limbs rather for the purpose of crawl¬
ing than that of walking. And indeed all the animals
of the order, from the peculiar structure and disposition
of their limbs, when their motions are slow, must drag
the body along on the belly, other modifications of their
locomotive powers depending only on the great length
and relation of the instruments of motion. In this
view, therefore, the Linnsean name of the order is not
improperly applied to almost all the individuals which it
comprehends.
The term erpetology, which we have given to this
treatise upon the order reptilia, was formerly employed
by the Swedish naturalist Klein, in a more extensive
sense. Under this title he included the order ser-
pentes, as well as that of reptilia, thus comprehending
the whole class of amphibia. Here we have adopted it
in a more limited acceptation, and confined its meaning
to the last order, pursuing the plan of M. Bonnaterre,
in his arrangement of the same order of animals in the
Encyclopedic Method ique.
Linnseus has adopted as a mark of distinction of this
order of animals, the peculiar structure of the heart,
which in the language of the anatomist is said to be
unilocular, or furnished only with one ventricle or ca¬
vity. This doctrine has been admitted by eminent ana¬
tomists, as well as by some of the greatest physiolo¬
gists, such as Boerhaave, Haller, and some others j and
called in question only when some exceptions have oc¬
curred, of animals belonging to this tribe, which have
exhibited somewhat of a different structure. One in¬
stance of this is quoted in the heart of an Indian inland
ortoise, which was examined by the French academi¬
cians of the 17th century, and in which they discovered
three ventricles instead ot one. But other physiologists
O L O G Y.
are of opinion, that the heart of this order of animal
is really furnished with two ventricles, having an im
mediate communication between them 5 they nius
therefore be considered as having a double heart.
The lungs of the order of reptilia, are, in their ap¬
pearance and structure, widely different from those ot
other animals. They are in general composed of two
large bladders, or membranaceous bags, which, in the
different species, are divided into a greater or smaller
number of cancelli, or subdivisions ; among which are
distributed the pulmonary blood-vessels. These bear
but a small proportion to the vesicular part through
which the ramifications are carried 5 in this respect
differing greatly from the lungs of the higher order of
quadrupeds, or mammalia, in which the proportion of
the blood-vessels is so much greater than that of the
air-cells, that the lungs have more of a fleshy than of a
membranaceous appearance. In this order ot animals,
therefore, in which the blood is cold, the vesicular
system far overbalances the vascular ; but in the class
mammalia, which are warm-blooded animals, the vas¬
cular system prevails over the vesicular.
Of all the animals which occupy the surface of the
earth, and which the Almighty creator has dispersed
throughout his works, to fill up the void space, and
to produce motion, the tribe of reptiles seems at first
sight to have been least the objects of beneficence and
wisdom. In their structure, habits, and modes of life,
when compared with other orders ot animals, they ex¬
hibit marks of degradation and neglect. The body in
general presents only a rude inactive mass *, their senses
are extremely obtuse; their instincts are limited to the
grossest sensations, and the extent of their enjoyments
reaches only to the gratifications of appetite. On the
boundaries of land and water, in those vast morasses,
which are remarkable only for immense depositions
of mud, few or scarcely any possess the graces or ele¬
gance of other terrestrial animals ; like the latter they
enjoy not the pleasure of associating together for amuse¬
ment or defence j or of indulging in sportive tricks on
the land or in the air. On the contrary, they crawl on
the earth, on the margin of extensive lakes, surrounded
with unwholesome vapours j or they live in the cavi¬
ties of the rocks, or in the' midst of barren deserts, undis¬
turbed by other animals, and far retired from the habi¬
tations of man. Some delight in exposing themselves
to the rays of the sun ; while others retire during the
day to shady, moist, and sequestered places, proceeding
from their retreats only during the night, as it were to
conceal their deformity, and to spare man those feelings
of fear, disgust, and horror, with which their presence
inspires him. But as the study of every part of the
long chain of beings is worthy of our attentive consi¬
deration and regard, these animals, in the eyes ol the
careful observer of nature, are far from being wanting
in exciting his interest and curiosity. He cannot iail
to be highly gratified with contemplating the resources
which they derive from the peculiar structure of their
external form, as well as from the nature of their func¬
tions. Their manners, their habits, and the relations
which they bear to beings of a higher order, on the one
hand, and the distance to which they are removed from
brute matter on the other, are objects worthy of the
contemplation of the naturalist. This study, properly
directed and applied, unveils to our eyes the beneficent
design
269
(.ap. I. E R P E T
design and riches of creation, and raises our admiration
to the wonderful and extensive variety of animated
beings.
The uses of some of the animals belonging to this
class, as valuable articles of food in those regions where
they abound, or as furnishing the tables of the luxuri¬
ous in other countries with a rich delicacy j the pe¬
culiarities of external form, and of internal structure,
as well as of several of their functions, such as circula¬
tion and respiration $ their great length of life j the re¬
productive power of some, and the long abstinence
O L o G Y.
which others can undergo, give additional interest and
importance to the natural history of these animals.
In the following treatise, we propose to lay before
our readers a brief but comprehensive view of the na¬
tural history of this order of animals j and for the sake
of perspicuity we shall treat this subject under two ge¬
neral heads. We shall first consider the classification
and natural history of the order reptilia ; and secondly,
we shall give a short sketch of their anatomy, with the
principal facts connected with their physiology. These
will form the subjects oi the two following chapters.
CHAP. I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION AND
IN the Linnsean arrangement, the order reptilia is
divided into four genera. Other naturalists have adopt¬
ed a different arrangement. De la Cepede, in his his¬
tory of oviparous quadrupeds, has divided this order into
two great classes. The first class includes those animals
which are furnished with a tail, and the second com¬
prehends those which have no tail. The following ta¬
ble exhibits a view of the classification of this eminent
naturalist.
Class I. Animals furnished with a tail.
Genus 1. Tortoises, having the body covered with
a bony shield.
Division 1. The fingers very unequal, and
lengthened out in the form of fins.
Division 2. The fingers very short, and almost
equal.
Genus 2. Lizard: the body having no bony co¬
vering.
I) ivision 1. The tail flattened j five fingers on
the fore feet.
Division 2. The tail round j five fingers on each
foot, and elevated scales on the back.
Division 3. The tail round ; five fingers on the
fore feet ; scaly bands under the belly.
Division 4. The tail round j five fingers on the
fore feet, without scaly bands under the belly.
Division 5. The fingers furnished underneath
with large scales, covering each other, like
the slates on the roof of a house.
D ivision 6. Three fingers on the fore and the
hind feet.
D ivision 7. Membranes in the form of wings.
Division 8. Three or four fingers on the lore
feet; four or five fingers on the hind feet.
Class II. Animals which have no tail.
Genus I. Frogs: the head and the body length¬
ened ont, and the one or the other angular.
Genus 2. Tree frogs: the body long, with soft
viscid tubercles under the toes.
NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES.
Genus 3. Toads: the body thick and round.
Appendix. Biped reptiles.
Division 1. Two fore feet.
Division 2. Two hind feet.
Of this arrangement it may be observed, that, al¬
though it exhibits much minuteness and ingenuity, the
distinctive characters upon which some parts of it are
founded, are not always constant and fixed ; for it has
been found that these characters vary in the difl’erent in¬
dividuals in which they have been observed. This va¬
riety, it has been conjectured, arises from the difference
of age, and peculiarities in their food and modes of life.
M. Bonnaterre has adopted a different arrange¬
ment. He has also divided the whole order of reptiles
into two classes, as will appear from the following
table.
Class I. Reptiles which have no tail.
Genus 1. Frog.
Genus 2. Tree Frog.
Genus 3. Toad.
Class II. Reptiles which are furnished with a tail.
Genus 1. Tortoise.
Genus 2. Chome lion.
Genus 3. Crocodile.
Genus 4. Li%ard.
Genus 5. Flying dragon.
Genus 6. Salamander.
Genus 7. Ckalcis.
This arrangement is undoubtedly, in many cases,
convenient and proper; yet, as there seems to be in
others an unnecessary multiplication of genera, we shall
still adhere to the Linnaean classification, which, though
more simple, will in general be found not to be much
less accurate ; and the objects which it comprehends not
being very numerous, it is sufficiently distinct. Lin-
naius divided this order into four genera. The follow¬
ing are the characters of the genera, of which we give
a translation, for the accommodation of the English
reader.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
Genus. I. Testudo. Corpus caudatum j loricaossea
aut coriacea supernd et infernfc, vel squamis superne
obtectum. Oris mandibula superior inferiorem pyxidum
icstar claudens.
Genus I. Tortoise. Body having a tail -y covered
above and beneath with a bony or coriaceous shell, or
scales above. The upper jaw closing over the lower
like the lid of a box.
Genus IT.
270
Tortoise. Genus II. Rana. Corpus tetrapodum, nudum, ut-
 v plurimum ecaudatura: pedibus posterioribus longiori-
,JUGenus III. Draco. Corpus tetrapodum, caudatum,
alatum : alis propriis.
Genus IV. Lacerta. Corpus tetrapodum, elonga-
tum, caudatum, nudum : pedibus sequalibus.
Chap. I,
Genus II. Frog. Body four-footed, naked, general- Tortoises,
ly without tail 5 the hinder feet longest; and without
any integument but the skin.
Genus III. Flying Dragon. Body four-footed,
furnished with a tail, and on each side with an ex¬
pansile wing-like skin.
Genus IV. Lizard. Body four-footed, elongated,
furnished with a tail, without any additional integu¬
ment : legs equal.
ERPETOLOGY.
I. TESTUDO, or Tortoise.
From the great similarity which prevails among se¬
veral species, and the variety in size, colour, and other
circumstances, according to the different periods of their
age, considerable difficulties have arisen in discriminat¬
ing them with precision. I he observations of later
naturalists have shown, that the specific characters of
Linnaeus are not sufficient for the purpose of accurate
distinction j nor have the descriptions of the Count de
la Cepede been more useful in furnishing proper cha¬
racteristic marks. One set of characters, which have
been usually employed for this purpose, it has been ob¬
served by Mr Schoepff, ought not to be trusted. They
are derived from the number of claws on the feet of
marine tortoises, or turtles. These, however, are found
to vary so much, that they are not to be considered as
affording uniform and constant characters of distinction.
As a proof of this observation, if different individuals of
the common green turtle (testudo nndas'), be compared
together, it will appear that some have only a single
claw on each footj while others are furnished with two,
and sometimes three 5 sometimes with two on the fore
feet, and with one on the hind feet. Similar variations
have also been observed in the number of claws of land
tortoises, and particularly in those of the common tor¬
toise, {testudo grcecd) ; in some individuals of which
the fore feet have four, and in others five claws. Avoid¬
ing, therefore, these uncertain and varying characters,
the shape, pattern, colours of the shell, and form of the
head, Dr Shaw observes, furnish the most accurate
marks of distinction.
Some of the species belonging to this genus are na¬
tives of the ocean 5 some are confined to the land, or to
fresh water. This affords a natural division into land
and sea tortoises. In following out this division, we
shall treat of them in two sections, including under the
first those that frequent fresh waters.
Sect. I. Land and Fresh-water Tortoises.
1. Testudo Grjeca. Lin. Common Land Tortoise.
Specif. The shell is hemispherical, and of a black
and yellow colour, and having a bunch behind ; the
pieces of which the disk is composed are convex, and
the sides are obtuse.
Description The length of the common tortoise is about six inches,
and rarely exceeds eight: when full grown, it is about
forty-eight ounces weight. The shell is composed of
thirteen middle pieces, and about twenty-five marginal
ones; is of an oval form, and very convex above. The
middle pieces, or those which constitute the disk of the
shield, are mostly of a square form, somewhat oblong ;
their colour is blackish or dark brown, each having a
broad yellow band running along one side, which is
continued half way along the upper part. The colours
vary in different individuals, and the shape of the pieces
is also subject to occasional variations. The sulci or
furrows which appear on the surface of young animals
are obliterated as they grow old. The belly part of the
shell is of a pale yellow colour j the head is rather small,
the upper part covered with irregular tough scales, and
the neck with smaller pieces, which admit of the mo¬
tion of the head i the eye is small and black, and the
mouth does not extend beyond the eyes. The legs are
short ; and the feet, which are moderately broad, are
covered with strong ovate scales. The feet have usu¬
ally four stout claws, but their number is found to vary
in different circumstances. The tail is rather shorter
than the legs, is covered with small scales, and termi¬
nates in a naked, horny, pointed tip.
The land tortoise is a native of almost all the coun- Natife
tries round the Mediterranean ; but it has been suppos- •ountr2f'
ed to be more frequent in Greece, from whence it has
derived its specific name. It is also found in the islands
of the Archipelago, in Corsica, Sardinia, and in many
parts of Africa. From the account of the Danish na¬
turalist Forskal, it is employed in Greece for the pur¬
pose of food. “ The inhabitants,” he says, “ often
swallow the blood recent, and eat the eggs boiled,
which are about the size of those of a pigeon, four or
five in number, and of a white colour. In September
the animal hides itself under ground, and again emerges
in February j laying its eggs in June, in a small hole,
which it scratches in some sunny spot, out of which, af¬
ter the first rains of September, the young are hatched,
which are about the size of a walnut. The males of this
species are said to fight often, butting at each other with
such force, as to be heard at a considerable distance.”
The land tortoise, when it is kept in gardens in Italy
and Germany, is commonly observed to conceal itself
in October, and to reappear in April. The period of
retirement in England is about the end of October, and
the time of its appearance is about the middle of April;
but it ought to be added, that these periods vary in
difl’erent countries, and according to the temperature
of the season. « , 8_{(
The land tortoise lives to a very great age. In se-
veral instances which seem to be well authenticated, it
has considerably exceeded the extraordinary period of
an hundred years. One instance, which is perhaps not
the least remarkable, is recorded of a tortoise which
was introduced into the archbishop’s garden at Lam¬
beth,
fiap. I. E R P E T
'■rtoises. beth^about the year 1633, and lived till the year
V'"v“ '1 ‘ lhJS3 > ^ie 8bell of which is still preserved in the library
ot the palace at Lambeth. Another remarkable cir¬
cumstance respecting this individual is, that it was of a
larger size than usual. The shell measured lo inches
in length, and six and a lialf in breadth.
Vlytcna- None of this order of animals is more tenacious of
c sofiile.life than the tortoise. The experiments of Redi afford
a lemarkable proof of this fact. In the beginning of
November he made a large opening in the skull of a
land tortoise, extracted the whole of the brain, washed
out the cavity, that no part might remain ; and having
left the hole open, let the animal go. It walked off
seemingly uninjured, excepting that it closed its eyes,
which never afterwards opened. At the end of three
days, during which time the hole of the skull began
to close, the wound was covered with a complete skin j
and thus without brain it walked about as usual, and
lived for six months. The same naturalist cut off the
bead of another tortoise, which lived for the space of
twenty-three dajs afterwards.
Aflinenee. ^ I1*3 animal is not less remarkable for its abstinence.
Blasius kept an individual of this species for ten months,
during which time it tasted no kind of food whatever!
It died about the end of that time, but this was ascribed
to the severity of the season, rather'than to the want of
food j for the intestines being examined, they were
found full of excrement of the natural colour.
Mr White, in his Natural History of Selborne, has
given so full and distinct an account of the natural his-
toiy of the land tortoise, founded on facts drawn from
his own. observation, that we shall lay it before our
readers in his own words.
Wile’s ae- ^ *ant^ tortoise (says he), which has been kept for
coin, of thirty years in a little walled court belonging to the
house where I now am visiting, retires under ground
about the middle of November, and comes forth again
about the middle of April. WTen it first appears in
the spring it discovers very little inclination towards
food ; but in the height of summer grows voracious :
and then as the summer declines, its appetite declines $
so that for the last six weeks in autumn, it hardly eats
at all. Milky plants, such as lettuces, dandelions, sow¬
thistles, are its favourite dish. In a neighbouring vil-
j lage one was kept, till by tradition it was supposed to
P* il5- be an hundred years old. An instance of vast longevity
in such a poor reptile !
“ On the 1st of November, I remarked that it be¬
gan first to dig the ground in order to the forming its
hybernaculum, which it had fixed on just beside a great
tuft of hepaticas. It scrapes out the ground with its
fore-feet, and throws it up over its back with its hind j
but the motion of its legs is ridiculously slow, little ex¬
ceeding the hour-hand of a clock ; and suitable to the
composure of an animal said to be a whole month in
performing one feat of copulation. Nothing can be
more. assiduous than this creature night and day in
scooping the earth, and forcing its great body into the
cavity ; but, as the noons of that season proved unusual¬
ly warm and sunny, it was continually interrupted, and
called forth by the heat in the middle of the day j and
though I continued there till the thirteenth of Novem¬
ber, yet the work remained unfinished. Harsher wea-
her, and frosty mornings, would have quickened its
2
o L O G Y. . ' 27J
operations. No part of its behaviour ever struck me Tortoises.
moie than the extreme timidity it always expresses with ^ 1—
regard to rain; for though it has a shell that would se¬
cure it against the wheel of a loaded cart, yet does it
discover as much solicitude about rain as a lady dressed
in all her best attire, shuffling away on the first sprink¬
lings, and running its head up in a corner. If attend¬
ed to, it becomes an excellent weather-glass j for as sure
as it walks elate, and as it were on tiptoe, feeding with
great earnestness in a morning, so sure will it rain be¬
fore night. It is totally a diurnal animal, and never
pretends to stir after it becomes dark. The tortoise,
ike other reptiles, has an arbitrary stomach as well as
lungs j and can refrain from eating as well as breathing
or a great part of the year. When first awakened it
eats nothing j nor again in the autumn before it re¬
tires : through the height of the summer it feeds vora¬
ciously, devouring all the food that comes in its way.
I was much taken with its sagacity in discerning those
that do it kind offices : for, as soon as the good old lady
comes in sight who has waited on it for more than thirty
years., it hobbles towards its benefactress with awkward
alacrity 5 but remains inattentive to strangers. Thus
not only “ the ox hnoweth his owner^ and the ass his
master's crib” but the most abject reptile, and torpid j,-,
of beings, distinguishes the hand that feeds it, and i3 P'IS ’
touched with the feelings of gratitude !
I he old Sussex tortoise, (he adds), that I have men¬
tioned so often, is become my property. I dug it out
of its winter dormitory in March last, when°it was
enough awakened to express its resentment by hissing;
and packing it in a box with earth, carried it eighty
miles in post-chaises. Lhe rattle and hurry of the jour¬
ney so perfectly roused it, that when I turned it out on
a border, it walked twice down to the bottom of my
garden 5 however, in the evening, the weather being
cold, it buried itself in the loose mould, and continues
still concealed.
“ As it will be under my eye, I shall now have an
opportunity of enlarging my observations on its mode of
life and propensities ; and perceive already that, to¬
wards. the time of coming forth, it opens a breathing
place in the ground near its head, requiring, I conclude,
a freer respiration as it becomes more alive. This crea¬
ture not only goes under the earth from the middle of
November to the middle of April, but sleeps great part
of the summer j for it goes to bed in the longest days
at four in the afternoon, and often does not stir in the
morning till late. Besides, it retires to rest for every
shower j and does not move at all in wet days.
“ When one reflects on the state of this strange be*
ing, it is a matter of wonder to find that Providence
should bestow such a profusion of days, such a seeming
waste of longevity, on a reptile that appears to relish it
so little as to squander more than two-thirds of its exist¬
ence in a joyless stupor, and be lost to all sensation for
months together in the profoundest of slumbers.
“ While I was writing, a moist and warm afternoon,
with the thermometer at 50, brought forth troops of
shell-snails ; and at the same juncture, the tortoise heav¬
ed up the mould, and put out its head ; and the next
morning came forth, as it were raised from the dead,
and walked about till four in the afternoon. This was
a curious coincidence ! a very amusing occurrence ! to
see
272 E R P E T O L O G Y.
Tortoisci. *ce such a similarity of feeling between the two /
   for so the Greeks called both the shell-snail and the
p ^-tortoise.
“ Because we call this creature an abject reptile, we
are too apt to undervalue his abilities, and depreciate
his powers of instinct. Yet he is, as Mr Pope says of
his lord,
“ Much too wise to walk into a well
and has so much discernment as not to fall down a
haha •, but to stop and withdraw from the brink with
the readiest precaution.
“ Though he loves warm weather, he avoids the
hot sun } because his thick shell, when once heated,
would, as the poet says of solid armour, “ scald with
safety.” He therefore spends the more sultry hours
under the umbrella of a large cabbage-leaf, or amidst
the waving forests of an asparagus-bed.
“ But as he avoids heat in the summer, so, in the
decline bf the year, he improves the faint autumnal
beams, by getting within the reflection of a fruit-wall :
and, though he has not read that planes inclining to
the horizon receive a greater share of warmth, he in¬
clines his shell, by tilting it against the wall, to collect
and admit every feeble ray.
“ Pitiable seems the condition of this poor embarras¬
sed reptile: to be cased in a suit of ponderous armour,
which he cannot lay aside *, to be imprisoned, as it were,
within his own shell, must preclude, we should suppose,
all activity and disposition for enterprise. Yet there is
a season of the year (usually the beginning of June)
when his exertions are remarkable. He then walks on
tiptoe, and is stirring by five in the morning J and,
traversing the garden, examines every wicket and in¬
terstice in the fences, through which he will escape it
possible : and often has eluded the care of the gardener,
and wandered to some distant field. The motives
that impel him to undertake these rambles seem to be
of the amorous kind : his fancy then becomes intent
Ibid p. 4J7’0n sexual attachments, which transport, him beyond his
usual gravity, and induce him to forget for a time his
ordinary solemn deportment.”
2. Testudo Marginata, Marginated Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—The shell is blackish-brown, variegated
with yellow, oblong, and gibbose, widened and de¬
pressed on the hinder part.
The length of this species is nearly fourteen inches,
the breadth about ten, measuring the curvature of the
shell. The head, which is flat and triangular above, is
nearly two inchss long, above an inch broad, and one
inch deep. The eyes are furnished with a nictitating
membrane •, but the lower eyelid only is moveable.
The mandibles are strong, notched, and internally beset
with protuberances which have been sometimes mis¬
taken for teeth. The external orifices of the ears are
covered with the common skin. The tail is very short.
The fore legs are about three inches and a half long ; the
hind legs are about two and a half long. The skin is
grainy, and covered with brown coloured, unequal,
hard scales, extending over the head, legs, and tail.
Some of these scales on the ends of the feet are large,
bard, and pointed ; so that at first sight they might be
taken for claws. The feet are thick, and so cover-
4
Chap. I.
ed with the investing membrane, that the toes are only Tortohes,
distinguished.
The disk of the shell is composed of thirteen pieces,
which are striated on the margin. The border consists
of twenty-four pieces ; all of which, especially the pos¬
terior ones, are proportionally larger than in the other
species. 1 rom the position of the latter, the circumfe¬
rence of the upper shell appears toothed. The upper
shell is very convex, being more than four inches deep:
in consequence of this form, when the animal is placed
on its back, it can recover its former situation.
The colour of this species is generally dark, or
blackish bay. The convex part of the pieces which
compose the disk are irregularly varied with yellow.
The pieces are also variegated with the same colour.
This prevails chiefly on the posterior divisions, and these
are distinctly striated or furrowed. The width or dila¬
tation of these divisions, being greater than in other spe¬
cies, constitutes the principal characteristic mark of the
present. The colour of the under shell is pale yellow ;
each division is marked on its upper joining with a
transverse blackish band, which runs into a pair of point¬
ed or triangular processes, extending nearly to the in¬
ferior division. Another specific difference between this
and the common tortoise is, that in the former the out¬
line of the shell, seen from above, is proportionally long¬
er, and has a slight sinking or contraction on each
side.
It is supposed that this species is a native of America,
but this seems not to be certainly determined •, and
little, or scarcely any thing, is known of its natural
history.
3. Testudo Geometrica, Geometrical Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—The shell is black and ovate j the scu-
tella elevated, and radiated with yellow.
The number of pieces of which the disk is composed,
is subject to variation. Instead of thirteen, fourteen
pieces have been observed indifferent specimens. J bese
pieces are very prominent, striated distinctly with nu¬
merous lines on their sides, and terminated above by a
yellowish coloured, flat, hexagonal, roughened space,
from which proceed, in a radiated direction, some well
defined yellow streaks towards the edge ; in this form¬
ing on the black ground colour, something like geome¬
trical figures. The marginal pieces are commonly 24,
but sometimes 26. They also are streaked with yellow.
As in other species, the brightness of the colour is sub¬
ject to variation, but their regular distribution is never
entirely obliterated.
This species, it is said, is a native of Asia, Africa,
and also of America j but this seems not to be fully
ascertained, which is rather surprising, as its shell 18
oftener met with in Europe than that of any other sPe“
cies. Thunberg says that it is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, where it frequents shrubby places. It is
said also that it is found on the coast of the Pine islands,
between the continent of America and Cuba, where
they frequent moist and marshy places in the forests.
They are very easily taken, and are sought after as food.
It is usual for the natives to put a mark on the shield,
and then allow them to go about in the woods, find¬
ing them again almost as readily as any domesticated
animal, when they transport them to Cuba. This spe¬
cies
a
t .*p. I E R P E T
■fl-taoes. cies is supposed to be the terrapin of Dampter, who
jUr—'gives the above account, and represents it as beanti-
fully variegated.
4. Testudo Radiata, Radiated Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, black} scutella flattish, and
radiated with yellow.
Tliis species has sometimes been confounded with the
preceding; it often however exceeds a foot in length,
and its outline is nearly smooth. The size of the geo-
metrical tortoise is less, its outline is very much tu-
berculated, and the pieces of which it is composed rise
greatly towards their centres.
According to Grew, it is a native of Madagascar;
and its characters correspond nearly with one described
by Browne in his history of Jamaica, so that it must
also be considered as a native of that island. Grew has
given a very particular description of it.
5. Testudo Indica, Indian Tortoise.
o L O G Y. 273
Leverian museum, is described by Dr Shaw +. The co- Tortoises.
lour is dark brown, or black, thickly mottled with small' v
confluent spots of pale yellow, which are largest on the!
sides of the shell. The form of the shell is long and^°f..
oval, dilated or widened behind ; the depth or convex-10^1'
ity is very considerable. The thi’ee middle divisions of
the row of scutella on the back are somewhat panduri-
form, or fiddle-shaped. The upper piece resembles the
outline of a pitcher ; the lowest approaches to a hexa¬
gonal form. The number of the side pieces is four, of
the usual form ; that of the marginal pieces is twenty-
five, the upper one very small. A carina or ridge runs
down the dorsal row; the upper surface of the shell is
strongly wrinkled. The under shell is smooth, and of
a yellowish white colour, mottled with black. The
length of the shell is nine and a half inches ; width
m the middle five inches. Its native country is un¬
known.
. Vfr' 4 var'ety t!,:s species is also described, con¬
sisting chiefly in the colours of the shell, and owing, it
is supposed, to a sexual difference.
Specif. Char—Shell brown, reflected above the neck;
the three upper scutella are marked with a tu¬
bercle.
This is a very large species, which was first described
by Perrault in the history of animals published by the
Royal Academy of France. It measured from the tip
of the nose to the tail four feet and a half; the height
or convexity was about fourteen inches ; the shell itself
was in length three feet, and two in breadth; the co¬
lour was of a dull brown. The pieces composing the
shield were large and dissimilar, of which the "three
anterior were marked in the middle with a round knob
or tubercle, about half an inch wide. The skin of the
head, feet, and neck, was wrinkled and granulated ;
the fore legs were nine inches long, the feet undivided,
with five blunt claws ; the hind legs were eleven inches
long, with four toes, each armed with a claw; the tail
six inches thick at the base, fourteen inches in length,
and terminating in a horny bent process. This species
is a native of the coast of Coromandel.
Var. I. A variety of this species brought from the
Cape of Good Hope, is described by Vosmaer : it was
about 2^ feet long, 1^ foot broad, one foot high, with
thirteen pieces in the disk, and twenty-five in the mar¬
gin. In this, the three tubercles on the anterior pieces
of the shield are wanting.
Car. 2. Another variety of this species, of a very
large size, has been brought from the South sea islands.
The shell, which is of a dull uniform brown, with a
smooth surface, is of an ovate oblong form, widening
at the bottom, and contracting considerably on each
side of the neck. It is at least three feet and a half
long ; the divisions are all even, but the whole surface
of the shell is marked with regular elevations and de¬
pressions.
6. Festudo Rugosa, Wrinkled Tortoise*
Specif. Char.^—Shell black, wrinkled, mottled, and va¬
riegated with yellow ; the middle dorsal piece sub-
pandunform.
This species, of which a specimen is preserved in the
VOL. VIII. Part L f
7. Testudo Europea, Speckled Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell oval, flattish, smooth, dark brown,
marked with numerous yellowish specks and streaks.
Testudo orbicularis, Lin.
This species is from four to five inches long; the
colour is blackish or olive brown; the shell flattish,
but slightly convex, marked with numerous, oblong’
yellow specks, disposed in a radiated form on each divi¬
sion of the shell. The skin of the neck and breast is
similarly spotted. The disk consists of thirteen, and
the margin of twenty-five pieces. The under shell is
of a whitish yellow, tinged with brown at the joints.
The head is ovate, somewhat convex above, flattish on
the sides and beneath. The skin of the neck is wrink¬
led and loose. The legs are short, and covered with
scales. The feet are webbed, the fore feet having five
toes, the hind only four. The claws are sharp poifited
and crooked ; the tail is nearly half the length of the
body, and is thin and compressed.
I his species is a native of Italy, Sardinia, France,
Hungary, and Prussia, as well as other parts of Europe.
It inhabits lakes and muddy waters, feeding on small
fish, insects, snails, and aquatic plants. The flesh is
esteemed and employed as food, and in some places
brought to market for sale. It is sometimes kept in
ponds for the purpose, and fed with lettuce leaves,
bread, &c. It may be kept in a cellar, and fed with
oats scattered on the floor, which it eats as soon as they
begin to germinate. In the beginning of spring it de¬
posits its eggs in sandy places, exposed to the sub ; and
it has been said, that these are not hatched till the
spring following. The growth of this animal is ex¬
tremely slow, and it varies somewhat in colour, accord¬
ing to the climate where it is found.
8. Testudo Lutaria, Mud Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—The shell is flattish, and the tail is half
the length of the body.
The length of this species does not exceed seVen or
eight inches from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail.
The breadth is about three or four inches. The disk
is composed of 13 pieces, which are striated and slight-
M m }j
27+ E R P E T
Tortoises, ly punctated in the centre. A longitudinal ridge runs
'"■’—V'——- along the middle range. The margin consists ot 23
pieces slightly striated on the edges. rl he shell is black¬
ish, as well as the skin ; the feet are webbed, and have
five toes before and four behind.
This species is a native of many parts of Europe } it
is also found in different parts of Asia, as in India and
Japan. It is very common in France, particularly in
Languedoc, and in different parts of Provence. It is
said that such numbers were found one time in a lake
half a league wide, in the plain of Durance, that the
neighbouring peasantry were supported by them for
more than three months.
This species always lays its eggs on land, digging a
hollow in the ground, and covering the eggs with
earth. When the young are first hatched, they are
only about half an inch in diameter. The motions of
this species are quicker than those of the land tortoise.
It continues to grow for a long time, and lives for up¬
wards of 24 years. It has been found useful in gardens,
by destroying small snails, and other animals which are
destructive to vegetables j but it ought to be observed,
that it is disposed to attack and destroy the fish in
fish-ponds.
9. Testudo Carinata, Carinated Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Feet digitated ; shell gibbose y four first
dorsal scutella carinated $ sternum entire.
I
The shell of this species does not exceed three inches
in length. The form is broad, and somewhat orbicu¬
lar •, the colour is brown, and each scutellum is marked
with a pale zone of confluent spots, which surround the
centre part, the edges of each being surrounded with
three or four distinctly marked furrows. Marginal
pieces 25 in number, including the uppermost, which
is very small. Its native country is unknown.
io. Testudo Carolina, Lin. Testudo Clausa,
Shaw. Close Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—.Shell blackish, irregularly spotted with
yellow \ dorsal carina obtuse j under shell bivalve,
completely inclosing the upper shell.
This species is thus described by Edwards. “ The
head is furnished with a hard or shelly covering of a
dark brown colour on the top ; on the sides and throat
it is yellow, with small black or dusky spots: its
nostrils are near together, a little above the end of the
beak : the eyes are of a yellowish colour : the neck is
covered with a loose skin of a dark purplish flesh colour,
which partly covers the head when it is not fully ex¬
tended : the hinder legs and parts about the vent are
covered with a skin of the same dull flesh colour as the
neck; the fore-legs and feet are covered with yellow
hard scales : it hath five toes on each foot forwards,
and four on each of the hinder feet, all armed with
pretty strong claws : the shell above rises pretty much,
and is round, divided into separate scales of the horny
substance called tortoise shell : each scale is engraven,
as it were, with rings icund its extremities, which lessen
inwards to its centre ; the shell above is of a dusky
brown colour, with yellowish spots of various forms;
underneath it is flattish, and of a yellow colour, with
3
O L O G Y. Chap. I f
black clouds and spots: it has only the rudiment of a Tovuises I«;l®
tail, on which the vent; is placed : the lower shell is di-
vided across the middle of the belly, and joined to the
upper shell by a tough though flexible skin, by which
means it can, when it draws in its head and legs, close
up its shell as firmly as an oyster.” From this pecu¬
liarity in its structure, this species has derived its name ;
and this proves so strong a defence to the little animal,
that it seems not only not to receive any injury, from
having a weight of five or six hundred pounds laid up¬
on it, hut to walk under the load without any incon- ,
venience.
The length of this species seldom exceeds four or
five inches. It is a native of North America, and is
chiefly found in marshy situations j hut it also some¬
times appears in dry and warm places. It lives both
on vegetables and animals. Of the latter beetles, mice,
and sometimes serpents, are its prey. These it seizes,
draws them into its shell, and crushes them to death.
It is much in request on account of its eggs, which are
esteemed a great delicacy. They are about the size of
a pigeon’s egg.
i i. Testudo Sulcata, Sulcated Tortoise.
Specif Char.—Shell brown, ovate j scutella furrowed*
and yellow on each side.
This species exceeds a foot in length, from the tip of
the nose to the end of the tail; so that it is one of the
larger of the land tortoises. The shell is very convex.
The disk is composed of 13 pieces, which are five and
six-sided 5 and each is transversely and strongly furrow¬
ed from the lower edge to the upper area; across these
run three impressed lines in an opposite direction 5 the
marginal pieces are furrowed in the same manner. The
colour of the shell is in general a dull yellow 5 but
both the shield and marginal pieces have a brown and
yellowish division. The head is large and covered with
six-sided scales of different sizes. The fore and hind legs
are also scaly $ on the former are five claws, on the
latter only four. The tail is very short.
This species is a native of the West Indies j and it
is supposed to be the same with the hicatee described by
Browne in his History of Jamaica.
12. Testudo Tabulata, Tabular Tortoise.
Specif Char.—Shell brown, oblong, gibbous j scutella
of the disc rectangular and furrowed, having yel¬
lowish coloured centres.
The shape and size of the pieces of which the disc
is composed, are more uniform than in any other be¬
longing to this genus. This seems to be the principal
mark of discrimination. Each piece is slightly convex,
and in general six-sided, excepting some of the pieces
towards the sides, which are five-sided. The central
part of each piece is large, and slightly granulated,
and the sides are distinctly sulcated. The whole has a
kind of flattened or tabular appearance: the colour is
a yellowish chesnut; it is paler on the centre of each
division j the legs are thick, and spotted with red j the
number of pieces on the disc is 13, that of the margin
23. The length of the shell is from five to six inches.
It is supposed to be a native of Africa $ but according
to some, it has been found in Brazil.
13*
O.ap, I.
ERPETOLOGY:
TtJI>,e\ I3- Testudo Coxcentric a ^ Testudo Palustris, Lin.
Concentric Tortoise.
Specif. C/iarr.-—Shell somewhat depressed, slightly ridg¬
ed, oval, of a yellow-colour j having the scutella mark¬
ed with brown concentric zones.
The shell of this species is flatter than that of others ;
in some of the larger specimens nearly smooth : the
middle row of pieces, of which the disc is composed,
are five in number j they are more elevated than those
of the sides, are six-sided, and project behind into an
obtuse carina. There are four side-pieces on each side,
which are pentagonal. T-he ground colour of the whole
is pale, and marked with brown zones and centres. The
shell is from four to six inches long.
Chis tortoise is a native of North America, and is
met with in the markets at Philadelphia, where it is sold
under the name of terrapin. It is also a native of Ja¬
maica, where it is very common. It is said by' Browne,
who seems first to have described it, to be a wholesome
and delicate food. In that island, it grows to the leno-th
of eight or nine inches.
14. Testudo Picta, Painted Tortoise.
275
This is a very small species, only about two inches Tortoise
Jong 5 the shell is of a bright yellow colour, the surface
apparently' smooth. At each of the joinings 'which
compose the disc, there is a large, leaf-shaped, dark
brown transverse spot. The marginal pieces are mark¬
ed with a transverse black zone; the head is short and
thick.
Nothing particular is known of its natural historv,
or to what country it belongs.
17* Iestudo Areolata, Areolated Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—The shell is slightly convex ; the scu¬
tella are nearly four-sided, elevated, deeply furrow-
ed, and are furnished with depressed rough areolce.
'I he length of this species is from three to four inches.
I he scutella, which are nearly four-sided, are broader
than long, wiih a pretty large, depressed, central part,
which is of a yellow colour, roughish, and surrounded
by a pale zone. The margin is composed of 25 pieces j
the disc, in some individuals, of 15, and in others
of 14.
This tortoise, according to some, is a native of Brazil,
according to others, of the East Indies.
opecif. Char.—The shell is oblong, and slightly convex,
smooth, and of a brown colour j the scutella are bor¬
dered with yellow.
This species is well distinguished from all others, by
the remarkaole colours of the shield, which consists of
13 segments nearly square, and deeply edged with pale
yellow. The marginal pieces are 25 in number. The
shell is from four to six inches long.
The painted tortoise frequents fresh waters, and in
particular, is found in the slow and deep rivers of North
America. In bright sunshine weather they leave the
water in great numbers, and bask themselves on stones,
pieces of wood, and the banks of the streams, suddenly
retreating into the water, when they are disturbed.
They walk very slowly, but swim with great rapidity.
They can remain for many hours together under the
water, but live only a few days in the open air. They
are extremely voracious, and are known to destroy young
aquatic fowls, seizing them by the feet, and dragging
them under water. Sometimes they are employed” for
the purpose of food.
15. Testudo Guttata, Spotted Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell oblong, slightly convex, smooth,
and of a brown colour, with scattered yellow spots.
I his species is also sufficiently distinguished by its
remarkable colour. The pieces both of the disc and
margin being marked with a few distantly placed
round yejlow spots. These spots vary, as well as the
ground, in different individuals. The young of this
species, which itself is small, are not larger than a
pigeon’s egg, are very black, and beautifully spotted
With gold colour.
. tortoise is a native of North America, frequent¬
ing lakes and rivers.
16. Iestudo Elegans, Elegant Tortoise.
specif. Char. The shell is round, convex, and of a yel¬
low colour-, with transverse, oval, brown spots.
1Testudo Serrata, Serrated Tortoise. Testudo
Spengleri, Lin.
Specif. Char.—Shell depressed, of a yellow colour, and
minutely freckled with dusky specks. The scutella
of the disc are all ridged ; the hinder margin of the
shell serrated.
This tortoise is considered and described by Dr Shaw
as a new species j it is small, only about three quarters
of an inch long, and about two inches and a half
broad. It is of an oval form, and slightly convex.
The colour is of a yellowish brown, and when closely
examined, appears thickly marked with minute, con¬
fluent, dusky spots. The under shell is blackish, with
a yellow margin.
The native country of tins species is unknown.
19. Testudo Pusilla, Little Tortoise. African Land
Tortoise of Edwards.
Specif. Char.—Shell hemispherical, with convex, trape¬
zoidal scutella, striated on the margin, and dotted on
the disc. Feet subdigitated.
The shell of this species measures only about four
inches in length. The whole animal, from the tip of
the nose to the end of the tail, does not exceed six.
This species has a considerable resemblance to the com¬
mon tortoise, or testudo greeca. It is particularly de¬
scribed by Edwards, who kept two of them which he
received from West Barbary for two years in the gar¬
den of the college of physicians in London j but of its
natural history, nothing farther is known.
20. Testudo Tricarinata, Tricarinated Tor'toise.
Specif. Char.—Shell oval, slightly convex; margin en¬
tire ; all the scutella of the disc carinated.
This species resembles a good deal the testudo orbicu-
larisy Lin. In size it scarcely exceeds that of a larga
walnut; the colour is blackish ; the shell is composed
M m 2 of
275 E B P E T
Tortoises, of 13 scutella j the number of the marginal pieces is
—y-- ■»' 23. Each scutella is marked in the middle with a lon¬
gitudinal ridge, and wrinkled on the sides with several
furrows and roughish points.
Its native place, and its natural history, are unknown*
21. Testudo Scabra, Rough Tortoise.
Specif; Char.—Shell flattish, the intermediate scutella
elevated on the back $ feet palmated.
This tortoise is about two inches and a half in length,
and nearly two in breadth. Its form is somewhat cor-
dated, of a light reddish colour, finely variegated en the
head and shell, with waved white lines and spots. The
feet, each of which is furnished with five toes, with
sharp claws, are marked with red spots. The head is
prominent, and the eyes are small.
It is considered by some naturalists as a native of
Araboyna.
22. Testudo Scripta, Letter'd Tortoise. Testudo
Seabra of Thunberg.
Specif.Char.—SheW depressed,orbicular j scutella mark*
ed with various figured characters j marginal pieces
spotted underneath.
This species is either very small, or the specimen
from which the descriptions have been taken were very
young, as it did not exceed the size of a half-crown
piece. It is flattish, of a round form, and whitish
colour tinged with yellow. The upper surface is mark¬
ed with various figures, having somewhat the appear¬
ance of written characters. The pieces of the mar¬
gin, which are 25 in number, are marked with simi¬
lar characters as those of the scutella. The feet are
large, webbed, and have five toes furnished with sharp
claws.
It is not mentioned to what country it belongs.
23. Testudo Galeata, Galeated Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell depressed, oval} the three middle
scutella sharply ridged } marginal pieces 24.
This is a small species, not exceeding two inches and
a half long, and about two broad. The colour of the
shell is pale brown, and the disc is composed of 13 scu¬
tella, of which the middle row is very broad, and
strongly ridged in the middle. Marginal pieces 24 in
number, and similar in colour to the disc, but having
white edges. The head is smooth, furnished with
a kind of shield, from whence it derives its specific
name.
Its native place is unknown} but an individual of
this species, brought from India, lived two years. It
was kept in fresh water, and could occasionally remain
for a few hours in the open air. Its food was bread and
flies. It continued in a kind of dormant state during
the winter, taking no food from the beginning of Octo¬
ber till the middle of May, and scarcely ever raising
its head above the surface of the water.
24. Testudo Denticulata, Denticulated Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell roundish, and heart-shaped } mar¬
ginal segments denticulated} feet subdigitated.
2 -
O' L O G Y. Chap-. I. C»
This species is about four inches.longand three broad, Tariwm for«
The shell is of a pale yellowish brown colour} the disc ——
is composed of broad five and six-sided scutella. They
are flattish, and have a large distinct space in the mid¬
dle, granulated with small tubercles. The other part
of the scutellum is marked with five furrows; the mar¬
ginal pieces are 23 in number, and project in a serrated
form.
It is supposed to be a native of North America.
25. Testudo PennsyeVaniga, Pennsylvanian Tor¬
toise. Small Mud Tortoise of Edwards.
Specif. Char.—Shell brown, smooth, elliptic; back fiat-
tish } the middle row of scutella somewhat rhom-
boidal and imbricated. The first is subtriangular.
This is a small tortoise; the length of the shell, at
its full growth, does not exceed three or four inches.
In this species, the middle row of dorsal pieces are longer
than in others, and are so arranged as to overlap each
other at the tips. The marginal pieces are 23 in num¬
ber, the upper one being very small. The edges of the
shell are tinged with dull yellow. In the joinings of
the pieces, this species resembles the structure of the
close tortoise, so that the animal has the power ofmon-
cealing itself almost entirely, by closing up its shell.
It is native of North America, and is particularly
found in Pennsylvania, where it frequents muddy wa¬
ters, and hence its trivial name of mud tortoise. When,
alive, it is said that it gives out a strong musk smell.
Several varieties of this species have been noticed by
naturalists.
26. Testudo Longicollis, Long-necked .Tortoise.
Specif. C/ior.—Smooth, ovate } neck very long.
This species is about five inches and a half long, and-
four and a half broad, rIhe shell is of an oval lorrn,
of a dark olive brown colour, resembling in some parts
of it the grain of common black leather. The disc is
composed of 13. and the margin of 25 pieces. The,
under shell is of a yellowish colour, marked with black,
brown at the joinings. The claws on the feet, which,
are four in number, are like those of birds.
It is a native of New Holland.
27. Testudo Caspica, Caspian Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell orbicular, head scaly, tail naked}
five claws on the fore feet, four on the hind.
This species of tortoise grows to such a size, that
several men can stand together on its shell. The pieces
of which the disc is composed are nearly four-sided,
and square : those of the margin are in the form of
a parallelogram. The colour is variegated with black
and green } the under shell is blackish, spotted with
white.
It is a native of Hyrcania, and frequents fresh waters.
28. Testudo Ferox, Fierce Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, cartilaginous; three claws
on the feet, which are tubular } nostrils-prominent.
X. ERPETOLOGY.
This species is about one foot and a half in length,
and about 15 inches in breadth. The shield, which is
hard or osseous In the middle only, while the edges be¬
come gradually flexible and coriaceous, is a sufficiently
characteristic mark of distinction. The head is small,
and somewhat trigonal, with the snout much elongated.
The colour of this species is brownish ; olive above ;
and on the under parts white.
This species is a native of Pennsylvania, Carolina,
and other parts of America. It is extremely vigorous
and swift in its motions, and when it is disturbed or at¬
tacked, it springs forward towards its enemy with great
fierceness. Some which have been found in the rivers
and lakes of East Florida, weighed from 30 to 40 lbs. j
and it is said that they even grow to such a size as to
weigh 70 lbs.
A species described by Thunberg, under the name
of testudo rostrata, is supposed by Dr Shaw to be an in¬
dividual belonging to the above, not yet arrived at its
full growth. The testudo triunguis of Forskal seems
also to be a variety of this species.
29. 'Iestudo Granulata, Shagreened 'Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell granulated, orbicular, flattish j
border cartilaginous.
The shield of this species measures about 3^ inches
in length, and 3^ in breadth. It appears as if it were
composed of two shields, the upper of which is the smal¬
lest and shortest. This is of a bony substance, rough¬
ened all over like the surface of shagreen. It is com¬
posed of 23 pieces, eight of which are placed on each
side. The borders of this shield are cartilaginous and
somewhat transparent, through which may be seen the
ribs of the animal.
This species is said to be a native of India $ but of
its habits and natural history nothing is known.
30. Testudo Fimbriata, Fimbriated Tortoise.
Specf. Char.—Shell oval, a little convex, and having
a triple ridge j neck fimbriated on each side j snout
cylindrical, and feet subdigitated.
The length of the shell of this species is above 1 ^
inches, and the breadth 11. The length of the animal,
from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, is two
feet three inches. The head is large and flat, edged
on the sides with wrinkled membranaceous appendages,
and covered behind with a three-lobed prominence.
The nose is cylindrical, and somewhat resembles a pro¬
boscis. It is 10 lines long, truncated, and pierced at
the tip by the nostrils. The disc of the shell is a little
convex, and composed of 13 semicircular pieces, which
are nearly conical. They are all wrinkled, and irre¬
gularly notched at the hinder part. The marginal
pieces are 25 in number, nearly square, radiated on
the surface with oblique wrinkles, and toothed on the
inner edge* The colour is brown, and somewhat paler
beneath.
This species is said to he a native of Guiana, and was
once common in the rivers of Cayenne $ but it is now
rarely to be met with, having been much sought after
as a nourishing food. Its food is aquatic plants ; and it
is said that it leaves the river, and wanders about in
the night, to some distance from the banks, in search of
pasture. The individual from which the description is
taken by M. Bruguierre, was brought to him alive, and 1
lived for some time on herbs, bread, and some other
substances. It laid several eggs, one of which produced
a young tortoise in the box where it was kept.
31. Testudo Serpentina, Snake Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Shell ovate, depressed, triply carinated,
and sharp scaled j rounded and acutely serrated at
the posterior margin.
This species grows to the weight of 15 or 20 lbs.
The general colour is of a dull chesnut brown, but
lighter or paler underneath. The head is large, tri¬
angular, and covered with a warty skin. The neck is
also covered with scaly warts. The toes, which are
five in number on the fore feet, and four on the hind
feet, are all distinct, but connected by ijieans of a web.
They are armed with long claws. The tail is straight,
two-thirds the length of the shell, compressed, and
crested on the upper part with sharp bony scales,
pointed backwards.
This species is a native of North America ; inhabit¬
ing stagnant waters, where it preys on fish, ducklings,
&c. seizing its prey with great 'force. And indeed,
whatever it seizes with its mouth, it holds with such
force, that it will suffer itself to be raised out of the
water rather than quit its hold. The more easily to
catch its prey, it is said too, that it conceals itself in
muddy waters, leaving out only part of its back, which
has the appearance of a stone.
32. Testudo Squamata, Scaly Tortoise.
Specif. Char.—Body ovate, smooth beneath ; but the
upper part, with the neck, feet, and tail, covered
with numerous scales.
The head of this species is small, resembling that of
a snake $ the eyes are small and moveable, the teeth
sharp. All the upper part of the body is covered with
scales; the under parts are soft, smooth, and tender y
the tail is pretty long.
It is said to be a native of China and Java. The
flesh is accounted a great delicacy, and the scales, pul¬
verised and dissolved in water, are given by the Chi¬
nese as a remedy in cases of dysentery and colic.
Sect. II. Turtles^ or Sea Tortoises.
The large and long fin-shaped feet, which inclose the
bones of the toes, are the most obvious characteristic
marks of distinction between the sea-tortoises, and the
species included under the preceding section. In the
sea tortoises the shield is also composed of a strong bony
covering, which is coated externally with hard horny
plates, which in some of the species are much thicker
and stronger than those of the land tortoises.
33. Testudo Coriacea, Coriaceous Turtle.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown, paler beneath ; shell co¬
riaceous, marked with five longitudinal, tuberculated
ribs.
This species, in the form of its body, which is pro¬
portionally longer, and in its. outer covering, which is
not
277
Turtle*.
278 E R P E T
Turtles, not of a horny substance, but resembles strong leather,
1-■V""". is sufficiently distinguished from others. Five distinct,
prominent, tuberculated ridges run along the whole
length of this covering. This species is not furnished
with an under or thoracic shell. U he head is large,
and the uper mandible is notched at the tip, which
gives it the appearance of having two large teeth.
The fins are large and long, and covered with a tough
leathery skin. The general colour is dusky brown, but
paler beneath.
The coriaceous turtle is a native of the European
seas. It is also found on the coasts of South America
and Africa. It frequents the Mediterranean sea, and
has been occasionally met with on the coasts of France
and England. This species, of all the turtles, grows to
the largest size. Some have been taken eight feet in
length, and weighing no less than 1000 lbs. One was
taken in the month of August I729» no^ ^ar fr°m ^ie
mouth of the Loire in France, which measured seven
feet one inch in length, three feet seven inches in
breadth, and two in thickness. It is reported that it
uttered so hideous a noise when it was taken, that it
niight be heard at the distance of a quarter of a league.
At the same time it foamed at the mouth, seemingly
with rage, from which it emitted a noisome vapour.
Another was taken in 1778, on the coast of Langue¬
doc, which measured seven feet five inches in length.
One taken on the coast of Cornwall in July 1756, mea¬
sured, from the tip of the nose to the end of the shell,
six feet nine inches, and the weight was supposed to be
near 800 lbs.
The Greeks, it is supposed, were acquainted with
this species of turtle, which they employed in the con¬
struction of the ancient lyre or harp. The flesh of this
species is extremely fat, but coarse and ill flavoured j
but the religious order of Carthusians prefer it to that
of every other.
34. Testudo Mydas, Green Turtle,
Specif. Char.—Of a brownish colour, with 13 scales
on the disc.
This is the esculent, or common green turtle *, the
latter name being derived from the colour of the fat.
This is supposed to be owing to the vegetable matters
on which the animal feeds, and especially the •zostera
tnarwa, or turtle grass, of which it is said to be ex¬
tremely fond. This species is one of the largest of the
genus, often exceeding five feet in length, and weighing
i;oo or 60c lbs. The shell is somewhat heart-shaped,
pointed at the extremity, and composed of 13 dorsal divi¬
sions, with 25 marginal pieces. The colour is of a dull
pale brown, more or less variegated with deeper undu¬
lations, but less strong and beautiful colours, than the
hawksbill turtle, which yields the tortoise shell.
The green turtle is a native of all the seas within the
torrid zone.
This species of turtle has been long esteemed a de¬
licious food by the inhabitants of many of the islands
and continents within the torrid zone. In the time of
O L O GY. Chap. I. p,
Sir Hans Sloane, the inhabitants of Port Royal in Ja- Turtles In
maica employed 40 sloops for the purpose of catching
them. The markets were at that time, as they are at
present, supplied with turtle in the same way as those of
Europe are with butcher’s meat. Many of them, ac¬
cording to Catesby, are carried from the Bahama islands
to Carolina, where they are esteemed as a great delica¬
cy. “ They feed,” he adds, “ on a kind of grass, grow¬
ing at the bottom of the sea, commonly called turtle
grass. The inhabitants of the Bahama islands, by fre¬
quent practice, are very expert at catching turtles, es¬
pecially the green turtle. In April they go in boats
to Cuba, and other little neighbouring islands, where
in the evening, especially on moon-light nights, they
watch the going and returning of the turtle, to and from
their nests, at which time they turn them on their
backs, where they leave them, and proceed on, turn¬
ing all they meet, for they cannot get on their feet
again when once turned. Some are so large, that it
requires three men to turn one of them (a). The way Mode of
by which the turtle is most commonly taken at theBa-tak*ng the
hama islands, is by striking them with a small iron peglurtle*
of two inches long, put in a socket at the end of a
stall' of 12 feet long. Two men usually set out for this
work in a little light boat or canoe, one to row and
gently steer the boat, while the other stands at the head
of it w'ith his striker. The turtle are. sometimes dis¬
covered by their swimming with their head and back
out of the water ; but they are oftenest found lying at
the bottom, a fathom or more deep. If a turtle per¬
ceive he is discovered, he starts up to make his escape ;
the men in the boat pursuing him, endeavour to keep
sight of him, which they often lose, and recover again,
by the turtle putting his nose out of the W'ater to breathe.
Thus they pursue him, one paddling or rowing, while
the other stands ready with his striker. It is sometimes
half an hour before he is tired •, then he sinks at once
to the bottom, which gives them an opportunity of
striking him, which is by piercing him with an iron
peg, slipping out of the socket, but is fastened with a
string to the pole. If he is spent and tired by being long
pursued, he tamely submits when struck, to be taken
into the boat, or hauled ashore. There are men who,
by diving, will get on their backs, and by pressing
down their hind parts, and raising the fore part of them
by force, bring them to the top of the water, while
another slips a noose about their necks.
“ The turtle never go on shore, except to lay their
eggs, which is in the month of April. They then crawl
up from the sea above high-water mark, where they
dig a hole two feet deep in the sand, into which in a
single night they drop above 100 eggs. At this time
they are so little liable to be disturbed, that they have
been known to drop their eggs into a hat held by a
person under them. If, however, they happen to be
disturbed before they begin to lay, they forsake the
place, and seek another. They lay their eggs at three,
and sometimes at four diflerent times, a period of foui-hatcbeJ !,7
teen days elapsing between each time. W hen they the sun.
have laid their complement of eggs, they fill the hole
with
(a) We have seen the same mode of watching and turning the turtle practised in Jamaica, and the purase
there is not to take or seize the turtle, but to turn it.
ha|
’’urtles.
Ifrodnced
i .) JSu.
5- T. E R P E T
. with sand, and leave them to be hatched by the heat
of the sun. I his is usually accomplished in about three
weeRs.” The eggs are round, white, covered with a
smooth parchment-like skin, and about the size of tennis
balls.
Although the green turtle be a native of the seas
within the torrid zone, it is sometimes found on the
coasts of Europe, where it has probably been driven by
storms, or has fallen overboard from ships from the
West Indies. A turtle of this kind, of th e enormous
size of six feet long, by four broad, and of the weight
of 800 or 900 pounds, was taken at Dieppe in France in
1752 i and two years afterwards, another still larger
was taken on the same cosat.
The flesh of the green turtle is not only highly es¬
teemed in those countries of which it is a native, but
also so much sought after in Europe, that the importa¬
tion of it now forms a considerable article of trade, few
ships returning from the West Indies without bringing
some turtle. But the turtle which now forms a dish, by
no means uncommon at the tables of the luxurious,
seems to have been little known in Britain previous to
the middle of the 18th century ; and indeed it was so
rare an occurrence, that when one was eaten, it was
announced to the public as a piece of news. This ap¬
pears from the following articles of intelligence. “ Fri¬
day, August 31. a turtle weighing 350 pounds was eat¬
en at the King’s Arms tavern, Pall-mall; the mouth of
an oven was taken down to admit the part to be baked.”
Gent. Mag. for 1753* “ Saturday, September 29. the
Turtler, Capt. Crayton, lately arrived from the island
of Ascension, has brought in several turtles of above
300 pounds weight, which have been sold at a very high
price. It may be noted, that what is common in the
West Indies, is luxury here.” Ibid. 1753. “ Satur¬
day, July 13th, the Right Honourable Lord Anson
made a present to the gentlemen of White’s chocolate
house, of a turtle which weighed 300 pounds weight,
and which laid five eggs since it was in their possession.
Its shell was four feet three inches long, and about
three feet wide. When its head was cut off, at least
five gallons of blood issued from it, and so full was it of
life, that the mouth opened and shut for an hour after
it was cutoff.” Ibid. 1754.
35. Testudo Caretta, Loggerhead Turtle.
O L O G Y
latitudes, as in the Mediterranean, and particularly
about the coasts of Italy and Sicily.
Excepting the coriaceous turtle, this species is the
largest in size which has yet been discovered. In the
Leverian museum, there is a skull which seems to be¬
long to this species. It measures above a foot in length,
and it is said that it was taken from a turtle, the weight
of which exceeded 1600 pounds.
. a commercial point of view the loggerhead turtle
is of little importance } for the flesh is coarse and rank,
and the plates of the shell are too thin to be applied to
the usual purposes of tortoise shell. It yields, however,
a considerable quantity of oil, which is fit for burning
in lamps.
This species is very strong and fierce ; it can defend Great
itself very vigorously with its legs, and with its mouth strength ef
it is able to break the strongest "shells and other sub-thissf>ccie‘r»
stances. One which was exhibited at Bologna, in an
instant bit in two a thick walking stick which was of¬
fered to it.
The following is the account of this species of turtle and ficree-
which is given by Catesby. “The loggerhead turtles,Hess,
says he, are the boldest and most voracious of all others \
their flesh is rank, and therefore little sought for, which
occasions them to be more numerous than any other kind.
They range the ocean over; an instance of which, a-
mong many others that I have known, happened in A-
pril 1725, in N. Lat. 30°' when our boat was hoisted out,
and a loggerhead turtle struck as it was sleeping on the
surface of the water. This, by our reckoning, appear¬
ed to be the mid way between the Azores and the Ba¬
hama islands, either of which places being the nearest
land it could come from, or that they are known to
frequent, there being none on the north continent of
America farther north than llorida. It being amphi¬
bious, and yet at so great a distance from land in the
breeding time, makes it the more remarkable. They
feed mostly on shell fish, the great strength of their
beaks enabling them to break very large shells, as the
large buccinum and trochi.”
36. Testudo Imbricata ; Imbricated or Hawksbill
Turtle.
Specif. C/ia/v—Variegated, and having thirteen imbri¬
cated scales on the disk.
Specif. Char Variegated with 15 dorsal scales, of
which those of the middle row are gibbous toward
the tip.
TIiis species most resembles in general appearance
the last species, or green turtle. The larger size of
the head, the proportional breadth of the shell, the
deeperand more variegated colours, are marks of distinc¬
tion sufficiently characteristic ; but the number of dorsal
segments, amounting to 15, affords the principal cha¬
racter ; tor not only the middle row, but those of the
sides contain five pieces; and this number is almost al¬
ways uniform and constant. There is a considerable
protuberance on each of the pieces of the middle row,
which constitutes a range of tubercles along the back of
the shield : the fore feet are very large and long ; the
bind feet are broad, but much shorter.
this species frequents the same seas with the green
turtle, but it is also found occasionally in very distant
In this species the outline of the shell exhibits more
of a cordated form than any other ; and the termination
of the shell is more acute. Each of the middle row of
scales on the back is also of a sharpened form at the tip,
and a ridge runs down the middle. The head is pro¬
portionally smaller than in other turtles ; and the neck
is longer, narrower, and more curved, thus resembling
the bill of a hawk ; hence deriving its trivial name.
The specific name of imbricated is taken from the pe¬
culiarity in the dispositon of its scales, which overlap
each other at the extremities like the tiles on the roof
of a house.
The length of this species is about three feet from
the tip of the bill to the end of the shell ; but some in¬
dividuals have been found which measured five feet in
length, and weighed from five to six hundred pounds ;
and it is said that some have been met with in the In¬
dian occean, of enormous magnitude.
The hawksbill turtle is a native both of the Ame¬
rican
230
Tortoi-es
Tortoise
tiieil.
Made ai'
ebtaintng
and pre-
parikg it.
rican and Asiatic seas j sometimes, but more rarely, it
1 is met with in the Mediterranean. . .
The ancients employed the shell of this species ot
turtle for the purpose of a shield ; and even at the pre¬
sent day it is used for a similar purpose among rude na¬
tions. The flesh of the animal is not held in any esti¬
mation as a food *, but the plates of the shell being
thicker, stronger, and clearer, than those of any other
species, render it of great importance as an article ol
trade. These plates constitute the substance which is
well known under the name of tortoise^ shell. Being
semitransparent and finely variegated with many beau¬
tiful colours, they afford, after proper preparation and
polishing, numerous elegant ornaments.
To obtain the tortoise shell, the external coating is
separated from the bony part by means of heat. A
fire is placed under the shell, the effect of which is to
make the plates start, and then they are easily detach¬
ed from the bone : the thickness of the plates varies ac¬
cording to the age and size of the animal. They mea¬
sure from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch in thick¬
ness. Eight pounds of tortoise shell, it is said, may be
obtained from a large turtle. Some even yield, ac¬
cording to other accounts, fifteen or twenty pounds;
but unless the weight of the animal itself be equal to
X50 pounds, the shell is worth little.^
It may, perhaps, not be uninteresting to our readers,
to mention the method which is employed by the artist,
to give to tortoise shell the particular forms which are
wanted for the different purposes to which it is applied.
The first part of the process is to soften it sufficiently.
This is done by steeping it in boiling water, after which
it is introduced into a strong metallic mould of the form
wanted, and to this great pressure is applied. When a
considerable extent of surface is required, different
pieces must be joined together. This is done by scrap¬
ing the edges of the pieces to be united, thin, and lay¬
ing them over each other, while they are in the heated
and softened state. Strong pressure being then applied,
they become completely agglutinated. It is in this way
that gold, silver, and other metals, for different orna¬
ments, are made to adhere to tortoise shell.
This substance was greatly sought after by the Greeks
and Romans for ornamental purposes. It was not un¬
usual, among the latter people, to see their beds, the
doors and pillars of their houses, decorated with tor¬
toise shell ; and especially in the reign ot Augustus,
when this kind of luxury reached its greatest height.
“ The Egyptians, according to Mr Bruce, dealt
very largely with the Romans in this elegant article ot
commerce. Pliny tells us, that cutting them for ve¬
neering or inlaying, was first practised by Carvilius
Pollio, through which we should presume that the Ro¬
mans were ignorant of the art of separating the laminae
by a fire placed in the inside of the shell when the meat
is taken out j for these scales, though they appear per¬
fectly distinct and separate, do yet adhere, and oftener
break than split, where the mark of separation may be
seen distinctly. Martial says that beds were inlaid with
it. Juvenal, and Apuleius in his tenth hook, mentions,
that the Indian bed was all over shining with tortoise
shell on the outside, and swelling with stuffing of down
within. The immense use made of it in Rome may be
guessed at by what we learn from Velleius Paterculus,
who says, that when Alexandria was taken by Julius
E R P E T O L O G Y. Chap. I,
Cjeaar, the magazine, or warehouses were so full of this
till
 9  o   
article, that he proposed to have made it the principal '■
ornament of his triumph, as he did ivory afterwards,
when triumphing for having happily finished the African
war. This too, in more modern times, was a great ar¬
ticle in the trade to China, and I have always been ex¬
ceedingly surprised, since near the whole of the Ara¬
bian gulf is comprehended in the charter of the East
India Company, that they do not make an experiment
of fishing both pearls and tortoises, the former of which
being so long abandoned, must now be in great plenty
and excellence ; and a few fishers put on board each
ship trading to Jidda, might surely find very lucrative
employment, with a long-boat or pinnace, at the time
the vessels were selling their cargo in the port j and,
while busied in this gainful occupation, the coasts of
the Red sea might be fully explored.”
fn
37. Testudo
Green-shelled Turtle. La Tor-
tue Ecaille Verte of Cepede.
Specif. Char.—Shell green and variegated.
This species, in general, resembles the common green
turtle, both in appearance and manners ; hut is distin¬
guished from it in having a small rounded head, and
never growing to so large a size. It derives its name
from the colour of the shell, which is of a fine green,
beautifully transparent, and although it is thin, may be
applied to many ornamental purposes.
The green-shelled turtle is a native of the South seas,
and is found near the American rivers within the torrid
zone. It is found particularly in great abundance near
Cape Blanco in New Spain. The flesh is in great esti¬
mation, and is even preferred by some to that of the
green turtle.
38. Trunk Turtle.
This species is mentioned by Catesby, who says that
he never saw it; but from information he has described
the upper shell as being more convex than in any other
species. It is said that it grows to a very large size.--
The flesh is rank; but it yields a great quantity of oil,
on which account only it is valued.
39. Rhinoceros Turtle. Cepede.
This species also bears a strong resemblance to the
common turtle ; hut it is distinguished from it in hay¬
ing a large soft tubercle on'the tip of the snout, and in
this are placed the nostrils.
This turtle is said to be a native of the AmericaA
seas, within the torrid zone, and is eaten in the same
way as the common turtle.
II. RANA, Frog.
This genus has been divided by some naturalists into
three genera-, and undoubtedly there is some foundation
for this distinction, both from the form and structure of
their bodies, and from their manners and habits. I. The
ranee av frogs, properly so called, and by the Irencb
grmow/VWhave light active bodies, and are furnished
with strong limbs, which enable them to perform their
motions by leaping. 2. The hylce, in French rainettes,
or tree-frogs have slender limbs, and have soft tubercles
on the toes, by which they can adhere to smooth sur-
iiap-1- E R P E T
irrogs. faces, as to the leaves of trees on which many of them
| ’”"v reside. 3* The toads or bufoncs, in French crapauds,
which constitute the third genus or division, have large
heavy bodies, thick short limbs, and a slow crawling
motion. But without multiplying genera, we shall con¬
sider the whole under one, distributing them into three
sections, according to the division which we have just
mentioned.
Sect. I. Ran.®, or Frogs.
1. Kana Temporaria, Common Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish brown, spotted with
black 5 a lengthened brown patch beneath the eyes.
Of all the European species this is the most common.
The general colour is of an olive brown, variegated on
the upper parts of the body, with irregular blackish
spots. Idie patch beneath each eye, which reaches to
the setting on of the fore legs, seems to constitute one
of the principal specific distinctions. The under part of
the body is of a pale greenish colour, and but obscurely
spotted. But it ought to be observed, that the colour
of the frog varies at different seasons of the year, and
perhaps in different places. Towards the end of sum¬
mer, for instance, the colours are much brighter ; and
as this species frequently casts its skin, the cuticle fall¬
ing off irregularly from different parts of the body,
produces considerable variations in the intensity of the
colours.
The frog has a light elegant form, and a lively ap¬
pearance ; the limbs are well calculated for its peculiar
motions, and the hind feet being strongly webbed,
enable it to swim well. The frog, it is said, does not
reach its full size till it is five years old, and it lives
from 12 to 15 years. It retires during the heat of sum¬
mer to the water, and in winter it becomes torpid, and
is generally found in the soft mud at the bottom of stag¬
nant waters, or in the cavities beneath their banks,
where it remains till the beginning of spring.
The frog, as well as many other of the reptile tribe,
is extremely tenacious of life. It survives for a consi¬
derable time, the loss even of some of its essential or¬
gans, and it has been found to exist for several days
when entirely confined under water.
M*orf of The frog deposits its spawn in the month of March.
[ i)0 e' This is composed of agelatinous transparent mass, includ¬
ing the ova or eggs, in each of which is imbedded the
embryo or tadpole, which has then the appearance of
a round black globule. The period of hatching varies
according to the temperature of the season, but it is
commonly about a month or five weeks. In its progress
the egg becomes gradually larger, and before the tadpole
is excluded, it is seen in motion within the surrounding
gluten. When they are first hatched, their only food
is the remains of the gluten in which they were exclud¬
ed. A few days afterwards, if they are minutely exa¬
mined, a pair of ramified branchiae, or temporary or¬
gans, may be observed on each side of the head, which
after a short time disappear. The tadpole, which is so
extremely unlike the animal in its perfect state, seems
to consist only of a head and tail. The head is large,
black, and roundish ; the tail is slender, and margined
with a broad transparent fin. The motions of the tad¬
pole are very lively. Its food consists of duckweed
Vol. VIII. Part I. +
OLOGY.’ 281
and other small water plants, with different kinds of Fr0(rg
animalcula. rIhe mouth is furnished with very minute ■ *
teeth, and when the tadpole has reached a certain size,
it may sometimes be heard gnawing the edges of the
leaves on which it feeds. By means of a sucker placed
between the lower jaw, with which the animal in this
state is furnished, it can attach itself at pleasure to the
under surface of aquatic plants. When it is very
young, it Sometimes hangs from this part by means of a
glutinous thread, similar to some small slugs.
The internal structure of the organs of the tadpole Strneiare
is very different from that of the future animal. In chaa-
no respect is this difference greater than in the disposi-gcs*
tion of the intestines, which are coiled in the form of a
flat spiral like a cable. I he first change which appears
on the tadpole is at the end of five or six weeks after it
is hatched. It is about this time that the hind legs first
appear ; and gradually increasing in length and size,
they are succeeded about two weeks afterwards by the
fore legs. 1 hese latter, indeed, are formed at an ear¬
lier period beneath the skin, and are sometimes protru¬
ded and again drawn back by the animal, through a
small hole on each side of the breast, before their com¬
plete evolution. I he tail now gradually decreases, and
afterwards more rapidly, so that in the space of a day
or two it is quite obliterated. After this change, the
animal leaves the water, and covers the banks in my¬
riads. The sudden appearance of such multitudes of
young frogs, has probably induced the groundless but
popular belief of their having fallen from the clouds
in showers. The frog having now arrived at its perfect
form, it changes entirely the nature of its food. It lived
formerly on vegetables, now it depends solely for its ex¬
istence on animal food. It lives chiefly on small snails,
worms, and insects. To seize its prey, the structure
and position of the tongue are remarkably well fitted.
It is of considerable length, and it is attached to the
fore part of the mouth, and when at rest it lies back¬
wards. The extremity is bifid, and secretes a gluti¬
nous matter, so that in this way it can secure its prey,
by darting out its tongue with great celerity, and to
some distance from the mouth. This it does with so in¬
stantaneous a motion, that it is scarcely perceptible to
the eye.
2. Rana EsculenTa, Green Frog, or Edible Frog of
Pennant.
Specif. Char.—Olive colour, spotted with black, with
three yellowish lines on the back ; abdomen whitish.
This is the largest species of the European frogs.
The general appearance resembles that of the preceding ;
but it is larger in size, and of an olive-green colour,
strongly marked on the upper part of the body with
roundish black spots. The limbs are elegantly marked
with transverse bands of the same colour. Three dis¬
tinct pale yellow stripes run from the tip of the nose
down the whole length of the back, the middle one being
slightly depressed j but^the two lateral ones are consi¬
derably elevated. The head is proportionally larger
than that of the common frog.
The green frog is rare in England, but is very com¬
mon in France, Italy, and Germany, where it is em¬
ployed as an article of food.
This species, it is observed by naturalists, does not
N n leave
28 2
Frogs, leave its winter retirement till a much later period than
the common frog $ and in those countries where it is
used as food, it is worth while to attend to this fact,
for if they are pretended to be brought to market at an
earlier period, the common frog, and sometimes even
toads, must be substituted. During the breeding season,
the croaking of the male is so loud, that it may be heard
at a great distance $ and in those places where they are
numerous, it becomes so intolerable to those who are un¬
accustomed to hear them, that they are often deprived
of sleep. At this time, too, a large inflated globular
vesicle is protruded from each side of the head of the
male. The globules of spawn in the green frog are
proportionally smaller than in the former species. They
have somewhat of a yellowish cast. The progress of the
tadpole, towards the evolution of the perfect animal, is
considerably slower in this species. The fore legs do
not appear before October, and the animal does not as¬
sume its perfect shape till the beginning of November.
The tail at this time begins to decrease, and in the
space of four davs entirely disappears.
This species is extremely voracious, seizing, it is
said, on young birds of different kinds, mice, and even
ducklings, and, as it does with the rest of its prey,
swallowing them whole. At the age of four years it
has reached its full growth. It begins to breed the
year following, and the period of its life is sometimes
extended to sixteen years.
3. IIana Pipiens, Piping Frog.
Specif. Char.—Olive-coloured, with ovate black spots,
edged with yellow.
This species is smaller than the green frog, but in its
general habit bears a considerable resemblance to that
animal. From the nose to the tips of the hind feet, it
measures only five or six inches. The body and limbs
are of a dusky green, spotted with black. Two yellow
lines run from the eyes to the rump, and two white
lines from each eye to the nose. In the living animal
the ears have a bright golden colour.
It is a native of North America. It frequents rivu»
lets and ditches of water, and is so strong and vigorous,
that it is said it can leap to the distance of five or six
yards. In the spring and beginning of summer, it is
supposed to indicate the approach of rain, by a pecu¬
liar sound which it emits.
4. Rana Cateseeiana, Bull Frog.
Specif. Char.—Olive brown, spotted with black j large
ocellated spots near the ears ; hind feet palmated.
This species grows to a very large size, measuring,
it is said, more than 18 inches from the tip of the nose
to the end of the hind feet. The upper part of the body
is brownish, and somewhat irregularly marked with nu¬
merous spots of a deeper brown. The under parts are
of a whitish cast, with a shade of yellowish green. They
are also marked with numerous spots j but these are
less bright than those of the upper part.
The bull frog is a native of many parts of North A-
merica. It derives its name from the sound of its voice,
which resembles the distant lowing of cattle. It usually
frequents springs 5 and in Virginia, where these abound
ia the sides of the hills, a pair of these frogs are usually
Chap. I,
seen sitting on the edge of the small pond formed by p,.0gS
the running of the water from the spring j and when v-oj
they happen to be surprised, they retreat to the mouth
of the spring, and, entering it, find themselves in safe¬
ty. In Virginia, too, a popular opinion prevails, that
they are useful in purifying the water of the spring.
This opinion is greatly in their favour, and saves them
from that persecution with which the frog and other
reptiles are wantonly and unnecessarily harassed in
other countries. But the bull frog being extremely vo¬
racious, and sometimes devouring young ducks and
goslings, is occasionally devoted to destruction.
5. Rana Ocellata, Argus Frog.
Specif. Char.—Feet having each five toes, and unweb¬
bed "j toestuberculated beneath; back fasciated, and
sides ocellated.
This is one of the largest of the genus, exceeding,
perhaps, the bull frog in the size of its body, but hav¬
ing limbs proportionally thicker and stronger. It has
sometimes been confounded with the bull frog ; but it
is distinguished from it in its general appearance, and
particularly in the form of the feet.
This frog is a native of Pennsylvania, Carolina, and
other parts of North America, frequenting moist places
in the vicinity of springs and rivulets. In its manners
and habits it is supposed to be nearly the same with the
hull frog.
6. Rana Virginica, Lineated Frog.
Specif. Char.—Cinereous, spotted with red ; beneath
yellowish ; back angular, and marked with five pale
stripes.
This species, in shape, size, and structure of the feet,
resembles the common frog. It is greenish above, and
paler beneath. The back and limbs are variegated
with dark-brown marks of different sizes.
It is a native of Virginia.
7. Rana Ovalis, Oval Frog.
Specif. £7mr.—Colour brownish, beneath yellowish ;
the head beaked, and scarcely distinct from the glo¬
bose body.
The snout projecting beyond the lower jaw, consti¬
tutes the specific character. The hind legs are short,
the feet unwebbed, and there is a callus at the base of
the inner toe. Its native country is unknown.
8. Rana Cyanophlyetis, Studded Frog.
Specif. Char.—Brownish blue, having a tuberculated
line on each side ; beneath whitish, spotted with
brown.
In this species the legs are branded with blackish
blue and white. In the upper jaw there is a row oi
thickset conical teeth, resembling those of lizards.
The hind feet are webbed, and furnished with a callus
like a sixth toe.
It is a native of India.
9. Rana Spinipes, Spiny-footed Frog.
Specif. C/4 or.—Brown, beneath bluish ; sides, speckled
with
ERPETOLOGY.
liap, I.
Frogs.
with an oclireous colour;
nished with spines.
ERPETOLOGY.
toes of the fore feet fur-
15. Rana Ignea, Fire Frog.
Fana Bombina, Lin.
This species is larger than the common frog. The
feet are unwebbed, and in its habit it approaches to the
toad.
It is a native of New Holland.
10. Rana Cerulea, Blue Frog.
Specif. Char.—Blue, speckled with grayish beneath j
feet divided into four toes; hind feet webbed.
The blue frog is of the size of the common one. The
toes are not orbiculated j but in its habit and slender
limbs it approaches somewhat to the tree frogs.
It is a native of New South Wales.
ii. Rana \ espertjna, Vespertine Frog.
Specif. Char.—Cinereous, and tuberculated above ; a
transverse spot between the eyes, and forked behind ;
marked with longitudinal, subconfluent, brown dorsal
spots, which vary into green.
In this species the heau is short, and the body is co¬
vered with warts or papillae. It is about the size of a
toad, having the habit of a frog. It can scarcely be
said to leap.
It is a native of Siberia.
12. Rana R id i bung a, Laughing Frog.
Specif Char.—Cinereous, the body spotted with brown,
the thighs dusky, with milk-white spots.
This species is of a very large size, weighing half a
pound. It has the habit of the common frog, but is
broader.
It is very frequent about the rivers Wolga and Ural,
and the Caspian sea. It never leaves the water. In
the evening it emits a sound, somewhat resembling a
hoarse laugh, whence it derives its specific name.
Specif. Char.—Olive brown, orange colour beneath,
spotted with blue.
1 his is the smallest of the European frogs, and is
not equal even to the tree frog in size. It derives its
name of fire frog from the peculiar colour of the under
suiface of the body j but this is subject to considerable
variation.
It is a native of Germany, Italy, and other parts of
Europe, but has not been found in England. It fre¬
quents turbid stagnant waters, and scarcely ever appears
on land. It breeds at the age of three years, and mav
therefore be supposed to live about ten. It deposits its
spawn in the month of June, and the ova are propor¬
tionally larger than those of others. The tadpoles,
which are of a pale yellowish brown colour, are hatch¬
ed towards the end of June. When young, they have
been frequently observed to hang from the surface of
leaves by means of a glutinous thread, issuing from the
small tube near the lower lip. About the end of.Sep¬
tember they are at their full size. At that time the
tail appears more fleshy and muscular, and therefore
proportionally stronger than in other tadpoles. In the
beginning of October they assume their perfect form.
This is one of the most active and lively of the whole
genus. It leaps and swims even with greater celerity
than the common frog. When it is surprised on the
land, and finds that it cannot escape, it squats down
close to the ground, turning back its head and limbs in
a singular manneq. If it be farther disturbed, it emits
from the hinder part of the thighs a frothy kind of fluid
which has no disagreeable smell, but some degree of
acrimony when it comes in contact with the eyes and
nostrils. Ihe sound emitted by the male of this species
is sharper than that of other frogs, and somewhat re¬
sembles a kind of laugh, or, according to'some, the note
of a cuckoo or the tone of a bell. Hence the Linn^an
specific name, ra?ia bombifia.
283
13. Rana Sitibunda, Thirsty Frog.
Specif Char—Glaucous gray, variegated with blackish
green spots ; beneath whitish ; the hind feet semipal-
mated, and having the appearance of seven toes.
The body is warted, the head short, and has the ge¬
neral habit of a toad, but is larger. There are two cu¬
rious toes on the hind feet.
It is a native of desert places about the river Ural.
It conceals itself during the day.
14. Rana Leveriana, Leverian Fros;.
Specif. Char.—Dusky blue, whitish beneath ; hind feet
palmated ; body marked above, with two long and two
short white stripes.
Excepting that the body is plumper, and the limbs
proportionally shorter, this species has the habit of the
common frog. On the back of the head there is a
small trifurcated spot, two upper divisions of which
point forvvards. The lower surface of the body is yel¬
lowish white and granulated. The fore feet have four
toes, which are slightly orbiculated at the tips.
Its native country is unknown.
16. Rana Salsa, Saline Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour olive brown, whitish beneath,
with dusky variegations : all the toes are unweb¬
bed.
When this species is first taken out of the water, the
brown colour has a shade of blue j the back is beset
with tubercles ; the legs are fasciated with brown, and
the insides of the feet are yellow.
It is a native of the salt marshes of some parts of
Germany.
17. Rana Paradox a, F aradoxical Frog.
Specif. Char.—ellowish and olive-coloured 5 variegat¬
ed with rufous bands ; hind legs obliquely striated.
Ihis species resembles in its general form the com¬
mon frog. The oblique longitudinal stripps on the hind
legs constitute the principal mark of distinction. There
are four toes on the fore feet, and they are unwebbed.
The hind feet have five toes, and are deeply palmated
to the very ends of the toes. Near the shortest toe
there is an oblong callus, forming a spurious one. The
upper jaw is beset with a row of small denticulations.
N This
E R P E T
This species is a native of South America, and is
more common in Surinam than in other places.
Naturalists have been extremely puzzled with regard
to the real nature of what has been taken for the tad¬
pole of this frog. At one time it was considered by
Linnaeus as a species of lizard, and therefore arranged
by him under the genus Laecrta. At another time he
has placed it under the present genus, with the specific
name piscts. It was described by Edwards under the
denomination of thefi'ogjish of Surinam. The structure
of the animal, which has been the subject of so much
discussion, shews clearly that it is the larva or tadpole
of a frog ; and it is supposed, with no small degree of
probability, that the differences in the accounts given
of this animal by naturalists have arisen from the differ¬
ent stages of its progress in which it has been found.
But as this tadpole is so much larger in size, in propor¬
tion to the perfect animal, than any other species yet
known, it may be the larva or tadpole of some of the
larger species, and not that of the rana paradoxa, which
is but a small frog.
Sect. II. Tree Frogs.
Tree frogs have slender bodies, long limbs, and
the tips of the toes are flat, orbicular, and dilated.
The species included under this section have been
formed, according to the arrangement of some naturalists,
into a separate genus, under the name oiHyla; and no
doubt the peculiar structure of the toes, which enables
them to adhere to smooth bodies, affords a very striking
character, and in some measure warrants the arrange¬
ment.
18. Rana Zebra, Zebra Frog. Fana Maxima, Linn.
Specif. Char.—Yellowish and rufous, spotted and fasci-
ated with brown. There are double bands on the
legs, and the feet are palmated.
This species is the largest of the whole of this section,
measuring about five inches from the nose to th^ end ot
the body. The colour is an elegant, pale, rufous
brown, beautifully marked on the back and limbs, and
even to the very ends of the toes, with transverse ches-
nut-coloured bands. The head is large, the eyes pro¬
tuberant, and the mouth wide. The fore feet have four
toes, and the hind ones five.
It is a native of Carolina and Virginia.
Two other species have been described by naturalists,
which more accurate, observation has shewn to be nearly
allied to the preceding. The first is the rana boons,
Linn, in which the difference is so slight, that as Dr
Shaw observes, it may depend on a sexual distinction.
The other is the rana venulosa, which is supposed to be
the same animal as the zebra frog, before it has arrived
at its full size.
19. Rana Bicolor, Blue-and-Yellow Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour blue, ochreous beneath $ feet un¬
webbed $ toes flattened and orbicular.
This elegant species is of a moderate size j it measures
more than four inches in length. The whole of the up¬
per surface is of a beautiful blue, while the under
parts are of a pale orange or ochre colour. The head
O L O G Y. C
is large, the mouth wide, and the tip of the nose trun-
catf d. All the toes are furnished with a large orbicu¬
lar tip ; and beneath each of the joints there is a pro¬
cess or tubercle. The upper parts of the female have
a deeper shade of violet than those of the male.
It is supposed to be a native of Surinam.
20. Rana Leucophyllata, White-Leaf Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour rufous, variegated above, with
snow-white spots of different shapes.
The variegated spots on the body and limbs are milk-
white, and are observed to vary greatly in different in¬
dividuals, in number, form, and disposition. The toes
of the fore feet are slightly webbed at the base.
It is a native of America.
21. Rana Quadrilineata, Four-Lined Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour blue, having a double, longitudi¬
nal, yellow line on each side of the body.
This species bears a near resemblance to the preced¬
ing ; but the blue colour above, and the double yellow
line, which runs along each side of the body, from the
eyes to the vent, sufficiently distinguish it.
Its native country is unknown.
22. Rana Castanea, Chesnut Frog.
Specif. Char.—Chesnut-coloured and granulated j whit¬
ish beneath, with a white line on each side of the
body.
In this species, the whole of the upper surface, both
of body and limbs, is scattered over with minute wart*
or tubercles. On each shoulder there is a large, long,
white spot •, the fore arms, hind legs, and thighs, are
barred transversely with white j the feet are unwebbed,
the toes rounded, and all the joints tuberculated beneath.
It is supposed to be a native of Surinam.
23. Rana Fasciata, Fasciated Frog.
Specif. Chur.—Colour rufescent, with whitish trans¬
verse bands.
In this species the colour is pale rufous j the head,
body, and upper parts of the limbs, are marked with
pale transverse bands •, the eyes are blue, with a silvery
lustre ; the outside of the arms and legs are of a black¬
ish brown colour.
Its native place is unknown.
24. Rana Arborea, Tree Frog.
Specif Char.—Colour green, whitish beneath, with a
blackish lateral line and granulated abdomen j feet
unwebbed.
This species is of a smaller size than any other of the
European frogs. The colour of the upper part of the
body is green j the abdomen is whitish, and marked with
numerous granules. The under surface of the limb i*
reddish, and on each side of the body there is a longi¬
tudinal blackish or violet-coloured streak, which sepa¬
rates the green of the upper parts from the white of the
lower. The lower edge of the dark lateral stripe i«
shaded with yellow. The hind legs are long and slen¬
der. There are four toes on the fore feet, and five on
ap. I.
the hind feet. All of the toes terminate in flat, round,
and dilated tips. It is by means of this peculiar struc¬
ture that the animal is enabled to hang from the leaves
of trees, or from any smooth substance j for the under
surfaces of these tips or tubercles on the toes is soft and
glutinous. There is a similar structure on the skin of
the abdomen.
The tree-frog is a native of France, Germany, Italy,
and other parts of Europe. It has never been found
in the British islands. During the summer months, it
chiefly frequents the upper parts of trees, and wander¬
ing among the leaves in search of insects, it seizes them
with extreme celerity. It steals softly towards its prey,
and when it has reached the proper distance, it makes
a sudden spring of more than a foot in height. For
this it is peculiarly fitted, from its nimble and active
movements. It conceals itself beneath the shade of
the leaves, by attaching itself to their under surface by
means of the feet, or abdomen.
On the approach of winter, the tree-frog leaves the
woods, and retires to the waters, where it buries itself
in the soft mud, or conceals itself beneath the banks,
where it remains torpid till the spring, when it deposits
its spawn in the water. At this time the throat of the
male is greatly inflated, and the loud sharp croak which
it then emits, is heard at a very considerable distance.
The spawn is deposited in small clustered masses, about
the end of April, and the tadpoles assume the form of
the perfect animal about the beginning of August, at
which time they begin to ascend the neighbouring trees,
where they reside while the warm season continues. It
has been observed that they are more noisy on the ap¬
proach of rain j and the males particularly, if kept in
glasses, and furnished with food, afford certain indica¬
tions of the changes of the weather.
25. Ran A MeriaNA, Merian Frog.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish green, variegated with
brown, with conically shaped auricular vesicles.
This species is three times the size of the common
tree-frog, and on each side of the neck there is a re¬
markable protuberance like an obtusely conical, inflat¬
ed pouch.
This species is sometimes found on trees, and some¬
times in the water, according to the diffei-ent periods
of its growth. According to Madame Merian’s descrip¬
tion, these frogs are found in stagnant waters. They
have, she observes, ears in their heads, and knobs or
balls on their feet, which have been given them by
nature to enable them to pass easily over the morassy
places which they inhabit.
26. Rana Aurantia, Oravge Frog.
Specif. Char.—Orange-coloured ; body and limbs very
slender.
This species is entirely of a reddish orange colour,
long-limbed and slender-bodied. It is smaller than the
European tree frog.
It is a native of South America, inhabiting trees.
27. Rana Tinctoria, Tinging Frog.
Specif. Char.—Of a reddish colour } the body fasciated
with white.
285
It is of a bright red or ferruginous colour above, Toads,
marked longitudinally with a pair of white stripes. —y—
These at an early age are often crossed with a transverse
stripe ; and indeed the individuals of this species have
been found to vary greatly in the disposition of the
colours.
It is a native of South America, and inhabits trees.
1 he Indians employ this species of frog to change
the colour of green parrots. For this purpose they
pluck the feathers from that part of the parrot on which
they wish the new colour to be introduced. They rub
the skin with the blood of the animal, and the renovated
feathers, instead of being green as formerly, are yellow
or red.
28. Rana Alba, White Frog.
Specif. Char.—Entirely of a white colour.
On the upper part of the body there are some spot*
or patches, which are of a brighter white than the
ground. It is, however, subject to some variations.
It is a native ol the woods in the warmer parts of
North America.
29. Rana Bilineata, Bilineated Frog.
Specif. CAar.^Colour green, with a straight yellow line
on each side of the body.
The only difference between this species and the
common tree-frog is, in the yellow line on each side of
the body of the former being somewhat straighter, and
without undulations.
It is a native of the warmer parts of North America,
inhabiting the woods.
Sect. III. Toads.
30. Rana Buro, Common Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour brown, with reddish brown tu¬
bercles, pale beneath.
The common toad is too well known to require any
detailed description. The colour is generally of an
obscure brown above, but much paler, and irregularly
spotted beneath. It is, however, subject to consider¬
able variations, being sometimes found of an olive cast;
and in the earlier part of summer, the shoulders and
limbs are marked with reddish spots, while the under
parts of the body have a yellowish tinge. The body is
always covered with pustules or tubercles of a darkish
green, or bright red colour, and they are of different
sizes in different individuals. The common toad is not
only a native of Europe, but of other countries of the
world.
The common toad usually frequents shady places, in History of
gardens or fields j is found under stones, or makes its th* toad,
way into cellars or other obscure recesses, anxious, as it
would seem, to conceal itself, or, that it may lie pro¬
tected from excessive cold, and find a supply of food.
The toad, like the common frog, becomes torpid in
winter; and it would appear, that they sometimes col¬
lect together in numbers, and take up their habitation
in the same hole or cavity, with the view of preserving
and retaining their heat for a greater length of time.
At the return of spring, the toad leaves its lurking
place, and retires to the waters, where it deposits its
spawn.*
ERPETOLOGY.
286
ERPETOLOGY.
Toads.
Age,
spawn. The ova are included in a transparent gluten,
vvlnfch is in the form of chains or strings, somewhat re¬
sembling a necklace. The length of these strings is
from three to four feet; and through the whole length
the ova, which have the appearance of black globules
or beads, are disposed in a double series. The tadpole
is hatched at the end of 14 or 15 days, according to the
temperature of the season 5 and having burst from the
surrounding gluten, they swim about in the water, feed¬
ing on different animalcules, and leaves of water plants.
Early in the autumn they assume the form of the perfect
animal, when they retire from the water, and are some¬
times found in such numbers on the ground in its vicini¬
ty, that it has probably given rise to the common opinion
of their having fallen from the clouds in showers.
The age of the toad is supposed to be about 15 or
20 years, but sometimes they exceed this period. One,
of which Mr Pennant has given an account in his British
Zoology, lived to the great age of 40 years. This in¬
dividual had been known for that time in a domesticat¬
ed state. It was kept by a Mr Ascot in Devonshire,
and had become so tame, that it left its hole at the ap¬
proach of its master, to receive food. It grew to a very
large size, and had become an object of so much curio¬
sity, that in spite of the aversion and horror which this
animal usually inspires, it was visited by all, and even
by ladies, who came to the house. It was frequently
brought to table, and fed with insects, and without any
degree of embarrassment, or seeming desire to get away,
it seized them with great celerity. Its usual place of
residence was under the steps of the door of the house
which led to the garden. It was unfortunately seized
bv a raven, and severely wounded, before it could retreat
to its hole; and although it was liberated from its ene¬
my, and lived for more than a year afterwards, it never
recovered its usual health and vigour, otherwise the pe¬
riod of its life might have been greatly extended.
Not poison- It has been long supposed that the toad, when it is
ous to large irritated, secretes a fluid from its skin which is of a poi-
animals. sonous quality. This fluid, however, has no effect what¬
ever, except producing a little irritation, on larger ani¬
mals. A dog, it has been observed, carrying a toad for
a short time in his mouth is affected with a slight swel¬
ling of the lips, and an increased discharge of saliva.
This fluid undoubtedly answers some purpose in the
economy of the animal, and it is probably intended for
its protection against the troublesome attacks of smaller
animals. This seems to be in some measure proved
from the experiments of Laurenti. In these experi¬
ments it appeared that small lizards which had bitten
the common toad, became disordered and paralytic, and
even apparently dead. They were, however, complete¬
ly recovered in the space of a few hours.
T < 1' Con Many wonderful stories have been related of the toad
seining its having been found inclosed in the solid substance ol wood
being found and stone, or marble; and what is still more wonder-
alive, en- fu]5 tJ,at it lias been in such circumstances without any
®!osed m visi|,]e outlet, or the smallest passage for the access of
air, alive, and seemingly uninjured. It is not indeed a
little surprising, that a supposed fact of this kind, so con¬
trary to the nature of animal existence, should even for
a moment have gained any degree of belief; yet many
such stories have been currently reported, and readily,
we might almost say universally, admitted to be true ;
for being established on what was said to be the most un¬
solid sub¬
stances.
Chap. I
doubted testimony, they were received and acknowledg- Toads,
ed as fully authenticated. But on closer investigation, '—■7^
in all cases where inquiry could be made, it was found
that some links in the chain of evidence were always
wanting. In no instance whatever, it may be asserted,
has the fact been ascertained from direct information,
founded on any credible or respectable authority. It
has always been first communicated by report, or from
a distance ; circumstances which always give room for
mistake and error. Toads may have been found inclos¬
ed in wood, or even in stone, perhaps without having
received any material external injury ; but that they
should have remained in such situations for any great
length of time, as for years, nay, in some cases, for
hundreds of years, totally deprived of food, and com¬
pletely excluded from all access of air, is not only
highly incredible, but impossible. But if farther evi¬
dence were necessary, this supposed fact is fully disprov¬
ed by the experiments of Herissant, which he perform¬
ed in presence of the French Academy. It had been
asserted that a living toad was found in the year 1771,
in a wall at a seat belonging to the duke of Orleans.
The wall, which was then pulled down, had been built
40 years; and its hind feet were found imbedded in the
mortar. In Herissant’s experiments, three toads were
inclosed in separate boxes, and these were immediately
covered with a thick coat of mortar, and kept in the
apartments of the academy. At the end of 18 months
the boxes were opened, and two of the toads were
found living. They were again enclosed ; but being
re-opened after some months had elapsed, they were
found dead.
31. Rana Alliacea, Alliaceous Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour pale grayi marked with brown,
and having a whitish dorsal line; pupils perpendi¬
cular.
This species, excepting in a greater proportional
length of the head, has a considerable resemblance to
the common toad. It differs from it also in being near¬
ly smooth. The colour above is a brownish gray, with
spots of deep brown, which on the sides are disposed in
a reticular form. The eye has a very peculiar struc¬
ture. The form of the pupil, when the eye is contract¬
ed, is perpendicular, as in the eyes of cats. On the
hind feet there is a spurious claw, or horny callus, si¬
tuated beneath the heel.
This animal gives out, when irritated, a peculiar
odour, which resembles that of onions or garlic, and
produces a similar acrid effect on the eyes. A smell
like that of the smoke of gunpowder is also sometimes
combined with the garlic smell.
This species is a native of Germany. It is found in
the neighbourhood of Nuremberg.
It has beemalready mentioned, that the spawn of the
common toad is deposited in the form of a double string
but in this species there is only one string, which is of
considerable thickness, and the numerous ova are dis¬
posed, not in a double row, as in the former, but in a
confluent manner through the length of the spawn,
which is sometimes found nearly two feet long.
The tadpole of the alliaceous toad, like the supposed
one of the t'ana paradoxa, is considerably larger in size
than the young frog when it has first assumed its perfect
form.
Osip. I. E R P E T
■Las. form' Indeecl it is so large, that in the vicinity of the
w*.,,-—'places where it is found, it is employed as food by the
country people, who consider it as a kind of fish. It
seems also to be one of the most voracious tadpoles.
The alliaceous toad, contrary to the habits of the
common toad, remains almost constantly in water,
and but very rarely appears on land. It is also more
lively and active in its nature, and its motions are per¬
formed by a kind of leaping, rather than by the crawl¬
ing sluggish pace of the latter.
32. Han A Mephitica, Mephitic Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour olive, spotted with brown ; warts
on the skin reddish ; dorsal line sulphur coloured.
Excepting in the colour, and being of a smaller size,
this species greatly resembles the common toad. The
body and limbs are short and thick $ the fore feet are
furnished beneath with a pair of bony processes, by
means of which it is enabled to climb up the sides of
walls. The hind feet have no webbed structure. In
its motion it runs somewhat like a mouse. It comes
out only in the night, from the cavities of walls and
rocks, where it conceals itself by day.
This species is a native of Germany, in some parts of
which it is known by the name of roerhling, or reed
frog, because in the spring it frequents places which are
overgrown with reeds. At this season, too, it is well
known by the strong and peculiar note or croak which
it utters.
In the month of June, when this species breeds, it
resorts to the water, to deposit its ova. These are emit¬
ted, as is the case with the common toad, in double
rows, in a pair of long glutinous strings ; and so rapid
is the progress of hatching, that the tadpoles appear in
the space of five or six days, having separated themselves
from the spawn. The hind legs appear about the end
of August, are soon succeeded by the fore legs, and
I by September or October the animal has assumed its
complete form.
The mephitic toad has derived its name from a most
offensive smell which it diffuses when it is irritated. This
odour proceeds from a white acrid fluid which exudes
| from the pores of the skin. The animal has the power
of emitting this fluid to the distance of three or four-
feet, and it is said that if it fall on any part of the room
where the animal is kept, it will scarcely be entirely
dissipated for two months afterwards. This odour re¬
sembles the smoke of gunpowder, but is considerably
stronger ; or that of the fumes of arsenic.
Var. The natter-jack of Pennant is, according to
some, a variety of the above species. It is not, how¬
ever, said, that, like the mephitic toad, it emits any
peculiarly offensive odour ; but its running motions
bear a near resemblance •, for it does not leap, nor does
it crawl with the sluggish pace of the common toad.
It is a native of England, and is found in Pnl-
teney common, and near Reevesley abbey in Lincoln¬
shire, frequenting dry and sandy places.
O L o G Y.
with a blackish margin, and the whole has somewhat of
the appearance of a map. The spots on the legs and
thighs are transverse, forming a kind of bars ; the eyes
aie 1 emarkable for a beautiful golden colour, and when
the animal is irritated, seem to emit a kind of phospho¬
ric light.
Ibis species is a native of Germany and other parts
of Europe, and is not (infrequently found about Vienna,
where it inhabits the cavities of walls.
I his species, like the mephitic toad, emits a very
strong odour, which resembles that of garden night¬
shade. It is so powerful, that it diffuses^itself through
a large room.
Eui ing the breeding season this species frequents the
waters, and in winter it retires under ground. Its
croaking is said to resemble the creaking of the hinge
of a door. It would appear, that the fluid which ex¬
udes from the skin of this toad, and probably also from
that of others, is poisonous to small animals j for it is
said that the smaller kinds of the gray lizard, on biting
this toad, became immediately strongly convulsed, and
died in a few minutes.
34. Rana Marina, Marine Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish brown, with a large
porous prominence over each shoulder; very large
size.
This species even exceeds the bull frog in size. On
each shoulder there is a protuberance of a light-brown
colour, which is marked with many pores. These
are the parotid glands, which are peculiarly conspicu¬
ous. The feet have no webs, and there are four
toes on the fore feet, and five on the hind. The
toes are furnished with claws, somewhat resembling the
human hair. There are some tubercles at the extremi¬
ty of the body, which are said to be owing to the fold¬
ing of the skin, when the animal is placed in a particu¬
lar attitude > for these disappear when the attitude is
changed.
This species is said to be a native of America ; and, ac¬
cording to some, is calculated to live both by land and sea.
35. Rana Dubia, Doubtful Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish brown, warty, having
a large porous prominence over each shoulder; hind
feet subpalmated and subhexadactyle.
In size this species comes near that of the common
toad 5 but it is different in shape, as it tapers from the
shoulders to the hind legs like the tree frogs. The up¬
per surface of the body is covered with oval tubercles,
and there are protuberances on the shoulders like the
rana marina. The under parts of the body are also be¬
set with smaller tubercles. The joints of the toes of
the fore feet are tuberculated beneath, and there are
two remarkable protuberances under the foot.
Ot the native country ol this species, or of its man¬
ners and habits, nothing is yet known.
33. Rana Viridis, Green Toad. 36. Rana Typhonia, Mitred Toad.
Specif. CAar.—-Colour pale, varied with greenish spots j Specif. CAor.—Colour brown, dorsal line whitish ; head
tubercles reddish. Rana variubilis, Linn. triangular.
In this species the green spots or patches are bounded This species is about the size of the common toad $,
the;
288
Toads.
ERPETOLOGY.
Chap. I
the thighs are barred with brown* and the skin of the
whole body is covered with numerous small protubeian-
ces of a pearly colour. rIhe sides of the head beyond
each eye have somewhat of an angular appearance, and
from this it has derived the name of mitred toad.
37. Hana Braziliana, Brazilian Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour rufous, with numerous brown
spots on every part of the body.
In its general appearance this species resembles the
common toad, but is much larger, and the head is pro¬
portionally shorter. The spots or stripes on the body
are red brown, placed transversely, and are somewhat
waved.
It is a native of South America j but, according to
some, has been found in the island of Cuba.
38. Rana Ventricosa, Granulated Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour pale brown ; abdomen dilated,
and marked on the sides with blackish spots.
In this species the head and eyes are large, the mouth
wide, the body somewhat depressed ; the abdomen is
very broad ; the limbs are rather short. The upper
surface of the body and limbs is covered with tubercles
of different sizes, pretty distinctly arranged.
It is supposed to be a native ol Brazil.
39. Rana Cornuta, Horned Toad.
Specif. Char.—Colour cinereous, banded with brown ;
eyelids conical.
In this species a broad white band runs along the
back, from the head to the extremity of the body, and
becoming gradually narrower. It is covered with small
specks like pearls. The rest of the body, excepting
the head, is rough, with sharp points. The head is
large and thick, and a broad thick tongue appears when
the mouth is opened. It is covered with papillae, and
fastened to the anterior part of the lower jaw.\ The
gape of the mouth extends almost hall the length of the
body; the eyes are rather small, and are placed nearer
than in other frogs. Each of the upper eyelids rises up
into a large conical callus, or horn. From this extra¬
ordinary width of the mouth, and singular structure of
the upper eyelids, this species exhibits tbe most deform¬
ed and hideous aspect ot any of the whole tribe.
It is a native of South America.
40. Rana Pifa, Pipay or Surinam Toad.
Specif. CAor.—Colour brown j toes of the fore feet qua-
drifid at the extremities.
the extremity of the body. The nose in both sexes is Toadi,
truncated, and the eyes very small.
This singular species is a native of Surinam.
The economy and habits of the pipa greatly occupied
the attention of naturalists for a long time after it was
first known to Europeans, which was about the end of
the 17th century. It was then supposed that the ova °Ta batch
were produced in cells on the back of the animal, with-^ ® «“•
out being first excluded, as in the other species of this ^ t'
tribe, in the form of spawn. But future observers have
added new facts, and greater accuracy, to the natural
history of this species j and it is now found that the
spawn being excluded in the usual manner, is received
into a number of open cells on the back of the animal,
and is there retained till the young have reached some
degree of maturity. This discovery is owing to Dr
Fermin, who made his observations on the spot, during
a residence at Surinam. The female pipa, he observes,
deposits her spawn near stagnant water. The male col¬
lects the ova, and places them carefully on the back of
the female, where, after being impregnated, they are
pressed into the cells, which are then open to receive
them. The cells close over them, and retain them for
near three months, when the young animals, having ar¬
rived at their perfect state, emerge from the back of
the parent. During this period of concealment, it has
been discovered by other naturalists, that the ova un¬
dergo the same change as in those which are hatched
out of the body ’, first assuming the form of the tadpole,
and then acquiring the complete shape before they are
excluded from the cells. In this mode of hatching its
young, some naturalists have observed an analogy in
this process of nature between the Surinam toad and
the opossum.
This animal, from the uncouthness of its shape, and
its general appearance, will, by many, be considered
at first view as little less hideous and deformed than
tbe horned toad.
41. Rana Breviceps, Short-headed Toad.
Specif Char.—Colour brown, pale beneath *, body
ovate, convex, and marked with a longitudinal, ash-
coloured, dentated band. Rana gibbosa, Linn.
This is a small species, and scarcely exceeds half the
size of the common toad. The head is very small, ob¬
tuse, and sunk in the thorax. The toes of the fore feet
are unwebbed, have no claws, and are furnished with
tubercles beneath the joints. T he hind feet are fur¬
nished with six toes.
It is a native of Senegal, and some other parts ot
Africa.
42. Rana Systoma, Indistinct Toad.
This species is considerably larger than the common
toad. The body is flattish ; the head somewhat trian¬
gular j the mouth wide, and the corners are furnished
with a kind of rugged appendage. There are four
Ion" thin toes on the fore feet, and each of the toes is
divided into four distinct processes $ and these, when
minutely examined, are found to be still farther divid¬
ed. The hind feet have fiye toes, and are webbed to
the tips. The male is larger than the female, measur¬
ing sometimes seven inches from the tip of the nose to
Specif. Char.— Body somewhat globose j head indis¬
tinct, and mouth small.
In its general appearance this species greatly re¬
sembles the preceding. The body is thick and round¬
ish, and the head is so little distinguished from the bo¬
dy, that the mouth is scarcely perceptible. The legs
are very short, and the thighs seem enclosed in the
wrinkled skin of the sides. The whole body is smooth.
It is a native of the East Indies.
43-
ERPETOLOGY.
I.
I 43. Raka AcEPHALA, Headless Toad.
Specif. CAar.—-Colour brownish, marbled with white ;
head indistinct, and mouth very small, bending
downwards.
Excepting in the colour, which is very different, and
in the head being still less distinguished from the body,
this species in appearance comes very near the two for¬
mer. The mouth also is smaller, and is curi’ed down¬
wards at each corner. Its native country is unknown.
48. Rana Lutea, Yellow Toad.
Specif. Char .-—Colour yellow j feet subpalmated.
In its general habit this species resembles the com¬
mon flog, but is smaller in size. The skin is covered
with warts, and all the feet are subpalmated.
It is also a native of Chili, and frequents the waters.
III. DRACO, Dragon.
44. Rana Lentiginosa, Carolina Toad.
Specif. Char.—‘Colour gray, freckled with brown j head
somewhat pointed.
This species, in its general appearance, greatly re¬
sembles the common toad, excepting that the head is
smaller, and the snout sharper. The colour is of a
dusky brown, mottled with minute blackish or dark-
brown spots. In its motions this species is different
from the common toad, for it leaps rather than crawls.
It is a native of North America, and particularly of
Carolina and Virginia. It is said to be most common
in wet weather, and frequents the higher grounds, ap¬
pearing not only in the evening, but even in the hot¬
test part of the day.
This species, like others of the same tribe, feeds on
insects, and seems to be extremely fond of luminous in¬
sects, as fire-flies, glow-worms, &c. It is said that it
will seize a piece of live wood coal, mistaking it for a
luminous insect, and swallow it, seemingly with impu¬
nity.
45* Rana Semilunata, Crescent Toad.
Specif. C^ar.—Colour blackish, paler beneath : a white
crescent-shaped spot at each ear.
This species is larger than the common toad, and is
particularly distinguished by a large, round, white spot
behind the parotids. The body is covered above with
tubercles.
46. Rana Melanostica, Black-lipped load.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish brown ; warts black,
speckled j upper lip and eyelids edged with black $
hind feet subhexadactylous and semipalmated.
This species is nearly the size of the common toad,
and resembles it in its general appearance. The space
between the eyes is depressed and smooth. The edges
of the projecting orbits of the eyes are black j the up¬
per jaw is surrounded with a similar border, and the
tips of the toes and the two tubercles of both hind and
fore feet are also black.
It is supposed to be a native of China.
47. Rana Arunco, Arunco.
Specif. Char.—Body warted j all the feet webbed.
This species is nearly of the same colour as the com¬
mon frog, but it is larger in size. The body is wart¬
ed, and all the feet are palmated.
It is a native of Chili.
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
Gen. Char.—-Tht body is four-footed, and is furnished
with a tail j on each side there is an expansile, ra¬
diated, wing-like skin.
1. Draco Volans, Flying Dragon.
Specif. Char.—The fore legs are unconnected with the
wings.
The flying dragon, in many respects, both in its
structure and habits, resembles the tribe of lizards j
but on account of the expansile cutaneous processes
with which the sides are furnished, Linnaeus has arran*
ged it under a distinct genus.
The body of this animal is about four inches in
length j but from the tip of the nose to the extremity
of the tail, it is commonly about nine or ten inches,
and sometimes a foot. The form of the head is very
singular; it is furnished beneath with a large triple
pouch or process, one part of which hangs beneath the
throat, while the other two project on each side. They
are all sharp-pointed, and are more conspicous, in pro¬
portion to the size of this animal, than the same pro¬
cesses in lizards. The mouth is wide; the tongue large
and thick at the base j the teeth are small and numer¬
ous j the neck is also small j the body and limbs are
slender, and entirely covered with small pointed scales.
On the upper part of the body the colour is pale blue,
or bluish gray; but the back and tail are marked with
transverse dusky bars. The wings are elegantly spot¬
ted with patches of black, deep brown, and white, of
different forms. The under surface is of a whitish-
brown colour.
The flying dragon is a native of Asia and Africa,
where it is found frequenting trees j and for this it is
peculiarly adapted, from the cutaneous processes with
which it is furnished on each side. For by means of
these lateral membranes, it is enabled to spring with
more facility from branch to branch, and even to sup¬
port itself for some time in the air, like the bat or fly¬
ing squirrel. Like the lizard, it feeds on insects.
2. Draco Praepos, American Flying Dragon.
Specif. Char.—Wings united with the arms.
This species is considered by some naturalists only as
a variety of the former. The circumstances in which
it differs are, that the body and neck are more slender,
and the pouch at the throat is single.
It is said to be a native of America.
The real dragon of modern naturalists, it may be ob¬
served, is not that terrible and destructive monster, the
mere creature of imagination, which existed only in the
descriptions of romance, and the older poetry > nor is it
O o the
289
Frorr*.
Os -5
0
izardi.
ERPETOLOGY
the animal which we find described and figured in some
of the writings of the older naturalists. For these, it is
now well known, are either entirely fictitious beings, or
have been prepared artificially, by joining together the
limbs of different animals j and thus producing a mon¬
ster, under the name of dragon, unknown in nature.
This has been done by warping some species of the
skate tribe, into what was supposed to be the shape of a
dragon, and having raised the fins, and dried them in
this position, by adding the legs of birds or other ani¬
mals. Hence have originated the monstrous representa¬
tions, which are found in some of the older naturalists,
of many-headed dragons, having necks and tails like
those of snakes, and feet like those of birds. Deceptions
of this kind, it would appear, have been often success¬
fully practised j by which means, not only the vulgar,
but also men of science, have been misled and imposed
upon. The following is an instance of this kind, which
happened about the end of the 17th century. It is
quoted by Dr Shaw, and he observes, is thus comme¬
morated by Dr Grainger from a note of Dr Grey, in
his edition of Hndibras, vol. i. page 125.
“ Mr Smith of Bedford observes to me on the word
dragon, as follows : Mr Jacob Bobart, botany professor
(or rather superintendant of the garden) of Oxford, did
about 40 years ago, find a dead rat in the physic gar¬
den, which he made to resemble the common picture of
dragons, by altering its head and tail, and thrusting in
taper sharp sticks, which distended the skin on each
side, till it mimicked wings. He let it dry as hard as
possible. The learned immediately pronounced it a
dragon, and one of them sent an accurate description of
it to Dr Magliabechi, librarian to the grand duke of
Tuscany. Several fine copies of verses were wrote on
so rare a subject j but at last Mr Bobart owned the
cheat •, however, it was looked upon as a masterpiece
of art, and as such deposited in the museum or anatomy
school, where I saw it some years after.”
We shall relate another instance of an artificial
dragon, with which a similar deception was practised,
and which was detected by Linnseus. This dragon was
in the possession of a merchant at Hamburgh, and was
valued by the proprietor at 10,000 florins. Lin¬
naeus, while he was on a visit to that city, detected the
cheat, and shewed that it was entirely an artificial ani¬
mal, composed of the skins of snakes, the teeth of
weasels, the claws of birds, &c. It is even said, that
Linnseus having made this discovery, was obliged to
make a precipitate retreat from Hamburgh, to avoid a
prosecution which was threatened by the proprietor on
the score of the reputation and value of his property be¬
ing injured by this discovery.
IY. LACERTA, Lizard.
Gen. Char.—The body is four-footed, elongated, and
furnished with a tail 5 there is no secondary in¬
tegument.
The numerous genus Lacerta includes a great variety
of animals, which, although they possess many characters
in common, yet they exhibit considerable differences,
not only in their economy and habits, but also in struc¬
ture and external form. On this account this genus has
been divided by some naturalists into a number of di-
Chap. I,
stinct genera. We have here, however, according to Lizards,
the Linnsean arrangement, retained the whole under
the same genus j but we shall divide the species com¬
prehended under it, as other naturalists have done, into
different sections, as follows : 1. Crocodiles ; 2. Guanas •,
3. Cordyles $ 4. Lizards proper j 5. Chamelions ; 6.
Geckos 5 7. Scinks j 8. Salamanders, Newts, or Efts 3,
9. Snake Lizards.
Sect. I. Crocodiles.
The character of the animals included under this
section is, that they are furnished with very strong scales.
1. Lacerta Crocodilus, Common Crocodile, or Cro¬
codile of the Nile.
Specif. Char.—Head mailed 5 neck carinated ; tail
furnished on the upper part with two lateral crested
processes.
The crocodile sometimes arrives at a very great size.
Individuals of 20 feet long have frequently been seen,
and instances are mentioned of some which have exceed¬
ed the length of 30, and even 40 feet. When it is full
grown, the colour of the upper part of the body is
blackish brown j beneath it is yellowish white. The
upper parts of the legs and sides are varied with deep
yellow, and in some parts tinged with green. The
colour of the younger animal is different 3 for that
of the upper part is a mixture of brown and pale yel¬
low, while the under parts are nearly white. The
opening of the mouth is of great width, and exhibits
somewhat of a flexuous outline. Both jaws are furnish¬
ed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth ; those in the
middle part of the jaw being largest, and resembling
the canine teeth of viviparous quadrupeds. Each jaw
contains 30 teeth or more, for the number is found to
vary in different individuals, perhaps from the dif¬
ference of age. The disposition of the teeth is such,
that when the mouth is shut, they alternate with each
other. When the teeth have been taken out, and the
alveoli examined, it has appeared that small teeth were
forming beneath, to supply the loss of the others when
shed. The external openings of the ears are placed on
the top of the head, above the eyes 3 they are of mode¬
rate size, of an oval form, and covered with a mem¬
brane, in which there is a longitudinal slit, giving them
the appearance of closed eyes. The eyes are furnished
with a nictitating membrane, or transparent moveable
pellicle, similar to that of birds. The legs of the cro¬
codile are short, strong, and muscular. There are five
toes on the fore feet, and they are unwebbed. On the
hind feet there are only four toes, which, towards the
base, are united by means of a strong membrane. The
two anterior toes on each of the fore feet, and the in¬
terior one of the hind feet, have no claws 3 but the
other toes are furnished with claws, which are strong,
sharp, and curved. The tail is long, compressed on
the sides, and furnished above with an upright process,
formed by the gradual approach of two elevated crests
which proceed from the lower part of the back. The
upper part of the body of the crocodile is covered with
strong armour ; which, in its structure, exhibits the ap¬
pearance of a regular and curious carved work, and is
indeed a most elaborate piece of mechanism. It is so
. strong
!• E R P E T
strong and thick, when the animal has reached its full
growth, that it easily resists the force of a musket-ball.
On the lower parts of the body, it is more pliable, and
much thinner, so that it is in these parts only that
wounds can be inflicted.
The crocodile deposits its eggs in the sand or mud,
in the banks of the rivers which it inhabits ; and as soon
as the young are hatched, they proceed to the water.
When the young are first excluded, the head is pro¬
portionally much larger than that ol the full grown ani¬
mal. The egg of the common crocodile is about the
size of that of a goose, and resembles greatly that of a
bird. It is covered with a calcareous shell, which is
lined with a membranous substance. Various birds,
the ichneumon and other animals, make great havock
among the eggs of the crocodile during the period of
hatching, thus diminishing the numbers which would
otherwise be produced. The eggs of the crocodile,
and indeed the flesh itself, are regarded as delicacies
among some African nations, and compose a part of their
favourite repasts.
The crocodile is a native of Asia and Africa, but it
seems to be more common in the latter than in the for¬
mer country. It inhabits the large rivers, as the Nile,
the Niger, &c. frequenting the low sand islands of
these rivers, and preys chiefly on fish, although, being
extremely voracious, it seizes any other animal that
comes within its reach.
The crocodile has-been long regarded as one of the
most formidable animals of the countries which it in¬
habits $ but from the accounts of later naturalists, it
appears, that it is by no means so ferocious as has
been pretended. Denon, who visited Egypt along
with the French army, observes, that many stories are
related of crocodiles, but that he had not any oppor¬
tunity of verifying a single one. “ Daring, (says he)
even to imprudence, our soldiers set them at defiance.
Even I myself bathed daily in the Nile j for the tran¬
quil nights that I thus obtained, rendered me regard¬
less of dangers, which we had not as yet verified by a
single fact. If the crocodiles had devoured a few of
the carcases which the war left at their disposal, such a
food, it might be imagined, would only excite their
appetite, and engage them to pursue, when alive, so
favourite a prey. And yet we were never once attack¬
ed by them, nor did we ever meet with a single croco¬
dile at a distance from the w'ater. Hence it appears
probable, that they find in the Nile itself a sufficient
quantity of easily procurable food, which they digest
slowly, being like the lizard and serpent, cold-blooded,
and of an inactive stomach. Besides, having in the
^§ypt*an part of the Nile no enemies but each other
and man, they would be truly formidable 3 if, covered
as they are, with an almost impenetrable defensive ar¬
mour, they were alert and skilful in making use of those
*e& which nature has given them for attack
The same author observes, that no crocodiles were
seen at Syene on the river Nile, but that they are to
be met with above the cataracts. “ They seem (he
says) to prefer certain reaches of the river, and parti¬
cularly from Tentyra to Ombos 3 they abound most of
all near Hermontes. We here saw three of them 5 one
much larger than the rest, was nearly 25 feet long:
they were all asleep, so that we could approach them
within 20 paces, and we had time to distinguish all the
O L O G Y
. ' 201
peculiarities which gave them such a hideous aspect. 1 ■ .
I hey resembled dismounted cannon. I fired on one
with a heavy musket 3 the ball struck him, and re¬
bounded from his scales. He made a leap of 10 feet,
and dived into the river f
In the large rivers of Africa, vast shoals of croco¬
diles are seen swimming together, when they exhibit
the appearance of the trunks of large trees floating on
ie water. It is said that the negroes venture to at-
ac , ant 0 ten succeed in killing a single crocodile,
by stabbing it with a sharp instrument under the belly,
where the skin is soft and vulnerable. In some coun¬
tries, we are told, the hunting of the crocodile with
strong dogs is practised for amusement. For this pur¬
pose the dogs are properly trained and instructed 3 and
to protect them against the attack of the crocodile, they
are armed with collars furnished with spikes.
It is even said, that crocodiles are occasionally tamed
m some parts of Africa, and that they constitute an ar¬
ticle ol royal magnificence with some of the African
monarchs, in which case they are kept in large ponds
or lakes. It is well known that crocodiles were ex¬
hibited by the ancient Romans during their public spec¬
tacles. In the edileship of Scaurus, he presented the
people with a sight ol five crocodiles in a temporary
lake ; and one was introduced by Augustus in his tri¬
umph over Cleopatra, for their entertainment.
Var.—A variety of the common crocodile, it is said,
has been found in the river Senegal ; according to M.
Adanson, it has a longer snout, and is almost entirely
black. It is said that it is very rapacious, and has only
been observed in the above river, where the common
crocodiles are very numerous.
2. Lacerta Alligator, T/ie Alligator or American
Crocodile.
Specif. Char—Head flat, imbricated ; neck naked, or
uncarinated 3 tail furnished above with two lateral
lines.
f Ibid, 1S6.
The alligator is considered by some naturalists only
as a variety of the crocodile 3 any differences which
are observable, they suppose, may be ascribed to the
effect of climate. 'Ihey have the same number of teeth,
and their manners and habits are nearly similar in the
old and new world 3 but the difference, although not at
first sight obvious, seems to be fully established from
the more accurate observations of others. The head of
the alligator is smooth, and is not furnished with the
rugosities and hard carinated scales which appear on
the head of the crocodile 3 and besides, the snout of the
alligator is flatter, wider, and more rounded at the ex¬
tremity. The size of the alligator is little inferior to
that of the crocodile. Individuals have been often seen
from 18 to 20 feet long.
Catesby, in his history of Carolina, has given a ful¬
ler account of the economy and habits of the alligator,
than any other author. “ Though the largest, says he,
and greatest numbers of alligators, inhabit the torrid
zone, the continent abounds with them lo° more
north, particularly as far as the river Neus in North
Carolina. In the latitude of about 330, beyond which
I have never heard of any, which latitude nearly an¬
swers to the northernmost parts of Africa, where they are
likewise found, they frequent not only salt rivers near
O 0 3 the
92 E R P E T
Lizards, the sea, but streams of fresh water in the upper parts of
■—■V—the country, and in lakes of salt and fresh water j on the
banks of which they lie lurking among reeds, to sur¬
prise cattle and other animals. In Jamaica, and many
parts of the continent, they are found about 20 feet in
length. They cannot be more terrible in their aspect
than they are formidable and mischievous in their na¬
tures, sparing neither man nor beast they can surprise,
pulling them down under water; that being dead, they
may with greater facility, and without struggle or re¬
sistance, devour them. As quadrupeds do not so often
come in their way, they almost subsist on fish; but as
Providence, for the preservation, or to prevent the ex¬
tinction of defenceless creatures, hath in many in¬
stances restrained the devouring appetites of voracious
animals by some impediment or other; so this destruc¬
tive monster, by the close connection of his vertebrae,
can neither swim nor run any way, but straight forward,
and is consequently disabled from turning with that
agility requisite to catch his prey by pursuit; therefore,
they do it by surprise in the water, as well as by land ;
for effecting which nature seems in some measure to
have recompensed their want of agility, by giving them
a power of deceiving and catching their prey by a sa¬
gacity peculiar to them, as well as by the outer form
and colour of their body, which on land resembles an old
dirty log or tree, and in the water frequently lies float¬
ing on the surface, and there has the like appearance ;
by which, and his silent artifice, fish, fowl, turtle, and
all other animals are deceived, suddenly catched, and
devoured. _ _
“ Carnivorous animals get their food with more diffi¬
culty and less certainty than others; and are often ne¬
cessitated to fast a long time, which a slow concoction
enables them to endure; reptiles particularly, by swal¬
lowing what they eat whole, digest slowly, eat seldom,
and live long without food. Wolves are said to gorge
themselves wfith mud, to supply the want of better food.
Por the like cause, many alligators swallow stones and
other substances to distend and prevent the contraction
of their intestines when empty, and not to help diges¬
tion, which they seem in no need of. For in the greater
number of many which I have opened, nothing has ap¬
peared but lumps of light wood and pieces of pine-tree
coal, some of which weighed eight pounds, and were
reduced and worn so smooth from their first angular
roughness, that they seemed to have remained in them
many months. They lay a great number of eggs at
one time on the sandy banks of rivers and lakes, which
are hatched by the heat of the sun without further
care of the parents. The young, as soon as they are
disengaged from their shells, betake themselves to the
water, and shift for themselves; but while young, they
serve as a prey, not only to ravenous fish, but to their
own species. It is to be admired, that so vast an ani¬
mal should at first be contained in an egg no bigger
than that of a turkey.
“In South Carolina they are very numerous ; but the
northern situation of that country occasions their being
of a smaller size than those nearer the line ; and they
rarely attack men or cattle, yet are great devourers of
bogs. In Carolina they lie torpid from about October
to March in caverns and hollows in the banks of rivers,
and at their coming out in the spring, make a hideous
bellowing noise. The hind part of their belly and tail
3
O L O G Y. Chap. I
are eaten by the Indians. The flesh is delicately white, Lizard(< jU
but has so perfumed a taste and smell, that I never
could relish it with pleasure.
“ The alligators of South America, like the turtles,
deposit their eggs at two or three different periods, at
the distance of several days, and from 20 to 24 eggs
each time. They have been observed to raise a small
hillock near the banks of the river; and, after hollow¬
ing it out in the middle, to collect a quantity of leaves
and other vegetable matters, in which they deposit
their eggs. These are covered with the leaves, and
are hatched by means of the heat extricated during
their putrefaction, along with that of the atmosphere.
The alligators about Cayenne deposit their eggs in the
month of April.”
To the account of the alligator which we have now
given, we add the following particulars concerning its
natural history by Don Ulloa, in his voyage to South
America. The observations were made on the river
Guayaquil ; and we shall detail them in his own words*
“The increase of fish, says he, in this river is great¬
ly hindered by the prodigious numbers of alligators, an
amphibious creature, living both in the rivers and the
adjacent plains, though it is not often known to go.far
from the banks of the river. When tired with fishing,
they leave the water to bask themselves in the sun, and
then appear more like logs of half-rotten Wood thrown
ashore by the current, than living creatures ; but upon
perceiving any vessel near them, they immediately
throw themselves into the water. Some are of so mon¬
strous a size as to exceed five yards in length. During
the time they lie basking on the shore, they keep their
huge mouths quite open, till filled with musquetoes,
flies, and other insects, when they suddenly shut their
jaws and swallow their prey. Whatever may have been
written with regard to the fierceness and rapacity of this
animal, I, and all onr company know from experience,
they avoid a man, and on the approach of any one, im¬
mediately plunge into the water. Its whole body is
covered with scales impenetrable to a musket ball, un¬
less it happens to hit them in the belly near the fore
legs, the only part vulnerable.
“ The alligator is an oviparous creature. The fe¬
male makes a large hole in the sand near the brink of a
river, and there deposits her eggs, which are nearly
equal to those of an ostrich, and as white as those of a
hen, but much more solid. She generally lays about
a hundred, continuing in the same place till they are
all deposited, which is about a day or two. She then
covers them with the sand ; and the better to conceal
them, rolls herself not only over her precious depositum,
but to a considerable distance. After this precaution
she returns to the water, till natural instinct informs
her, that it is time to deliver her young from their
confinement, when she comes to the spot, followed
by the male, and tearing Up the sand, begins break¬
ing the eggs, but so carefully, that scarce a single one
is Injured, and a whole swarm of little alligators are
seen crawling about. The female then takes them on
her neck and back in order to remove them into the
water; but the watchful gallinazos make use of tins
opportunity to deprive her of some ; and even the male
alligator, which indeed comes for no other end, devours
what he can, till the female has reached fhe water with
the few remaining; for all those which either fall from
ap. I. E R P E T
anjg. her back, or do not swim, she herself eats; so that of such
y—a formidable brood, happily not more than four or five
escapes.
“ The gallinazos mentioned in our account of Car-
thagena, are the most inveterate enemies of the alli¬
gators, or rather extremely fond of their eggs, in
finding which they make use of uncommon address.
These birds often make it their whole business to
watch the females during the summer, the season when
they lay their eggs, the sands on the sides of the river
not being then covered with water. The gallinazo
perches in some tree, where it conceals itself among
the branches, and there silently watches the female al¬
ligator till she has laid her eggs and retires, pleased
that she has concealed them beyond discovery. But
she is no sooner under the water, than the gallinazo
darts down on the repository, and with its beak,
claws and wings, tears up the sand, and devours the
eggs, leaving only the shells. This banquet would
indeed richly reward its long patience, did not a mul¬
titude of gallinazos, from all parts, join the fortunate
discoverer and share in the spoil. I have often been
entertained with this stratagem of the gallinazos, in
passing from Guayaquil to the custom-house of Baba-
hoyo 5 and my curiosity once led me to take some of
the eggs, which those who frequent this river, par¬
ticularly the mulattoes, make no difficulty of eating
when fresh. Here we must remark the methods used
by providence in diminishing the number of these de¬
structive creatures, not only by the gallinazos, but
even by the males themselves. Indeed neither the
river nor the neighbouring fields would otherwise be
sufficient to contain them ; for, notwithstanding the
ravages of these two insatiable enemies, their numbers
can hardly be imagined.
“ These alligators are the great destroyers of the
fish in this river, it being their most safe and general
food : nor are they wanting in address to satisfy their
desires, eight or ten, as it were by compact, draw up
at the mouth of a river or creek, whilst others of the
same corps go a considerable distance up the river,
and chase the fish downwards, by which none of any
bigness escape them. The alligators being unable to
eat under water, on seizing a fish raise their heads
above the surface, and by degrees draw the fish from
their jaws, and chew it for deglutition. After satisfy¬
ing their appetite, they retire to rest on the banks of
the river.
“ When they cannot find fish to appease their hun¬
ger, they betake themselves to the meadows border¬
ing on the banks of the river, and devour calves and
colts ; and in order to be more secure in seizing their
prey, take the opportunity of the night, that they may
surprise them in their sleep j and it is observed that
those alligators which have once tasted flesh, become
so fond of it, as never to take up with fish but in cases
of necessity. There are even too many melancholy
instances of their devouring the human species, especi¬
ally children, who, from the inattention natural to
their age, have been without doors after it is dark }
and though at no great distance, these voracious animals
have dared to attack them, and having once seized
them with their mouth, to make sure of their prey a-
gainst that assistance which the cries of the victim never
fail to bring, hasten into the water, where they imme-
O L O G Y.
diately drown it, and then return to the surface and
devour it at leisure.
“ Their voracity has also been felt by the boatmen,
who, by inconsiderately sleeping with one of their arms
or legs hanging over the side of the boat, these animals
have seized and drawn the whole body into the wa¬
ter. Alligators who have once feasted on human
flesh are known to be the most dangerous, and be¬
come, as it were, inflamed with an insatiable desire of
repeating the same delicious repast. The inhabitants
of those places where they abound are very industrious
in catching and destroying them. Their usual method
is by a casonate, or piece of bard wood sharpened at
both ends, and baited with the lungs of some animal.
This casonate they fasten to a thong, the end of
which is secured on the shore. The alligator, on see^
ing the lungs floating on the water, snaps at the bait,
and thus both points of wood enter bis jaws in such a
manner, that he can neither shut nor open his mouth.
He is then dragged ashore, where he violently endea¬
vours to rescue himself, while the Indians bait him
like a bull, knowing that the greatest damage he can
do is to throw down such, as for want of care or agility
do not keep out of his reach.
“ The form of this animal so nearly resembles that
of the lagarto or lizard, that here they are commonly
known by that name j but there is some difference in
the shape of the head, which in this creature is long,
and towards the extremity slender, gradually forming
a snout, like that of a hog, and, when in the river,
is generally above the surface of the water j a sufficient
demonstration that the respiration of a purer air is ne¬
cessary to it. The mandibles of this creature have
each a row of very strong and pointed teeth, to which
some writers have attributed particular virtues j hut all
I can say to this is, that they are such as I and my
companions, notwithstanding all our enquiries to attain
a complete knowledge of every particular, could never
hear any satisfactory account of >
I
3. Lacerta Gangetica, Gangetic or Indian Croco¬
dile,
Vel. i.
300.
Specif. Char.—Jaw somewhat cylindrical, elongated j
tail furnished above with two crests uniting in one
towards the extremity.
In this species, the jaws are long, narrow and straight 5
and the upper mandible is terminated above by an
elevated tubercle. This structure of the snout is
more remarkable in the young animal. The teeth of
this species are more numerous than in the common cro¬
codile, being nearly double the number, and they are
of equal size through the whole length of the jaws.
Excepting that the third and fourth toes, both on the
fore and hind feet are connected together by a web $
the structure of the feet is the same as that of the com¬
mon one. The eyes are extremely prominent ; and it
has been observed, are so constructed, that they may be
raised above the water, when the rest of the body is
under the surface ; by which the animal is enabled to
see its prey either on the surface of the water, or on -
the banks of rivers. In the general form and colour of
the body and limbs, this species resembles the common
crocodile, only the number of transverse bands formed
by the rows of scales on the back, is greater. ,
Itu
. E It P E T
It is a native of India, and is chiefly found in the
Ganges, where it is nearly equal in size to the common
crocodile.
Sect. II. Guanas.
The animals belonging to this section have the back
and tail serrated or carinated.
4. Lacerta Iguana, Common or Great American
Guana.
Specif. Char.—Tail long and round $ back serrated $
gular crest denticulated.
The guana, which of all the lizard tribe is of the
most peculiar form, grows to a considerable size. It is
often seen, three, four, and sometimes five feet long.
The general colour is green, shaded with brown. The
back is strongly serrated 5 which, as well as the denti-
cuiations of the pouch at the throat, gives it a formi¬
dable appearance.
The guana is a native of many parts of America,
and the West Indies, It is said also that it has been
found in some parts of the East Indies. It frequents
rocky and woody places, and feeds chiefly on insects
and vegetables.
The guana itself is reckoned very nourishing and de¬
licate food. The usual method of taking it, is by cast¬
ing a noose over its head, and then drawing it from its
place j for without making any attempt to escape, it
stands with its eyes fixed stedfastly at its discoverer,
while at the same time it inflates its throat to a very
large size.
Catesby has given a good account of the guana,
which we shall detail in his own words. “ They are,”
he says, “ of various sizes, from two to five feet in
length $ their mouths are furnished with exceeding
small teeth, but their jaw is armed with a long beak,
with which they bite with great strength. They inha¬
bit warm countries only, and are rarely to be met with
anywhere north or south of the tropics. Many of the
Bahama islands abound with them, where they nestle
in hollow rocks and trees. Their eggs have not a
bard shell like those of alligators, but a skin only like
those of a turtle, and are esteemed a good food. They
lay a great number of eggs at a time in the earth, which
are there hatched by the sun’s heat. These guanas are
a great part of the subsistence of the inhabitants of the
Bahama islands, for which purpose they visit many of
the remote keys and islands in their sloops to catch
them, which they do by dogs trained up for that pur¬
pose, which are so dexterous as not often to kill them 5
which, if they do, they serve only for present spending :
if otherwise, they sew up their mouths to prevent their
biting, and put them into the hold of their sloop till
they have catched a sufficient number ; which they ei¬
ther carry alive for sale to Carolina, or salt and barrel
up for the use of their families at home. These guanas
feed wholly on vegetables and fruit, particularly on a
kind of fungus growing at the roots of trees, and on the
fruits of the different kinds of anonas. Their flesh is
easy of digestion, delicate, and well tasted. They are
sometimes roasted, but the more common way is to boil
them, taking out the leaves of fat, which are melted
and clarified, and put into a calabash or dish, into which
O L O G Y.
cess, which is covered with a single scale. .
It is a native of St Domingo, where it is said to be
Chap. ]
they dip the flesh of the guana as they eat it. It is re- Lizard.
markable that this fat, which adheres to the inside of
the abdomen, imbibes the colour of the fruit the animal
eats last, which I have frequently seen tinged of a pale
red, yellowq or sometimes of a purple colour; which last
was from eating the prunus maritima, which fruit at
the same time I took out of them. Though they are
not amphibious, they are said to keep under water
above an hour. When they swim, they use not their
feet, but clap them close to their body, and guide them¬
selves with their tails. They swallow all they eat
whole ; they cannot run fast, their holes being a great¬
er security to them than their heels. They are so im¬
patient of cold, that they rarely appear out of their
holes but when the sun shines.”
Dr Browne, in his Natural History of Jamaica, gives
the following particulars of the guana. “ Like most
of the tribe, he observes, it lives a very considerable
time without food, and changes its colour with the
weather, or the native moisture of its place of residence.
I have kept a grown guana about the house for more
than two months : it was very fierce and ill-natured at
the beginnings but after some days it grew more tame,
and would, at length, pass the greatest part of the day
upon the bed or couch, but it went out always at night.
I have never observed it to eat any thing, except what
imperceptible particles it had lapped up in the airj for
it frequently threw out its forked tongue, like the cha-
melion, as it walked along. The flesh of this creature
is liked by many people, and frequently served up in
fricasees at their tables j in which state they are often
preferred to the best fowls. The guana may be easily
tamed while young, and is both an innocent and beau¬
tiful creature in that state.”
Var. Horned guana. This is considered as a va¬
riety of the former. It is nearly the same in size and
general proportion ; the back is also serrated, and the
form of the scales is the same. It wants, however, the
gular pouch, and there are in front of the head, be¬
tween the eyes and nostrils, four pretty large scaly
tubercles, behind which there is a bony conical pro-
very common.
5. Lacerta Amboinensis, Amboina Guana.
Specif. Char.—Variegated, tail long, tail fin radiated,
dorsal suture dentated.
This species, which grows to the length of three
feet, and sometimes more, is at once distinguished by
the singularity of its appearance, and the beauty of its
colours. The head and neck are green, and variegated
with white transverse undulations. The back and tail
are brown, with a shade ot purple. The sides and
belly are grayish, or pale brown; the head is tuber-
culated above, and covered with small roundish scales j
the mouth is wide, and the teeth are sharp and numer¬
ous.
This species is a native of the East Indies, but is
most frequent in the island of Amboina, frequenting
the neighbourhood of rivers and other fresh waters. It
is often seen on the banks of rising grounds, and on
low shrubs which grow near the water. It does not
ascend tall trees. Whenever it is disturbed by the ap¬
proach
E R P E T
proacli of men or any animal, it plunges into the water,
' and conceals itself beneath the rocks or stones under
the banks.. It may be easily taken, as it does not at¬
tempt to bite or defend itself, but seems in some mea¬
sure stupified.
This species, like others of the tribe, deposits its
eggs in the sand, on the banks of the rivers which it
frequents. The eggs in the body of the animal are
disposed in two long groups or clusters, and are of a
yellow colour ; but when they are excluded, they are
white, and ol an oblong shape. The Amboina guana is
reckoned a more delicate food than the common one ;
its flesh is said to be white, sweet, and of a penetrating
odour. °
O L O G Y.
This species in some respects resembles the calotes •
but it wants the strong serratures on the back, in
place of which it has only a small denticulated cari-
na. 1 he bead is proportionally larger, and on the back
part is furnished with sharp-pointed scales, some of which
are reversed at their extremities. The colour is brown¬
ish, and variously clouded. In the male, the crest on
the back is composed of longer spines, and extends to
the lower part.
• ,I(\1S J "at^® of South America, and some of the
islands of the West Indies.
\zr. Lacerta Muricata, Muricated Lizard. Tail
pointed Und ’ b°dy Srayishj Scales carinated and sharp-
6. Lacerta Basilicus, Basilisk.
Specif. Char.—Tail longj dorsal and caudal fins radi¬
ated ; occipital crest pointed.
The basilisk is about one foot and a half in length,
of a pale ash-brown colour, with some darker variega¬
tions about the upper part of the body. In the young
animal, the dorsal or caudal process, and the pointed
occipital crest mentioned in the specific description, are
less distinct.
The. basilisk is chiefly a native of South America.
It resides principally among trees, and feeds on in¬
sects.
It is said to be a very active animal, and by means
of its dorsal crest or fin, it is enabled to spring from
tree to tree. It can also swim with great ease.
This animal has a very formidable appearance, but
is quite, harmless ; but in the poetical descriptions of
the ancients, we find that it was considered to be the
most malignant of all poisonous animals j even its look
was regarded as fatal. The terrific glance of the basi¬
lisk in the African deserts, according to the poetical
representation of Lucan, obliged the rest of the poison¬
ous tribe to keep at a distance.
7. Lacerta Calotes, Gakot Lixard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long and round $ back dentated on
the fore part, and the head on the hind part.
This species seldom exceeds a foot and a half in
length, from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the
fail j but otherwise in its general habit and appearance,
it resembles the common guana. It wants, however,
the gular pouch 5 in its place there is only a slight
enlargement, of the throat. The colour, which occasion¬
ally. varies, is most commonly of an elegant bright blue
variegated with broad, irregular, white, transverse bands
on each side of the body and tail. The limbs are slen¬
der,^ and this is particularly the case with the toes.
.This species is a native of the warmer regions of A-
frica, Asia, and many of the Indian islands. It is very
common in Ceylon. It is said also to be a native of
Spain, where it wanders about the tops of houses, in
search of spiders. According to some, it preys on rats,
and, like some other lizards, attacks small serpents.
8. Lacerta Agama, American Galeot.
Specif. Char—Tail long, round j neck above, and head
elund, aculeated 5 scales of the hind head reversed.
I his lizard, which is considered as a variety of the
preceding, measures more than a foot in length, and has
even been sometimes found to exceed that size. The
want of the reverse scales on the back part of the head
constitutes the principal difference between this and the
iormer species.
It is a native of New South Wales.
9. Lacerta Bicarinata, Bicarinated Lizard.
Specif. Char—Tail of moderate length ; four rows of
strong carinated scales on the back.
In its general habit, this species bears some resem¬
blance to a small crocodile, on account of the hard tu-
berculated and carinated scales on the upper parts of
the body, two rows of which are more prominent than
the rest, and extend from the upper part of the back to
the tail, where they coalesce and form a serrated crest
to the extremity.
The head is small, the mouth wide, and the snout
somewhat sharp. The colour is reddish-brown, tinged
in some parts, with various shades of green.
_ It is a native of South America, where it is some¬
times used as food. The eggs, it is said, are also greatly
esteemed for the same purpose. Woody and marshy re¬
gions are the usual places of its resort. One of this
species, which was kept alive for some time by M. de la
Borde, was observed to remain for hours together in
the water, and when it was disturbed or alarmed, it con¬
cealed itself, but delighted to come out occasionally
and bask in the sun. J
Var. A lizard known by the name of ignaruca, and
said to be a native of Brazil, is considered as a variety
of the preceding, differing only in the colour, which is
darker, and the claws which are shorter ; but, like it,
it has some resemblance to the crocodile, and readily
climbs trees. J
10. Lacerta Monitor, Monitory Lizard.
Specf. Char.—Colour black 5 tail very long, compres¬
sed, carinated j body marked with transverse rows
of white, ocellated.
This is one of the largest of the whole tribe of lizards.
From.the tip ol the nose to the extremity of the tail, it
sometimes measures no less than four or five feet. It is
also one of the most beautiful. The head is small, the
snout gradually tapers, the limbs are slender, and the
tail, which is laterally compressed, gradually decreases
towards the extremity. Indeed the shape altogether is
slender and elegant, and although the colours are simple,
they
296 > ERPET
tteards. they are so disposed as to produce an agreeable and
  pleasing effect. This species is a native of booth
America, inhabiting woody and marshy places.
It is said that the monitory lizard, from the gentle¬
ness of its disposition, is remarkable for its attachment
to mankind, warning them of their danger from the al¬
ligator by emitting a peculiar and shrill sound.
Var. Lacerta Varia> Variegated Lizard.—Although
this lizard is somewhat different in colour, and in the
disposition of its variegations, which are rather of a pale
yellow than white, yet it is considered only as a variety
of the preceding. It is a native of New Holland.
ii. Lacerta Acanthura, Spine-tailed Lizard.
O L O G Y.
Chap.
The general appearance of this species bears some
resemblance to the guana, and still more to the horned
guana, in having the appearance of a pair of sharp
pointed horn-like processes above and beyond each eye ;
between these are placed some aculeated scales. The
size of one which has been described, measures from
12 to 16 inches, from the tip of the nose to the extre¬
mity of the tail. .
It is a native of Asia, and some of the Indian islands.
Liaard
15. Lacerta Scutata, Scutatcd Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail of moderate length, compressed;
dorsal suture dentated j two pointed processes on the
back of the head.
Specif. Char.—Throat plaited beneath j body covered
with minute scales ; tail long, and verticillated with
carinated triple-spined scales.
The length of this species is about a foot and a half.
The head is covered with scales, which are small and
nearly six-sided j it is quite distinct from the body. 1 he
whole skin about the neck, throat, and beginning of the
sides, is quite loose, which in the specimen described,
may have had a pouched appearance. All the other
parts of the body are covered with very small scales.
The tail is very long, and strongly marked into nume¬
rous rings, which are composed of long and strongly
carinated scales, each of which terminates in a lengthen¬
ed point, and produces the spiny appearance. Iheie
are five long toes on each foot j the claws are strong
and sharp. The colour on the upper parts of the body
is glaucous, variegated with small whitish clouds and
marblings. . .
It is described by Dr Shaw from a specimen m the
British Museum.
12. Lacerta Lophura, Sharp-tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body covered with dissimilar scales 5
back serrated j tail long, and somewhat compressed.
This is a very large species ; there are large, rounded,
and oval scales scattered here and there among the
smaller ones. The tail is long and sharp-pointed j the
back and tail are serrated throughout their whole
length. # .
This species is also described by Dr bhaw trom a
specimen in the British Museum.
13. Lacerta Dracaena, Draccer,a Lizard.
Specif. C/wr.—-Large tail; long and denticulated along
the upper part.
This is one of the largest species belonging to the
tribe. Not only in the size of the body, but in the pro¬
portion of the limbs and tail, it exceeds that of the
guana. The colour is brown, with a slight shade of
chesnut. On the outsides of the limbs there are nume¬
rous small pale yellowish spots. The head is small,
and the snout tapering.
It is a native of South America, and some of the
Indian islands $ and it is said that in some countries it
is preferred as an article of food to the guana.
14. Lacerta Superciliosa, Supercilious Lizard.
Specif. C4ar.—Tail carinated ; back and eyebrows ci¬
liated, with upright lanceolated scales.
This species is distinguished from the former by hav¬
ing a proportionally larger head, and a row of scales
more elevated than the rest, passing over each eye j and
from these a ridge is continued towards the back ot the
head, where they unite and extend down the middle of
the back, in form of a short denticulated crest, to the
beginning of the tail. The body is covered with acu¬
minated scales which are but small} the limbs and tail
with larger ones.
16. Lacerta Principalis, Smooth-crested Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail subcarinated j gular crest plain
edge 5 back smooth.
This species is in general of a slender form, and small,
rarely exceeding eight or nine inches in length, includ¬
ing both the body and tail. T he colour is blue, the
head small, and the snout taper.
It is a native of South America.
Var. Lacerta bimaculata, Linn.
This is considered as a variety of the former ; the co¬
lour is blue, spotted here and there with black, with
two larger black spots over the shoulders.'
It Is a native of St Eustatiai and is found also in
Pennsylvania. , . .. , , yv
Var. Le Roquet, of Cepede, is considered by Dr
Shaw also as a variety of the smooth-crested lizard, a->
it resembles it both in size and habit *, it is however
destitute of the gular crest.
It frequents gardens, moving nimbly among trees,
and devours great multitudes of smaller insects.
17. Lacerta Strumosa, Strumous Lizard.
Specif. Char.—T%\\ long, round j breast gibbose, pro¬
jecting.
This is of a small size, has no dorsal serratures, but
is furnished with a large flat gular crest °| a P® e re
colour •, the rest of the animal is of a pale bluish gray,
with some slight shades of a more dusky hue. loe
limbs are slender.
It is a native of South America.
18. Lacerta Marmorata, Marbled Lizard.
Specif ^nr.—-Tail long, round j throat subcrestated j
back smooth.
This species is of a slender and elegant form, and
measures, including the tail, about a foot m en^
hap. I.
ERPETOLOGY.
zard». The head is small, the snout taper. The colour is pale
■“V""1 blue, variegated with undulating transverse bands of a
whitish shade. ’I he belly is of a pale rose colour.
It is a native of America and the West Indies.
24. IiACERTA Angulata, Angulated Li%ard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, hexagonal, and furnished with
carinated and mucronated scales.
19. Lacerta Umbra, Umber Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tall long, round ; neck subcrestated
above j hind head callous j back striated.
Ibis is a small species; the body is covered with
scales, which are carinated and pointed ; the head is
obtuse, and marked on the hind part with a large cal¬
lous bare spot.
It is a native of North America.
This is a small species of a brown colour. Beneath
the throat there are two large rounded scales. The tail
is longer than the body, and strongly marked with six'
longitudinal ridges.
It is a native of America.
25* Lacerta Orbicularis, Orbicular Lizard.
Specif. Char.- Body brown, round ; tail short, round ;
scales muricated.
Sect. III. Cordyles.
Having denticulated or spiny scales, on the body or
tail, or both.
20. Lacerta Pelluma, Pelluma Lizard.
Specif. Char.—lail long, and verticillated with rhom-
boidal scales.
This lizard is about two feet in its total length, and
is distinguished on the upper parts of its body by a
beautiful variety of green, yellow, blue, and black co¬
lours. The under parts of the body are of a glossv
yellowish green.
It is a native of Chili.
21. Lacerta Azure a, Azure Lizard.
Specif Char.—rlail short, verticillated with mucronat¬
ed scales.
This is of a fine blue colour, transversely banded
with black or blue. It is sometimes only a few inches
long, but others are found of a larger size.
The larger variety is a native of South America, the
smaller of some parts of Africa.
22. Lacerta Cordylus, Cordyle Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body smooth ; tail short and verticilla¬
ted with denticulated scales.
This species, at first sight, bears a considerable re¬
semblance to the former ; but the scales which cover
the body, are of an oblong square form, and larger, and
the tail is verticillated with rows of large scales of the
same form. The colour is sometimes blue, sometimes
a livid brown, and the total length is about ten
inches.
23. Lacerta Stellio, Rough Lizard.
Specif Char—Tail verticillated, with denticulated
scales ; body and head muricated.
Ihe whole upper surface of the body is remarkably
tough, from being covered with projecting pointed
scales, it is of a pale bluish brown colour, with some
deeper and lighter transverse variegations. It is about
eight inches long.
This species is a native of many parts of Africa.
^ ol. VIII. Part I. ,
The colour ol this species is dusky brown, variegated
with different shades, the body is large and ventricose,
and in this respect it resembles the toad.
This is a native of South America, but is a rare
species.
Sect. IV. Lizards Proper.
The smface of the body is smooth, and they are ge¬
nerally furnished with broad square plates or scales on
the abdomen.
26. Lacerta Agilis, Green Lizard.
Specif. Cha7'.-—0i a green colour, with minute dusky
variegations. There is a collar of large scales be¬
neath the neck ; tail long, verticillated.
The length of this species is from 10 to 15 inches ;
but it sometimes arrives at such a size as to measure
more than two feet to the end of the tail. The colour
consists of a mixture of different shades of green, with
spots of yellow, brown, black, and sometimes red. The
head is covered with angular scales, and the rest of the
upper parts of the body vvitli small ovate ones. The
tail is longer than the body, and is marked with nume¬
rous rings of oblong square scales.
This species is a native of all the warmer parts of
Europe. It is found in gardens about warm walls,
buildings, &c. It is a very active animal, and pursues
its prey, which consists of insects, with great celerity.
When it is caught, it soon becomes familiar, and may
even in some measure be tamed.
Car. The gray lizard, or little brown lizard, which
is also a native of many parts of Europe, is considered
as a variety of the former. It is about six or eight
inches long, of a greenish brown, or pale grayish co¬
lour. 0 J
This variety is a native of Britain, and is found on
the sides of dry banks or sand hills, where it is occa¬
sionally seen basking during the heat of summer. It is
also found about the roots of trees, old walls, &c.
27* Lacerta Teguixin, Variegated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round; sides somewhat wrink¬
led ; plate under the throat triple.
This species is sometimes larger than the guana.
The head is covered with large scales or plates, and
the body with smaller and square scales. The colour
is extremely beautiful; it consists ofan elegant variega-
L P tioR
298'
Ivzard*.
E R P E T O L O G Y.
Clmp, I,
Cli
tion of black, brown, and purple spots, and a pale bluish,
white, and yellowish ground.
It is a native of South America.
28. Lacerta Erythrocephala, Red-headed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackish green, undulations trans¬
verse and black ; abdomen longitudinally banded with
black, white, and blue j breast black $ top of the
head red.
This species is of a moderate size ; the scales on the
head are largest, and there is a row' of tubercles be¬
neath the thighs.
It is a native of the island of St Christopher.
a double plate, and a row of tubercles beneath the Lizards,
thighs. The legs are long and the feet slender j the't—'"
tail is carried curved over the back, from which it has
been called the lion lizard.
It is a native of the West Indies, where it frequents
the rocks on the sea coast.
U
w-
34. Lacerta Fasciata, Fasciated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour of the body brown ; tail blue and
rather long. There are five yellowish lines down the
back.
This is a small species, rarely exceeding eight inches
in its whole length. The head is short.
It is a native of Carolina, inhabiting hollow trees.
29. Lacerta Cerulea, Ameiva Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour blue, with black and white va¬
riegations 5 tail long, verticillated j abdominal scu¬
ta 30.
The ameiva greatly resembles the green lizard, but
it wants the scaly collar. The scales on the upper part
of the body are not distinctly visible $ those of the ab¬
domen are composed of square plates, and there is a
row of tubercles beneath each thigh.
It is a native of South America, and it is said that
it is sometimes found in Africa and Asia.
30. Lacerta Lemniscata, Striped Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour dusky blue ; eight white lines
down the back 5 limbs spotted with white i tail long,
35. Lacerta Quinquelineata, Five-lined Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour dusky j five whitish lines down
the back ; tail round, and of a moderate length.
This is a small species. The tail is twice the length
of the body. There are six stripes on the head. The
abdomen is imbricated with striae.
It is a native of Carolina.
36. Lacerta Interpunctata, Punctated Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, round •, dorsal lines two, and
yellow, having black specks interspersed.
This is a small species j the body is smooth and
glossy, and the head is covered with large scales.
It is a native of Asia.
round.
This is of a smaller size than the last species, but in
its general appearance bears a considerable resemblance.
The white stripes on the back vary in breadth, and
sometimes in number.
It is a native of Guinea, but is also found in some
parts of India and South America.
31. Lacerta Quadrilineata, Four-striped Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackish blue j four white or yel¬
lowish lines down the back j tail long, round; fore
feet tetradactylous.
This is a smaller species than the last, but resembles
it greatly. The claws are very small.
It is supposed to be a native of North America.
32. Lacerta Tekiolata, Ribband Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body marked above with black and
white stripes j beneath white } tail long and round.
This is a small species ; the colour above is chesnut
brown, and the scales on every part of the body are
smooth, round, and imbricated. From the head to the
middle of the tail there are six white linear stripes.
The limbs are striped longitudinally with black.
It is a native of New Holland.
33. Lacerta Sexlineata, Six-lined Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colours gray brown j six white lines
down the back j tail long, verticillated.
This is a small species. Beneath the throat there is
37. Lacerta Bullaris, Red-throated Lizard.
Specif. Char—Colour green ; gular pouch red •, tail
long, round.
This species is about six inches long, of a shining
grass-green colour. When it is approached, the throat
swells into a globular form, and the protruded skin be¬
comes of a bright red colour. This is supposed to be
a threatening aspect, but probably without foundation.
This species is a native of Jamaica, where it is com¬
mon about hedges and trees.
Var. Green Carolina lizard.—This resembles the
former in every respect, except in the appearance ef
the gular pouch. In dry hot weather it appears of a
bright green colour; but in cold weather this changes
to a brown.
It is a native of Carolina, where it is very common
about houses.
38. Lacerta Cruenta, Red tailed Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown ; ou the neck there are
seven white stripes, and four on the back. Under
the throat there is a plate j the tail is verticillated
and red beneath.
There is a very small species, resembling the lacert*
vetox, but differs from it in having a sharper snout.
The limbs are marked with white round spots ) the tad
is red beneath and white at the tip. There is a row
of tubex-cles on the thighs.
It is a native of the southern parts of Siberia, and n
found about the salt lakes.
39*
hap. I.
izards. 39*
' erpetology.
Lacehta LoBATA, Labe-cheeked Lixard. La- beginning 0f the tail is brown ami dentaled.
certa Aurata, Lin. are biack>
The claws
Specif. Char.—Colour brownish, with a roundish denti’
culated lobe on each side of the neck.
45. La certa Nilotic a, Nilotic Lixard.
This species is of moderate size, and in appearance is
somewhat thick or ventricose. Body rather depressed 5
the head rounded on each side. From the corner of the
mouth extending to the shoulders, there is a flat se-
miorbicular lobe of a red colour, with serrated edges.
The whole of the body is rough, with small pointed
granules.
. I,: i3 a native of the southern deserts of Siberia, and
is found among the sand hills.
Specif -Tail long and triquetrous; body smooth,
with four lines of scales down the back.
This likewise is a small species.
It is a native of Egypt.
46. Lacerta Tiliguerta, 1'iliguerta Lizard.
Specif. Char. -Tail verticillated, twice the length of
the body, and having eighty abdominal scuta.
40. Lacerta Helioscopa, Sun-gazing Lizard.
Specif Char.—Colour brownish ; head rough, with
celli ; a transverse plate beneath the throat ; tail im¬
bricated, thick, at the base, and sharp at the tip.
This is a small species, scarcely exceeding a finger’s
length. . The colour of the upper parts of the body is
gray, with brown and bluish spots and linear streaks.
The neck is often marked above with a red spot. The
tip of the tail is red beneath.
It is a native of the southern parts of Siberia, where
it basks in sunny situatipns, with its head turned up to¬
wards the sun.
41. Lacerta Turcica, Turkish Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour brown ; body roughish ; tail of
moderate length, and somewhat verticillated.
This is a small species ; the head is rather large, and
the body thickish ; the tail short, thick at the base, and
pointed at the tip.
It is a native of eastern countries.
42. Lacerta Platura, Broad-tailed Lizard.
Specif Char.—Colour gray brown, paler beneath ; body
rough ; tail depressed, lanceolated, and spiny on the
margin.
This, like the former, is a small species, measuring
not more than seven or eight inches long. The female
is ot a brown and the male of a green colour, with
black spots. It seems to bear some relation to the green
lizard. b
. c1a natlve Sardinia, where it is to be met with
m fields, about walls, &c.
47* Lacerta Deserti, Desert Lizard.
Specif. Char. Tail round, longish ; feet pentadacty-
ious ; body black above, and marked with six longi¬
tudinal white lines, 6
This is a very small species ; the body is white be¬
neath, and the stripes on the back are composed of ob¬
long spots.
It is a native ot the Urahan desert.
48. Lacerta Arguta, Argute Lizard.
Specif. Char .-—Tail short, verticillated; thick at the
base and filiform at the tip; collar marked with ob¬
scure scales. There is a remarkable double plate
under the neck.
This species is somewhat similar to the green lizard,
but is shorter and more ventricose, and has a sharper
snout.
It is a native of the south of Siberia.
This species is from four to six inches long, and is
remarkably distinguished by the singular form of its tail.
The feet are pentadactylous; the toes slender, and the
claws curved.
It is a native cf New Holland.
43. Lacerta Plica, Plica Lizard.
Specif Char.—Hind head callous; eyebrows excoriated
above; neck plated beneath, and warted at the
sides ; tail long and round.
This is a small species, not exceeding a finger’s
length. It is entirely covered with conical scales;
there is a double plate beneath the throat.
It is a native of South America and India.
44* Lacerta Japonica, Japanese Lizard.
Specif Char.—1 ail long, round ; feet unguiculated ;
> *ore feet tetradactylous; a single stripe on the back.
I his is a small species; the colour above is livid
brown, and the yellow stripe from the hind head to the
49* Lacerta Algira, Algerine Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Tail long, verticillated; two yellow
lines on each side of the body.
This species is about a finger’s length, brown above,
and yellowish beneath.
It is a native of Algiers.
50. Lacerta Velox, Swift Lizard.
Specif Char—Tail longish, verticillated ; scaly collar
beneath the neck; body cinereous, with five longitu¬
dinal paler bands, variegated with black specks ; the
sides spotted with black, and speckled with blue.
This species is much smaller and more slender, but in
other respects comes very near to the lacerta agilis.
The hind feet are marked with orbicular spots.
It is a native of Siberia.
51. Lacerta Uralensis, Ural Lizard.,
Specif CAfir.-—The tail is long and round ; the neck
P P 2 plated
300
Lizards. plated beneath 5 the feet are pentadactylous, and the
's~~—v"——"' back is livid, rugose, and subverrucose.
The length of this animal is about four inches •, the
head is roundish ; the colour of the upper parts is livid
brown, and the skin is wrinkled and slightly tubercu-
lated.
It is a native of the desert of Ural, and moves about
with great swiftness.
52. Lacerta Sees, Sens Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour bluish brown } tail longish, ver-
ticillated j lateral suture reflexed 5 scales square.
This is a small species, and is easily known from the
thin lengthened form of its body, and long slender tail,
as well as from the square scales tvith which it is en¬
tirely covered. The tail is marked with about 50 di¬
visions.
It is a native of the southern parts of Europe.
Sect. V. Chameleons.
These are distinguished by having a granulated skin,
a large head, a long missile tongue and cylindrical tail.
53. Lacerta Chameleon, Common Chameleon.
Specif. Char,—Crown flat; tail cylindrical and incur-
vated; toes united by two and three.
The length of the chameleon, from the tip of the
nose to the beginning of the tail, is about ten inches.
The tail is nearly of the same length. The skin on
every part of the animal is granulated. A series of ob¬
scure denticulations runs down the back, and forms a
ridge on that part. There are five toes on each foot,
tw(Tand three of which are united by a common skin,
as far as the claws ; the two outward and the three inward
toes of the fore feet are united, and the two inward and
three outward of the hind feet. The structure of the
tougue of the chameleon is very peculiar ; it is very
long, and furnished with a dilated somewhat tubular
tip, by which means it is enabled easily to seize in¬
sects, which are its prey, by darting it out and securing
them on the tip.
The chameleon, like others of the amphibia, has the
power of inflating its lungs, and retaining the air for a
long time. It is in this way that it sometimes appears
plump and fleshy, while at other times, when the air is
ejected, and the lungs in a collapsed state, it exhibits
nothing but skin and bone. The natural colour of the
skin of the chameleon is of a bluish ash, and the usual
changes are from this to a green or yellowish colour,
spotted unequally with red. When the animal is expo¬
sed to full sunshine, the darkened side appears in a few
minutes of a pale yellow, with large roundish spots of
red brown •, but when the animal is turned round, the
reverse takes place. The side formerly in the shade
appears of a brown or ash colour, and the other side yel¬
low and red. These changes, however, vary greatly,
both with regard to the disposition of the spots and the
intensity of the colours.
The chameleon is a native of Europe, Africa, and
Asia. It is indeed chiefly found in tropical regions $
Chap. I,
but is also sometimes met with in the warmer parts oi Uzarth.
Spain and Portugal. ^
No animal has been more celebrated than the cha¬
meleon, and particularly on account of the power which
it was supposed to possess of changing its'colour. T bis
account was greatly exaggerated, when it was asserted,
that it could produce this change at pleasure, and assi¬
milate it to that of any particular object. But the more
accurate observations of modern naturalists have shewn,
that this change of colour varies greatly, and seems to
depend on the state of the animal’s health, the tempera¬
ture of the weather, and probably some other unknown
causes. Another erroneous assertion with regard to
the chameleon was, that it could live entirely on air.
This no doubt arose from the long abstinence which
this animal, as well as many others belonging to the
class amphibia, can endure.
54. Lacerta Africana, African Chameleon.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackish 5 crown carinated.
This is one of the largest yet discovered. Along the
back to the end of the tail there runs a pure white
stripe, bounded by a broad blackish band. The other
parts of the animal are variegated with pale ash-colour¬
ed undulations.
It is supposed to be a native of Barbary.
55. Lacerta Pumila, Little Chameleon.
Specif Char.—Body bluish on each side, and marked
with twro yellowish lines.
The head of this species is somewhat flatter than the
former, but still elevated in the middle, and edged on
each side with a denticulated margin.
By some the two latter seem to be considered only
as varieties.
Sect. VI. Geckos.
In the animals of this division the skin is granulated
or tuberculated j the feet are lobated, and tne toes la-
mellated beneath.
56. Lacerta Gecko, Common Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Livid, with brown variegations j upper
part of the body warted, and the lamellae of the feet
not divided.
This animal is said to have received the name of
gecko from the peculiar sound of its voice, which bears
some resemblance to that word when uttered in n shrill
tone. Its length, in general, is about a foot or more,
and therefore it ranks among the middle-sized animals
of the lizard tribe. Its form is thicker and stronger
than the greater part of lizards. Its head is flattisb,
somewhat triangular and large, with a covering of mi¬
nute scales j its mouth is wide, eyes large, teeth small,
and its tongue is broad and flat. TTe limbs of this ani¬
mal are moderately long, with broader feet than the
rest of the tribe j the toes are dilated on the margins,
and beneath are divided into a number of transverse la-
mellse parallel to each other, without any longitudinal
furrow. The general colour of the gecko is a pale
brown,
ERPETOLOGY.
ERPETOLOGY.
hap. I.
L'zarrfs. brown, with ^ome irregular dusky or bluish variega-
J tions; but this colour becomes much more brilliant in
warmer regions.
It is a native of Asia and Africa, and some of the
warmer parts of Europe, inhabiting obscure recesses,
caverns, old walls, &c. It has been supposed to be of a
poisonous nature. A fluid exudes from the lamellse of
the feet, which is said to be extremely acrid ; and when
any of it has remained on fruit, when it is eaten, it is
said that it produces troublesome symptoms. The pe¬
culiar structure of the feet enables the animal to attach
itself to the smoothest surfaces.
Var. Tokai.—This, which is considered as a variety
of the former, is about a foot long. The body is co¬
vered above with a granulated skin, varied with red
and blue undulations ; the belly is ash colour, and in¬
terspersed with red spots j the head is large and trian¬
gular.
This is a native of Siam, where it occasionally enters
the houses, and is considered as a poisonous animal.
The Indian salamander, described by Bontius, seems
to be of the same kind-, the length is about a foot; the
colour sea-green, spotted with red ; the head large,
and like that of a toad; the body is broad and the tail
long..
It is a native of Java. It is said that the inhabitants
hold up the animal by the tail to make it discharge sa¬
liva from its mouth, which is collected for the purpose
of poisoning their arrows.
57. Lacerta Dubia, Geckotte.
Specif. Char.—Livid colour; upper surface covered with
pointed warts ; no femoral papillse.
This species bears some resemblance to the gecko;
but differs from it in being thicker and shorter, and in
wanting the papillae under the thighs. The tail in the
young animal is divided into strongly marked aculeated
rings. These become gradually less conspicuous with
the age of the animal, and are at last totally oblite¬
rated.
It is a native of the south of France, where it is
known by the name of tarente, and is regarded as an
innocent animal. It frequents ruins, walls, houses ;
delights greatly in sunshine, and avoids damp shady
situations. It remains concealed in the hollows of walls
during winter, not, however, in a torpid, but in an in¬
ert state.
58. Lacerta Perfoliata, Perfoliated Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour brownish, smooth above ; lamel¬
lae of the feet divided by a furrow ; tail frequently
turbinated.
This species is of a thicker form, has shorter limbs,
and the tubercles on the hack are less distinct than the
common gecko. It is also different in wanting the pa¬
pillae under the thighs. The tail is remarkably swelled
immediately beyond its origin, and then tapers to the
extremity, somewhat resembling a young turnip root,
from whence it has been denominated lacerta rapi-
canda.
Its native country is not mentioned.
59. Lacerta Mauritanica, Mauritanic Gecko.
Specif Char.—Colour brown, covei-ed above with sharp
warts ; tail flat, and furnished with scuta beneath ;
lamellae of the feet lunulated and divided.
This species resembles the common one, but is dif¬
ferent from being covered with spiny or sharp-pointed
warts on the upper surface. The toes are lamellated
beneath, hut are not divided by a middle sulcus.
60. Lacerta Sinensis, Chinese Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Tail flat, all the toes unguiculated ; face
perforated with several pores.
The head is broad and flat; the teeth small; the
tongue flat, and emarginated at the tip. About the sides
of tlm nose and eyes there are several scattered pores.
It is a native of China, and is frequently seen in
houses, running about the walls, and climbing readily
on the smoothest surfaces. It preys chiefly on the small¬
er kind of cock-roach. It is considered as an innocent
animal.
61. Lacerta Vittata, White-striped Gecko.
Specif. Chat'.—Colour yellowish brown, with a white
dorsal band, which is forked over the head.
This is a small species, not exceeding seven or eight
inches in length ; the head is large in proportion to the
body; the toes are lamellated beneath, divided by a sul¬
cus, and terminated by curved claws. The upper sur¬
face is covered with extremely small tubercles : they
are so minute as to be scarcely perceptible.
This species is said to be a native of India,
62. Lacerta Fimbriata, Fimbriated Gecko.
Specif. Char.—A membranaceous fimbriated border on
each side of the body; tail flat; lamellae of the feet
divided by a furrow.
This is a very remarkable species, which, as the
count de Cepede, who describes it, observes, seems in
some degree to connect the chameleon, the gecko, and
the water-newts. The largest individual which he
examined measured about eight inches and a half in
length. The head is large and flattened, and its out¬
line seen from above is nearly triangular, as in the cha¬
meleon ; but the triangle is of a longer form, and there
is no rising crest. The most remarkable part of its
structure is the fringed process which commences on
each side of the head, and is continued along the sides
of the body. The colour of this animal varies as in the
chameleon, exhibiting different shades of red, yellow,
green and blue.
It is a native of Madagascar, where it is pretty com¬
mon. It is a harmless animal, and yet is regarded with
great abhorrence by the natives, who consider it as of a
poisonous nature, and run from it with great precipita¬
tion. This popular prejudice is supposed to have arisen
from a peculiar habit of the animal, of running with
open mouth towards the spectator, instead of making its
escape when it is discovered. It appears chiefly in rainy
weather, moving about with great agility, and spring¬
ing
3OI
lAraids,
302
EBPETOLOGY. Chap. I
Llaaid?. “‘g from one ^rancl1 of a tree to anotIier in search of
—tinsects, which are its proper food.
63. Lacerta TetradactyLA, Four-toed Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellow, varied with green j tail
flat} feet tetradactylous.
This species is about 12 inches long, and is nearly
allied to the preceding species, except that it wants the
fimbriated margin, and the number of the toes on the
fore feet being only four.
It is also a native of Madagascar, and is not held in
less abhorrence by the inhabitants than the former. It
lives in the woods, appearing in the rainy season during
the night.
64. Lacerta Caudiverbera, Scollop-tailed Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Tail flat, pinnatifid $ feet palmated.
This species, which is a very singular one, is about
16 inches long, and of this the tail measures about one-
half. The head is large and flat, the body thick, and
the limbs short. The fore feet are like the rest of the
species, but the hind feet are strongly palmated. The
tail tapers gradually to the tip, but through its whole
length is edged with a broad deep scolloped fin : this
gradually widens towards the tip, and is considerably
broader than on the sides. The back is marked with
numerous distant red tubercles, each of which is sur¬
rounded by a circle of small white scales. The webs
of the hind feet, and the finny part of the tail, are of a
bright red.
This species is said to be a native of Arabia ; but
being a very rare animal, its natural history is not well
known.
65. Lacerta Schneideriana, Schneiderian Gecko.
Specif Char.—Colour gray j tail convex above and flat
below j a black band on each side of the head 5 la¬
mellae of the feet lunulated and divided.
The colour of this species is cinereous, with a brown
band on each side of the head $ on each side of the body
there is a suture or wrinkling of the skin •, and the tail
is edged with a row of sharper and longer scales than
on the other parts.
66. Lacerta Sparmakniana, Sparmannian Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Body papillated above j tail lanceola-
ted } fore feet tetradactylous.
This is a small species, measuring not more than three
inches in total length. The colour on the upper part
of the body is variegated with darker and lighter
shades ; on the under part it is whitish.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where it
is regarded as a poisonous animal. It is said that the
fluid secreted from its pores, as well as the saliva, pro¬
duces inflammatory tumours, and sometimes even gan¬
grenes.
67. Lacerta Sputator, Spitting Gecko.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, marked above with brown
transverse bands j tail round, furnished with scuta
beneath.
4
The total length of this species does not exceed four Lizards. ^
inches, and sometimes it is Smaller. The scales on the y—J ^
whole animal are smooth and glossy.
It is a native of the island of Eustatia, where it is
found about houses, walls, Sec. When it is alarmed,
it is said to eject from its mouth a black acrid fluid,
which occasions slight inflammation of the skin, and is
usually removed by rubbing the part with camphorated
spirit of wine. . I
Sect. VII. Scinks.
The animals of this division are covered with round«
ed fish-like scales.
68. Lacerta Scincus, Officinal Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour a yellowish brown, with trans¬
verse brown bands on the upper part of the body ;
tail short, compressed at the tip $ upper jaw longest.
The scink is from six to seven inches long, and
sometimes more. The head is rather small, the body
thick and round, and the tail in general shorter than
the body. The surface of the body has a more glossy
appearance.
This species is a native of many of the eastern coun¬
tries. It is very common in Libya, Syria, Egypt, and
Arabia, frequenting dry and sandy soils. It was once
in considerable estimation as a medicine, in leprous and
similar diseases.
This animal is described under the name of cl addat
by Mr Bruce, and is represented as very common in
the province of Atbara in Abyssinia. “ It burrows
says he, in the sand, and performs this operation so
quickly, that it is out of sight in an instant, and ap¬
pears rather to have found a hole than to have made
one ; yet it comes often out in the heat of the day and
basks itself in the sun, and, if not very much frighten¬
ed, will take refuge behind stones, or in the withered
ragged roots of the absinthium, dried in the sun to near¬
ly its own colour. Its length is rather more than six in¬
ches *, though its legs are long it does not make use of
them to stand upright, but creeps with its belly almost
close to the ground. It runs, however, with very great
celerity. It is very long from its shoulder to its nose, ’
being nearly two inches : its body is round, having
scarce any flatness in its belly ; its tail, too, is perfectly
round, having no flatness in its lower part; it is ex¬
ceedingly sharp-pointed, and very easily broken. Yet I
have seen several, where the part broken off has been
renewed, so as scarcely to be discernible. It is the same
length between the point of the tail and the joint of the
hinder leg, as was between the nose and the shoulder ot
the fore leg ; its forehead from the occiput is flat : its
shape conical, not pointed, but rounded at the end, in
shape of some shovels or spades : the head is darker than ,
the body, the occiput darker still. Its face is covered
with fine black lines, which cross one another at right
angles like a net j its eyes are small, defended with a
number of strong black hairs, or eyelashes. Its upper
jaw is longer, and projects considerably over the un¬
der. Both its jaws have a number of short, fine, but
very feeble teeth ; and when holding it in my hand,
though it struggled violently to get loose, it never at¬
tempted to make use of its teeth: indeed it seems to
turn
flap- I- E R P E T
; lizards, turns its neck with great difficulty. Its ears are large,
^ ' open, and nearly round. Its body is a light yellow’
bordering on straw colour, crossed with eight bands of
black, almost equally distant, except the two next the
tail. All these decrease both in breadth and length,
from the middle towards each extremity of the animal.
I he scales are largest along the back. They are very
close, though the divisions are sufficiently apparent.
1 heir surface is very polished, and seems as if varnish¬
ed over. Its legs, from the shoulder to the middle toe,
are nearly an inch and three quarters long. Its feet
are composed of five toes, the extremity of which is
armed with a brown claw of no great strength, whose
end is tipped with black.”
The same author, speaking of the immense multi¬
tudes of lizards which are found in eastern countries,
adds, “ I am positive that I can say, without exagge¬
ration, that the number I saw one day in the great
court of the temple of the sun at Balbec, amounted to
many thousands. The ground, the walls, and the stones,
were covered with them 5 and the various colours of
which they consisted, made a very extraordinary ap¬
pearance, glittering under the sun, in which they lay
sleeping and basking.
69. Lacerta PlUFESCENS, Greater Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish rufous ; feet short j tail
of moderate length.
This species sometimes exceeds 15 inches in total
length. The head is covered in front with large angu¬
lar scales 5 the legs are short and thick; the feet pen-
tadactylous, and furnished with small claws.
It is a native of Arabia and Egypt, living both on
bind and in water. It is frequent on the shores of the
^de. It is also met with in some European islands,
and particularly in the island of Cyprus.
70. Lacerta Longicauda, long-tailed Scink.
Specif. C//ar.—Colour olivaceous yellow; tail very
long.
The great length of the tail in this animal forms the
specific distinction ; the colour, which is greenish yel¬
low, varies in the shade in different individuals.
It is said to be a native of America, and frequents
the sea coasts, where it feeds on small crabs and spi¬
ders. 1
71. Lacerta Maboya, Mabouya Scink.
Specif. Char .—Colour golden yellow; sides brownish ;
jaws equal ; tail of middling length.
The length of this species is about eight inches ; it
greatly resembles the common scink, but differs from it
in tue length of the legs, and the jaws being equal.
It is a native of America, of Jamaica, and some other
West India islands. It is also found in the island of
Sardinia.
72. Lacerta Occidua, Galiiwasp.
SPeeif' Char.—Colour brownish; transverse bands some¬
what waved ; legs short; tail of middling length.
Except being larger, somewhat thicker, and having
Q E ° G Y. 30,
a tail proportionally shorter, this species comes very Lizard*.'
near the greater scink. It is about two feet in total 1 v-—'
length. The teeth are small in front; but as they ap¬
proach the back part of the jaws, they gradually increase
in size, like the molares teeth of the mamifialia.
"I he galiiwasp is a native of the American islands.
It is very common in woody and marshy places in Ja¬
maica, and has been reckoned, but without foundation,
a poisonous reptile.
Var. Lacerta^ scincoides, australasian galliwasp.——
Inis, although it is of a darker colour, has a longer
tail, and larger scales, is considered only as a variety
of the former. On each side of the neck there is com¬
monly a longitudinal brown spot.
It is a native of New Holland.
73. Lacerta Guttata, Spotted Scink.
Specif. Char.—Colour gray, spotted with white; tail
long, marked with four transverse black bands, and
black tip.
This species does not exceed three inches in length.
It is a native of the Ural desert.
74. Lacerta Ocellata, Ocellated Scink.
Specif Char.—Colour greenish gray, white beneath,
marked above with roundish ocellated brown spots,
which have white rectangular disks.
This species is about a span long. The body is de¬
pressed ; the feet are short and pentadactylous. It has
no femoral warts.
It is a native of Egypt, and frequents houses.
Sect. VIII. Salamanders, Newts or Ffts.
I he species included under this sectioA have soft
Bavins, and some of them are water ]iz.ard$.
75* Lacerta Salamandra, Salamander.
Specif. Char— Colour black, spotted with golden yel¬
low ; tail round, and of moderate length.
The colours of the salamander afford sufficient marks
of distinction. It is ot a deep shining black, variegated
with large oblong and irregular spots of bright orange
yellow. The sides are marked with many large trans¬
verse wrinkles. The parotid glands form protuberances
on each side of the head. On the back and sides of the
body there are several large open pores, from which is
exuded a peculiar fluid, which serves to lubricate the
ekin. This fluid is of an acrid nature ; and when the
animal is irritated, is copiously secreted, and even it is
supposed, ejected to some distance for its defence. It is
in general from seven to eight inches in length. Some¬
times it is seen entirely black.
The salamander is a native of many parts of Germany,
Italy, I lance, and other parts ot Europe, delighting in
moist shady places, woods, &c. During the winter it
conceals itselt in recesses under ground, in the cavities
of old walls, or about the roots of pld trees.
Ibis species lives chiefly on insects, small snails, &c.
It is capable of living in waters as well as on land, and
sometimes resorts to stagnant pools. It is slow in its
motions, and torpid in its manners.
The
E R PE T
The salamander is viviparous. The young are pro¬
duced perfectly formed in the same way as the viper.
It is said that it retires to the water to deposit its young,
the number of which at one birth amounts to 33 4®>
and when they are first excluded, they are furnished
with branchial fins on each side of the neck, which are
temporary organs, and are afterwards obliterated like
those of the tadpole.
Many popular errors concerning the salamander have
long prevailed. One of these was, that it was a veno¬
mous animal, and that its poison is of so malignant a
nature, as scarcely to admit of any remedy. It is now,
however, found from the observations of later naturalists
to be perfectly innocent, and although the fluid secreted
from the skin may be noxious to smaller animals, it is in¬
capable of inflicting either wound or poison on any large
animal. In an experiment made on purpose, agray lizard,
which had bitten a salamander, and swallowed some of
the fluid secreted from the skin, was almost immediate¬
ly seized with convulsions, and soon after died. It was
another popular error that the salamander could exist
uninjured in the fire, and that it could even extinguish
it by means of the fluid secreted from its skin. This
fluid, it is probable, is secreted in greater abundance
when the animal is exposed to heat, and thus it is pro¬
tected for a short time against the action of the fire,
which can produce no effect till the moisture on the
skin is evaporated ; and from this circumstance, and
hasty observation, has arisen the improbable story of its
being able to resist the action of fire.
76. Lacerta Vulgaris, Common Newt.
Specif. Char.—Colour yellowish brown $ dorsal line
double ; abdomen orange-coloured, spotted with
brown.
This species is the smallest of the British lizards,
the general length not exceeding three inches and a
half.
It is a native of Europe, and is found in gardens in
the neighbourhood of dunghills, &c. Like the slug
and toad, it makes its way into cellars. It is altogether
a land species, and it seems to be viviparous j for some
of a very small size, yet perfectly formed, have been dis¬
covered at a very great distance from any water.
77. Lacerta Palustris, Great TFater Newt.
Specif. Char.—Colour blackish *, sides speckled with
white > abdomen orange, with irregular black spots.
This species is small in size, and marked with a
different distribution of colours, but in its general ap¬
pearance it bears a considerable resemblance to the sala¬
mander. It is from five to six inches in length. The
tail is flat, with thin sharp edges, and terminating in a
point j on each side of it in the male there is a silvery
white broad band, accompanied with a bluish tinge.
This stripe and the dorsal crest are sometimes wanting
in the female. . .
It is a native of Europe, but is rare in Britain. It
frequents stagnant waters in cool shady places, and lives
entirely on insects. It is to larger animals quite in¬
noxious ; but the fluid exuded from its skin seems to
act as a poison on small animals.
O L O G Y. t Chap, I,
78. Lacerta Aquatica, Common Tfrater Newt. Lizards,
Specif. Char.—Colour olive brown, spotted with black *,
abdomen orange-coloured ; tail sharp-edged and sinu-
ated.
The general length of this species is from three to
four inches. The male is readily distinguished from
the female by a conspicuous dorsal crest, which is more
elevated, and more regularly situated than that of the
former species. This broad crest is very transparent,
and when examined with a magnifying glass, shews the
ramifications of the blood vessels and the circulation
of the blood. In the female the dorsal crest is near¬
ly wanting. The colour of the male is olive brown,
marked with numerous round black spots, which are
largest on the sides and tail. The female is of a pale
yellowish brown, and the spots are much less distinct.
The fore feet are tetradactylous; the hind feet penta-
dactylous, and in all the claws are wanting; but vvith
regard to the colour, the breadth of the tail, and that
of the toes, it ought to be observed, that the water
newt, at different times of the year, different states of the
weather, and even in the course of the same day, is sub¬
ject to considerable variation.
This species is a native of Europe, and is met with
in Britain in all soft stagnant waters.. .
This animal breeds early in the spring, and deposits
small oblong strings or clusters of spawn. The ova,
according to Spallanzani, are of a kidney shape, and
the larva are ready formed, because long before they
leave the gluten, their motions are brisk and frequent.
In about 10 days they extricate themselves from the
gluten. When they are first excluded, the branchial fins
are distinctly seen, and soon after the fore legs appear.
After a fortnight the hind legs are visible, and about
the beginning of September the branchial fins become
obliterated, and the animal assumes its perfect form.
While the animal remains in the larva state, it is fur¬
nished with a triple pair of ramified branchial fins on
each side of the neck, which gives it the appearance of
a small fish. _ ,
The water newt frequently casts its skin, which
may be occasionally seen floating on the waters which
they frequent, and is sometimes so perfect as to repre¬
sent the whole form of the complete animal. . 1 he repio-
ductive power of the water newt is a striking circum¬
stance in its natural history. They have been known
to have their legs, tails, and even the eyes, according to
some, completely restored, after they were cut oil or de¬
stroyed. This animal is also remarkable for its tenaci¬
ty of life. Cases have occurred in which the water
newt has been found completely _ inclosed in a mass oi
ice, in which it must have remained for weeks, or even
months, and yet, when the ice is melted, the animal
was restored to its former health and vigour. Yet it is
very readily destroyed by the application of certain
substances. The water newt, immersed in salt water,
soon dies ; or even by having common salt rubbed on
the back for a short time.
79. Leverian Water Newt.
This is a very large species of the water neyVt, de¬
scribed by Dr Shaw, and of which there is a specimen in
the Leverian museum. The total length is inches.
1
U
2
hap. I. E R P E T
Lizards.^ an,l 0f tin's the (ail measures 6£ inches. The head is
flattened, the mouth moderately wide, and the upper
jaw is furnished in front with two concentric rows of
numerous, small, bristly teeth. The under jaw has on¬
ly a single row. The eyes are small, round, and situ¬
ated on each side of the front of the head, so that they
are very remote from each other. The colour is pale
brawn, marked in a confluent manner with darker va¬
riegations. The* legs are about one inch in length, and
they are all furnished, along their whole length behind,
with a dilated skin or crest. The tail is like that of
the common water newt, but is shorter, and less deeply
fumed.
Its native country, and farther particulars of its na¬
tural history, are unknown.
So. Laceuta Maculata, Spotted JFater Newt.
Specif. Chat'.—Colour blackish 5 a double row of white
spots down the back.
The length of this species is about five inches. The
bead is large ; there are four toes on the fore feet, and
five on the hind. The colour is deep brown, and the
double row of white spots, which begins at the top of
the head and continues to the tail, becomes a single row
to the end.
It is a native of Carolina, and inhabits ponds, ditches,
and stagnant wraters.
Sect. IX. Snake Lizards.
The species belonging to this section have very long
bodies, and short legs.
81. LacErta Chalcides, Chalcides Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Colour ferruginous ; feet tetradactylous;
body long, and marked with six brown dorsal lines.
'I he usual length ol this animal is about eight or nine
inches; but it is sometimes found only a few inches
long, and sometimes exceeds a foot. The head is an¬
teriorly covered with large scales ; the snout is taper¬
ing; the eyes are small, and the openings of the ears
are very distinct. The colour is ferruginous or ches-
nut brown above, and yellowish brown beneath.
This animal is a native of Africa and the warmer
parts of Europe, frequenting moist shady places. It is
quite inoffensive, and feeds on insects, small worms,
&c. The motions of the chalcides are rather slow. It
is viviparous, and is said to produce a great number of
young.
82. Annulated Chalcides. Chalcide Cepede.
This is nearly allied to the former, but diflers from
it in having square scales, and in being marked through
its whole length with a continued series of annuli or
rings, to the number of 48. I he length of the body is
about 2? inches, and is somewhat shorter than the tail.
The feet are shorter than in the former species, and are
all tetradactylous.
The native country of this species is unknown.
83. Lacerta Serpens, Serpent Lizard.
Specif. Char. Head, body, and tail cylindrical; feet
small, remote, pentadactylous.
VOL. VIII. Part I. f
O L O G Y.
The length of this species is about 5I- inches. The
colour is cinereous or pale ferruginous above, marked
with from 15 to 20 dusky lines : beneath it is ash co¬
loured, with a silvery gloss. It is entirely covered with
imbricated scales.
This animal is a native of Java.
84. Lacerta Anguina, Snake Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body long; tail very long; feet oval¬
shaped, and without toes.
1 he body of this species measures four, the whole
length 15 inches. The colour is brown above, ash-co¬
loured ori the sides, yellowish beneath, and the upper
surface is marked throughout its whole length with se¬
veral dark stripes. The head is small; the legs very
short, and placed near the head and vent, and seem¬
ingly terminated in one undivided process. The whole
body is covered with ovate scales.
It is a native of the Cape ol Good Hope, and is fre¬
quently found in the water, and about the rocks in
Table bay.
85. Lacerta Apus, Apodal Lizard.
Specif. Char.—This snake-formed lizard is ferruginous,
has no fore feet, and its hind feet are very short and
monodactylous.
I he chalcides itself does not approach so near to
the snake tribe as this large and singular species of the
lizard. It measures almost three feet in length, and its
general appearance bears such a striking resemblance to
• a large snake, that it requires a very attentive exami¬
nation to ascertain the difference; as it has only a pair
of extremely short-pointed processes by way of feet, at
a great distance from the anterior parts of the body, al¬
most on either side of the vent, and without toes. The
head is rather large, and covered with large scales ; the
snout is tapering ; the upper jaw projects a little over
the lower ; the mouth is of a moderate wideness, and
the ears are very visible. There is no appearance of
a neck, as the body gradually tapers from the head to
the extremity of the tail, which is longer than the body,
and terminates in a point. The whole animal is cover¬
ed with rows ol scales of a moderately large size, in a
longitudinal direction, and emarginated at the tips.
From the head to nearly half the length of the tail, a
deep continued channel runs along each side of the bo¬
dy. Its colour is a pale chesnut, and beneath a pale
yellow-brown.
Two specimens of this lizard were brought from
Greece by Dr John Sibthorp, professor of botany in the
university of Oxford. It is rather a singular circum¬
stance that an animal of such magnitude should have re¬
mained so long unknown to the inquisitive naturalist.
It is a native of Greece, of the southern parts of
Siberia, and unquestionably of many other parts both
of Europe and Asia, although the knowledge of it has
been but lately acquired, the first describer of it being
Dr Pallas, by whom it was found in the south of Sibe¬
ria. It frequents moist and shady places, and, as far
as is yet known, is an innocent animal.
86. Lacerta Bipes, Biped Lizard.
Specif Char.—Long bodied, cylindrical, pale yellow,
Q q speckled
E R P E T
speckled with brown, having no fore feet; hind feet
very small, and didactylous.
Tills species, which is not larger in diameter than that
of a goose quill, measures about six inches in length;
its colour is a pale yellow, spotted with brown; the head
is small, body cylindrical, tail short and taper; on each
side of the vent there is a small subulated foot, which
is furnished with two small unequal toes#
It is a native of India and £>outh America.
87. Lacerta Lumbricoides, Lumbriciform Lizard.
Specif. Char.—Body cylindrical, two-footed, and annu-
lated with square scales, having a lateral furrow, and
no hind feet.
This is about eight inches long, and half an inch in
diameter. The whole body, including head and tail,
O L O G Y. Chap. II.
is of the same diameter, and is covered with rings of Anatomy,
square scales. Along each side there is a continued -v—u
furrow, which separates the upper and lower surfaces.
The legs are two, very short, and placed near the head.
They are divided into five minute toes, which are fur¬
nished with claws. The colour of the living animal is
supposed to have been green, and paler beneath.
It is a native of Mexico.
Number of species in each genus, included under the
order Reptiha.
Testudo,
Kan a,
Draco,
Lacerta,
39
48
2
87
Total
176
CHAP. II. OP THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP REPTILES.
HAVING in the former chapter taken a brief and
comprehensive view of the classification, and such par¬
ticulars of the natural history ol reptiles, as were con¬
nected with the different species, we now proceed to
give a slight sketch of the anatomy and physiology of
this order of animals. These shall be the subjects ol the
two following sections. In the first we shall treat of
the anatomy, in the second of the physiology of reptiles.
Sect. I. Of the Anatomy of Reptiles.
covered sometimes with a shell both above and below ;
this bony covering protects the animal from external
injury. With such a covering the genus tortoise is
furnished.
In the sketch which we propose to give of the
anatomy of reptiles, the parts of the body may be di¬
vided into external and internal; the external parts
comprehend the head, the trunk, the tail, and the feet.
Under the internal parts are included the skeleton, the
muscles, and the viscera.
Between this order of animals, and the quadrupeds
belonging to the class mammalia, there are many points
of resemblance, making allowances lor the difference of
size ; and hence they have been denominated ovipa¬
rous quadrupeds. This resemblance, however, only ex¬
tends to external appearance.
The body of reptiles is supported by four feet, and
these form the principal external character. They are
disposed like those of the mammalia, two before and
two behind. With the exception of some animals which
have been arranged under this order, and which have
only two feet, all reptiles are furnished with four
feet.
The body is furnished with a tail, which is different
from that of quadrupeds, in having no hair. This is
common to the tortoises and the whole of the lizaid
tribe. The genus ra?ia is an exception to this. All
the species included under it Are unprovided with a
tail. . . .
The body is either lengthened, that is, when it is
considerably longer than broad, as is the case with
lizards ; or rounded, that is, when the body, seen from
above, exhibits an orbicular form, as in the tortoise and
some toads.
With regard to the surface of the body, it is never
covered with hairs, but sometimes with scales; such are
reptiles without a tail, the salamanders and some lizards.
It is sometimes covered with inequalities or asperities,
the whole surface being rough with elevated points,
which resemble warts or pustules. This is the case with
some lizards, and several frogs and toads. The body is
External Raids of the Body.
1. The Head.—The head is that part of the body
which is articulated with the first vertebra of the neck.
It is rounded, that is, when its external surface is round
in every direction, as is the case with tortoises ; or flat¬
tened or depressed, when it is compressed above and be¬
low, which is the case with almost the whole order ; or
triangular, when the head, seen from above, represents
a triangle, as in some toads and frogs.
The mouth is semicircular, when the outline forms a
semicircle, as in the genus rana, and in almost all the
lizard tribe ; or inferior, when the upper jaw comes
over the lower, so that the mouth necessarily occupies
the lower part of the head. This is the case with the
tadpole. .
The beak or snout either forms an inclined plane
from the top of the head to the end of the jaws, as in
the chameleon, and many lizards ; or conical, when the
two jaws gradually diminish, as in the ciocodile, or
reflected upwards, when both jaws are flattened and
turned upwards towards the extremity ot the beak ;
^ or rounded, when they are thick and ventricose to¬
wards the extremity, as in several tortoises ; or point¬
ed, when the upper jaw terminates like the beak of a
bird. , f .
The jaws, are either equal, as m most part ot the
Tenps rana, in many of the lizards, and salamanders ;
or unequal, as is the case with many of the tortoises and
lizards, in which case, the upper jaw is always the
longest. Among the whole order of reptiles, there is
!c
ik
Hi
ni
i iimp. II. E R P E T
natomy. no instance of the contrary j that is, of the lower jaw
—y-—' being longest, and perhaps this structure would be in¬
convenient, or incompatible with the nature of the ani¬
mal, or its habits and mode of life.
A common error long prevailed with regard to the
motion of the jaws of the crocodile. It was asserted,
that this animal only moved its upper jaw j but the
more accurate observations of later anatomists have
proved the contrary, and that the articulations of the
head and jaws of this animal are precisely the same
as in other quadrupeds. The head is articulated with
the last vertebra of the neck, and the lower jaw is arti¬
culated with the upper, so that the former, namely the
lower jaw, only has the power of motion.
Ail the animals belonging to the order of reptiles,
are not furnished with teeth. The tortoises and some
lizards, have none. All the species belonging to the
genus rana may be considered also as having none, the
jaws being only crenulated or notched ; but in other
tribes belonging to this order, the teeth are conical,
as those of the crocodile, which are hollow, and filled
with a soft substance ; or recurved, when the extremity
of the tooth turns backward towards the throat, as in
the Indian crocodile $ or straight, as in most of the
lizard tribe ; compressed at the sides, as in the guana;
or notched, when the summit of the tooth is truncated
and crenulated, as in the horned lizard.
Tongue.—In almost all the tribes of animals belong¬
ing to this order, the tongue is peculiarly fitted for
seizing their prey. The form of it varies in all the
families. Another error has prevailed with regard
to the tongue of the crocodile. It was said that it had
no tongue, but in place of it is furnished with a strong
membrane, which adheres to the two edges of the lower
jaw. Even the observations of later naturalists tend to
confirm this error. Denon, who had numerous oppor¬
tunities of seeing the crocodile both dead and alive, in
its native haunts on the borders of the Nile, believes in
this opinion, that the crocodile has no tongue ; but it
does not appear that any accurate anatomical inspection
was made to ascertain this point, or indeed that he was
accompanied by any anatomist at all, by whom alone
the truth or falsehood of the opinion could be investi-
Twue of gated. This organ of the crocodile, however, is very
tl» roco- large, and even proportionally larger than that of the
ox, but it is strongly connected with the sides of the
lower jaw, and being thus fixed or tied down, can¬
not be stretched forwards, as is the case with other
animals.
In some of the animals belonging to this order, the
tongue is nearly of equal length and breadth. This is
the case with the tongue of frogs, tortoises, the sala¬
mander, and the guana.
In some it is very narrow at the base, and divided in
two at the extremity, as in most of the lizard tribe,
which are thus furnished with a bifid tongue.
0l‘hcha- the structure of the tongue of the chameleon, is
perhaps the most singular of any belonging to the order.
It is composed of a white solid flesh, 10 inches Ions',
and about three broad. It is round, and flattish to¬
wards the end 5 hollow and open, somewhat resembling
the termination of the trunk of the elephant. The
tongue is attached to the os hyoides by a kind of trunk,
of the shape of an intestine, about six inches long, and a
O L O G Y. 307
line in breadth. This trunk is famished externally Anatomy,
with a membrane, and internally with a soft, but solid
and compact, nervous substance, which is with dif¬
ficulty divided into fibres. It is by means of this trunk
that the tongue, which is attached to it, is projected
from the mouth. This is done by the extension of the
trunk, and it is again drawn back by its contractile
power. Ihese motions are performed by a kind of
cartilaginous stilus, to which the investing membrane
is attached, and over which it is plaited like a silk
stocking on the leg. This stilus is an inch long, and
originates from the middle of the base of the os hyoides.
In consequence of this extensile and retractile power
which the tongue of the chameleon possesses, it has ob¬
tained the epithet of vermiform, because in those mo¬
tions it resembles those of an earth-worm.
There is no great peculiarity about the nostrils of Nostrils,
any ol this order of animals. In general they are al¬
most always of a round form. In some, however,
they are lunulated, or shaped somewhat like a crescent,
the horns of which are turned backwards. This is the
case with the nostrils of the crocodile.
I he eyes, as in most other animals, are placed on Eyes,
the sides of the head 5 but in some they are vertical, or
placed on the top of the head, as in several of the toads
and the crocodiles j approximating, when the distance
between the eyes is very small ; or protuberant, when
the globe of the eye on each aide forms a considerable
projection, as in those belonging to the genus rana, the
crocodiles, and the salamanders.
.The nictitating membi'ane, which is peculiar to some
birds, belongs also to some of the animals of this order.
By means of extending this membrane over the eye, the
excessive brightness of sunshine, to which many of them,
being natives ol warm climates, are exposed, is greatly
moderated, and perhaps this membrane may be use¬
ful to those animals of this order which frequent the
water.
The ii-is of the eye is differently coloured in the ani¬
mals of this order. In many it is red $ in the chameleon
it is of a golden yellow colour.
Externally, the ears of reptiles do not exhibit any Ears,
remarkable peculiarity. The opening is more or less
round, and it is usually covered with a membrane.
There is no external ear, by which the vibrations of
the air might be collected, and conveyed to the sense
of hearing j from which it has been concluded, that
this sense is more obtuse than in quadrupeds.
2. The Trunk.—The trunk of the body includes
the neck, the breast, the back, the ribs, the abdomen,
and the anus ; and some of these parts, in different rep¬
tiles, present considerable varieties.
The neck, which unites the head with the trunk, isj^k
very different in the different tribes belonging to this
order. In all those included under the genus Buna,
the bead is so closely attached to the trunk, that the
neck is scarcely to be distinguished. In others, how¬
ever, it is considerably elongated, and quite distinct, as
in the crocodile and the salamander. The neck is also
pretty long in some of the tortoises. Sometimes it is
covered with wrinkles or folds, when the skin forms
several transverse wrinkles, as in the neck cf some of
the tortoises.
The breast or thorax is situated on the anterior part Thorax.
Q q 2 of
fJalipash of
the turtle.
Ribs.
Abdomen.
Calipee*
E R P E T
of the trunk j it forms a close cavity which is covered
beneath by the sternum, on the sides by the ribs, and
above by the vertebrae at the back bone.
The back is the upper part of the trunk, extending
from the last vertebra of the neck to the first of the
tail. In reptiles it is sometimes convex, sometimes
more or less flattened. It is either furnished with scales,
when there extends along the superior surface a row of
scales from the neck to the extremity of the tail, as in
the ^uana and horned lizard; or it is furnished with a
toothed suture, when the upper extremity of the trunk
terminates in a notched ridge, as in the chameleon ot
the Cape ; or is supplied with a kind of radiated fin,
somewhat resembling the fin of a fish, as in the basilisk ;
or it is protected with a strong bony covering, known
by the name of calipash. This is the name by which
the bony covering of the turtle is distinguished. rIhis
covering is composed of different pieces closely united
to each other, and they are sometimes smooth and con¬
vex, sometimes striated and flat, disposed in three rows ;
and there are about 24 pieces situated on the edges of
this covering.
The ribs include the lateral parts of the trunk, from
the neck to the anus. In the tortoises, the ribs are de¬
fended by the edges of the calipash, which is here unit¬
ed with the inferior shell, or bony covering.
The abdomen or belly constitutes the inferior part of
the body, and extends from the extremity of the breast
or thorax to the anus. In the tortoises, this part is
composed of a bony covering $ and in some species be¬
longing to this tribe, there are openings in those places
which correspond to the head, the four feet, and the
tail $ but in some other species, as in the testudo clausa,
there is no opening whatever, but the bony covering is
transversely divided into two parts, which play on a
kind of hinge, so that when the animal wishes to move,
it opens the anterior division to put out the head and
the fore feet \ and in the same way for the opening be¬
hind. This inferior bony covering is united with the
upper one by means of a cartilage placed near the mid¬
dle of the body. This is usually known by the name
of calipee. Sometimes the abdomen is covered with
plates or scuta, which is the case with most of the li¬
zards, which have on the inferior surface of the body,
very large plates regularly arranged.
The anus is not only the passage for the evacuation
of the excrement, but is besides the canal in which are
contained the parts of generation of the male lizaids
and tortoises. The males of the animals belonging to
the genus Rana, which are destitute of these parts, eject
by this opening the fluid which impregnates the ova ot
the female.
3. The Tail.—This part terminates the trunk. Many
reptiles, as those belonging to the genus Rana, have no
tail whatever *, but the animals belonging to the other
genera of this order are furnished with a tail of differ¬
ent lengths. The tail is covered with scales, as in al¬
most all the lizards; and these scales are sometimes dis¬
posed in rings or circular bands, as in several lizards ;
or they are somewhat elevated, forming a kind of
notched appearance on the upper surface of the tail, as
in the guana.
4. The Feet.—The feet of the animals belonging
to this order greatly resemble those of quadrupeds j
their position and articulations are nearly the same, but
4
O L
O G Y. Chap. II
they are much shorter, and placed at a greater distance Anatomy,
from each other. The feet terminate in a certain num-
her of toes, and thence, according to the number of the
toes, assume different names j as tridactylous, tetradac-
tylous, &c. The structure of the toes is similar to that
of other animals. They are separated from each other,
as in. lizards j palmated, when united by means of an
intermediate membrane, as in the hind feet of the frog j
furnished with nails or claws at the extremity, which
are sometimes flat, as in the frogs j or hooked, as in
the lizards j or destitute of nails or claws, as in the
salamander.
Internal Parts.
Under the internal parts are included the skeleton,
the muscles, and the viscera.
1. The Skeleton.—With regard to the skeleton of
reptiles, it may be observed, that the structure of the
bones is less complicated than that ot quadrupeds, and
the texture is less compact. They possess at the same
time somewhat of the transparency of cartilages. '1 he
bones may be divided into those of the head, the neck,
the thorax, the spine, the tail, and the feet.
The bones of the head are composed of those of the Bones of
cranium, and those of the lower jaw. In the greatest1116 heai1,
number of reptiles, the cranium consists of a single bone.
The bone of the upper jaw, and that of the forehead,
are completely united in the crocodile, the chameleon,
and some others. They do not seem to be separated
by any distinct suture. The lower jaw of the chame¬
leon terminates on each side in a separate bone, which
unites on one hand with the region of the temples, and
forms on the other an angular articulation with the
3avv*
The bones of the r.eck are composed of a series of Of the
vertebrse, the number of which varies in the different ne«h.
tribes of this order. The species belonging to the genus
Rana have no cervical vertebrae ; but in the other tribes
the number varies, as has been mentioned, as will ap¬
pear from the following table.
Chameleon,
Most of the Lizards,
Crocodile,
Tortoise,
Number of Vcilebne.
2
The number of processes with which the vertebrse
are furnished, also varies. In those of the chameleon
there are seven ; but in those of the crocodile, there
are nine, viz. five above, and four below.
The bones of the thorax comprehend those of theofthe
vertebral column, corresponding to this cavity, the ribs,thoiax.
and the sternum. The vertebrre, which correspond to
the cavity of the thorax, are not the same in all the in¬
dividuals belonging to this order. In the crocodile
there are only 12, but in the chameleon, the number
amounts to 18. Each of these vertebrae is in general
furnished with seven processes, which are sometimes
simple and sometimes spiny.
The ribs are wanting in the reptiles belonging to the Ribs,
genus Rana: the salamander also is destitute of ribs.
In the other tribes they are always found, but unequal
in number. In the tortoise there, are eight on each
side ; in the crocodile 12 J in the chameleon 18. The
' ribs
flap. II.
E R P E T
lisitomy,
T^v 
Slnutn.
Sptf.
Ft
Sci !a.
ribs are articulated with one vertebra only j but in the
structure and articulations of these bones there is a pe¬
culiarity in the crocodile and chameleon. The two
first and the two last ribs of the crocodile do not termi¬
nate in the sternum. The cartilages which attach the
other eight are broken, so that each rib from the verte¬
bra to the sternum is composed of three parts, one of
which is bony, the other two cartilaginous. In the
chameleon the two first anterior ribs are not supported
by the sternum j the four following are attached to it
by means of appendages, which form at the point of
junction an angle with the ribs, and which are not
composed of a substance purely cartilaginous, but as
hard as that of the ribs. The 10 other following ribs
do not reach the sternum. Each is joined to that which
is opposed to it by a bony appendage, forming an arch
on the middle of the thorax and abdomen. The three
last are loose, separated, and as it w'ere truncated in the
middle.
The sternum or breast-bone is a fiat bone, placed on
the anterior part of the thorax, the figure and dimen¬
sions of which vary considerably. In the crocodile
this bone reaches to the third rib ; it is composed of a
single piece, having at its upper part a kind of carti¬
lage which forms a point towards the throat, and which
enlarging at the sides covers the clavicles. The ster¬
num of the chameleon and the frog is composed of four
bones, the first of which is very large.
The back bone comprehends the vertebrre which
occupy the upper part of the back, including those of
the loins. In the chameleon there are 22; in the cro¬
codile 19, and in the gray lizard 22.
The vertebrae of the tail form the posterior extremi¬
ty of the spiral column. Their number is always pro¬
portional to its length. The tail of the chameleon is
furnished with 50 vertebrae; that of the crocodile 33,
and that of the gray lizard 60. All these vertebra
are furnished with transverse, oblique, and spinous pro¬
cesses, excepting those towards the end of the tail,
which are usually destitute of the oblique processes.
The bones of the feet bear a considerable resem¬
blance to those of other animals. The fore feet are
composed of the scapula, the humerus, the cubitus and
radius, the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, and
the joints of the toes.
The scapula or shoulder blade is sometimes single,
and sometimes double, in the animals belonging to this
order. The frog, the chameleon, and the salamander,
have only one ; but it is of such a length that it ex¬
tends from the dorsal spine to the sternum, with whicii
it is articulated, answering the purpose of a clavicle.
In the tortoises and crocodile, there are two shoulder-
blades, viz. one on the back, and one placed anteriorly,
and articulated with the sternum. These also perform
the functions of the clavicle. The humerus is articu¬
lated on the one hand with the scapula, and with the
two bones, the cubitus and radius of the arm, on the
other. The two latter bones, the cubitus and radius,
are placed parallel to each other, between the humerus
and the bones of the carpus and metacarpus. These
latter are situated between the two bones of the fore¬
arm, and the phalanges or joints of the toes.
The hind feet are composed also of the femur or
thigh-bone, the tibia, and tbe peronea of the leg ; the
bones of the tarsus and metatarsus, and the phalanges
O L O G Y. 309
or joints of the toes. These, excepting that they differ Anatemy.
somewhat in structure, bear so near a resemblance to v-~'
those ol the foi*e feet, that it would be quite unneces¬
sary to enumerate or describe them particularly.
2. The Muscles.—The muscles are the instruments Muscles of
of motion. The muscles of the back of the crocodilethe bacls*
take their origin from the vertebra and ribs, and they
are attached by means of their tendons, to the bands
or rings which are formed by the tubercles of the
back. 1 bese tendons act in different directions ; some
of them pull these bands from above downwards, while
others pull them from below upwards. The use of
these muscles is apparently to lock together more
strongly the rings of which the tubercles of the back
are composed.
The muscles of the abdomen in the same animal, Of the ab-
which are lour in number, one external, and one in-domen.
ternal on each side, are not only different from those of
other quadrupeds in number, but also in their situation
and structure. The external muscle is placed upon tbe
ribs, and tbe internal under them, immediately above
all tbe viscera, which it embraces in the manner of a
peritoneum. The internal muscle is attached on one
side to tbe bones of the pelvis, and to the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebra; and on the other it
terminates in a broad tendon, which envelopes all the
intestines in tbe form of a membrane. The fibres of
these two muscles are disposed lengthwise.
3. The Viscera.—The parts contained in the three
great cavities of the body are the viscera. These are
the brain, the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the intes¬
tines, the liver, the spleen, and the kidneys.
The brain is situated within the cavity of the skull.Brain.
This organ, in reptiles, is in general of small size. The
brain of the chameleon, which is of a reddish or grayish
red colour, is not more than a line in diameter. The
same organ in the crocodile is very small, and similar to
that of fishes. The cavity within which it is contained,
does not exceed 14 lines in length, and about 12 in
breadth and depth.
I lie heart is a strong muscular body, from which Heart,
proceed the great arteries, and in which the great veins
terminate. From the contractile force of this organ,
the blood receives its first impulse. The heart in this
order of animals is small. It has in general been con¬
sidered as having only one ventricle and two auricles ;
differing from the heart of the more perfect animals,
which is furnished with two ventricles and two auricles.
But from the observations of later naturalists, it would
appear that the structure of the heart of reptiles has not
been accurately described ; for, according to some ana¬
tomists and physiologists, the heart of this order of ani¬
mals is really double ; that is, consisting of two auricles
which have a direct communication with each other,
and two ventricles as in other animals.
The lungs which constitute the principal organ of Lung*,
respiration, are spongy cellular bodies, in which the
bronchia or air-vessels are ramified. The substance of
which the lungs of reptiles are composed, is not fleshy
and parenchymatous like those of quadrupeds, but they
consist of a bundle of vesicles divided into two lobes.
The lungs of the turtle are remarkable for a vesicle
which adheres to their surface on the left side, and
which may be contracted and dilated at the pleasure of
the animal. It is conjectured, that it is by means of
this
310
Physiology,
Stomach,
Intestines.
Liven
Spleen.
Kidneys,
&c.
this organ, like the swimming bladder in fishes, that the
turtle raises itself to the surface of the water.
The stomach, which is destined to receive the food,
is situated between the gullet and the intestinal canal.
This organ in reptiles is very like that of birds. The
stomach of a crocodile four feet long is not larger than
four inches in length, and the same in breadth j and al¬
though the fibres of which it is composed are neither
so strong, nor so numerous, as those of the stomach of
birds, they form a body which is incapable of extension
or enlargement. This renders it extremely difficult to
believe what is said of the crocodile, of its prodigious
voracity, swallowing animals of so considerable a size,
since it is neither furnished with teeth fit for the masti¬
cation of its food, nor a stomach of sufficient capacity
to receive so great a quantity.
The intestines form a canal composed of different
convolutions, extending from the stomach to the anus.
It is quite unnecessary to enter into a minuter descrip¬
tion, than merely to state, that they are divided, as in
other animals, into great and small. In the crocodile
and other reptiles, the intestines going out from the sto¬
mach, form two great convolutions similar to those of
birds. They are afterwards convoluted in different
ways, till they reach the bottom of the cavity and ter¬
minate in the anus.
The liver is the organ destined for the secretion of
bile. In this order of animals it is large, and divided
into two unequal lobes, between which the heart is situ¬
ated. The right lobe is somewhat larger, and the gall
bladder occupies the middle of this lobe.
The spleen is an organ placed on the left side. In
this situation it is exposed to the pressure of the dia¬
phragm and the abdominal muscles. The spleen of
frogs is double, and of an oblong form. In the croco¬
dile it is oval, somewhat oblong and equal at the two
extremities. The substance of which this organ is com¬
posed, consists of a great number of large whitish points
on a dark red ground.
The kidneys are bodies of an oval lengthened form,
situated within the abdomen, and destined for the secre¬
tion of urine. In the frog, between the kidneys and
the testicles, there are certain appendages which re¬
semble some kind of leaves. The kidneys are attached
to the back, having at their posterior extremity the se¬
minal vessels. The urinary bladder is situated near the
orifice of the anus.
ERPETOLOGY. Chap.
eye-lids, and the nictitating membrane, are peculiarly Physi0]0?„ fJ:1
fitted j as by their means the animal is enabled to di- ^ w
Sect. II,—Of the Physiology, Manners, and Habits
of Reptiles.
We shall now, according to the arrangement pro¬
posed, make a few observations on. the physiology, man¬
ners and habits of reptiles.
From the small proportion of brain, and dull habits
of reptiles, it seems to be justly concluded that their
senses are not very acute.
Sense or Sight.—Of all the senses, that of sight is
probably the most perfect among reptiles ; but as their
most common haunts are on the shores of the ocean, or
the margin of lakes and of stagnant waters, and on the
banks of rivers, where the rays of the sun are strongly
and incessantly reflected, it w^as necessary that the eyes
of these animals should be protected from the too power¬
ful impressions of light. For this purpose the moveable
3
minish the quantity of light received into the eye. The Peculiari.
peculiar power which many of them possess also of con-tles 111
tracting and dilating the pupil at pleasure, like the cat,
and some other animals, which seek their prey in the
dark, extends the utility of this organ, and renders it
more sensible and delicate. From this peculiar struc¬
ture of the eye, the animal is enabled to see objects at
a considerable distance, and is thus fitted to pursue its
prey in the dark, or at great depths under the surface
of the water ; circumstances which are highly necessary
for the situation in which many of the tribes of reptiles
are placed, and exactly accommodated to their habits
and mode of life.
Sense of Hearing.—This sense in reptiles is pro- Not very
bably not very acute. The structure of the internal acute,
ear is considerably different from that of the more per¬
fect animals. Indeed some of the parts which seem to
render perception more acute, are wanting in these
animals. There is neither nor fenestra ovalis,
and the semicircular canals are destitute of extremities.
The membrane of the tympanum is very thick, and the
bone immediately connected with it is of a very irre¬
gular figure. But, besides, these animals have no ex¬
ternal ear whatever, by which means the vibrations of
the air might be collected, and condensed in the seat
of sensation. In place of these external parts, there are
only very narrow openings, which can admit but &
small number of vibratory undulations. As a farther
proof of the dulness of this sense in these animals, few
of them emit any sound, excepting a harsh croaking,
whence it may be concluded, that their perception of
sound is very indistinct, or they are destitute of the or¬
gans necessary to express it $ otherwise, with these re¬
quisites, the habit of hearing distinctly would very soon
improve the power of expression.
Sense of Smelling.—Almost all reptiles are fur-Supposed 111
nished with the external organs of this sense. The to be more |
nostrils of the crocodile are placed in a round space,Perf£Ct> lit
filled with a black, soft, and spongy substance ; those
of the tortoise and lizard occupy the extremity of the
snout, and consist of two very distinct openings. It ap¬
pears, indeed, from anatomical inspection, that the
nerves which terminate in these organs are of a very
large size, which circumstance leads us to conclude,
that the sense of smelling must be pretty acute. But
when it is considered that a great proportion of reptiles
have their abode in the midst of putrid marshes, it
would incline us to suppose that the sense of smelling
is not very acute.
Dr T ownson, in some experiments which he made
with the ivater lizard, very justly concludes, that their
sense of smell is extremely acute. “ I kept, says he, a
considerable number of water lizards, in a jar, winch I
fed from time to time with worms ; if they were in the
greatest stillness, and I dropt in a worm ever so gent-
iv, they all immediately began to fight, each attacking
its neighbour and seizing it by the foot or tail. 'Ibis
was not a contention for the worm, which often lay for
a short time unnoticed, but it originated rather from
the acuteness of their sense of smell, which immediate¬
ly informed them of the presence of their food, and m
the dulness of their discriminating powers. This is si¬
milar to what I have invariably observed in frogs and
toads,
tiap. II. E R P E 1
jflfiiology. toads, which will sufler their natural food to remain be-
k,nr-— £ore t|]em untouched, yet,seiz.e it instantly on the small¬
est motion it makes. It was from a knowledge of this
instinct that I was able in winter to feed my constant
companion and favourite pet, Musidora.
Before the flies, which were her usual food, had
disappeared in autumn, I collected a great quantity as
provision for winter. When I laid them before her, she
took no notice of thembut the moment I moved them
with my breath she sprung and ate them. Once when
flies were scarce, I cut some flesh of a tortoise into small
pieces, and moved them by the same means, she seized
them, but instantly rejected them from her tongue.
After I had obtained her confidence, she ate from my
fingers dead as well as living flies.
“ Frogs will fly at the moving shadow of any small
objects, and both frogs and toads will soon become so
tame as to sit on one’s hand and be carried from one
side of the room to the other, to catch the flies as they
settle on the wall. At Gottingen, I made them my
guards for keeping these troublesome ci’eatures from my
dessert of fruit, and they acquitted themselves to my sa¬
tisfaction. I have seen the small tree-frogs eat humble
bees, not indeed without a battle j they are in general
obliged to reject them, being incommoded by their
stings and hairy roughness; but at each attempt the bee
is further covered with the viscid matter from their
tongue, and is then easily swallowed.
“ Nothing appears more awkward and ludicrous than
a frog engaged with a large worm or little snake ; for
nature seems to have put a restraint upon their voracity,
by forming them very inapt to seize and hold their lar¬
ger prey. One of my largest frogs, whether the rwia
temporuria, or esculent a, I forget, swallowed in my
presence an anguis fragilis near a span long, which in
* on strugg^es> frequently got half its body out again;
Mai Hist, when completely swallowed, its contortions were very
p; la}, visible in the flaccid sides of the conqueror
Ve- fee. Sense OF Taste.—If the perception of taste is to
big be taken in proportion to the sensibility of the organ
which is the seat of it, this sense in reptiles must be
considered as the feeblest of the whole. The tongue of
most reptiles is rather to be considered as an instrument
for seizing its prey, than as an organ destined for the
perception of taste ; and for the former purpose it is re¬
markably fitted, both from its structure and mechanism,
by which means the animal can project it instanta¬
neously from its mouth, and also from the viscid fluid
which is secreted on its surface. We have already de¬
scribed, in speaking of the anatomy of reptiles, this
peculiarity of structure in the tongue of the chame¬
leon.
Sense of Touch.—This sense cannot be supposed to
be very acute in this order of animals. Most of them
have the body covered vvi.h hard scales, with large tu¬
bercles, or with a strong bony substance. In a great
number belonging to this order, the extremities of the
feet even are furnished with scales ; and the toes are
so united together, that they can only be applied with
difficulty to the surface of bodies. And if in some
lizards it is found that the toes are long, and distinctly
separated from each other, the inferior surface is co¬
vered, either with a hard skin or with very thick
scales, which must undoubtedly deprive this part of all
’ O L O G Y. 3II
sensibility. The sense of touch, therefore, in reptiles, l>liyl!.t„By.
may, in general, be considered as dull and imperfect. ■—v—
Circulation of the Blood.—Li animals which
have been usually dignified with the name perfect^
and which are furnished with a double heart, the blood*
winch has been collected from all parts of the body,
leturns to the right side of the heart; is thence con¬
veyed to the lungs ; from the lungs it passes to the left
side of the heart, and thence is again distributed through
the body. But this course of the blood can only go on
when the function of respiration continues without in¬
terruption ; because on the cessation of the action of the
lungs the circulation through them is interrupted; and
therefore, without some other structure of the heart, the
circulation through the body must stop, and the death
of the animal ensue.
Many of the animals included under the order ofpCCuliaii.
reptiles are distinguished by a peculiarity of structure, ty of the
which allows the circulation to go on during the neces-c'rcu^allon*
sary interruption of the function of respiration to which
they are subjected. The blood therefore, instead of
passing through the lungs, is conveyed through an ob¬
long opening called foramen ovale, situated between
the two auricles, and is discharged directly from the
pulmonary artery into the aorta. Hence it is that these
animals come under the denomination of cold-blooded.
This diminished temperature of the blood is ascribed to
the less complicated circulation which goes on in their
system. lor the blood in the course of the circulation
being less exposed to the action of the air in the lungs,
undergoes fewer of these changes, on which, according
to the present chemical theory of respiration, the tem¬
perature of the body, or animal heat, depends.
Respiration.— Ihe function of respiration exhibits Respiratn.
one of the greatest peculiarities in the animals beloin>'ino-dlfferem
to the order of reptiles. For, as in these animals the frfon’1tl!:it
structure of the thorax, and the other parts necessary ”1",^
to the process of respiration in other animals, are quite U
different, the means also by which it is conducted in
them must also be different. It is to Hr Xownson that
we are indebted for the elucidation of this part of the
physiology of reptiles. This naturalist, as he himself
observes, at least revived a doctrine which had been ac¬
knowledged by former physiologists, to whom it seems
to have been distinctly known. Among these he men¬
tions Laurenti, who, in bis Synopsis Meptilium, has de¬
rived the character of his class from the peculiar mode
of respiration of these animals, of whi ch he says that they
are furnished with lungs, but are destitute of diaphragm
and ribs, but by means of the gular pouch the air is aF
ternately drawn into this reservoir, and by its contrac¬
tions propelled to the lungs.
In quadrupeds, Dr Townson observes, there are no
perceptible motions in the throat, excepting those which
accompany the process of deglutition ; but in the frog
tribe, whether they are awake or asleep, if they' are not
excluded from the air, there are some remarkable mo¬
tions of the throat which are quick and constant ; these
are the motions which are subservient to inspiration.
The bony and muscular parts, which in hot-blooded Proccsi of
animals are the mechanical instruments of respiration, ’usphation,
are entirely wanting in this order of amphibia. It must
then be by means of some other contrivance, that they
are enabled to fill the lungs with air. In the hot-
blooded
ERPETOLOGY Chap. II q,
PUysiology. blooded animalH the alternate contraction and dilatation
-1 ^j,e thorax effects this, hut in this tribe the same pur¬
pose is accomplished by the dilatations and contractions
of the throat. When the cavity of the throat is enlarged,
the air rushes through the nostrils and tills it j the nos¬
trils being closed by their proper muscles, the glottis
is opened j the muscles designed for this office contract,
diminish the cavity of the throat, and impel the air
which is contained in it into the lungs •, and in this
way, he adds, is inspiration performed in these animals.
“ When the lungs, says he, were laid bare, I have ob¬
served that these did not inflate, if the frog, exhausted
with pain and loss of blood, or when the nostrils were
covered with it, opened its mouth to take in a greater
supply of air, till the throat contracted j this, then, was
the immediate consequence. Likewise, if I put a
tube down the throat, the glottis and mouth being by
this kept open, the lungs collapsed, and in this state re¬
mained j but as soon as the tube was removed, respira¬
tion immediately recommenced ; nothing similar to this
is to be observed in hot-blooded animals.
Ofcxpira- “Expiration is very easily accomplished j for, the
tion. glottis and the nostrils being open, the lungs by their
own contraction from a state of distention, and by their
own weight, aided by that of superincumbent parts, will
gradually expel the air; but the muscles which cover
the sides act also on this occasion, and in their croakings,
(which, in the time of their amours, are heard to a great
distance), with great force. But in the ordinary ex¬
pirations of these animals, no more than in quadrupeds,
do the lungs wholly collapse ; if not viewed with at¬
tention, no motion is ever perceived in their sides,
though there is a regular contraction and distention.
They likewise have the faculty of compressing one lobe
of the lungs singly, by the contraction of the muscles
' of that side ; this is easily induced by touching them
gently on the side with a pin or other sharp body.
“ As these animals are known to be able to live a
much longer time without air than those with hot blood,
it has been said by many that they respire slower. But
although probably they do not vitiate so much air, they
respire very rapidly. Man respires about twenty times
in a minute: and, according to Forgaro, birds, which
breathe the quickest of all hot-blooded animals, from
25 to 50; but the esculent frog (rana esculenta), re¬
spires about 70 times in a minute ; the rctna variabilis
(a species of toad), about IOO, and the tree frog
{ranci arborcci), so rapidly that I could not reckon the
number of the motions of its throat. The contractions
of the throat I have considered as inspirations ; yet, as
the nostrils do not close with each contraction, I cannot
venture to affirm that at each the whole contents of the
throat are driven into the lungs. As there is frequently
one contraction in four or five greater than the rest, it
may be then that the greatest quantity of air is driven
into them. When these animals sleep, and in cold wea¬
ther, these motions are slower and more feeble.
“ According then to the doctrine which I have ad¬
vanced on the mechanism of respiration in the frog tribe,
which may easily be subjected to experiment, and then
thrown aside, if it bears not this test, but candidly re-Physiology, i
ceived if it does, their lungs possess no secret power of v'—
dilatation, any more than those of hot-blooded animals.
In both, this organ is inactive in respiration, which pro¬
cess principally differs in this, that, whilst in the hot-
blooded the ait' is sucked into the lungs by the expansion
of the thorax ; it is driven into them, in the frog tribe,
by the motions of the throat.
“ Let us now proceed to examine anatomically the Mechanism
mechanism subservient to respiration; and when, for^esPlla-
the sake of brevity, in speaking of the throat, I make
use of the terms of muscles of inspiration and expiration,
I mean by the former those muscles which serve for
forming a vacuum in the throat, and by the latter those
which serve to diminish it.’
“ Instruments of Respiration.—When the skin
is stripped off from the throat, a broad muscle comes
into view, which is the mylo-hyoideus. It covers the
whole throat, being extended from the end of the
maxilla to the condyles; its fibres run transversely, and
are inserted into the maxilla through its whole length.
In the middle, from the point of this bone, it becomes
thin and membranous, but at the condyles thicker; it
is not united with the os hyoides, as in man, but slight¬
ly connected with the skin. When the cavity of the
throat is diminished, its muscular fibres are seen evi¬
dently to contract, but chiefly at the condyles, where
the muscle is thickest. Thus, this muscle seems well
adapted to assist in driving the air from the throat
into the lungs ; nevertheless, if it be cut away, re¬
spiration continues.
“ The mylo-hyoideus being cut away, the genio-
hyoidei appear; and, under these, in the middle, is the
muscle of the tongue ; the muscle at the point of the
maxilla, the sterno-hyoidei and the coraco-hyoidei are
likewise seen. The genio-hyoidei, which are slit where
the sterno-hyoidei are inserted in the os hyoides, from
their direction and connection, ought, one would think,
greatlv to assist in drawing the os hyoides forwards, and Hi
by this means diminish the cavity of the throat; yet these
being cut away, respiration continues.
“ The sterno-hyoidei are strong and powerful; they
rise from the whole length of the last bone of the ster¬
num, and are inserted all along the os hyoides. As the
os hyoides is not in the same direction as the sternum,
but higher, and its cornua, which are fastened by the
stylo-hyoidei, likewise higher and oblique, these muscles
in their contractions draw this bone downwards and
backwards, and thus form a cavity in the throat.
These are the principal muscles used in forming this
cavity, and when they are cut respiration ceases.
“ The coraco-hyoidei rise from the inferior side of
the neck of the scapula, and are inserted into the os
hyoides near the insertions of the sterno-hyoidei. They
direct the movements of the os hyoides, and draw it
downwards; one being cut, this bone loses its natural
direction and inclines to the other side.
“ If we search deeper, we find the stylo-hyoidei
muscles, otherwise the constrictores mediipharytigis, (b)
of which there are three pairs (c). One pair, which is
stronger
(b) Either the stylo-hyoidei or these constrictors are wanting.
(c) In the common toad (liana Bufo), and in the Rana variabilis, I only found two pairs.
Ciap. II.
Pfi;i»!ogy. stronger than the rest, rises from the posterior region of
w.-y-—the ear, and is inserted into the points of the cornua of
the os hyoides. The other two pairs have the same
origin, and are likewise inserted into the cornua of the
same bone, but more forward. These muscles are like¬
wise of great moment in contracting the cavity of the
throat, by elevating the os hyoides, and drawing it for¬
ward. I have observed some muscular fibres in the vi¬
cinity of the stylo-hyoidei, upon the membrane which
lies immediately under the muscles now described, and
which forms the interior part of the throat: these may
assist likewise as constrictors.
“ If we take away the muscles and the membrane of
the throat, leaving only the sterno-hyoidei muscles, al¬
though respiration is now totally destroyed, the motions
used in respiration continue. The os hyoides is still
drawn backwards and forwards, and the glottis opens
and shuts, but the lungs remain collapsed ; if even all
the muscles which move the os hyoides, are cut away,
the glottis, whose muscles remain untouched, conti¬
nues to open and shut, just as in hot-blooded animals,
whose respiration is destroyed by a large wound in the
thorax, and efforts to respire continue, though ineffec¬
tual to remove the painful sensation of incipient suffo¬
cation.
“ On expiration little is to be said ; I have always
found the lungs of these animals, whether alive or dead,
to collapse as soon as the glottis is open $ yet, as I have
already observed, the oblique muscles, which extend
from the glottis to the os pubis, and thus envelope the
lungs through their whole extent, have a great power
to compress them, and thus produce expiration. Whe¬
ther I have properly applied the name of obliques to
these muscles I will not contend, as I have not exa¬
mined them with particular care; they may probably
be composed of several muscles, but thus much I have
observed that their fibres run more or less transverse¬
ly, and are therefore well adapted to produce this ef-
* t en nr, feet
Na ftsf. Propagation of Reptiles.—Although reptiles,
P‘ j1 from their senses being less acute than those of other ani¬
mals, seem in general dull and stupid ; on the return of
spring, they exhibit a very different character. As the
warm season advances, they become lively and active,
and thus shew that they are actuated by"a new set of
desires. It is at this time that the frog tribe, which at
no other season of the year emits the smallest sound,
become remarkable for the croaking and disagreeable
noise, by means of which they express these new or
once dormant feelings. When these feelings acquire
force, even some of the external parts of some of the
frog tribe undergo a change. The fore feet of the male
are then furnished with a kind of wart, which is sup¬
plied with papillae, that it may more firmly attach itself
to the female. The male then places itself on the back
ro* Ie ^ie female? antl embraces her so strongly with the
fore feet, that it can only he separated bv a considerable
force. In this situation the two remain together for
about a month. About the end of this time, or sooner
or later, according to the temperature of the season, the
female begins to exclude the ova. The eggs form a
kind ol string, and are united together by a viscid mat¬
ter, and included in a thick glairy substance. At the
moment that the ova are excluded by the female, the
male ejects a fluid with which they are imorefirnated,
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
ERPETOLOGY.
3i3
Physiology.
at the same time giving a peculiar cry during the course
of this process. So strongly is the male attached to
the female, that nothing can disturb or interrupt his
operations. Nay, what will appear still more sur¬
prising, in an experiment by Spallanzani, in which
the head of a male frog was cut off in this situation,
the animal continued for some time to impregnate the
ova as they were excluded, and died only at the end of
four hours.
_\Uien the ovum of the frog is examined with theovaofthe
microscope, a small point is distinguished, black on the frog,
one side and white on the other, placed in the centre of
a globule, whose glutinous and transparent substance is
surrounded with two concentric membranes, which are
analogous to the shell of the egg. At the end of a cer¬
tain time, which is longer or shorter, according to the
temperature of the season, the embryo begins to he de¬
veloped, and is afterwards known by the name of tad¬
pole. . Spallanzani lias observed, that the process of in¬
cubation or hatching in the ova of the toad goes on, al¬
though the temperature of the atmosphere does not ex¬
ceed 6 above zero of Reaumur’s thermometer, which
is equal to about 390 of Fahrenheit.
It is unnecessary to mention, that the ova of the frog
are deposited and hatched in water. It may be obser^
ved also that this process is interrupted in the ova of the
toad, which happen to be dropt on the earth, unless
they are supplied with moisture.
I he tadpole, as the process of incubation proceeds, p10irrcss 0f
and the organs which are destined to perform the func-the tadpole,
tions of life are developed, exhausts the glutinous mat¬
ter with which it is surrounded ; this gradually dilates ;
and the more it increases in volume, the less is the quan¬
tity of its mass. It becomes at length only a light and
almost invisible substance, from which the tadpole makes
a short occasional excursion in the water, in making its
first efforts in swimming; hut returns again, finding
itself either unable to procure its food, or to support it¬
self long in the water on account of the shortness of the
fins, which have not yet attained their full size. But as
the little animal advances in its growth, the glutinous
matter, its former habitation, being entirely dissipated,
it roams at large in the waters.
According to the observations of Swammerdam, a
tadpole is about six lines in length at the end of 13 days
after it has been deposited by the female. The first
traces of the hind feet may then be seen ; and the place
of the toes is marked with so many small protuberances.
In this stage of its progress the little animal exhibits a
very different appearance from that which it assumes
after the change it is to undergo. The mouth is not
placed at the anterior part of the head, but on the lower
surface ; and when it wishes to seize any object for its
prey, or to expel the air from its lungs by expiration,
its motion in turning its body is so rapid and instanta¬
neous, that the eye can scarcely follow it.
In a tadpole of 36 days old the hind legs are pro¬
truded ; hut the fore legs are some days later, so that
to see them at the same period the animal must he open¬
ed, at least the external covering which veils in some
measure, or disguises its future form. At last, at the
end of about two months of confinement, which is about
the middle of June, the young frog having reached its
perfect form, and acquired sufficient strength, hursts
from its prison. It contrives at first to contract its
R r covering
v>! 4
y hvsiolo^y.
Time of
the turtle
breeding
■varies.
E It P E T
covering by ekvating its back ”, by this the fkm is
torn near the head of the animal, which passes throogh
the opening. That part of the membrane v-htch formed
the month of the tadpole is retracted over the body j
the fore legs are successively unfolded ; and the skm
pushed to the posterior extremity ol the body, leaves
;he whole of it, as well as the hind legs and the tail, un¬
covered. The tail then gradually diminishing in vo¬
lume, at last entirely disappears, so that the smallest
trace of it no longer remains in the perfect animal. .
According to the situation of the countries in which
they are found, the temperature of the climate, and the
period and duration of the rainy seasons in tropical re.
gions, the time of the turtle depositing its eggs is regu¬
lated. At this season the female quits the ocean, and
often, it is said, makes a voyage of 300 leagues to find
a safe and convenient spot for the reception of the em-
bryons of her future offspring. The male, according
to the accounts of some naturalists, accompanies the
female in this expedition, with the view of reconduct¬
ing her to their former haunts. We are informed that
they arrive in such multitudes on the banks of the
Oroonoko about the beginning of March, that there
is not sufficient space on the shore to contain them, so
that vast numbers are seen with their heads above
water, waiting the departure of those on land, that they
may occupy their place. When the turtle has reached
the shore, she fixes on a spot covered with sand or
gravel, digs with her fins, in a place beyond the reach
of the tide, one or more holes of about a foot broad and
two feet deep 5 and there deposits her eggs to the num¬
ber of more than a hundred. She then covers them
with a little sand, but sq lightly, that the action of the
rays of the sun may not be interrupted hatching them.
The turtle deposits her eggs commonly at three different
times, a period of fourteen days intervening between
each time. The danger to which these animals are
exposed, when the light of day favours the pursuit of
their enemies, and perhaps also, it has been conjectured,
the fear of suffering from the burning rays of the sun,
make them almost always prefer the darkness and temper¬
ate coolness of night to come on shore for this purpose.
The period of hatching is longer or shorter accord¬
ing to the temperature of the climate. In more tem¬
perate regions, it continues about 20 or 25 days. At
the island of St Vincent, (one of the Cape de Verd
islands), this process is completed in 17 days j and Gu-
miila the historian of the river Oroonoko asserts, that
three days only are required for hatching on the banks
of this river. He placed, he says, a stick near the
place where the turtle deposited her eggs, and at the
end of three days, so great is the influence of the sun
upon the sand, the small turtles had made their appear¬
ance. . .
Travellers who have had opportunities ot observing
the small turtles soon after they are hatched, when they
are only about an inch long, inform us, that in this
state they do not quit theij- holes during the day, being
instinctively warned to protect themselves in this man¬
ner from the heat of the sun, and the voracity of birds
of prey, but they wait till night to make their way to
the ocean. “ I have been often astonished, (says Gumil-
la), when I have observed that the place where they
haJe been hatched, being sometimes half a league dis¬
tant from the river, they direct their course towards it
2
O L O G Y. Chap. II. Cs
without any deviation by the shortest possible way. I physiology, ft!5
have sometimes carried the young turtle to a great dis- v—wi ^
tance from the water. I have covered them up and
made several holes for them that they might wander.
But I no sooner left them at liberty, than they took the
direct course to the river, without turning either to the
right hand or to the left. “The instinct with which these
little animals are impressed, conducts them towards the
nearest waters, where they find safety and proper food.
They move on very slowly, and as yet too feeble to re¬
sist the force of the waves, great numbers are thrown
back by the surge on the sea shore, where sea fowl, cro¬
codiles, tigers, and other animals are in waiting to de¬
vour them, so that but a small number escapes the nu¬
merous dangers to which they are constantly exposed.
It is also at the return of the spring season that the of the*!,
alligator deposits its eggs. It lays about 100 in theligator.
space of one or two days ; and in the same way as the
turtle covers them with sand, and, it is said, rolls itself
round the place, that it might be the better concealed
from its enemies. Having thus secured its future off-
spring, it returns to the water, when the process of
hatching goes on by the heat of the sun. About the
time that the necessary period has elapsed for the evo¬
lution of the young animal, it is said that the female re¬
turns, accompanied by the male, scrapes up the sand, ^
and uncovering the eggs, breaks the shell, to allow the
young animal to escape. It is said that the young alli¬
gator, before it leaves the egg, is at least six inches
long, and that it is rolled up, having its head placed
in the centre. When the shell is broken with a stick,
they bite it furiously, and sink their teeth in this sub¬
stance. This seems not improbable, since it is recorded
by different naturalists, that the teeth ot the young al¬
ligator are completely formed before it leaves the egg.
°Tlie mode of propagation, so far as it has been ob¬
served among the tribe of lizards, is similar to that of
the frog. The male remains for some time on the back
of the female, embracing her closely. This does net
prevent them from running about, or leaping from
branch to branch. When the female is about to de¬
posit her eggs, she makes a hole in the earth of about
two inches deep, at the foot of a tree or wall j in that
the egg is dropped and covered with earth, and, as
in the other tribes, the process of incubation is accom¬
plished by the heat of the sun. _ . .
But some species of lizards are viviparous. This is
considered by naturalists as exactly the same mode of
propagation as in the others which are produced from
eggs, with this difference only, that the process of in¬
cubation goes on in the former within the body of the
female, and the young are excluded completely form-
The Eggs of Reptiles.—The size of the eggs of sb* eftw
this order of animals is always proportioned to that of eggs,
the female by whom they are produced. From the
smallest species of lizard to the huge crocodile, they
may be found of every size. The smallest are scarcely
more than two lines in diameter, while the largest are
three inches long. , j-ir
The covering of these eggs is different in the ditter-
ent tribes. In the greatest number, but especially in
the eggs of the turtle, it is flexible, soft, and similar to
moistened parchment. The eggs of the crocodile, amt
of some large lizards, are covered with a shell of a hard,
calcareous
VM a s
iIl
Relics
fe(. vou-
sidy.
3iSi nt
:iai(iter
'f rtj:ileS
1 di >reut
itsaB»as.
calcareous substance, like that of the eggs of birds. It
is, however, considerably thicker, and consequently less
brittle.
In India and America, these eggs are very much
sought after, and are esteemed by the natives a very
rich and delicate food. About the time that the turtle
deposits its eggs on the banks of the Oroonoko, the
neighbouring inhabitants repair to the banks of that
river with their families, for the purpose of collecting
them ; and they not only live upon them at this time
of the year, but dry them, that they may carry them
home to be laid up in store for their future susten¬
ance.
It is said that the Indians are extremely fond of the
eggs of the alligator, which they search out with great
industry, and rejoice when they discover the place
where they have been deposited. They bake them when
they prepare them for food, and although the young
animal has begun to be evolved, or is nearly formed,
they are not less scrupulous in eating them.
Iood of Reptiles.—It is only in extraordinary
cases that reptiles abstain from food for any length of
time. When they are at perfect liberty, and find that
kind of food which is suited to their nature, they in ge¬
neral indulge in it voraciously. Frogs and lizards feed
on leeches, worms, snails, beetles, and different species of
winged insects. Some of the toads live on aquatic plants j
the turtles find in the water or on the land, vegetables
and shell-fish j the crocodile is carnivorous, and devours,
greedily, fishes, sea-fowl, and turtles ; and when pres¬
sed by hunger, attacks men, but especially, it is said,
the negro race, whom he prefers to others. This lat¬
ter fact has probably no foundation whatever. The
very largest crocodiles, which are more easily seen and
avoided, it is said, employ some artifice in seizing their
prey. T hey watch about the margin of stagnant wa¬
ters, and lie there covered with mud, like a fallen tree,
remain immoveable, and patiently wait the favourable
moment to seize some unsuspecting animal. Sometimes,
when they swim down any large river, they stop at the
most frequented places, and raise only the upper part of
their head above the surface of the water. In this atti¬
tude, which leaves the eyes at liberty, they surprise the
animals which come to cool themselves, or to drink in
the river. As soon as they perceive any one, they
plunge under the water, swim towards it, and seize it by
the limbs, drag it along to drown it, and afterwards
make it their prey.
Abode of Reptiles.—Reptiles, like plants, are
profusely distributed over the whole surface of the
globe j but from their nature and habits are more abun¬
dant and numerous in some places than in others. Some
tribes live entirely on dry land, while others are con¬
fined to the bottom of the water. Others may be con¬
sidered as intermediate tribes, living on the confines of
the two elements, exhibiting in them the degrees and
shades of different habits, which result from the diver¬
sity of forms. Among those which have their abode on
dry land, as many of the tortoises, most of the lizards,
the chameleons, some prefer dry and elevated situations,
while others dwell in caverns or in the holes of rocks ;
and as these are difierent in their economy and habits,
so we find that they are different in their motions ;
while the one is sluggish and inactive, moving slowly,
the others spring or creep rapidly among the brandies
ERPETOLOGY.
of trees. Almost all of them, however, take the water, 1‘hv^olu^y
and swim with great facility ; but they are obliged, as —v—’
well as the reptiles which remain constantly in the wa¬
ter, to come to the surface from time to time to respire
the air of the atmosphere. The intermediate tribes, or
such as have their usual haunts on the limits of the land
and water, can only exist in climates which correspond
to their temperament. And thus they are found in in¬
numerable multitudes in the immense extent of morass
in the deluged savannahs of the new continent, where
the moisture of the atmosphere and the temperature of
the climate are favourable to their reproduction.
In Kamtscbatka, where the cold of winter is so rigo-
rour, no species of toad, of frog, or even of serpent, is
ever seen. Lizards, however, are very numerous,
which are regarded by the inhabitants with a supersti-
tious horror. They suppose that they are sent bv some
evil deity, as spies on their actions, or to predict their
death ; and hence it is that they use every precaution
to secure themselves against their mischievous effects.
Wherever they find them they cut them to pieces, that
they may B°t be able to return to the malignant being
by whom they have been sent to witness against them.
Should the animal accidentally make its escape, the?
are seized with the most violent grief and despair. They
expect every moment the approach of death, and some¬
times bring on, by their fears and terror, what thev so
much dread. All this contributes still more to in¬
crease and strengthen this ridiculous and groundless
superstition.
Reproductive Power of Reptiles.—Many of
the animals belonging to the order of reptiles undergo
very considerable changes, in the reproduction of difier¬
ent parts oi the body, either in the ordinary processes
of nature, or when they are deprived of them by acci¬
dent. Hie casting of the skin, and its reproduction in
different reptiles, as in the toad and newt, may be re¬
garded as a natural operation in some way necessary
to the economy of these animals. It is observed, that
the water-newts frequently cast their skins; and these
are occasionally seen floating in the waters which they
inhabit. The skin is sometimes so perfect, that it ex¬
hibits the whole form of the complete animal.
The following account of this process by Bonnet will, Canting th*
we doubt not, be interesting to the reader. slun-
W hen, says he, the period of change approaches,
the fine skin is observed detaching from the body. The
head first loses it; then the rest of the anterior part ;
next the middle, and the posterior part. Sometimes
the spoil, cast by the bead, forms like a gauze collar or
cra%-at around the neck; or it is adjusted on the head,
like a capuchin or head-dress.
“ The commencement of separation, from the back
and belly, is discovered by viewing the newt obliquely
from one side, in a strong light. The skin of the
belly is further detached, because it falls down by its
own weight.
“ Approaching spoliation is recognised by conspicu¬
ous and unequivocal symptoms. The back, viewed
obliquely, appears whitish, and as if covered with a
spider’s web. This is the effect of the spoil beginning
to separate. If closely examined with the naked eye,
or a magnifier of small power, it seems composed of
minute scales covering the callosities or tubercles, which
shagreen the body of the newt. But, when examined
R r 2 with
E B P E T
a favourable light, this
with more attention, and in „
epidermis is discovered to be a beautiful reticulation,
the meshes of which are visible to the naked eye.
“ Many observations could be made on the texture
of this delicate membrane ; and these might greatly
tend to elucidate the nature and origin of the epider¬
mis, which, notwithstanding all the researches of physi¬
ologists, are so little known *, and newts would afford
frequent opportunities for deeply investigating the
point.
“ From particular attention to the newts in my pos¬
session, I have observed, that there is not the smallest
resemblance between this operation and what is exhi¬
bited by caterpillars, and many other insects. Ihe
skin is detached here and there, and often in different
sized plates •, and the change is slow, for it occupies
one or two days, and I have even known it take three.
During spoliation, the newt continues moving about in
the water, with all the usual motions of newts that un¬
dergo none •, therefore it is no disease, and it does not
affect them as it does insects. While the change is
going on, the animal darts on its prey, holds and de¬
vours it.
“ Sometimes spoliation is difficult to be accomplish¬
ed ; but in these cases the newt knows to practise
certain manoeuvres, to facilitate the operation, which I
have often beheld with pleasure. It alternately raises
and depresses the right arm and left leg at the same
time, with gentle vibrations of the whole body. It fre¬
quently darts suddenly towards the surface of the water,
and the next moment precipitates itself to the bottom ;
and these manoeuvres I have seen continued above half
an hour. But the sudden exertion, in all its motions,
indicated that the newt was impatient at the tedious¬
ness of the change.
“ When most of the spoil is thrown off, and the
animal, to disengage itself from the rest, rapidly rises to
the surface, it seems carried along in a cloud 5 for the
whiteness, firmness, and semitransparency of the spoil,
floating around it, is no imperfect representation of a
cloud.
“ I never observed the fingers employed in detach¬
ing the spoil. Both young newts and those full grown
cast several successive skins : some of large size are in
my possession, that have done so before me. Repro¬
ducing limbs throw off the epidermis as well as the ori-
ginal.
“ I have seen the skin of the head, which formed
like a collar or cravat round the neck, gradually come
down the belly of a large newt that had lost the arms,
and fasten like a tight girdle.
“ Nothing can accurately be said of the number and
interval of mutations. Between the 14th of July and
the 7th of September, a newt has changed its skin 11
times.
O L O G Y. Chap. II,
The manner in which toads throw off the old cuticle
1st change 14th July.
2d 17th
3d 2Qth
4th 25th
5th 30th
6th change, 9th August.,
7 th ——•
8th 19th
9th 24th.
10th 26 th
Uth 6th Sept.
is quoted by Dr Shaw, as related by Mr Schneider,
from Grignon, who was an eye witness of it. “ The
skin splits or cracks in a longitudinal direction, both
above and below, and the animal pulls off that of the
left side with its left foot, and, delivering it into the
right foot, applies it to its mouth and swallows it. It
then performs the same process on the right side, and,
delivering the cuticle into the left foot, swallows it like
the former.
But the most remarkable circumstance in the econo¬
my of these animals is the reproduction of mutilated
limbs, such as the legs, the tail, and even the eyes.
The completest set of experiments to ascertain these
curious facts, were made by Spallanzani and Bonnet.
The following is an account of some of these experi¬
ments in the words of the author.
“ Experiment. T/ie right arm and left leg of aneivt
amputated.—On the 6th of June, I cut the right arm
and left leg off a large newt, very near the body. A
stream of florid blood spouted a minute and a half from
each wound 5 however, the vessels soon closed, and the
newt was apparently as well as those unmutilated. But
it will easily occur that it did not swim with equal fa¬
cility.
“ When about a month had elapsed, I began to per¬
ceive a papilla, of a violet gray colour, near the edge
of the trunk or section. This was the origin of a new
arm and leg, which gradually increased 5 and, from the
14th of July, the two papillae continued growing on the
subsequent days, but more in length than thickness.
They became minute stumps ; and, on the first of Au¬
gust, were about two lines long. A kind of cleft, hard¬
ly perceptible, announces the appearance of two toes
which nature labours to produce, or rather to expand,
on the new foot. No cleft appears on the originating
arm.
“ The two toes were easily recognised on the 7th.
They were real miniatures, and truly most minute.
The stump of the arm continued nearly as it was on the
first of the month, but is now somewhat larger $ but as
yet there is no indication of fingers.
« It is pleasing to observe the little hand fully un¬
folding, while only three fingers of unequal length are
visible: the middle one is the longest. The arm has
made no sensible progress. The new foot had four toes
also of unequal length, the first and second of which
are longest j other two only begin to appear j the fourth
is scarcely perceptible. One can never tire contem¬
plating these miniatures, and admiring the wonders of
the organic kingdom.
“ Evolution advanced every day. On the 22d of Leg an*1
August, the regenerated members began to deepen inarm rcprc
colour, so that the line, discriminating the old partsduC<: '
from the new, was no longer so conspicuous j but the
black specks on the toes of unmutilated newts were
still imperceptible.
“-I continued my observations on the daily evolution
of the members •, and the following were their dimen.
sions of length on the 20th of September.
* Spaltan*
%ani's
“ Spoliation sometimes makes a slight change in the
yelt’i Trav. colour
Arm,
Cubit,
Thigh,
Old Members.
4 lines.
3r
3
New Members
Arm,
Cubit,,
:b.
2-f
2T
Leg,
'hap. II.
ysiology. IjCEi ^ 4 Hnes-,
Longest finger, 3f
Longest toe, 4J
E R P E T
Leg, 2j
Longest finger,
Longest toe, J j
Even in the beginning of October, the fifth toe of
the new foot was not visible.
“ Experiment.—A newt deprived of the ris^lit arm
and left hand. On the 12th of June, I cut the left
hand and right arm oft'a newt: my chief object in this
experiment was to verify Sig. Spallanzani’s assertion,
that nature reproduces exactly the portion amputated,
which was a fact of the utmost importance in the theory
of animal reproductions, and could not be too well esta¬
blished.
“ Towards one side of the section, a little conical
nipple began to appear about the 7th or 8th of July, of
a violet gray colour. An incipient cleft, indistinctly
seen with the naked eye, was perceptible near the mid¬
dle of July : the papilla seemed ready to divide in two j
and the cleft was the origin of two fingers.
“ In two or three days, I remarked a new cleft at
the upper extremity of the papilla, which was the be¬
ginning of a new finger : the third, in its turn, appeared
on the 19th. The conical papilla had then disappear¬
ed j and in its place was seen a small open hand with
lour fingers, still very minute, but quite well shaped.
“ On the 3d of August, the cone began to divide,
that is, two fingers became evident.
“ On the 9th, a hand extremely minute, but the most
beautiful object imaginable, was observed at the ex¬
tremity of the arm. The fingers, all of unequal length,
were distinguished, the smallest being just perceptible.
The trunk, or part of the original arm, connected to the
body, may be recognised by the brown colour, and
irom being covered with white points. The new arm
is ot a lighter and uniform colour. Four fingers of the
hand are visible: the largest not above half a line in
length.
“ The hand of the left arm had made considerable
progress on the 21st: it had expanded, and nearly ac¬
quired the figure peculiar to the newt’s hand. The
fingers also had extended, and become thicker in pro¬
portion. The whole hand began to colour, and brown
specks were distinguishable on different parts j they
were more evident on the back of the hand than on the
lingers.
“ On the 21st, the hand has already assumed its na¬
tural shape, and the rapid progress of evolution is su¬
spended. Colouring of the arm begins near the trunk:
but all the rest is of a mixed gray and violet colour.
“ Though I have not hitherto expressly said so, it
will obviously be presumed, that there is a kind of semi-N
transparency in the reproduced parts, which the origi¬
nal members have not. This continues long, and changes
slowly as the reproductions colour. The transparency
is evidently greater on the edges of the fingers than
elsewhere ; if examined with a magnifier, they seem
inclosed in a fine diaphanous envelope: but nothing of
this is evident in the old fingers. Parts beginning to
unfold naturally have a degree of transparency wanting
in those further advanced, or fully expanded, because,
with the progress of evolution, the calibre of the vessels
increases, which allows admission to more gross and co¬
louring particles. Whiteness and transparence appa¬
rently constitute the primitive state of organic bodies.
O L O G Y. • 3,7
It is this primitive state which we design by the word physiology,
germ; and which we can comprehend, when the tn-gn ' ~ ‘
nic whole is expanded to a certain extent. But there
is here a term beyond which we cannot ascend ; for the
organic whole either becomes so minute or so transpa¬
rent, that it escapes all research and our most perfect
instruments.
“ I he dimensions of the old and new members, in
length, were as follows, on the 2d of September.
New Members.
Arm, 2^.
Cubit, 2-J
Longest finger, lb.il 312.
Experiment.—The tail oj a newt amputated
transversely. Something important would have been
wanting, had I neglected amputation of the tail, which
is a very intricate great organic substance. It is form¬
ed of a’series of minute vertebra;, with arteries, veins,
and nerves ; and it is covered with muscles and flesh.
“ The tail of a large newt is more than two inches
long, and about half an inch thick, formed like an oar,
and terminated by a soft point. Much might be said
ol the figure, proportions, and position of this organ,
and with respect to the functions it has to exercise $ but
these would be details foreign to my purpose : I only
mean to confirm what Sig. Spallanzani has advanced
concerning the admirable reproduction of the mem¬
bers.
“ When the tails of large newts were amputated near
the origin, I never succeeded in obtaining reproduction j
the whole died in a certain time j and lor several weeks
preceding death, a kind of whitish cotton mould grew
on the wounds, the filaments of which were several lines
in length. Nevertheless, I cannot think that this af¬
fected the animal’s life, for I had seen similar mould, or
cottony filaments, on wounds occasioned by amputating
the arms and legs. 'Iliese filaments gradually disap¬
peared, and unequivocal signs of reproduction soon be¬
came visible. Thus a good observation was never ob¬
tained, unless the tail was divided about the middle,
and by a section perpendicular, to the axis. A stream
of blood, as thick as a hog’s bristle, always spouted from
the wound. The large vessel, from which it flows, is
situated near the vertebrae, and its orifice is visible by
the naked eye; it immediately closes ; and the orifice
is distinguished by a reddish or brownish point.
“ The tail of newts is very sensible* which is particu¬
larly evident in the slenderest part. A portion cut off
will retain life, and move whole hours j and when life
seems entirely extinct, we have only to prick the point¬
ed extremity, that motion may be renewed 5 it rises and
falls alternately, and with greater force, according to
the period that has elapsed since the operation. The
motion of this separated part bears great resemblance
to that which is peculiar to certain apodal worms $ it is
undulatory* and evidently depends on irritability, which
is extremely active in so muscular an organ.
“ Immediately after the operation, the area of the cut
exhibits a very long ellipse *, the two extremities almost
terminating in a point. The smallest diameter is a-
bout a line across, and the largest five or six. In the
centre are the vertebrae, or blood-vessels j the rest of
the area seems full of small oblong,clear white sub¬
stances, _
Old Members.
-Arra> 3-J- lines,
Cubit, 3A
Longest finger, i^-
-,8 E R P E T
Physiology, stances, which one would suppose pieces of fat, or
^  i glands. The surface slowly contracts j the opposite
sides approach j the colour of the substances becomes
fainter, and in a certain time, which is according to
the season, new flesh appears, and it daily increases.
Then we observe one or two cross brown lines, occupy¬
ing the middle of the new tail, which indicate the site
of the vertebrae and the vessels. In a tail which had
been divided on the nth of July, on the 14th Au- »
gust the reproduced part was about three lines and a
half long, and four and a half in diameter, at the base.
Tail rege- “ The new portion was ten lines in length, 20th
nerated. September, and shaped exactly like the tail of a newU
I could observe no difference between the motions ot
this regenerated tail, and those of tails unmutilated.
Those of the regenerated part only had a peculiar trans-
* Ibid. parency, wanting in the rest of the tail*.
3 31. “ I'xvERIMF.NT.—Whether reproduced members pos-
#ess the same sources of reproduction as those amputated.
I cut the left arm and right thigh off a large newt, 2d
June 1778. In the beginning of July, a new arm and
thigh began to reproduce. They were still in minia¬
ture, but the fingers and toes sufficiently formed, and
very distinct.
“ On the nth of July, I made an experiment, which
was most important in the theory of animal repro¬
ductions. The object was to discover whether the mem¬
bers now reproducing, which in reality were miniatures,
contained the same sources of reparation as the original;
that is, whether there were, in new limbs, germs contain¬
ing members in miniature, similar to those amputated.
With this view, I cut off the regenerated hand and foot.
“ At the extremity of the reproduced leg, on the
2ist, appeared two new toes extremely minute, but easily
recognisable by the naked eye : and, on the 24th, an
originating hand, with three well-shaped fingers, ap¬
peared at the extremity of the new arm.
“ The foot, now reproduced, exhibited four very dis-
t-inct toes. Both these and the fingers were yet only
one-fourth, or one-third, of a line long.
« Therefore it is proved, by this first experiment,
that the reproduced limbs of a newt can make new’ pro¬
ductions, in the same manner as the old ones can, and
give birth to members which, in their essential parts, re-
semble those amputated, and are different only in size,
consistence, and colour: for, as was remarked in my
former memoir, the new members are of more delicate
texture, and of a much lighter colour than the old.
“ It was undoubtedly most interesting to ascertain
how far the resources of nature extended ; and whether,
after several successive mutilations of the reproduced
member, a new one would still regenerate.
4< On the 31st of July, for the second time, I cut off
the reproduced hand and foot of my newt 5 the fingers
and toes being then about a line long.
“ Two new fingers and toes appeared at the extremity
of the limbs, 13th August, therefore a hand and foot
had begun to regenerate. On the 15th, there were
three fingers and toes already well formed, though very
small.
H odu- “ Both the hand and foot seemed quite repaired on the
eed mem- 24th, though still of extreme minuteness. All the fin-
bers also gers (lsui grown, but only four toes. And it may now
regeiwat- ^ observed, that the appearance of the fifth toe is con-
staaitly later j often it does not unfold.
O L O G Y. Chap. II,
“ On the same day, 24th August, I amputated the physiology,
reproduced hand and arm the third time j and on the y—««,
13th October, performed the fourth operation: the
limbs being then in the same state as those mutilated
by the third amputation.
" “ Thus it is fully established, that every member,
successively reproduced, contains new sources of repa¬
ration •, and that they are actually existing, though the
member is extremely minute.
“ From these successive mutilations of reproduced
members, I have thought the extremity of the leg and
arm became a little thicker than usual, as if from a re¬
flux of the nutritive fluids into the extremity, by such
repeated amputations.
“ This season was particularly favourable to my ex¬
periments, being always dry and warm. A mercurial
thermometer, in the shade, completely isolated, on a
large terrace, stood at po° and 93°» on 14^' an(^
of August. Most of summer it stood betw’een 790 and
8i°j and the temperature of the apartment, where the
newt was kept, diftered very little from that ol the
open air.
“ Experiment.—When a large newt was treated
as has just been related, I made another experiment on
one of similar size, to obtain comparative results.
“ The left arm and thigh were severed 2d June 177^*
Reproduction of new members commenced in the be¬
ginning of July : two well-shaped toes were then on
the foot. On the nth, new limbs had replaced the
old ; they seemed completely repaired : still they were
only miniatures of most delicate texture. This day I
amputated the reproduced hand and foot.
“ A new foot, with two distinct toes, was perceptible
on the 22d$ and three were visible on the 24th. But the
new hand had not appeared ; at least there was no evi¬
dence of originating fingers. The thermometer now
stood about 84°. However, a new hand, with three
perfect fingers, was seen on the 29th.
44 The reproduced hand and foot being a full line long
on the 31st, I then cut them off. Both appeared again,
August ijtb, with three well shaped fingers and toes.
On the 241I1, the hand had acquired its four fingers,
and the foot five toes, all visible, though excessively
small.
44 I then cut off the hand and foot for the third time;
The fingers and toes were a full line long 13th October;
four of which appeared, but the fifth toe was yet imper¬
ceptible.
44 Next I performed a fourth amputation : it also
was followed by reproductions. Various occupations
having interrupted me, a fifth amputation was not mads
before 26th August 1779.
“Thelongest fingerwas then about onelineand a third,
the longest toe one and a half in length, deep coloured,
and very slender. The band had four fingers; the first
and fourth imperfect. The foot had only three toes,
more distant from each other than usual. Both the
fingers were as imperfect 30th October 178c: the fourth
scarcely visible, and consisting only of a sharp point;
and no more than three toes on the foot. The newt
had then diminished greatly in size, and was very brown-
It ate little, and seldom: it remained long at the sur*-
face, unable to get to the bottom of the water; and its
belly was almost always very much inflated.
44 These are two experiments, therefore, which, concur
in
£ w
Ibid. ii.
I f4'
JBfege.
4 ed.
|T- E R P E T
Jn establiAlng the fact, viz. that ti)e reproduced
tnenkbeio of a nowt, tiiougu still m miniature, are equal¬
ly provided with reparatory germs as the old limbs ;
and that they begin to uiifoltl alter the new members
are cut off*.”
To these curious experiments we shall only add the
account ol another, concerning the reproduction of the
eyes of newts.
“ Experiment.—On the eyes of newts. This is a
cruel experiment; and sensible minds will hardly pardon
the. observer s cruelty, though it arises from an evident
desire to discover new facts and enlarge our knowledge
of the animal economy. Therefore, I fear the compas¬
sionate reader will revolt further still at what is yet to
be related. But I beg he will consider, that animals,
which, after losing one, or even several limbs, continue
greedily devouring the prey presented, undoubtedly can¬
not experience the sensation of pain to the excess which
our own sensations lead us to imagine. We are very
insufficient judges of what passes within an animal so
remote from us in the scale of living beings. Let it
not he thought, that by these reflections, X mean to lessen
the natural repugnance of every humane mind to make
animals suffer. The benignity of nature itself will in-
tpire man with this precious sentiment to prevent the
enormous abuse that his power might exert over the
animals which she has subjected to his dominion. Yet
iet me ask, whether a rational person abuses his empire
over animals, by making them suffer only for his own
instruction, or that of his fellow creatures.
“ With a scalpel, I extracted the right eye of a large
newt, September 13. 1779 5 but I ^d not obtain the
globe without much injury to the tunics. It was the
first time of performing the operation, and before I had
acquired the peculiar dexterity necessary for success,
and afterwards learned by experience. Thus the ut¬
most disorder ensued in the eye, and the crystalline
lens started out on my nail. This is a beautiful" object;
no larger than a millet seed, and quite transparent. I
thought that I beheld one of the spherical lenses with
which Leeuwenhoeck discovered so many wonders. But
contact of the air soon tarnished the minute lens ; it
dried and became disfigured.
“ A deep bloody wound in the socket of the eye was
the consequence of this cruel operation. And the read¬
er will not be surprised if I hardly expected any thing
from it, and that the newt would probably remain blind
for ever. How great was my astonishment, therefore,
when, on the 3Ist May lySo? I saw a new eye
formed by nature. Ihe iris and cornea were already
well shaped, but the latter wanted its peculiar transpa¬
rency, which is very considerable in these animals. Im¬
patience to arrive at the most important part of the pro¬
digy has induced me to omit the progress of it j and
observe that nature certainly began with closing the
wound.
“ The eye was completely repaired 1st September.
The cornea was nearly as transparent as that of the
other eye, with which it was frequently compared. The
iris had also acquired the yellow gilded colour, which
characterises this species of newt. In short, the eye
was so perfectly renewed, that no vestige existed of the
uncommon operation that the animal had undergone.
During the remainder of this and the following month,
the cornea always became more transparent j and now,
O L O G Y.
S’?
winter.
when I write these remarks, 8th November 1780, it is Ph^ioU^y.
equally perfect as the other j but the reproduced eye   V"  
seems a little smaller than the entire one; and the iris,
or golden circle, goes only half round the ball.
“ D would still be necessary to extract the reprodu¬
ced eye, to ascertain, by dissection, whether it contains
a crystalline lens similar to the original. But I con¬
fess, that, as yet, I have not had resolution to subject
the newt to the most barbarous of all operations j and
I shall probably await its death for satisfying my cu¬
riosity f.” ' 0 ' \ lbid. il
Hybernation or Torpidity of Reptiles. The431*
heat of the atmosphere is so necessary to animals, that
when the periodical return of the seasons reduces the
heat of the countries in the neighbourhood of the equa¬
tor to the cool temperatures of places situated in higher Places to
latitudes, reptiles lose their activity; the heat of their thcy
blood diminishes; their strength decreases; they retire re.Ure in
into obscure retreats, in holes of rocks, in the mud at"1*
the bottom of lakes, or else they seek shelter among
the roots of plants which grow on the banks of rivers :
hut the cold increasing, they fall into a state like that of
profound sleep ; and this torpor is so great, that no noise
disturbs or awakens them. They seem alike insensible
to violent blows or severe wounds. Reptiles are sub¬
ject to this state of torpidity only in those countries
where the variations of temperature at diflei*ent seasons
of the year is considerable ; and indeed it seems to be
a wise regulation of nature, that some of the animals
functions should be suspended during that period of the
year when the supply of food is cut off. This is the
case with reptiles which inhabit countries distant from
the equator, whose food consisting of insects, worms,
&c, can only be obtained in the warmer season of the
year. Accordingly, about the end of autumn, the rep¬
tiles, which have been vigorous and active in the sum¬
mer, conceal themselves in the earth, or under the wa¬
ter, where they remain in the torpid state till the re¬
turn of the genial warmth of spring. In Britain, frogs
are found at the bottom of stagnant water, or in marshy
places, where the water of springs issues from the earth,
the temperature of which continues uniform through
the whole year.
In this state of torpor and inaction, nothing of the
animal remains but the form, and those functions only
go on, which are essentially necessary to existence du¬
ring this long period of torpidity, which sometimes con¬
tinues more than six months. The total mass of the
body of reptiles sustains only small loss of substance,
but the external parts, such as are exposed to the action
of the cold, and more distant from the centre of heat,
undergo in the most of animals a considerable change.
But even in countries where the change of seasons
is so great, and the diminution of temperature such as
to oblige the animals belonging to this order to retire
during that season, there are in particular circumstances
some remarkable exceptions. One of these is mentioned
by Townson in his travels in Hungary : “ The town
of Gran (he says) is favoured with a fine spring of
tepid water, of more use, I believe, to the frogs than to
its other inhabitants. My Ciceroni assured me that this
animal is not torpid here during the winter, but is then
seen in numbers iri the pond in the town which receives
its water from this spring. This is uncommon (con¬
tinues the same author), but not surprising. For these
three
3 20
Physiology.
Hyberna¬
tion dif¬
ferent from
sleep.
* P. 60.
Abstinence
of the cro¬
codile and
the turtle.
Of the toad
E R P E T
three years, T have kept a favourite tree frog, which is
as gay in winter as in summer, provided she has warmth
and enough to eat. T-he German stoves, which keep
the room warm all night, have been very favourable to
her. In this, hybernation differs from sleep, that, where¬
as the latter admits of little variation, and can never be
laid aside, or through art receive a substitute $ the
former greatly varies, and may be supplied by warmth
and food. The Alpine marmot, in some high valleys
in Savoy, hybernates, I am told, eight or ten months in
the year. In other parts of the Alps, it does not hy-
bernate half that time •, and when kept warm, and well
fed, its annual sleep entirely forsakes it, but not its diur¬
nal. The same warmth that keeps alive the frog, keeps
alive the insects on which it feeds, which in their turn
will find food from the vegetable world, the mediate or
immediate support of every living being, kept in vege¬
tation by the same cause
Abstinence or Reptiles.—The singular instances
of abstinence which have been recorded of many of the
animals belonging to this order, are not the least of the
peculiarities by which they are distinguished. It is
conjectured by some physiologists, that the textuie of
the skin, which has few pores, and from which conse¬
quently the waste by perspiration is very small, enables
them to endure long abstinence. The turtle and the
crocodile can live two months without any kind of nou¬
rishment. It is no unusual circumstance to keep turtle
on the decks of ships, during a passage of seven or eight
weeks, from the West Indies, without any food what¬
ever, only occasionally moistening the eyes with salt
The toad has lived eighteen months entirely deprived
of food, and excluded from the air j so that the func¬
tions of digestion and respiration, so necessary and es¬
sential to animal existence in. general, must have been
totally suspended. We have already mentioned, in the
natural history of the toad, Herissant’s experiments on
this subject before the French academy; and it would
be superfluous to repeat the account of them here.
In the same place we have also given our opinion of
the extreme improbability of toads, or indeed, it may
be added, any animal whatever, having existed for any
length of time inclosed in wood or stone, according to
the vague stories which have been propagated of such
having been discovered. The experiments of Heris-
sant, above alluded to, afford a direct proof of the con-
t,rary# ^
Tenacity of Life.—Many of the tribes of reptiles
are not less remarkable for being extremely tenacious
of life. They not only live when deprived of their
limbs and are otherwise mutilated, but absolutely seem
to be little injured when some of the organs essential to
life in other animals, and without which they could not
exist for a moment, have been removed. The experi¬
ments of Redi on the land tortoise, which we have re¬
lated in the natural history of that animal, in p. 271.
are a proof of this fact.
Age of Reptiles.—-Of the age of reptiles not
much is known. But, from the Jew well authenticated
instances which are recorded, it may be fauly pre¬
sumed, that the period of the life of many tribes is very
long. This, indeed, might have been concluded to
be the case with cold-blooded animals, which can sus¬
tain total abstinence for such a length of time, are so
3
0 L O G Y.
Chap. II. O1
extremely tenacious of life, and repair so easily the loss physiology. ^
of different parts of the body : but, on the other hand, v—
when it is considered that they have no fixed haunts
where they can remain always undisturbed, that from
their amphibious nature they live alternately on the land
and in the water, and that they are constantly exposed
to the vicissitudes of the seasons, it is not possible to
conceive but these changes from wet to dry, and from
hot to cold, must greatly affect the animal frame, and
limit the period of existence.
But without entering into any train of reasoning on
the subject, the facts which have been recorded, and
some of which we have related, clearly shew, that indi¬
viduals among reptiles arrive at a very great age. The Age of the
age of the land tortoise which was kept in Lambeth tortoise and
gardens, and which we have mentioned in p. 271. was1’60"-
at least 120 years. The common toad, of which the
history of one kept by IVfr Ascot in Levonslnie, that
lived to the age of 40 years, is given in p. 286. is an
instance of the remarkable length ol life of so small an
animal.
Some species of the turtle do not reach their lull size The turtle,
till they are 20 years old ; and it is said that they live
more than a century. . ,
The age of the crocodile can only be conjectured. It
is supposed that this animal, which does not reach its
full size of 25 feet long in less time than 32 years, may
live seven times this period, so that the age of the cro¬
codile has been calculated at 200 years.
Manners, &c. of Reptiles.—There are probably
few animals which discover so much tranquillity and
composure in their manners and habits, in general, as
reptiles. Less agitated within by violent passions, and
less affected from external objects than other ani¬
mals, they are calm, mild, and peaceable. And if the
crocodile, which of all the animals belonging to this
order is the most voracious and destructive, is to he re¬
garded as an exception, the ferocious habits for which
he is distinguished, are owing to the great size of body
which he must support; and, besides, how many tribes
may he opposed to this sanguinary family, whose cha¬
racter is quite the reverse. Let us only compare the
character of the crocodile with the gentle habits of the
small gray lizard, or with the manners of the frog.
But notwithstanding this favourable character of rep¬
tiles, which may be considered in some measure as ne¬
gative, it is to be observed, tliat, in their manners and
habits, they never discover that choice of means, that
series’of combinations, or that kind of foresight, which
in many other animals we behold with wonder and ad¬
miration. If sometimes they assemble together in great
numbers, this by no means exhibits the character ot
that social union which takes place among gregarious
animals, for it discovers no foresight or order. Hus
bond of union is founded on no connection with each
other, on providing no means for their mutual safety or
protection. They produce no common work; they do not
join together in search of prey, nor are they united m
making any general attack on their enemies. Like the
beaver, birds, or bees, they construct no permanent
asylum ; but when they fix on any particular place ol
abode on the shores, in the clefts of rocks, or in the
hollow of trees, it is not a commodious, habitation
which they prepare for a certain number of individuals,
and which thev endeavour to appropriate to different
purposes.
£fc i
ffiap. II. E R P E T
,,io!ogy; purposes, it is rather a retreat for concealment on which
~'> they make no change, and which they occupy equally,
whether it be only sufficient for a single individual, or
contain an extent of space to admit many. If they
associate together, it has been observed, for the pur¬
pose of pursuing their prey either on the land or in the
water, it is because they are equally attracted by the
same object j if they make a joint attack, it is because
they have the same prey in view. If they seem to unite
for the common defence, it is because they are attacked
at the same time ; and if any individual among them
has ever saved the whole party by warning it by its
cries, it is not, as has been said of monkey's and some
other quadrupeds, that they have been left to watch for
the common safety, hut only proceeds from the impres¬
sions of fear which every animal possesses, and which
renders it constantly attentive to its own preservation.
It has been commonly supposed that reptiles have
none of those tender affections, with which the care for
the preservation of their offspring inspires other ani¬
mals. Their whole concern about their progeny, it is
thought, extends no farther than depositing their eggs
in proper places, and covering them with sand and
leaves. The offspring is not indebted to the parent for
its food, for any of its habits, or for assistance or pro¬
tection of any kind. It is true, that in general, the
moral affections owe much of their force to their repeat¬
ed impressions on the senses, and that these impressions,
recurring distinctly to the memory, and modified by
the imagination, cherish these feelings; whence it fol¬
lows, that the females of reptiles, which do not hatch
their young, and which never see them till after the
process of incubation is completed, must have very feeble
impressions ol maternal tenderness, or perhaps none at
all. The few observations, however, which have been
made with regard to the attachment of the crocodile
to its offspring, shew that some of them are not entirely
destitute of that feeling, which almost universally per¬
vades the animated creation. “ At Surinam (says M.
de la Boide) the female of the crocodile remains always
at a certain distance from her eggs, which she watches
and protects with a kind of fury when any animal ap¬
proaches them. On the banks of the Oroonoko, when
the alligators are hatched, the mother places them on
her hack and returns to the river. “ But, adds Gu-
niilla, the male eats as many as he can, and the fe¬
male herself devours all those which separate from her,
or which are unable to follow her; so that scarcely five
or six, of the whole number, remain.” This fact, which
is by no means probable, even in so voracious an ani¬
mal as the crocodile, is not incompatible with what is
certainly known of many other animals devouring their
own offspring. But it seems extremely doubtful, that
what is mentioned above of the crocodile watching its
a3_ recorded by de la Borde, is an observation
founded in truth.
Enemies of Reptiles.—The earth would soon be
covered with immense swarms of reptiles, if nature had
not made some provision to retard their increase, and
raised up a crowd of enemies which destroy their eggs
and their offspring, and preserve the proper balance
Vol. VIII. Part I. +
O L O G Y.
which is established among the different orders of ani¬
mals. Fortunately, a great number of frogs, toads,
lizards, and crocodiles, are destroyed before they are
hatched. Many quadrupeds, as several species of
monkeys, the ichneumon, and other animals, as well as
several species of aquatic birds, search for their eggs on
the shores, and feed on them with avidity. AH the
small reptiles which live in the water, which crawl in
the mud of marshes, or creep on the earth, become
the prey of fishes, of serpents, of birds, and of qua¬
drupeds.
Ihe tiger attacks the crocodile, and is sometimes
successiul in seizing its prey. The hippopotamus is a
terrible enemy to the same animal ; and is the more to
be dreaded, as from his habits, he is enabled to pursue
it to the bottom of the water. The cougar, al¬
though a less ferocious animal than the tiger, destroys
many alligators. He waits in ambush on the banks of the
great rivers for the approach of the young ones, and at
the moment they raise their head above the water, he
seizes them and tears them to pieces. But when he
attacks those that are large and vigorous, he often
meets with a bold and effectual resistance. It is in vain
that he fastens his talons in their eyes ; these huge rep¬
tiles drag him to the bottom of the water and devour
him.
But man is perhaps the most dangerous enemy of the
crocodile ; sometimes he attacks him by open force, and
sometimes by means of stratagem. The Africans, as
soon as they perceive one of these animals on the bank
of a river, advance towards him, having only in their
hand a stick of very hard wood, or an iron rod about
eight or ten inches long, and well sharpened at the ends ;
they hold this feeble instrument by the middle, and when
the reptile, which advances towards them, opens his
wide mouth, they introduce the rod of iron, which they
turn with dexterity, so that the monster finds that he is
unable to close bis jaws. The pain from the wound,
and instinct to reach a place of safety, make him retreat
into the water, where he soon perishes by suffocation
and the loss of blood. It is said, that some negroes are
so bold and dexterous, as to swim under the body of
the crocodile, and to pierce him in the skin of the
belly ; which is almost the only place on which a wound
can be inflicted.
In some countries the natives employ stratagem to take
this dreadful animal. In Egypt, they dig a deep ditch in
the path which he follows in proceeding from the river.
This is covered with branches of trees, and with a small
quantity of earth ; they then set up loud shouts, at
which the crocodile is terrified, and returning the same
way to the water, he passes over the ditch, falls into if,
and is either killed or taken in snares.
The Indians successfully employ another mode of de¬
stroying the crocodile. They introduce into the body
of a small animal, newly killed, a quantity of arsenic or
quicklime, so secured, that the moisture cannot reach il;
and this animal is exposed to the view of the crocodile.
This is undoubtedly the most certain, and the least dan¬
gerous expedient.
321
Physiology.
Ss
EXPLANATION
322
ERPETOLOGY
Index,
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Fig. I.
page 270.
Fig. 2.
r*g- 3-
page 281.
Fig. 4.
fig- 5-
288.
Fig. 6.
Plate CCVII.
Testuilo Grseca, Common land Tortoise,
Testudo Mydas, Green Turtle, page 278.
Rana Esculenta, Green or Eatable Frog,
Rana Arborea, Tree Frog, page 284.
Rana Pipa, Surinam Toad, female, page
Fig. 8. Lacerta Alligator, Alligator, or American
Crocodile, page 291.
Fig. 9. The Young Alligator proceeding from the
egg.
Fig. 10. Lacerta Chamceleon, Common Chameleon,
page 300.
Fig. 11. Lacerta Salamandra, Salamander, page 303.
Plate CCIX.
Fig. 7.
290.
Draco Volans, Flying Dragon, page 289.
Plate CCVIII.
Lacerta Crocodilus, Common Crocodile, page
Fig. 12. Skeleton of the Turtle.
Fig. 13. Skeleton of the Frog.
Fig. 14. Skeleton of the Crocodile.
Fig. 15. Skeleton of the Gray Lizard.
Fig. 16. Skeleton of the Chameleon.
INDEX.
ABDOMEN,
Abstinence of reptiles,
of the toad,
Age of reptiles,
toad and tortoise,
turtle,
crocodile,
Alligator,
p. 308
320
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
291
history of, by Catesby, ib.
by Ulloa, 292
Anatomy of reptiles, 3°^
Anus, 3°^
includes the parts of genera¬
tion, ib*
Apodal lizard, 3°5
Arms of newt regenerated, 316.
B
Basilisk, species of lizard, . 295
error concerning, ib.
Biped lizard, 3°5
Breeding time of frog, 3I3
turtle, 3M
alligator, ib.
Bull frog, m 2^2,
singular for the sound of its
voice, ib.
popular notion of, ib.
Chameleon, errors concerning this
change, and its absti¬
nence, P* 300
Characters, generic, _ _ 269
Circulation of the blood in reptiles, 3^
its peculiarity, »b.
Classification of different naturalists, 269
Common frog,
history of, ib.
Cordyles, division of, 297
lizard, ,b«
Crocodile, common, 29°
history of, ib.
less formidable than repre¬
sented, 291
hunted with dogs, ib.
kept by the African mo-
narchs, ib.
exhibited by the Romans, ib.
American, or alligator, ib.
history of ib. and 293
Gangetic or Indian, 291
Eft, division of,
Eggs, size of,
coverings,
of turtle used as food,
of alligator also as food,
Enemies of reptiles,
Erpetology, introduction to,
study of, important,
Expiration, process of,
Eyes of reptiles,
newts regenerated,
3M
ib.
3?5
ib.
321
267 '
312
3°7
31?
Feet of reptiles resemble those of qua-
308
ib.
D
308
ib.
3<?5
ib.
Calipash of the turtle,
Calipee,
Chalcides lizards,
annulated,
Chameleon, division of, 39°
history of, *b.
tongue, structure of, pe¬
culiar, ib.
changes of colour, ib.
Draco,
volans,
prsepos,
Dragon, flying,
history of,
American,
a fictitious monster,
289
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
290
3°9
281
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
28:
ib
history of an artificial one,
at Oxford, ib,
one at Hamburgh, ib.
Ears of reptiles,
Eatable frog,
history of,
E
281
ib.
drupeds,
are furnished with toes,
bones of,
Frog, common,
history and changes of,
tadpole, the larva of,
structure of,
food of,
green, or eatable,
employed as food,
bull,
remarkable for the
it emits,
popular notion of, in Ame-
rica, 1
paradoxical, *
tadpole, singular appearance or,
tree> . , ‘
peculiar structure and eco-
nomy, . 2
changes on, and habits 01, in
breeding season, ^
ova, description of,
G 29
Galeot lizard, ^
E ll FETOLOGY.
PLATE CCVII.
Fiq.l.
Fitj.
-7. H!Ison Sculpt
ER FETOLOGY.
PIRATE ccvni.
f''n-7
erpetology:
plate cnx
Fiy. 14.
H.Ar.Vr//•.-//t/ xfrtf/i'.
Ind
Gvl
5ft
5r«
5«(
k
' k
\b
A
lidex.
iJeot, American, p. 295
brio, division of, 300
?een or esculent turtle, history of, 278,279
frog, 281
employed as food, ib.
history of ib.
mana, division of, 294
great American, ib.
history of, ib.
H
Arwksbill turtle, history of, 279
yields tortoise shell, 280
method of obtaining
and preparing, ib.
had, form of, 306
Ifart, structure of, not a discrimina¬
ting character, 268
Rbernation of reptiles, 319
different from sleep, 320
]\ f, lower, never longest, 307
]\is of reptiles equal, 306
Fviration, process of, 311
K
AittfwAaf&a,no reptilesbut lizards in, 315
superstition of natives in, ib.
L^rta,
crocodilus,
alligator,
gangetica,
iguana,
amboinensis,
basiliscus,
calotes,
agama,
bicarinata,
monitor,
acanthura,
lophura,
dracaena,
superciliosa,
scutata,
principalis,
strumosa,
marmorata,
umbra,
pelluma,
azurea,
cordylus,
stellio,
angnlata,
orbicularis,
agilis,
teguixin,
erythrocephala,
cerulea,
lemniscata,
quadrilineata,
teniolata,
290
ib.
291
293
294
ib.
295
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
296
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
297
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
298
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
E R P E T O
Lacerta sexlineata,
fasciata,
quinquelineata,
interpunctata,
bullaris,
cruenta,
lobata,
helioscopa,
turcica,
platura,
plica,
japonica,
nilotica,
tiliguerta,
deserti,
arguta,
algira,
velox,
uralensis,
seps,
chamaeleon,
africana,
pumila,
gecko,
dubia,
perfoliata,
mauritanica,
sinensis,
vittata,
fimbriata,
tetradactyla,
caudiverbera,
schneideriana,
sparmanniana,
spectator,
scincus,
rufescens,
longicauda,
mabouya,
occidua,
guttata,
ocellata,
salamandra,
vulgaris,
palustris,
aquatica,
maculata,
chalcides,
serpens,
anguina,
apus,
bipes,
lumbricoides.
Legs of newt regenerated,
Life, tenacity of, in reptiles,
Lizards proper, division of,
green,
monitory, \
! prodigious numbet of,
Balbec,
LOGY.
P. 298
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
299
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
300
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
301
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
some viviparous,
superstition of the natives of
Kamtschatka concerning,
Loggerhead turtle
302
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
303
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
304
ib.
ib.
3?5
ib*
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
306
3*6, 31?
320
297
ib.
295
3°3
3J4
3I5
279
at
323
Loggerhead turtle, great strength and
fierceness of, p. 279
yields lamp oil, ib.
M
Manners of reptiles, 3 20
calm and composed, if,.
Monitory lizard, 295
extremely beautiful, ib.
N
Natter-Jack, a species of the toad, 287
Newt, division of, 303
common, history of, 304
is viviparous, ib.
great water, ib.
common water, ib.
history of, ib.
casts its skin, ib.
spotted water, 303
history of casting its skin, 316
number of times, ib.
arm and leg', regenerated, ib.
progress of, ib.
* another experi¬
ment, 31 y
tail of, regenerated, ib.
eyes of, regenerated, 319
O
Oviparous quadrupeds, reptiles so de¬
nominated, 268
Pipa, or Surinam toad, 288
history of, singular, ib.
Physiology of reptiles, 306
R
Rana, 280
divided into three sections, ib.
temporaria, 281
esculenta, ib.
pipiens, 382
catesbeiana, ib.
ocellata, ib.
virginica, ib.
ovalis, ib.
cyanophlyetis, ib.
spinipes, ib.
cerulea, 383
vespertina, ib.
ridibunda, ib.
sitibunda, ib.
leveriana, ib.
ignea, ib.
salsa, ib.
paradoxa, ib.
zebra, 384
bicolor, ib.
leucophyllata, ib.
quadriiineata, ib.
castanea, ib.
fasciata, ib.
arborea ib
8 8 2 liana*
3 24
Rana meriana,
aurantia,
tinctoria,
alba,
bilineata,
bufo,
alliacea,
mephitica,
viridis,
marina,
dubia,
tjphonia,
braziliana,
ventricosa,
cornuta,
pipa,
breviceps,
systoma,
acepbala,
lentiginosa,
semilunata,
melanosticta,
arunco,
lutea,
Reproduced members regenerated,
Reproductive power of reptiles,
E R P E T O L O G Y.
Index,,
285
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
286
287
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
288
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
289
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
318
3'5
Reptile properly applied to these animals, 268
206
3°7
269
ib.
320
ib.
315
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
321
Reptiles, anatomy of,
have not all teeth,
classification,
generic characters,
abstinence of,
the toad,
food of
are extremely voracious,
habits in watching for prey,
character of, in different si¬
tuations,
none but lizards in Kamts-
chatka,
superstition of the natives
concerning,
abode,
reproductive power of,
enemies of,
Respiration, process of,
inspiration,
expiration,
mechanism,
Ribs,
S
Salamander, division of,
history of,
is viviparous, ^ .
popular errors concerning, ib.
Scapula, 3°9
Scinks, division of, 3°2
history of,
Serpent lizard, 3°5
Skin of reptiles renovated, 3 ^ 5
history and progress of, ib.
Snake lizards, division ol, 3°5
history of, d*.
Species, number of, in the order, 306
311
ib.
312
ib.
3°8
3?3
ib.
3°4
Tadpole, p.
history of,
structure and changes of,
singular one,
changes and evolution of,
Tail of reptiles,
not in all,
of newt regenerated,
Testudo, classification of,
from number of claws
insufficient,
into land and sea tortoises,
grseca,
marginata,
geometrica,
radiata,
indica,
rugosa,
europea,
lutaria,
carinata,
Carolina,
sulcata,
tabulata,
concentrica,
picta,
guttata,
elegans,
areolata,
serrata,
pusilla,
tricari-nata,
scabra,
scripta,
galeata,
denticulata,
pennsylvanica,
longicollis,
caspica,
ferox,
granulata, ,
fimbriata,
serpentina,
squamata,
coriacea,
my das,
caretta,
imbricata,
Toad, common,
history of,
age,
not poisonous,
error concerning,
alliaceous,
emits a peculiar smell,
tadpole of, voracious,
used as food,
Surinam,
economy of, in hatch¬
ing ova,
casts its skin,
Tongue, an instrument for seizing the
prey,
281
ib.
ib.
284
3I3
308
ib.
270
ib.
ib.
ib.
272
ib.
273
ib.
ib.
ih.
ib.
274
ih.
ib.
ib.
275
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
276
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
Tongue, error supposing the crocodile
has none, p.
structure of the chameleon,
Torpidity of reptiles,
Tortoise, common land,
description of,
native country,
great age,
tenacious of life,
abstinence,
history of one,
marginated,
geometrica.
3°r
ib.
277
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
278
279
ib.
285
ib.
286
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
287
ib.
288
ib.
3l6
2)1
ib.
ib.
272
ib.
terrapin of Dampier, 273
radiated,
Indian,
wrinkled,
speckled,
employed as food,
mud,
carinated,
close,
peculiar structure of,
of prodigious strength,
sulcated,
3°7
tabular,
concentric,
is a delicate food,
painted,
spotted,
elegant,
areolated,
serrated,
little,
tricarinated,
rough,
» lettered,
galeated,
denticulated,
pennsylvanian,
long-necked,
Caspian,
fierce,
shagreened,
fimbriated,
snake,
scaly,
shell got from the hawksbill
turtle,
mode of obtaining and
preparing,
employed as ornaments
by the Greeks and
Romans,
an article of trade,
Townson, Dr, on respiration,
illustration or proof,
Tree-frog,
peculiar structure and eco¬
nomy,
'Trunk of the body,
Turtle distinguished from tortoise?*
coriaceous,
prodigious size of,
275
277
280
ib.
ib.
3U
S'2
284
283
307
277
ib.
278
Turtle,
fidex.
artlc, green, p. 278
most commonly eaten, ib.
a very delicious food, ib.
mode of taking, ib.
eggs deposited in the
sand, ib.
hatched by the sun, 279
introduced into Europe, ib.
loggerhead, a large species, ib.
flesh coarse and rank, ib.
ERPETOLOGY.
Turtle, loggerhead, yields lamp oil, p. 279
very strong and fierce, ib.
hawksbill, or imbricated, ib.
yields tortoise shell, 280
mode of obtaining it, ib.
process of its prepa¬
ration, ib.
used by the Greeks
and Romans for
ornaments, ib.
„ 325
Turtle, hawksbil!, trade with the Egyp-
tians, p. 280
and to China, ib.
green-shelled, ib.
trunk, ib.
rhinoceros, ib.
breeding season of, 314
varies according to circumstan¬
ces, ib.
ERR
ffKii# ERRATIC, in general, something that wanders,
R or is not regular: hence it is the planets are called
t <rUf ■ ef'r<*tic stars.
ERRHINES,-in Pharmacy, medicines which when
snuffed up the nose promote a discharge of mucus from
that part. See Materia Medica Index.
Errhines prepared of cephalic herbs are of singular
service in oppressive pains of the head, a hemicrania,
lethargic disorders, weakness of memory, stuffings of
i the head, and coryz,a, mucous defluxions of the eyes,
drowsiness, vertigoes, and in cases where the malignant
humours generated by the lues venerea are lodged in
the membranes of the nostrils.
ERROR, in Philosophy, a mistake of our judgment,
giving assent to that which is not true.
Mr Locke reduces the causes of error to these four ;
first, want of proofs; secondly, want of ability to use
them ; thirdly, want of will to use them ; and, fourth¬
ly, wrong measures of probability.
He oberves upon the first of these causes of error,
that the greatest part of mankind want conveniences
and opportunities of making experiments and observa¬
tions themselves, or of collecting the testimony of 0-
thers, being prevented by the necessity of their condi¬
tion. Upon the second of these causes, he observes,
that there are many, who, from the state of their con¬
dition, might bestow time in collecting proofs, but yet
are not able to carry a train of consequences in their
heads, nor weigh exactly the preponderancy of con¬
trary proofs and testimonies, merely from the diffe¬
rence in men’s understandings, apprehensions, and rea¬
sonings. Thirdly, he remarks, that though some have
opportunities and leisure enough, and want neither
parts, learning, nor other hHps, that they never come
to the knowledge of several truths within their reach,
either upon account of their attachment to pleasure or
business j or otherwise because of their laziness or a-
version to study. The fourth cause of error, viz. wrong
measures of probability, he imputes, 1. To the prac¬
tice of taking for principles propositions that are not
in themselves certain and evident, but, on the contrary,
doubtful and false. 2. To received hypotheses. 3. To
predominant passions or inclinations. And, 4. To au¬
thority, or the giving up our assent to the common re¬
ceived opinions either of our friends or party, neigh¬
bours or country.
The causes of error in philosophy, or the reasons
why all former philosophers have through so many ages
erred, according to Lord Bacon, are these following.
E R U
I. Want of time suited to learning. 2. The little F.r»or
labour bestowed upon natural philosophy. 3. Few en- 8
tirely addicted to natural philosophy. 4. The end of ErYUW8'
the sciences wrong fixed. 3. A wrong way chosen.
6. The neglect of experiments. 7. Regard to anti¬
quity and authority. 8. Admiration of the works in
use. 9. The artifices of teachers and writers in the
sciences. 10. Ostentatious promises of the moderns.
II. Want of proposing worthy tasks. 12. Supersti¬
tion and zeal being opposite to natural philosophy, as
thinking philosophy dangerous, on account of the
school theology ; from the opinion that deep natural
inquiries should subvert religion. 13. Schools and aca¬
demies proving unfavourable to philosophy. 14. Want
of rewards. And, IJ. Despair, and the supposition of
impossibility.
Error Loci. Boerhaave is said to have introduced
the term, from the opinion that the vessels were of
different sizes for the circulation of blood, serum, and
lymph ; and that when the larger-sized globules were
forced into the lesser vessels by an error of place, they
wei e obstructed. But this opinion does not seem well
grounded.
ERUCA, in general, denotes caterpillars of all kinds.
The caterpillar state is that through which insects
pass before they arrive at perfection. See Larva, En¬
tomology Index.
ERUDITION, denotes learning or knowledge ;
and chiefly that of history and antiquity, of languages
and of books, which is the result of hard study and tx-
tensive reading. The Scaligers were men of deep eru¬
dition : the writings of M. Launoy, a priest of the Ora¬
tory, are full of erudition.
Mr Locke says, it is of more use to fill the head
with reflections than with points of erudition. If the
mind be not just and right, ignorance is better than
erudition, which only produces confusion and obscurity.
M. Balzac calls a heap of ill chosen erudition the luir-
gage of antiquity.
ERUPTION, in Medicine, a sudden and copious
excretion of humours, as pus or blood : it signifies also
the same with exanthema, any breaking out, as the pu-
fetules of the plague, small-pox, measles, &c.
Eruption of Volcanoes. See vEtna, Vesuvius,
and Volcano, Geology Index.
ERVUM, the Lentil: A genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the diadelphia class j and in the natural method
ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ERYMANTHUS,
r.ryma-
tbus
i!
Eryx,
E R Y [32*5
ERYMANTHUS, a mountain, river, and town of
Arcadia, where Hercules killed a prod.gious boar,
which he carried on his shoulders to Eurystheus - who
, was so terrified at the sight, that he hid himself in a
brazen vessel.
ERYNGIUM, Sea-Holly, or Lryngo; a genus
of plants belonging to the pentandria class, and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbel-
hitce. See Botany Index.
ERYSIMUM, Hedge-Mustard *, a genus ot
plants, belonging to the tetradynamia class, and in the
natural method ranking under the 29th order, biliquoscE.
See Botany Index. . c
ERYSIPELAS, in Medicine, an eruption ot a hery
or acrid humour, from which no part of the body is
exempted, though it chiefly attacks the face, bee Me¬
dicine Index. .....
FRYTHEA, or Erythia, an island adjoining, ac¬
cording to the ancients, either to or a part of Gades *,
nowhere now to be found by the description given of
it bv ancient authors. The poets feign this to be the
habitation of the fabulous Geryon, disarmed by Her¬
cules, who drove away his cattle.
ERYTHRiE, in Ancient Geography, a port-town ot
iEtolia, on the Corinthian bay. Another Erythrse of
Bceotia, near Plataea and Mount Cithaeron. A third
Erythrse, a town of Ionia in the Hither Asia, situate
in the peninsula, at its extremity, with a cognomina port.
The Erythrseans laid claim to the Sibyl Herophile, as
their countrywoman, surnamed thence Erythraia. Ery-
thrae was famous for an ancient temple of Hercules.
ERYTHR^EA, a town of Crete, situated in the
south-east of the island, at the promontory EryUiraeum.
ERYTHRiEUM MARE, erroneously called liubrum
by the Romans. Thus the ocean that washes Arabia
and Persia, and extends a great way farther, is denomi¬
nated. Hence it is, Herodotus says, that the Euphra es
and Tigris fall into the Mare Erytlirmum. He also
calls it the South Sea, on which the Persians dwell. It
takes its name, not from its colour tlie error of the
Romans, who translated Erythrceum" Rubrum ; but
from Eruthras, son of Perseus and Andromeda, whose
kingdom lay on the confines of that sea; whence its
name Erythrceum. r , .
ERYTHRINA, Coral Tree ; a genus of plants
belonging to the diadelphia class-, and in the natu-
rai method ranking under the 32d order, Paphonace*.
See Botany Index. T , , , . f Qt, A
ERYTHRINUS, in Ichthyology, a species ot bPA-
rus. See Ichthyology Index. _ _ .
ERYTHROIDES, in Anatomy, the first ot the pro¬
per tunics or coats which cover the testicles.
‘ ERYTHRONIUM, Dog’s-tooth Violet-, a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the hexandria class-, and m
the natural method ranking under the nth order, Sar-
mentacece. See Botany Index. .
ERYTHROXYLON, a genus of plants, belonging
to the decandria class. See Botany Index. .
ERYX, a son of Butes and Venus, who relying up-
•on his strength, challenged all strangers to fight with
him in the combat of the cestus. Hercules accepted
bis challenge after many y^Wed to his superior
dexterity-, and Eryx was killed in the combat, and
buried on the mountain, where he had built a temj e
E.0 Venus. Virg. 5-v-4°2- A mountain of Sidy
2
] ESC
near Drepanum, which received its name from Eryx, Erj*
who was buried there. This mountain was so steep, that 1)
the houses which were built upon it seemed every mo- .Escalild^
ment ready to fall. Daedalus had enlarged the top,
and inclosed it with a strong wall. He also consecra¬
ted there to Venus Erycina a golden heifer, which re¬
sembled life so mucli, that it seemed to exceed the power
ERZERUM, or Erzeron, a city of Turkey in Asia,
and capital of Armenia, or Turcomania. It is a pretty
large town, five days journey from the Black sea, and
ten from the frontiers of Persia. It stands in a delight¬
ful plain, at the foot of a chain of mountains, which
hinder the Frat, or Euphrates, from falling into the
Black sea. A neighbouring hill supplies very hne
springs, which not only water the fields, hut the streets
of the town. Erzerum is surrounded with double
walls, defended by pentagonal towers-, but the ditches
are neither deep nor well kept up. The beglerbeg, or
bashaw of the province, lives in the seraglio, which is
very ill built. They reckon that there are 18,000 I urks
at Erzerum, 6oco Armenians, and 10,000 Greeks.
The Armenians have a bishop and two churches ; and
the Greeks have also a bishop, but the church is a mi¬
serable place. The last are mostly braziers, inhabiting
the suburbs, who work the copper brought from the
neighbouring mountain. They drive a great trade, m
copper utensils and furs, particularly martens skins.
Five or six days journey from the town there are oaks
that produce plenty of gall-nuts, which are brought
hither. This place is the thoroughfare and resting
place of all the merchants trading to the Indies, espe¬
cially when the Arabs are watching for their prey
round Aleppo and Bagdad. E. Long. 4®- 5°- * a^’
39ESARHADDON, the son of Sennacherib, and his
successor in the kingdom of Assyria. He is said to
have reigned 29 years at Nineveh, from the year 3294
to 2522 , besides which he reigned 13 years at Baby¬
lon; in all 42 years. He died in the year of the world
2306 and was succeeded by Saosduchinus. Esarhad-
don, in the opinion of Sir Isaac Newton, seems to be
the Sardanapalus who died, as Clectarchus says, of old
age, after the revolt of Syria -, the name Sardanapalus
being derived from Asserhadon Pul. .
ESCALADE, or Scalade, a furious attack ot a
wall or a rampart, carried on with ladders, to pass the
ditch, or mount the rampart; without proceeding m
form, breaking ground, or carrying on regular works
to secure the men. ,
When the troops are prepared to pass the ditcb,
either with the assistance of boards, hurdles, and tas-
cines, when it is muddy, or with small boats of tin, or
baskets covered with skins or oil cloth, when it is deep
and filled with water, a party must be placed on the
counterscarp, opposite to the landing-place, ready
fire at the garrison if they are alarmed, and oppose he
mounting on the rampart. If the ditch is dry, the
ladders are fixed in some place farthest distant from the
centry -, and as soon as they get upon the rampar ,
they put themselves in order to receive the enemy , it
tlJccntry should be surprised and silently overcome,
the detachment hastens to break open the gate, an
let in the rest of the party. If the d.tch .a « tte
rampart high, and proyided ir.th a revetement, it nm
ESC [ 327 ] ESC
defilade be difficult to surprise the town in this way j but if
|] there is no revetement, the troops may hide themselves
Kscheot. a]ong the outside of the rampart till all are over.
" Since the invention and use of gunpowder, and the walls
of cities have been flanked, they are seldom taken by
escalade.
ESCALLONIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria class. See BOTANY Index.
ESCAPE, in Law ; a violent or privy evasion out of
some lawful restraint, without being delivered by due
course of law. There are two sorts of escapes, volun¬
tary and negligent. Voluntary, when a man arrests
another for felony or other crime, and afterwards lets
him go freely by consent j in which case, the party
that permits such escape is held guilty, committed,
and must answer for it. Negligent escape, on the con¬
trary, is where one is arrested, and afterwards escapes
against the will of the person that arrested him, and is
not pursued with fresh suit, and retaken before the
person pursuing hath lost sight in him. By stat. 8 and
9 Will, III, c. 26. the keepers of prisons conniving
at escapes shall forfeit 5001.5 and in civil cases the
sheriffi is answerable for the debt.
ESCHALOT, or Shallot. See Allium.
ESCHAR, in Surgery, the crust or scab occasioned
by burns or caustic medicines.
ESCHARA, in Natural History, the name of a spe¬
cies of coralline, &c. the characters of which are these :
they are of a stony or coral-like hardness, and resemble
a woven cloth in their texture ; and the microscope
informs us, that they consist of arrangements of very
small cells, whose surfaces appear much in that form.
Linnaeus makes it a species of millepora, in the class
of lithophytes.
ESCHEAT, in Law, signifies any land or tene¬
ments that casually fall to a lord within the manor.
It is one of the consequences of tenure in chivalry ;
(See Feodal System, KmaHT-Service, and Tenure).
It is the determination of the tenure or dissolution
of the mutual bond between the lord and tenant, from
the extinction of the blood of the latter by either na¬
tural or civil means: if he died without heirs of his
blood, or if his blood was corrupted and stained by
commission of treason or felony j whereby every inhe¬
ritable quality was entirely blotted out and abolished.
In such cases the land escheated or fell back to the
lord of the fee $ that is, the tenure was determined by
breach of the original condition, expressed or implied
in the feodal donation. In the one case, there were
no heirs subsisting of the blood of the first feudatory
or purchaser, to which heirs alone the grant of the
feud extended: in the other, the tenant, by perpe¬
trating an atrocious crime, showed that he was no
longer to be trusted as a vassal, having forgotten his duty
as a subject $ and therefore forfeited his feud, which he
held under the implied condition that he should not be
a traitor or a felon. The consequence of which in both
cases was, that the gift being determined, resulted back
to the lord who gave it.
The word escheat is sometimes used for the place or
circuit withiu which the king or other lord is intitled
to escheats y also for a wi’it to recover the same from
the person in possession after the tenant’s death.
Escheat, in Scots Law, is that forfeiture which is
incurred upon a person’s being denounced a rebel. See r
Law, Part III. N° clxvi. 12. EscJ,cat
ESCHE VIN, orEcHEviN (Scabinvs') , jn the French Esculent,
and Hutch polity, a magistrate elected by the inhabi- 1"'—"■v* |J
tants of a city, to take care of their common concerns,
the good order, conveniency, and decoration of the
city, &c.
At Paris there were formerly a prev&t and four csche-
vms; in most other cities a mayor and eschevins. In Lan¬
guedoc, Provence, and Hauphine, they were called con¬
suls ; at loulouse, capttouls ; unA jurats at Bourdeaux.
Anciently the eschevins were the assessors and coun¬
sellors of the comites or judges of cities ; on which ac¬
count they were called in some placespoz^, they
even took cognizance of petty causes themselves.
Hu Cange observes, that the judges and their as¬
sessors, who were chosen by the inhabitants, were call¬
ed scabini, “ eschevins,” and their college scabinagium
or “ eschevinage.”
“ In Holland, the scabins or eschevins judge of all
civil affairs at first hand. They also take cognizance
of criminal matters : and if the criminal confess himself
guilty, they can see their sentence executed without
appeal. They can even give torture. The number is
not the same in all cities j at Amsterdam there are nine,
at Rotterdam seven, &c.
ESCHRAKITES, or Esrakites, a sect of philo¬
sophers, among the Mahometans, who adhere to the
doctrines and opinions of Plato. The word is derived
from the Arabic p'vp schraca, which in the fourth conju¬
gation jrwK aschraca, signifies “to shine, glitter like the
sun,” so that Eschrakite seems to import “illumined.”
The Eschrakites, or Mahometan Platonists, place
their highest good and happiness in the contemplation
of the Hivine Majesty j despising the gross imagina¬
tions of the Alcoran touching paradise. They are very
careful in avoiding all vice 5 they preserve an equal
and easy temper, love music, and divert themselves with
composing little poems or spiritual songs. The shaeicks
or priests, and the chief among the preachers of the im¬
perial mosques, are Eschrakites.
ESCLAIRCISSEMENT, a French term adopted
into our language, signifying the explaining or clear¬
ing up of some difficulty or obscurity.
ESCORT, a French term, sometimes used in Eng¬
lish authors to denote a convoy or company of armed
men, attending some person or thing, in a journey or
voyage, to defend or secure it from insults. Some de¬
rive the word from the Latin cohors.
ESCOUAHE, or Sqxtad, is usually the third or
fourth part of a company of foot; so divided for mount-
ing guards, and for the more convenient relieving of
one another. It is equivalent to brigade of a troop of
horse. See Brigade.
ESCUAGE, incur old customs, a kind of knight-
service, called service of the shield, by which the tenant
was bound to follow his lord to the wars on his own
charge. See the articles Chivalry, Feodal System,.
and KNIGHT-Service.
ESCU LA PIUS. See ^Esculapius.
ESCULENT, an appellation given to such plants,
or the roots of them, as may be eaten : such are beets,
carrots, artichokes, leeks, onions, parsnips, potatoes, ra¬
dishes, scorzonera,. &cc-
ESCURIAL,
ESC
[ 32S ]
E S D
Escuriu.1. ESCURIAL, a royal residence of Spain, situated
 v~—■- about 15 miles north-west of Madrid. Ills the largest
and most superb structure In the whole kingdom, and
perhaps one of the finest in Europe. The word is A-
rabic, meaning “ a place full of rocks.” It Is built i|V
a dry barren spot, surrounded with rugged mountains,
insomuch that every thing which grows there is owing
to art. This place was chosen, it is said, for the sake
of the stone wherewith the fabric was built, which is
got from a mountain just by, and is very durable j and
the design of erecting it was to commemorate a victory
which Philip II. obtained over the French (but by the
assistance of the English forces) at St Quintin, on
St Laurence’s day, in the year 1557. The Spanish
description of this structure forms a sizeable quarto
volume, and it is said that its founder expended upon
it six millions of ducats. The apartments are deco¬
rated with an astonishing variety of paintings, sculp¬
ture, tapestry, ornaments of gold and silver, marble,
jasper, gems, and other curious stones, surpassing all
imagination. This building, besides its palace, con¬
tains a church, large and richly ornamented •, a mauso¬
leum ; cloisters ; a convent j a college *, and a library,
containing about 30,000 volumes j besides large apart¬
ments for all kinds of artists and mechanics, noble
walks, with extensive parks and gardens, beautified with
fountains and costly ornaments. The lathers that live
in the convent are 200, and they have an annual re¬
venue of 12,oool. It was begun by Philip in 1562,
five years after the battle j and completed in 2.2 years.
It consists of several courts and quadrangles, which
altogether are disposed in the shape of a gridiron, the
instrument of the martyrdom of St Laurence : the
apartments where the king resides form the handle.
The building is a long square of 640 by 580, and the
height up to the roof is all round 60 feet, except on
the garden side, where the ground is more taken away.
At each angle is a square tower 200 feet high. 1 he
number of windows in the west front is 200 ; in the
east front 366. The orders employed are Doric and
Ionic. There are three doors in the principal front.
Over the grand entrance are the arms of Spain, carved
in stone ; and a little higher in a niche, a statue of St
Laurence in a deacon’s habit, with a gilt gridiron in
his right hand, and a book in his left. Directly over
the door is a basso relievo of two enormous gridirons in
stone. This vast structure, however, with its narrow
high towers, small windows, and steep sloping roof, ex.
hibits a very uncouth style of architecture 5 at the same
times that the domes, and the immense extent of its
fronts, render it a wonderfully grand object from every
point of view. The church, which is in the centre of
all, is large, awful, and richly but not affectedly orna¬
mented. The cupola is bold and light. The high al¬
tar is composed of rich marbles, agates, and jaspers of
great rarity, the produce of this kingdom. Two mag¬
nificent catafalquas fill up the side arcades of this sanc¬
tuary : on one the emperor Charles V. his wife, daugh¬
ter, and two sisters, are represented in bronze, larger
than life, kneeling; opposite are the effigies of Philip If.
and of his three wives, of the same materials, and in the
same devout attitude. Underneath is the burial-place
of the royal family, called the 'Pantheon. Twenty-five
steps lead down to this vault, over the door of which
is an inscription denoting, that.
Hie locus, sacer mortalitatis exuviis Catholicorum Re-
gam, Sj-c.
was intended by Charles the emperor; resolved upon
by Philip II. begun by Philip III. and completed by
Philip IV. The mausoleum is circular, 36 feet dia¬
meter, incrusted with fine marbles in an elegant taste.
The bodies of the kings and queens lie in tombs of
marble, in niches, one above the other. The plan of
these sepulchres is grand, and executed with a princely
magnificence; hut, as a modern traveller observes,
in a style rather too gay, too light, and too deli¬
cately fitted up for the idea we are apt to form of
a chapel destined for the reception of the dead. The
collection of pictures dispersed about various parts of
the church, sacristy, and convent, has been consider¬
ed as equal, if not superior, to any gallery in Europe,
except that of Dresden. Formed out of the spoils of
Italy, and the wasted cabinet of that unfortunate di¬
lettante Charles I. of England, it contains some of the
most'capital works of the greatest painters that have
flourished since the revival of the art. In the sacristy
is an altar called La santa Forma: this is a kind of ta¬
bernacle or custioda of gems, marbles, woods, and other
precious materials, inlaid in gilt bronze ; in which,
rather than in the excellence of the workmanship or
taste of the design, consists the merit of this rock of
riches. Before it hangs a curtain, on which Coello
has represented Charles II. and all his court in pro¬
cession, coming to place this Forma. This is esteemed
one of the most curious collections of portraits in
the world; for all the persons are drawn with the
greatest strength of colour and truth of expression, and
are said to be perfect resemblances not only of the mo¬
narch and grandees, but even of the monks, servants,
and guards. The statues, busts, and medallions of the
E^curial, are not in any great number, or very re¬
markable for their excellence: hut the library con¬
tains a most precious collection of manuscripts, many
fine drawings, and other curiosities. Notwithstanding
the coldness of the exposure, the late king, for the sake
of hunting, used to pass here several months in the
year ; and to make the place less inconvenient to
his
attendants and to the nobility, he built an entire new
town adjoining to it.
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in Heraldry, is
derived from the French escusson, and that from the
Latin scutum, and signifies the shield whereon coats of
arms are represented.
Most nations of the remotest antiquity were wont
to have their shields distinguished by certain marks
painted on them ; and to have such on their shields was
a token of honour, none being permitted to have them
till they had performed some honourable action.
The escutcheon, as used at present, is square, only
rounded olf at the bottom.
ESDRAS, a Jewish priest, and doctor of the law.
Artaxerxes Longimanus sent him with rich presents
for the use and ornament of the temple at Jerusalem,
rebuilt under Zerubbabel; the king also ordered the
neighbouring governors to provide him with what con¬
duced to the pomp of the Jewish religion, and to ex¬
empt the priests from paving taxes. He is supposed to
be the collector of the Canon of Scripture; and that,
by divine inspiration, he added some things which hap¬
pened
4
ESN
IV . ii,
^•1
pened after the deaths of the authors. It is guessed he
wrote the Chronicles, besides those books which bear
his name, the two last of which are exploded even by
the church of Rome. 3
ESK, the name of several rivers both in England
and ocotland, particularly of one which forms part of
the boundary between the two kingdoms. It runs from
north east to south-west, and gives name to the district
or r^kdate.
ESKI-HISSAR. See Stratonicea.
ESKIMAUX, See Esquimaux,
ESNE, or Esneh, a considerable town of Upper
Egypt. It is governed by an Arabian prince and by
a cachef, dependent on the bey of Girze. The Ma¬
hometans have several mosques here, and the Coptis
a church served by two priests. “ Esne (says Abul-
feda,) remarkable for its public baths and its com¬
merce, is built on the westward of the Nile, between
Assouan and Cous, but nearer to this latter. It ac¬
knowledges, adds the geographer of Nubia, the Coptis
for founders. Its well cultivated territory abounds in
grain and palm-trees. It is surrounded by gardens
filled with fruit-trees. One admires here several an¬
cient monuments constructed by the Coptis, and su¬
perb ruins.” This description answers to Esne in our
time, which is situated on the edge of a rich country
and shaded by groves of orange trees loaded with fruits’
and flowers. This town, formerly called Latopolis re¬
vered Minerva and the fish Lotus (Strabo). It con¬
tains within its boundary an antique temple. Thick
walls inclose it on three sides. Six large fluted columns,
crowned by a capital ornamented with the palm leaf
form the facade of it j 18 others support the roof, which
is composed of large squares of marble ; the building is
surrounded by a frieze, and innumerable hieroglyphics
cover its exterior aspects.
A little to the south of the town are seen the ruins
of a monastery founded by St Helena, and near it the
burying-place of the martyrs, adorned with tombs
crowned by cupilas, supported by arcades. The inha-
hitants of Esne having revolted against the persecution
of Dioclesian, that emperor destroyed this town and
put them to the sword. This place, consecrated by re¬
ligion, is^ become a celebrated pilgrimage among the
Coptis. They repair thither from the mo°st distant pro¬
vinces of the kingdom. In the chain of'mountains which
stretches to the eastward of the Nile, and nearly oppo¬
site Esne, are quarries of a soft stone, called Bar am. It
is made use of for kitchen utensils. It hardens in the
fire, and forms excellent kettles and pans, which give
no had taste to the victuals. This stone is probably the
lapis ollan's, or pot-stone.
• “Esne (says Denon*) is the ancient Latopolis. Some
remains are still visible of its port or quay on the bank
of the Nile, which has been often repaired : but, not¬
withstanding all that has been dune for it, still remains
in a very miserable condition. This town also contains
tiie portico of a temple, which appears to me to be the
most perfect monument of ancient architecture. It is
situated near the bazar in the great square, and would
m ike an incomparable ornament to this spot, if the in¬
habitants had any idea of its merit ; but instead of this
they have deformed it by the most miserable ruined ho¬
vels, and have devoted it to the vilest purposes. The
portico is very well preserved, and possesses a great
Vol. VIII. Part I. 6 |
[ 329 ]
ESP
richness of sculpture : it is composed of eighteen co-
lumns with broad capitals} these columns are noble and fi
elegant, though they now appear in the most disadvan- EsP<‘,,l*a
tageous light: the rubbish should be cleared to find if’—V—
any part of the cella remains.
“ I hehieroglyphies in relief, with which it is co¬
vered within and without, are executed with great care :
they contain, among other subjects, a zodiac, and large
figures of men with crocodiles heads : the capitals,
though all different, have a very fine effect ; and as an
additional proof that the Egyptians borrowed nothing
from other people, we may remark, that they have ta¬
ken all the ornaments, of which these capitals are com¬
posed, from the productions of their own country, such
as^the lotus, the palm-tree, the vine, the rush, &c.
ESOX a genus of fishes belonging to the order of
abdommales. bee Ichthyology Index.
ESPALIERS, in Gardening, are rows of trees
planted about a whole garden or plantation, or in
hedges, in such a manner as to enclose quarters or se¬
parate parts of a garden } and are trained up regularly
to a lattice ol wood-work in a close hedge, for the de- '
fence of tender plants against the injuries of wind and
weather. I hey are of admirable use and beauty in a
kitchen-garden, serving not only to shelter the tender
walks3’ bUt SCre<!n them fr°ni siS,ltof PerSons
The trees chiefly planted for espaliers, are apples
pears, and some plums: some plant apples grafted up!
on paradise stocks; hut as these are of short duration
it is better to plant those grafted upon crabstoek, or
upon what the gardeners call Dutch stocks; which will
both cause them to hear sooner, and prevent their grow¬
ing too luxuriant. The best kinds of apple for this pur¬
pose, are the golden pippen, nonpareil, renette, &c.
and the best sorts of pear, are the jargonelle, blanquett,
OCc. these last, if designed for a strong moist soil,
should be grafted upon quince stocks; but if for a dry
soil, upon free stocks. J
While the trees are young, it will be sufficient to
drive a few stakes into the ground on each side of them;
fastening the branches to these in a horizontal position,
as they are produced. This method will do for the three
first years ; after which an espalier should be made of
ash-poles, whereof there must be two sorts, larger and
smaller; the former to be driven upright into the ground
a foot asunder, and the latter, or slender poles, to be
nailed across these, at about nine inches. Some prefer
to this another sort of espalier, made of square timber
cut to any size ; these are, indeed, more sightly, but
withal vastly more expensive.
When the espalier is thus framed, the branches are
to be fastened to it with osier twigs; observing to train
them in a horizontal position, and at equal distances.
Iruit trees thus managed are preferable to any others;
not only as bearing better-tasted fruit, but as taking up
very little room in a garden, so as to be less hurtful to
plants which grow in the quarters.
ESPLANADE, in Fortification, the sloping of the
parapet of the covered-way towards the champaign.
ESPLEES, in Law, the general products which
lands yield, or the profit or commodity that is to he
taken or made of a thing.
ESPOUSALS, in Law, signify a contract or pro-
• T t mise
ESQ
[ 33° 1
ESS
Espousal* mise made between a man and a woman to marry each
B other; and in cases where marriages may be consum-
Esquire. mivted, espousals go before. Marriage is termed an es-
pousal de presenti. . , .
The espousals among the Jews were either by writ¬
ing or by a piece of silver given and received, or by
cohabitation. Amongst the Greeks, after the parents
and friends of the young couple had finished their ne¬
gotiation, the couple themselves pledged their faith to
each other, the man swearing that he would be con¬
stant and true, the woman that she would marry him,
and make him master of all she had. Then they rati¬
fied their agreement by a kiss and joining right hands.
Amongst the Romans the espousals consisted in an
engagement of friends on both sides, whether absent or
present, in public or without witnesses. But the com¬
mon way was by writings drawn up by common con¬
sent, and sealed by both parties : besides this, the man
sent a ring to the woman, consisting of iron and with¬
out a stone. » .
ESQUILI^E, in Ancient Geography, one of the
seven hills of Rome, which Varro will have to be two,
viz. Cispias and Oppius ; also Mons Esquilinus, soften¬
ed from Exquilinus •, and this again from Excubinus,
the watch or guard Romulus kept here, from a jealousy
he entertained of his colleague Titus Tatius. On the
east side it reached the city walls 5 on the south, the
Via Lavicana; on the west, the wide valley between
Mount Coelius and the Palatine j on the north, the
Mons Viminalis j on the east side was the Porta Esqui-
lina. This hill by some of the ancients was called bu-
burranus, from the street Suburra to the north of it:
by the poets, Esyuilius. . ..
ESQUIMAUX, a people of North America, inha¬
biting all that vast tract of land known by the name of
Labrador, or New Britain. They differ very consider¬
ably, both in aspect and manners, from the other Ame¬
rican nations ; agreeing in most respects with the inha¬
bitants of West Greenland. See New Britain and
Greenland. t
ESQUIRE (from the French and the Ta-
tin scutum, in Greek nvr»t, which signifies a hide,
of which shields were anciently made, and after¬
wards covered ; for in the time of the Ang 0-
Saxons the shields had a covering of leather), was
originally he who, attending a knight in time of war,
did carry his shield; whence he was called esewer
in French, and scutifer, or armiger, 1. e. armour-
bearer, in Latin. Hotoman says, that those whom the
French call esquires, were a military kind of vassals,
. • • 1*1 1 i _ 1_ „~ L 1 ti 1 onn in
life; in respect of the great trust he has in the com-
monwealth. The chiefs of some ancient families are
esquires by prescription ; and in kte acts of parliament
for poll money, many wealthy persons commonly re¬
puted to be such, were ranked among the esquires of
this kingdom.
There is a general opinion, that every gentleman of
landed property who has 300I. a-year, is an esquire;
which is a vulgar error : for no money whatsoever, or
landed property, will give a man properly this title,
unless he comes within one of the above rules; and no
person can ascribe this title where it is not due, unless
he pleases ; there being no difficulty in drawing the line
by the accounts given above and in the article Com¬
monalty : but the meaner ranks of people, who know
no better, do often basely prostitute this title ; and,
to the great confusion of all rank and precedence, every
man who makes a decent appearance, far from think¬
ing himself any way ridiculed by finding the superscrip¬
tion of his letters thus decorated, is fully gratified by
such an address.
Esquires of the king, are such as have that title by
creation, wherein there is some formality used, as the
putting about their necks a collar of SS. and bestowing
on them a pair of silver spurs, &c.
ESRAKITES. See Eschrakites.
ESSAY, a trial or experiment for proving the qua¬
lity of any thing; or an attempt to learn, whether or
not any invention will succeed. . _ #
Essay, in literature, a peculiar kind of composition,
the character whereof is to be free, easy, and natural ;
not tied to strict order and method, nor worked up and
finished like a formal system. _
ESSAYING, or Assaying, in Chemistry and Me¬
tallurgy, signifies the examination of a small quantity
of any ore or mineral by fire, in order to discover the
quantity of metal it contains. This is very necessary for
those who intend to deal largely in metallurgy opera¬
tions, in order to avoid unnecessary expence, by becom-
ing previously acquainted with the nature of the ore.
See Chemistry Index ; and Ores, Beduction of.
EssAY-Hatch, is the miners term for a little trench
or hole, which they dig to search for shoad or ore.
ESSEDARII, a sort of gladiators, mentioned by
Seneca, Suetonius, and Tully, who on some occasions
engaged one another out of chariots called esseda. 1 he
essedum was a sort of heavy chariot from which the
Gauls and Britons engaged the Romans, bee Gla¬
ESSENCE, in Metaphysics, that which constitutes
the particular nature of each genus or kind, and di-
* . . . 11   1 * l, » kilt that
uis.rg„Toftw; p
'tSeLcf any rektt)1 to ^roftlre" ojlmploym'" thinS l:°ntaine‘1 in U is essential t0 part,C“'
the person to whom it hath been attributed, as to car*
ryino- of arms, &c. but hath been merely a title of
dignity, and next in degree to a knight. For those
to whom this title is now due, see the article COM¬
MONALTY. Officers of the king’s courts, and of the
king’s household, counsellors at law, justices of the woru gw* 7 - but its
nperiot officetwar^A^tietf l?Te'duringShi« ^ESSENES, or Essee.ans, m Jewish acuity.
lar kind. .
This Mr Locke calls the nominal essence ; in contra¬
distinction to the real essence, or constitution of sub-
stances on which this nominal essence depends. Ihus
the nominal essence of gold is that complex idea the
word gold stands for; let it be, for instance, a body,
ESS [ c
Essenes one ^ie three ancient sects among that people,
[j They allowed a future state, but denied a resurrection
Es»cs. from the dead. Their way of life was very singular :
■*~v——' they did not marry, but adopted the children of others,
whom they bred up in the institutions of their sect:
they despised riches, and had all things in common,
and never changed their clothes till they were entix-ely
worn out. When initiated, they were strictly bound
not to communicate the mysteries of their sect to others j
and if any of their members were found guilty of enor¬
mous crimes, they were expelled.
Pliny tells us, that they dwelt on the west side of
the lake of Asphaltites 5 and that they were a solitary
kind of men, living without women or money, and
feeding upon the fruit of the palm-tree : he adds, that
they were constantly recruited by new-comers, whom
the surges of ill fortune had made weary of the world :
in which manner the sect was kept up for several
thousands of years, without any being born among
them. The reason why we find no mention made of
them in the New Testament, may be their x-ecluse and
retired way of life, no less than their great simplicity
and honesty, whereby they lay open to no censure or
reproof.
ESSENTIAL, something necessarily belonging to
a thing, from which it cannot be conceived distinct:
thus the primary qualities of bodies, as extension, figure,
number, &c. are essential or inseparable from them in
all their changes and alterations.
Essential Oils are such as are really contained in
a plant, and are drawn from it by distillation in an
alembic with water; they are thus called, in contra¬
distinction to empyreumatic oils, which are raised by a
naked fire without water.
ESSEX, a county of England, bounded on the north
by the Stour, which separates it from Suffolk and
Cambridgeshire ; on the east, by the German sea ; on
the west, by Hertfordshire and Middlesex 5 and on the
south by the river Thames. It extends 46 miles in
length from east to west, and about 42 in breadth from
north to south, and 200 in circuit. This county is in
the diocese of London, and gives the title of earl to
the family of Capel. The county of Essex is divided
into nineteen hundreds, and contains twenty-seven
market-towns, 415 parishes, 125 vicarages, and 1100
villages. It sends eight members to parliament}
namely, two for the county, and two for Colches¬
ter, Harwich, and Malden. The air in the inland
parts is healthy} but in the marshes near the sea it
produces agues, particularly in the part called the
Hundreds. However, the fertility of the unwhole¬
some part is very great, and even the higher grounds
ot this county are very fruitful. About Saffron Wal¬
den, the eai’th, after bearing saffron three years, it is
said, will produce good barley for 18 years successively
without any manure. Its produce, which is very plen¬
tiful, consists of corn, most excellent saffron, cattle,
f°vvl, fish, and particularly oysters. The chief manu¬
factures ol this county are cloth, stuffs, and particularly
baize. The principal rivers, besides the Thames,
are the Stour, which falls into the German sea at Har¬
wich ; the Lea, its western boundary, falls into the
Thames below Stratford ; the Blackwater runs through
the heart of the county, and passing by Chelmsford is
31 ] • E S T
joined by the CheJmer, and from thence runs into the Es'ex
German sea} the Coin runs by Halsted to Colchester, [j
and so into the sea. The Roding which rises north- ^*thonia.
wards, near Dunmow, runs into the Thames near "
Barking. All these rivers abound in most sorts of
fish.
In the year 1801, the total number of inhabitants
in the county of Essex amounted to 226,437 persons.
Of these 111,356 are males, and 115,081 are females.
In 1811 the population was 252,473, of whom 69,590
lived in towns, and 182,883 in the country.
ESTATE, in Law, signifies the title or interest that
a person has in lands, tenements, or other effects } com-
prehending the whole in which a person hath any pro¬
perty, and will pass the same.
Estates are either real or personal} otherwise distin¬
guished into FREEHOLDS, which descend to heirs; or
CHATTELS, that go to executors or administrators.
A fee-simple is the amplest estate our law admits of.
See Fee.
Estates are obtained several ways; as, by descent
from a father to a son} by conveyance or grant
from ane person to another; by gift or purchase}
by deed or will. See Descent, Succession, Te¬
nure, &c.
Estates, in a political sense, is used either to de¬
note the dominions of some prince, or the general classes
into which the people are divided.
In Britain, the estates are the king, lords, and com¬
mons ; or rather the lords and commons, who meet
the king in parliament, for reforming abuses, and en¬
acting good and wholesome laws.
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Old Testa¬
ment } containing the history of a Jewish virgin, dwell¬
ing with her uncle Mordecai at Shushan, in the reign
of Ahasuerus, one of the kings of Persia.
The great beauty of this maid raised her to the
throne of Persia} whereby she had an opportunity to
save her countrymen, whose destruction was plotted by
Hainan, a favourite of that prince.
The learned are not agreed who this Ahasuerus was.
Archbishop Usher supposes him to be Darius Hystaspes,
and Artystona to be Esther. Scaliger makes him
the same with Xerxes, and his queen Hanestris to be
Esther. Josephus, on the contrary, positively asserts,
that the Ahasuerus of the scriptures, is the Artaxerxes
Longimanus of profane story } and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Esther, translate Aha¬
suerus by Artaxerxes. Most people subscribe to this
last opinion ; and indeed the extraordinaxy kindness
showed by Artaxerxes to the Jews, can scarcely be
accounted for otherwise than by supposing that they
had so powerful an advocate as Esther to solicit for
them.
ESTHONIA, is a province of the Russian empire,
and part of Livonia. It is bounded on the east by the
Baltic sea, on the north by the gulf of Finland, on
the west by Ingria, and on the south bv Lettonia. It
is divided into six districts : 1. Harrien; 2. Wireland}
3. Alentakin } 4. Wich } 5. Jerven } and, 6. Odepoa.
The principal towns are, Revel, Weisenberg, Borch-
holm, Narva, Nyslot, Habsal, Derpt, St Elin, Pernau,
and Roderswick.
in former times the inhabitants of this country car-
T t 2 ried
JKvthania
B
F.slrema-
dura.
E S T [ 332
rieil on a good trade In corn, which was uried In stoves .
but wars have much depopulated the country, insomuch
that not a fourth part of it is inhabited, and a great
number of gentlemen’s seats lie in ruins.
ESTOILE'E, or Cross Estoille'e, in Heraldry, a
star with only four long rays in form of a cross •, and,
accordingly, broad in the centre, and terminating in
sharp points.
ESTOPPEL (formed of the French estouper, oppi-
lare, obstipare, “ to stop or block up”), in Laiv, an
impediment or bar of action, arising from a man’s
own act or deed ; against which a man is forbidden,
by law, to speak, though it be to say the truth.
ESTOVERS, in Law, is used by Bracton, for that
sustenance which a man, committed for felony, is to
have out of his lands or goods for himself and his fa¬
mily during imprisonment. In stat. 6 Edw. I. it is
used for an allowance in meat or clothes. In some
manors, the tenants have common of estovers; that is,
necessary botes or allowances out of the lord’s wood :
in which last sense, estovers comprehends house-bote,
hay-bote, and plow-bote j so that if a man have in his
grant these general words, de rationabili estoiet io tn
boscfs, &c. he may thereby claim all three.
Estovers is also used for alimony, which, if the hus¬
band refuses to pay, there is, besides the ordinary pro¬
cess of excommunication, a writ at common law, de
estoveriis habendis, in order to recover it.
ESTRAY, or Stray, signifies any tame beast, as
sheep, oxen, swine, and horses, or swans, found with¬
in a lordship, and not owned by any man •, in which
case being cried, according to law, in the church, and
two market towns adjoining, if it be not be claimed by
the owner within a year and a day, it becomes the
lord’s of the soil where found. If the owner claims
it within the year and day, he must pay the charges of
finding, keeping, and proclaiming them •, and he may
seize it, without telling the marks or proving his pro-
perty, which may be done at the trial it contested. It
the beast stray within the year to another lordship, the
first lord cannot retake it. An estray must be fed and
kept, uninsured, and without labour, till it is reclaimed
or the limited time expires.
ESTREAT, Extractum, in Law, is used for the
true copy or duplicate of some original writing, espe¬
cially of amercements or penalties set down in the rolls
of a court, to be levied by the bailiff or other officer, on
every offender. „ _ . ,
ESTREMADURA, a province of Spain, has New
Castile on the east, Leon on the north, Andalusia on
the south, and Portugal on the west. It is 175 miles
in length, and 100 in breadth •, and its principal towns
are Calatrava, Menda, and Badajoz, on the river Gua-
diana } Alcantara, on the Tajo j and Cona and Placen*
tia, to the north of this river.
This province enjoys a very pure and healthful air,
and its mountains are full of wild and tame animals }
they having woods and forests for the one sort, and pa¬
stures for the other. The fields are planted with fruit-
trees, which bear all kinds of delicious fruit. The vine¬
yards produce excellent wines of all colours, and the
fields yield plenty of corn.
Estremadura, a province of Portugal, near the
mouth of the Tagus or Tajo, bounded on the north
by Beira, on the east and south by Alentejo, and on
T E T c.
the west by the Atlantic ocean. It is about 88 miles Efrems,
in length, and 45 in breadth. This province is di- dura,
vided into six comarcas, viz. Litria, Lisbon, Tomar, iF.;ehing.
Santaren, and Alanquar, to the north of the Tagus •, 'r™~>
and that of Setubal, to the south of this river. These
are likewise the principal towns. Estremadura is
equal, if not preferable, to any other province in Spain
or Portugal. The district of Santaren produces such
plenty of corn, and feeds so many flocks of sheep,
that it may enter into competition with Sicily. The
fruits and the wines are all excellent •, and it was here
that the sweet oranges brought from China were
first planted, and of which there are large quantities
transported to foreign parts, with the wines and other
fruits. The fields are covered with flowers almost all
the year, from which the bees collect large quantities
of fine honey. The olive-trees are numerous, from
which they have excellent oil. The rivers abound
with good fish, and the mountains have quarries of se¬
veral kinds.
ETCHING, a method of engraving on copper, in
which the lines or strokes, instead of being cut with a
tool or graver, are eaten in with aquafortis. See En¬
graving.
Etching is of a later invention, though not very
modern, than engraving with the tool ; of which it
was at first only an imitation, that was practised by
painters and other artists, who could much sooner
form their hands to, and attain a faculty of, working
in this way, than with the graver. But being then
nevertheless considered as a counterfeit kind ot engra¬
ving, and therefore inferior to the other, it was culti¬
vated in a very confined manner ; the closeness of the
resemblance of the work to that performed by the
tool, being made the test of its merit, and consequent¬
ly the principal object of aim in those who pursued it.
This servile confinement of the art ot etching to the
imitation of the original kind of engraving, was a
great cause of retarding its advancement towards per¬
fection, as many of the most able masters cramped their
talents with the observance of it: this may be seen in
the instances of Sadelers, Swaneberg, Villamena, and
particularly Le Bosse } who, in his treatise on engia-
ving, has laid down as a principle, that the perfection
of this kind consists in the close similitude of the work
with that done by the tool. This absurd prepossession
has been since worn out: and the method of working
with aquafortis has been so far improved, that instead
of being now deemed a spurious kind of engraving, it
evidently appears, in many modern works, the founda¬
tion of an excellence that could never have been produ¬
ced without it: since, though the neatness and unifor¬
mity of the hatches, which attend the use of the tool, is
more advantageous with respect to portraits $ yet the
liberty and facility of the other manner gives a much
greater opportunity to exercise the force of genius and
fancy in history-engraving *, where the effect of the
whole, and not tlie minute exactness in finishing all the
parts, constitutes the principal value.
MP1  «-~ Y\r€srtiQ*>n nr
There are two methods practised of engraving m this
way •, the one with a hard varnish or ground, the other
with a soft. The first was formerly much used, being
better accommodated to the intention of imitating the
engraving with the tool j as the firmness of the body
of the varnish gave more opportunity of retouching t ie
lines,
ETC [ ,33 ] ETC
El siting. J*nes, or enlarging them with the oval-pointed needles,
—v——1 called by the French echvppes, as was practised by Le
Bosse and others for that purpose. The latter has now
almost wholly superseded the use of the other, by the
free manner of working it admits of; which affords
a power of expression incompatible with the great¬
er inflexibility of the hard varnish, that confines the
lines and hatches to such a regularity and sameness, as
gives a stiffness of manner and coldness of effect to the
work.
The combination of the use of the tool and aquafor¬
tis, which are now both employed in many cases, has,
however, given that perfection to engraving which it
possesses at present. The truth and spirit of the outline
that the method of working with aquafortis affords, and
the variety of shades which the different kinds of black
produce in this way, as well as other means of expres¬
sing the peculiar appearance and character of particu¬
lar subjects, furnish what was defective in the sole use
of the toolj while on the other hand, the exactness and
regularity of the lines, which are required for finishing
many kinds of designs, are supplied by the graver j and
by a judicious application of both, that complete finish¬
ing is obtained, which either of them alone must ne¬
cessarily want.
The manner by which this art is performed, is the
covering the surface of the plate with a proper varnish
or ground, as it is called, which is capable ol resisting
aquafortis ; and then scoring or scratching away, by
instruments resembling needles, the parts of this' var¬
nish or ground, in the places where the strokes or
hatches of the engraving are intended to be j then,
the plate being covered with aquafortis, the parts
that are laid naked and exposed by removing the
ground or varnish, are corroded or eaten away by it j
while the rest, being secured and defended, remain un¬
touched.
There are two methods of etching, as has been al¬
ready observed ; the difference of which from each
other consists, as well in the difference of the varnish or
ground, as in that of the aquafortis, adapted to each
kind; but the general methods of performing them
are alike in both. These varnishes or grounds are dis¬
tinguished by the names of hard and soft: for in their
consistence, or the resistance they give to the needles,
lies their essential variation from each other. The
hard varnish,, it is with good reason conjectured, was
not the first in use r but soon took place of the other ;
and was, for some time, the most received in practice,
on account of its admitting the work to be made more
like that of the graver ; the soft has, however, since,
in its turn, prevailed to the exclusion of it in some de¬
gree, except in the case of particular subjects j but not
so entirely as to take away the expedience of showing
how it is performed. The mannner of etching with the
soft varnish is now, however, one of the most import¬
ant objects of the art of engraving ; and it is at pre¬
sent in universal use, sometimes alone, but more fre¬
quently intermixed with the work of the tool, and
in some cases with great advantage, even where the
whole is intended to pass for being performed by the
graver.
P reparation of the soft varnish; according to Mr Law¬
rence, an eminent English engraver at Paris. “ Take
of virgin wax and asphaltum, each two ounces^ of
black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each half an ounce. Etching,
Melt the wax and pitch in a new earthen-ware glazed 1
pot j and add to them, by degrees, the asphaltum fine¬
ly powdered. Let the whole boil till such time as that,
taking a drop upon a plate, it will break, when it is
cold, on bending it double two or three times betwixt
the fingers. The varnish being then enough boiled,
must be taken off the fire j and letting it cool a little,
must be poured into warm water, that it may work the
more easily with the hands, so as to be formed into
balls) which must be rolled up, and put into a piece of
taffety for use.”
It must be observed first, that the fire be not too
violent, for fear of burning the ingredients ; a slight
simmering will be sufficient: secondly, that while the
asphaltum is putting in, and even after it is mixed
with them, the ingredients should be stirred continual¬
ly with the spatula; and thirdly, that the water, in¬
to which this composition is thrown, should be near¬
ly of the same degree of warmth with it, to prevent a
kind ol cracking that happens when the water is too
cold.
Ihe varnish ought always to be harder in summer
than in winter; and it will become so if it be sufl'ered
to boil longer, or if a greater proportion of the asphal¬
tum or brown resin be used. The experiment above
mentioned, of the drop suffered to cool, will determine
the degree of hardness or softness that may be suitable
to the season when it is used.
Preparation of the hard varnish used by Cullot, com¬
monly called ihe Florence varnish. Take four ounces of
fat oil very clear, and made of good linseed oil, like
that used by painters : heat it in a dean pot of glazed
earthen-ware, and afterwards put to it four ounces of
mastick well powdered ; and stir the mixture briskly
till the whole be well melted ; then pass the whole mass
tin •ough a piece of fine linen into a glass bottle with a
long neck, that can be stopped very securely ; and keep
it for the use that will be below explained.
Method of apply ing the soft varnish to the plate, and
of blackening it. The plate being well polished and
burnished, as also cleansed from all greasiness by chalk
or Spanish white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the plate
where no work is intended to be, to serve as a handle
for managing it when warm : then put it upon a chaf¬
ing-dish, in which there is a moderate fire ; observing
to hold it so that it may melt: then cover the whole '
plate equally with a thin coat of the varnish ; and
while the plate is warm, and the varnish upon it in a
fluid state, beat every part of the varnish gently with a
small ball or dauber made of cotton tied up in taff’ety ;
which operation smooths and distributes the varnish
equally over the plate.
When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly cover¬
ed with the varnish, it must be blackened by a piece of
flambeau, or of a large candle which affords a copious
smoke ; sometimes two or even four such candles are
used together for the sake of dispatch, that the varnish
may not grow cold : which if it does during the ope¬
ration, the plate must then be heated again, that it may
be in a melted state when that operation is performed :
but great care must be taken not to burn it; which,
when it happens, may be easily perceived by the var¬
nish appearing burnt and losing its gloss. The follow¬
ing expedient is made use of for the more commodiously
blackening
ETC
C 334 ]
E T E
Etching.
blackening the varnish, being particularly necessary
where the plates are large : Fix a strong hook in the
roof of the room, through which pass four pieces of
cord of equal length, at the end of which are fixed four
iron rings of about four inches in diameter, for support¬
ing the corners of the plate. The plate being thus sus¬
pended in the air, with the varnished side downwards,
may be blackened with great convenience : but this is
not*, however, absolutely requisite, except in the case
of large plates that could not, without difficulty, be
held up, unless this or some other such contrivance
were made use of.
It is proper to be very cautious in keeping the flam¬
beau or candle at a due distance from the plate, lest the
wick touch the varnish, which would both sully and
ma,rk it. If it appear that the smoke has not penetra¬
ted the varnish, the plate must be again placed for some
little time over the chafing-dish ; and it will be found,
that, in proportion as the plate grows hot, the varnish
will melt and incorporate with the black which lay
above it, in such a manner that the whole will be equal¬
ly pervaded by it.
Above all things, the greatest caution should he used
in this operation, to keep all the time a model ate fire 5
and to move frequently the plate, and change the place
of all the parts of it, that the varnish may be alike
melted everywhere, and kept from burning. Care
must also be taken, that during this time, and even till
the varnish be entirely cold, no filth, sparks, or dust, fly
on it; for they would then stick fast, and spoil the
work. . 7 mi • • -i
Method of applying the hard varnish. This is precisely
the same as for the soft; being spread equally over the
warm plate with the taffety-ball, and smoked in the same
manner 1 only after it is smoked, it must be baked, or
dried over a gentle fire of charcoal, till the smoke from
the varnish begins to decrease ; taking care not to over¬
heat the plate, which w'ould both soften it and burn
the varnish.
The plate being thus prepared, and an exact draw¬
ing of the outlines of the design made upon thin pa¬
per, the other side of the paper must be well rubbed
with chalk or Spanish whitening, or, which is bet¬
ter, with red chalk scraped to a powder; and the
loose chalk is cleared off with a linen rag: then the
stained side of the paper is laid upon the varnish, fix¬
ing the corners to the plate with wax or wafers, to
prevent its shuffling*, and with a blunted needle or
pointer the drawing is slightly traced, and communi¬
cates to the varnish an exact outline of the design to
be etched.
A variety of pointers is necessary for the work.
Those used for the broad large strokes ought to be
very blunt, exceeding round, and well polished at the
point *, the sole of a shoe answers very well for polish¬
ing the points. The finest ought to be as sharp as a
needle. If any scratches or false strokes happen in the
working, they are to be stopped up with a hair-pencil
dipped in Venetian varnish, mixed with lamp black,
by which means these places will be defended from the
action of the aquafortis.
The next operation is that of eating or corroding
the plate with aquafortis ; in order to which, a border
of soft wax (being a composition of bees wax melted
and tempered with a little Venice turpentine and tal-
3
low) must be fastened round the plate about an inch Etcbin^,
high, in the form of a little wall or rampart, to contain Eteo«!ei.
the aquafortis. At one of the corners of this border » ■~J
a gutter is usually made, which serves for pouring com-
modiously the aquafortis off the plate. The plate be¬
ing thus bordered, take a due quantity of the refiners
aquafortis j mix it with half its quantity of common
water, and pour it gently on, till it rise above a fin¬
ger’s breadth above the surface of the plate ; when, if all
tilings have been rightly conducted, it will be seen that
the aquafortis will soon exert its action in the hatches
which have been strongly touched *, but those more
weaklv engraved will appear at first clear, and of the
colour of the copper. The menstruum must therefore
be suffered to continue on the plate till its effects be¬
come visible on the more tender parts: then the aqua¬
fortis should be poured off, the plate washed with clean
water, and dried before the fire : then take a small
pencil dipped into the Venetian varnish, and cover with
it the lighter parts of the plate. This being done, the
aquafortis must again be poured on, and suffered to
continue a longer or a shorter time, according to the
strength of the menstruum, or the nature of the en¬
graving $ when it must be again poured off as before,
and the plate immediately washed with water.
It may not be improper to observe, that, when the
aquafortis is on the plate, a feather should be used to
cleanse away the foulness of the verdegris that gathers
in the hatches when the aquafortis operates on them,
and to give it more room to exert its action 5 for by
moving the aquafortis to and fro on the plate by the
feather, and brushing away the black saline matter
where it appears to be formed, the hatches will be
cleansed, and the aquafortis exert its whole force equal¬
ly on every part.
The plate being thus sufficiently corroded by the
aquafortis, and well washed with water, it must be
warmed at the fire, and the border of wax removed j
after which it must be made hotter till the varnish
melt; then it must he well wiped with a linen cloth,
and afterwards rubbed well with oil of olives j when
it will be ready to be retouched and finished by the
graver. See the article Engraving.
° ETEOCLES, in fabulous history, a son of Oedipus
and Jocasta. After his father’s death, it was agreed
between him and his brother Polynices, that they should
both share the royalty, and reign alternately each a
year. Eteocles by right of seniority first ascended the
throne ; but after the first year of his reign had expired
he refused to give up the crown to his brother, accord¬
ing to their mutual agreement. Polynices, resolved to
punish such an open violation of a solemn engagement,
went to implore the assistance of Adrastus king of Ar¬
gos. He received that king’s daughter in marriage,
and was soon after assisted with a strong army headed
by seven famous generals. These hostile preparations
were seen by Eteocles, who on his part did not remain
inactive. He chose seven brave chiefs to oppose the
seven leaders of the Argives, and stationed them at the
seven gates of the city. He placed himself against his
brother Polynices, and he opposed Menabppus to iy-
deus, Polyphontes to Capaneus, Megareus to Eteocles,
Hyperbius to Parthenopseus, and Lasthenes to Amphia-
raus. Much blood was shed in light and unavailing
skirmishes, and it was at last agreed between the two
brothers
E T F
Tritv. ii,
[[?■
brothers that the war should be decided by single com¬
bat. They both tell in an engagement conducted with
the most inveterate fury on either side ; and it is even
said that the ashes of these two brothers, who had been
so inimical one to the other, separated themselves on the
burning pile, as if sensible of resentment, and hostile to
reconciliation.
ETERNITY, an attribute of God, expressing his
infinite or endless duration. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Eternity, in Mythology, a divinity among the Ro¬
mans, who had neither temples nor altars. They re¬
presented it under the figure of a woman, who held the
sun in one hand and the moon in the other : her sym¬
bols were a phoenix, globe, and elephant.
ETESIiE, or Etesian winds, are such as blow at
stated times of the year, from what part soever of the
compass they come. They are so called from the Greek
word i7«f, “ year,” being yearly or anniversary winds,
such as our seamen call monsoons and trade-winds, which
in some parts of the world continue constantly blowing
for certain stated seasons of the year. Thus, the north
winds, which, during the dog-days, constantly blow
upon the coasts of Egypt, and hinder all ships from
sailing out of Alexandria for that season, are called
etesice in Caesar’s Commentaries. In other authors, the
west and east winds are called etesice, when they con¬
tinue blowing for certain seasons of the year.
Cellarius endeavours to prove that those winds are
properly etesian which blow from that part of the hori¬
zon which is between the north and west about the time
of the solstice. In ancient writers, they are represent¬
ed as of a very mild and gentle nature j and were call¬
ed by mariners somniculosi and delicati, from their sleep¬
ing or ceasing to blow in the night.
ETFU, a town of Upper Egypt, celebrated on ac¬
count of the sublime temple of Apollinopolis, which,
Denon observes,* is “ the most beautiful of all Egypt,
and next to those of Thebes, the largest. Being built
(he adds) at a period when the arts and sciences had
acquired all their splendour, the workmanship of every
part is equally beautiful, the hieroglyphics are admira¬
bly executed, the figures more varied, and the archi¬
tecture of a higher order than in the Theban edifices,
the building of which must be referred to an earlier
age. My first care was to take a general plan of the
building.
“ Nothing can be more simply beautiful than these
outlines ; nothing more picturesque than the effect pro¬
duced in the elevation, by the various dimensions be¬
longing to each member of the harmonious whole.
This superb edifice is seated on a rising ground, so as to
overlook not only its immediate vicinity, but the whole
valley ; and at the foot of this greater temple, but on
a considerably lower level, is a smaller one, at present
almost buried. The only part still visible is in a hol¬
low surrounded with rubbish, where may be seen a little
portico of two columns, and as many pilasters, a peri¬
style, and the sanctuary of the temple inclosed within
a pilastered gallery. A single column, with its capital
rising from the ruins, to the height of forty feet above
the portico, and the angle of a wall loo feet beyond,
shew that there formerly existed a court in the front of
the temple. It is remarkable of this monument, not¬
withstanding the skill displayed in its construction, that
[ 335 ]
E T H
5ALD, ') f
!ERT, ( kings of J
iED, f England. )
VOLF, J i
See
(History of)
England.
See AEther.
the gates are not exactly in the middle of the sides. It
seems to have been dedicated to the evil genius, for the
figure of Typhon is seen in relief on the four sides of
the plinth, which surmounts each of the capitals. The
whole frieze, and all the paintings within, appear de¬
scriptive of Isis defending herself against the attacks of
this monster.”
ETHELBALD,
ETHELBERT
ETHELRED
ETHELWOLF
ETHER, 7
ETHERIAL, j
ETHERI DGE, Sir George, a celebrated wit and
comic genius in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.
descended from an ancient family in Oxfordshire, and
born in 1636. Fie travelled in his youth j and, not
being able to confine himself to the study of the law,
devoted himself to the gayer accomplishments. His
first dramatic performance, the Comical Revenge, or
Love in a Tub, appeared in 1664, and introduced him
to the leading wits of the time: in 1668, he produced
a comedy called She would if she could j and, in 1676,
he published his last comedy, called the Man of Mode,
or Sir Fopling Flutter; which is perhaps the most ele¬
gant comedy, and contains more of the real manners
of high life than any one the English stage was ever
adorned with. This piece he dedicated to the beauti¬
ful duchess of York, in whose service he then was; and
who had so high a regard for him, that when, on the
accession of James II. she came to be queen, she procu¬
red his being sent ambassador first to Hamburgh, and
afterwards to Ratisbon, where he continued till after
his majesty quitted the kingdom. Our author being
addicted to certain gay extravagances, had greatly im¬
paired his fortune; to repair which, he paid his ad¬
dresses to a rich widow; but she, being an ambitious
woman, had determined not to condescend to a mar¬
riage with any man who could not bestow a title upon
her ; on which account he was obliged to purchase a
knighthood. None of the writers have exactly fixed
the period of Sir George’s death, though all seem to
place it not long after the Revolution. Some say, that
on this event he followed his master King James into
France, and died there ; but the authors of the Bio-
graphia Britannica mention a report, that he came to
an untimely death by an unlucky accident at Ratisbon ;
for that after having treated some company with a libe¬
ral entertainment at his house there, where he had ta¬
ken his glass too freely, and being, through his great
complaisance, too forward in waiting on his guests at
their departure, flushed as he was, he tumbled down
stairs and broke his neck, and so fell a martyr to mirth
and jollity. As to Sir George’s literary character, he
certainly was born a poet, and seems to have been pos¬
sessed of a genius whose vivacity needed no cultivation :
for we have no proofs of his having been a scholar.
His works, however, have not escaped censure on ac¬
count of that licentiousness which in general runs
through them, which renders them dangerous to young
unguarded minds ; and the more so, for the lively and
genuine wit with which it is gilded over, and which
has therefore justly banished them from the purity of
the present stage.
ETHICS, the doctrine of manners, or the science
of
E T M
I 336 ]
E T O
Etfci(a ot moral plillosopliy. The word is formed from «».t,
I) d^o, mores, “ manners because it is the object ot
KtmuUer. ethics to investigate the manners or conduct ot man.
‘ See Moral Philosophy. .
ETHIOPIA, an extensive region ot Atnca. bee
Abyssinia.
ETHIOPS, antimonial, martial,, and mine¬
ral. See Chemistry Index.
ETHMOIDES, in Anatomy, a bone situated in the
middle of the basis of the forehead or os frontis, and at
the top of the root of the nose, filling almost the whole
cavity of the nostrils-. It has its name from ifrp»s, cri-
brum, “ sieve,” and “ form,” because all spongy
and porous. See Anatomy Index.
ETHNARCHA, Ethnarch, (formed of “ na
ETNA, or iETNA, a famous burning mountain of
Sicily, and the largest in Europe. See ./Etna.
ETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, compre¬
hending all that tract now called the Despotat, or Little
Greece. It was parted on the east by the river Evenus,
‘Dow the Fidari, from the Locrenses Oz.olce j on the
west, from Acarnama by the Achelous j on the north,
cit bordered on the country of the Dorians and part of
Epirus ; and, on the south, extended to the bay of
Corinth.
The Etolians were a restless and turbulent people ;
seldom at peace among themselves, and ever at war
with their neighbours *, utter strangers to all sense of
friendship or principles of honour} ready to betray
their friends upon the least prospect of reaping any ad-
Etna,’
Etolia.
TJN AIvA>ii/Y, JLlliNAKCtl, ijui uitu ui .......    -r • 1 . .1 11,
and “ command),” a governor or ruler of vantage from their treachery : in short, they were look-
o 1 „nnri hv fi.p otiier states of Greece no otherwise than
tion,’
a nation.
There are some medals of Herod I. surnamed the
Great, on one side whereof is found ‘HgwSov, and on the
other E0»*§£«t», q. d. Herod the Ethnarch. After the
battle of Philippi, we read that Antony, passing over
into Syria, constituted Herod and Phasael his brother
tetrarchs, and in that quality committed to them the
administration of the aftairs of Judea, (Jos. Ant. h .
xiv. cap. 23.). Herod therefore had the government ot
the province before ever the Parthians entered Syiia,
or before Antigonus’s invasion, which did not happen
till six or seven vears alter Herod was commander in
Galilee, (Jos. lib. xiv. cap. 24, 25.). Consequently,
Herod was then truly ethnarch, for he can be no other¬
wise denominated *, so that it must have been in that
space of time that the medals were struck, which only
give him this title : which medals are a confirmation
of what we read in history of the government which
that prince was intrusted with before he was raised to
the royalty. . , .
Josephus gives Herod the appellation of tetrarcn m
lieu of that oi ethnarch i but the two terms come so near
to each other, that it is easy to confound them together.
Though Herod the Great left by will to Archelaus
all Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, yet Josephus tells us
he was then only called ethnarch.
ETHNOPHRONES, in antiquity, a sect of here¬
tics in the seventh century, who made a profession of
Christianity, but joined thereto all the ceremonies and
follies of Paganism, as judicial astrology, sortileges, au¬
guries, and other divinations.
ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting
a ticket or title affixed to a bag or bundle of papers ex¬
pressing its contents. It is also used, when applied to the
Spanish and some other courts, to signify a particular
account of what is to be done daily in the king’s house¬
hold, and in the chief ceremonies relating to it. It like¬
wise denotes those forms that regulate the decorum oi
conduct towards persons of various ranks and stations.^
ETMULLER, Michael, a most eminent physi¬
cian, born at Leipsic in 1646. After having travelled
through the greatest part of Europe, he became profes¬
sor of botany, chemistry, and anatomy, at Leipsic, where
he died in 1683. He was a very voluminous writer,
his works making no less than 5 vols folio, as printed
at Naples in 1728. His son Michael Ernest Etmuller
was also an ingenious physician, who published several
pieces, and died in 173®’ ^
ed upon by the other states of Greece no otherwise than
as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand,
they were bold and enterprising in war j inured to la¬
bour and hardships; undaunted in the greatest dan¬
gers ; jealous defenders of their liberties, for which
thay were, on all occasions, willing to venture their
lives, and sacrifice all that was most dear to them.
They distinguished themselves above all the other na¬
tions of Greece, in opposing the ambitious designs of
the Macedonian princes ; who, after having reduced
most of the other states, were forced to grant them a
peace upon very honourable terms. The constitution
of the Etolian republic was copied from that of the
Achaeans, and with a view to form, as it were, a. coun¬
ter alliance; for the Etolians bore an irreconcileable
hatred to the Achscans, and had conceived no small
jealousy at the growing power of that state. The
Cleomenic war, and that of the allies, called the social
war, were kindled by the Etolians in the hepit of Pe¬
loponnesus, with no other view but to humble their
antagonists the Achoeans. In the latter, they held out,
with the assistance only of the l.leans and Lacedemo¬
nians, for the space of three years, against the united
forces of Achaia and Macedon ; but were obliged at
last to purchase a peace, by yielding Up to Philip all
Acarnania. As they parted with this province much
against their will, they watched all opportunities of
wresting it again out of the Macedonian’s hands; for
which reason they entered into an alliance with Rome
against him, and proved of great service to the Ro¬
mans in their war with him : but growing insolent
upon account of their services, they made war upon
the Romans themselves. By that warlike nation they
were overcome, and granted a peace on the following
severe terms ; 1. The majesty of the Roman people
shall be revered in all Etolia. 2. Etolia shall not suf-
fet the armies of such as are at war with Rome to pass
through her territories, and the enemies of Rome shall
be likewise the enemies of Etolia. 3. She shall, in
the space of lOO days, put into the bands of the ma-
o-istrates of Corcyra all the prisoners and deserters she
lias, whether of the Romans or their allies, except
such as have been taken twice, or during her affiance
with Rome. 4. The Etolians shall pay down in ready
money, to the Roman general in Etolia, 200 Euboic
talents, of the same value as the Athenian talents, and
engage to pay 50 talent* more within the six years fol¬
lowing. 5. They shall put into the hands of the cou-
,, E T 0 [337
Etolia. sul 40 such hostages as he shall choose ; none of whom
    shall be under 12, or above 40 years of age $ the pr?e-
tor, the general of the horse, and such as have been
already hostages at Rome, are excepted out of this
number. 6. Etolia shall renounce all pretensions to
the cities and territories which the Romans have
conquered, though those cities and territories had
formerly belonged to the Etolians. 7. The city of
Oenis, and its district, shall be subject to the Acar-
nanians.
After the conquest of Macedon by Paulus iEmilius,
they were reduced to a much worse condition j for not
only those among them, who had openly declared for
Perseus, but such as were only suspected to have fa¬
voured him in their hearts, were sent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themselves before the senate. There they
were detained, and never afterwards suffered to return
into their native country. Five hundred and fifty of
the chief men of the nation were barbarously assas¬
sinated by the partizans of Rome, for no other crime
but tluit of being suspected to wish well to Perseus.
The Etolians appeared before Paulus AEmilius in
mourning habits, and made loud complaints of such
inhuman treatment j but could obtain no redress: nay,
ten commissioners, who had been sent by the senate to
settle the affairs of Greece, enacted a decree, declaring,
that those who were killed had suffered justly, since it
appeared to them that they had favoured the Macedo¬
nian party. From this time those only were raised to
the chief honours and employments in the Etolian re¬
public who were known to prefer the interest of Rome
to that of their country ; and as these alone were
countenanced of Rome, all the magistrates of Etolia
were the creatures and mere tools of the Roman senate.
In this state of servile subjection they continued till the
destruction of Corinth, and the dissolution of the A-
chaean league ; when Etolia, with the other free states
of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province, com¬
monly called the province of Achaia. Nevertheless,
each state and city was governed by its own laws, un¬
der the superintendency of the praetor whom Rome sent
annually into Achaia. The whole nation paid a certain
tribute, and the rich were forbidden to possess lands
anywhere but in their own country.
In this state, with little alteration, Etolia continued
under the emperors, till the reign of Constantine the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of
the empire, divided the western parts of Greece from
the rest, calling them Epirus, and subjecting the
whole country to the prcefectus prcetorii for lllyricum.
Coder the successors of Constantine, Greece was par¬
celled out into several principalities, especially after
the taking of Constantinople by the Western princes.
At that time, Theodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian,
of the imperial family, seized on Etolia and Epirus.
The former he left to Michael his son ; who maintain¬
ed it against Michael Paleologus, the first emperor of
the Greeks, after the expulsion of the Latins. Charles,
the last prince of this family, dying in 1430 without
lawful issue, bequeathed Etolia to his brother’s son,
named also Charles ; and Acarnania to his natural sons,
Memnon, lurnus, and Hercules. But, great disputes
arising about this division, Amurath II. after the reduc¬
tion of riiessalonica, laid hold of so favourable an op¬
portunity, and drove them all out in 1432. The Ma-
VoL. VIII. part t. |
]
E T O
hometans were afterwards dispossessed of this country
by the famous prince of Epirus, George Castriot, com¬
monly called Scanderbeg; who, with a small army,
opposed the whole power of the Ottoman empire, and
defeated those barbarians in 22 pitched battles. That
hero, at his death, left great part of Etolia to the Ve¬
netians ; but, they not being able to make head against
such a mighty power, the whole country was soon re¬
duced by Mahomet II. whose successors hold it to this
day.
ETON, a town of Bucks, situated on the river
I names, across which there is a bridge leading to
Windsor. Eton has been long celebrated for its school
and college, which were founded by Henry VI. ; and
King’s college in the university of Cambridge admits
none into the number of its fellows, who have not been
brought up at Eton. It lies west from London, at the
distance of about 20 miles.
The scholars of Eton school have a festival which
has been celebrated from time immemorial, called the
Montem, the observance of which was at first biennial,
but is now triennial, on the Whit Tuesday in every third
year. It commences by a number of the older boys
taking post on the bridges, and guarding every other
avenue around Windsor and Eton, as soon as the day
begins to dawn. J
They are generally selected on account of their fine
figures and superior activity. Their dresses are all fan¬
ciful, composed of silks, satins, &c. some of them verv
richly embroidered, and chiefly in the appearance of
running footmen, having poles in their hands, and de¬
nominated salt-bearers, who demand salt of every pas¬
senger tney meet, by which they mean a contribution,
and peremptorily insist on receiving it. The contribu¬
tion being given, which consists of whatever the person
pleases to bestow, a printed paper is delivered, contain¬
ing their motto, together with the date of the year ;
and this being produced to any other salt-bearer, ex¬
empts the passenger from the payment of any farther
contributions during that day. The motto is,
“Pro more et monte.
I want rex et regina. ”
Etolia,
Eton
They continue levying contributions in this manner
from the dawn of day till about three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, at which time the procession closes. It com¬
mences at noon, and consists of the queen’s and other
bands of music ;—several standards carried by different
students 5—all the boys of Eton, two and two, dressed
in the uniform of officers ; those belonging to the king’s
foundation, wear blue, the rest scarlet uniform, swords,
&c*—the grand standard bearer;—the captain or head
boy of Eton school;—the lieutenant, or second boy ; 
his majesty, attended by the prince of Wales, and other
male branches of the royal family on horseback, with
their suite ;—the queen and princesses in coaches, at¬
tended by their suite ;—band of music, followed by a
great concourse of the nobility and gentry in their car¬
riages, and on horseback.
The procession begins in the great square at Eton,
proceeding through Eton to Slough, and round to Salt-
hill, where the whole of the boys pass in review before
the king and queen, and ascend the montem, where an
oration is delivered, and the grand standard is display¬
ed with much activity and grace by the standard-beaV-
U u er
E T Y [338
B1„„ er, who i« commonly selected from among the elder
Si boys. The two extraordinary salt-bearers are chosen to
Et>*ology. vva;t Up0n their majesties, dressed in fanciful habits, and
' v   decorated in the most superb manner, carrying an em¬
broidered bag, not only for the purpose of receiving
what is denominated the royal salt, but also what may
be collected by the other salt-bearers, in different quar¬
ters. The donation of the king is 50 guineas the
queen’s is the same sum •, that of the prince of Wales
is 30, and that of the other princes and princesses is
20 guineas each. This ceremony being over, the royal
family return to Windsor. A sumptuous entertainment
is provided for the boys at the tavern at Salt-hill, and
the beautiful gardens are laid out for ladies and gentle¬
men to take refreshments, where bands of music are
constantly performing. .
At six o’clock in the evening, the boys return in the
same order of procession as in the morning (but without
the royal family), and after marching round the great
square, are dismissed. After this the captain pays h.s
respects to the royal family at the queen’s lodge, Wind¬
sor, prior to his departure for King’s college, Cam¬
bridge ; to defray the expences of which, he is present¬
ed with the produce of the montem, which in the year
1706 amounted to more than 1000 guineas.
This joyful day is terminated by a brilliant exhibi¬
tion of beauty, rank, and fashion ; a promenade on the
terrace of Windsor ; bands of music performing, &c.:
and the scene is rendered still more interesting and de-
* lightful by the humble, affable deportment of the royal
family, who readily mingle with the company, and
walk on the terrace till it is almost dark.
ETRURIA. See Hetruria.
ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which con¬
siders and explains the origin and derivation of words,
• ..i* C l.  i'tt c 1 rrn 1 ri f «■
]
EVA'
Erange.
lists.
Sluers ami   e . •
in order to arrive at their first and primary sigmhca-
tion, whence Quintilian calls it ongwafw.—Ihe word
is formed of the Greek, *Vf, ™rus> “ true» cand
dico, “ I speak whence discourse, &c.
and thence Cicero calls the etymology notatio and
veriloquium; though Quintilian chooses rather to call
^ Tiudicious inquiry into etymologies is thought by
some of considerable use } because nations, who value
themselves upon their antiquity, have always looked
on the antiquity of their language as one ol the best
titles they could plead •, and the etymologists, by seek¬
ing the true and original reason of the notions and
ideas fixed to each word and expression, may otten
furnish an argument of antiquity, from the traces re¬
maining thereof, compared with the ancient uses. Add,
that etymologies are necessary for the thorough under¬
standing of a language. For, to explain a term pre¬
cisely, there seems a necessity for recurring to its first
imposition, in order to speak justly and satisfactorily
thereof. The force and extent of a word is generally
better conceived when a person knows its origin and
1 ^It i!°ogbjected, however, that the art is arbitrary, and
built altogether on conjectures and appearances j and
the etymologists are charged with deriving their words
from where they please. And indeed it is no easy
matter to go back into the ancient British and Gaulish
ages, and to follow, as it were, by the track, the va¬
rious imperceptible alterations a language has under¬
gone from age to age ) and as those alterations have
sometimes been merely owing to caprice, it is easy to jj
take a mere imagination or conjecture for a regular a- ^
nalogy : so that it is no wonder the public should be ^
prejudiced against a science which seems to stand on so
precarious a footing. It must certainly be owned, that
etymologies are frequently so far fetched, that one can
scarcely see any resemblance or conespondence therein.
Quintilian has shown, that the ancient etymologists,
notwithstanding all their learning, fell into very ridi¬
culous derivations.
The etymologies of our English words have been de¬
rived from the Saxon, Welch, Walloon, Danish, La¬
tin, Greek, 6tc.
In the present work the etymologies of terms are
generally noted, where their obviousness does not ren¬
der it unnecessary, or their dubiety or unimportance
useless.
EVACUANTS, in P/iarmacy, are properly such
medicines as diminish the animal fluids, by throwing
out some morbid or redundant humour j or such as
thin, attenuate, and promote the motion and circula¬
tion thereof. . .
EVACUATION, in Medicine, the art of diminish¬
ing, emptying, or attenuating, the humours of the
body. ...
EVAGRIUS Scholasticus, a famous historian,
born at Epiphania, about the year 53^* Prac^‘
sed the profession of an advocate, from which he was
called Sc/iolasticus, which name was then given to the
pleaders at the bar. He was also tribune and keeper
of the prefect’s dispatches. He wrote an ecclesiastical
history, which begins where Socrates and Theodoret
ended theirs j and other works, for which he was re¬
warded by the emperors Tiberius and Mauricius. M.
de Valois published at Paris a good edition of Eva-
grius’s ecclesiastical history, in folio j and it was ic-
published at Cambridge in 1620, in folio, by William
Reading, with additional notes of various authors.
EVANDER, a famous Arcadian chief, called the
son of Mercury, on account of his eloquence, brought
a colony of his people into Italy, about 60 years be¬
fore the taking of Troy ; when Faunus, who then
reigned over the Aborigines, gave him a large extent oi
country, in which he settled with his friends. He is
said to have taught the Latins the use of letters, and
the art of husbandry. He kindly received Hercules
■when he returned from the conquest of Geryon, and he
was the first who raised him altars. He gave iEneW
assistance against the Rutuli, and distinguished himseli
by his hospitality, It is said that he first brought the
Greek alphabet into Italy, and introduced there the
worship of the Greek deities. He was honoured as a
god after death, and his subjects raised him an altar on
Mount Aventine.
EVANGELISTS, the inspired authors of the go¬
spels The word is derived from the Greek ivuyfant,
formed of «*, bene, “ well,” and uy[iMS, “ angel or
messenger.” ... . . „ •
The denomination evangelists was likewise given in
the ancient church to such as preached the gospel up
and down, without being attached to any particular
church, being either commissioned by the apostles to
instruct the nations, or of their own accord abandoning
every worldly attachment, and consecrating themselves
E U C
/angelisU*0 ^ sacred office of preaching the gospel. * _A
§ sense some interpreters think it is that St Philip, who was
i;«charist. 0ne of the seven deacons, is called the evangelist, in the
¥ 2ist chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, verse 8.
Again, St Paul writing to Timothy, ep. ii. cap. iv.
ver. 5. bids him do the work of an evangelist. The
same apostle, Eph. iv. 11. ranks the evangelists after
the apostles and prophets.
EVANID, a name given by some authors to such
colours as are of no long duration, as those in the
rainbow, in clouds before and after sunset, &c.
Evanid colours are also called fantastical zwi crnpha-
tical colours.
EVANTES, in antiquity, the priestesses of Bac¬
chus, thus called, because in celebrating the orgia they
ran about as if distracted, crying, Evan, cvan, ohS evan.
See Bacchanalia.
EVAPORA1 ION, in Natural Philosophy, signifies
the conversion of fluids into vapour, so that it becomes
specifically lighter than the atmosphere. See Che¬
mistry and Meteorology Index.
EVASION, in Law, is used for any subtle endea¬
vour to set aside truth, or to escape the punishment of
the law, which will not be endured. Thus, if a per¬
son says to another that he will not strike him, but will
give him a pot of ale to strike him first, and according¬
ly he strikes, the returning of it is punishable ; for no
man shall evade the justice of the law by such a pre¬
tence to cover his malice.
EVATES, a branch or division of the druids, or
ancient Celtic philosophers. Strabo divides the British
and Gaulish philosophers into three sects; bards, evates,
and druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets
and musicians $ the evates, the priests and naturalists 5
and the druids were moralists as well as naturalists:
But Marcellus and Hornius reduce them all to two
sects, viz. the Bards and Druids.
EUBAGES, an order of priests or philosophers
among the ancient Celtae or Gauls: some will have the
eubages to be the same with the druids and saronida
of Diodorus 5 and others, that they were the same with
xvhat Strabo calls Evates.
EUBOEA, in Ancient Geography, an oblong island,
stretching out between Attica and Thessaly, opposite to
Bccotia ; from which it is separated by a narrow strait
called Euripus. This island, never exceeding 40, nor
ever falling short of two miles in breadth, is in length
150 miles, and in compass 365, according to Pliny.
Now Negropont, from its principal town, which was
anciently called Chalets.
EUCHARIST, the sacrament of the Lord’s supper,
properly signifiesg-fy/V/g-The word in its origi¬
nal Greek, literally imports thanksgiving;
being formed of ev, bene, “ well,” and #«£<>, gratia,
“ thanks.”
This sacrament was instituted by Christ himself 5
and the participation of it is called communion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharist among
the ancient Christians, after the customary oblations
were made, the deacon brought water to the bishops
and presbyters, standing round the table, to wasli
their hands ; according to that of the psalmist, “ I will
wash my hands in innocency, and so will I compass
thy altar, O Lord.” Then the deacon cried out aloud,
“ Mutually embrace and kiss each other 5” which be-
[ 33? ] . E U C
In which ing done, the whole congregation prayed for the uni¬
versal peace and welfare of the church, for the tranquil¬
lity and repose of the world, lor the prosperity of the
age, for wholesome weather, and for all ranks and de¬
grees of men. Alter this followed mutual salutations of
the minister and people ; and then the bishop or presby¬
ter having sanctified the elements by a solemn benedic¬
tion, he brake the bread, and delivered it to the deacon,
who delivered it to the communicants, and after that the
cup. 1 heir sacramental wine was usually diluted or mix¬
ed with water. During the time of administration, they
sang hymns and psalms ; and having concluded with
prayer and thanksgiving, the people saluted each other
with a kiss of peace, and so the assembly broke up.
EUCHITES, or Euchitac, a sect of ancient he¬
retics, who were first formed into a religious body to¬
wards the end of the fourth century, though their doc¬
trine and discipline subsisted in Syria," Egypt, and
other eastern countries, before the birth of Christthey
were thus called because they prayed without ceasing,
imagining that prayer alone was sufficient to save them!
Their great foundation were those words of St Paul,
(Thessalonians, v. 17.) Pray without ceasing. The word
is formed ot the Greek, tvg/i, prayer, whence
the same with the Latin precalores, “ prayers.” Thev
were also caljed Enthusiasts and Messalians ; a term
of Hebrew origin, denoting the same as Euchites.
The Euchites were a sort of mystics, who imagined,
according to the oriental notion, that two souls resided
in man, the one good and the other evil ; and who
were zeaious in expelling the evil soul or demon, and
hastening the return of the good spirit of God, by
contemplation, prayer, and singing of hymns. They
also embraced the opinions nearly resembling the Ma-
nichean doctrine, and which they derived from the te¬
nets of the oriental philosophy. I he same denomina¬
tion was used in the 12th century, to denote certain
fanatics who infested the Greek and eastern churches,
and wh0 were charged with believing a double Trinity!
rejecting wedlock, abstaining from flesh, treating with
contempt the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s
supper, and the various branches of external worship,
and placing the essence of religion solely in external
prayer, and maintaining the efficacy of perpetual sup¬
plications to the Supreme Being for expelling an evil
rwa I n n* r*T» rr/-> V-I • n r- L J It • J i 1 . f*
I'achaiUl
. II
Kuchoio*
giiirn.
being or genius, which dwelt in the breast of every
mortal, ^his sect is said to have been founded by a
person ca\\e& Lucopctrus, whose chief disciple was named
Tychicus. By degrees it became a general and invidious
appellation for persons of eminent piety and zeal for
genuine Christianity, who opposed the vicious prac¬
tices and insolent tyranny of the priesthood ; much in
the same manner as the Latins comprehended all the
adversaries of the Roman pontiff under the general
terms of Waldenses and Albigenses.
St Cyril of Alexandria, in one of his letters, takes
occasion to censure several monks in Egypt, who, un¬
der pretence of resigning themselves wholly to prayer,
led a lazy, scandalous life. A censure likewise appli¬
cable to monasteries in general.
EUCHOLOGIUM, Ei;<£«Aay<er, a Greek term, sig-
nifying literally a discourse on prayer. The word is
lormed of prayer, and *sy«s, discourse.
The Euchologium is properly the Greek ritual,
wherein are prescribed the order and manner of every
U u 2 thing
E U D
[ 340 ]
EVE
Eucholo-
gium
11 .
Kudosia.
thing relating to the order and administration of their
ceremonies, sacraments, ordinations, &c.
F. Goar has given us an edition of the Greek Fucho-
, loorium in Greek and Latin, with notes, at Paris.
EUCLID o/MEGARA, a celebrated philosopher and
logician, flourished about 400 B. C. The Athenians
having prohibited the Megareans from entering their
city on pain of death, this philosopher disguised himselt
in women’s clothes to attend the lectures of Socrates.
After the death of Socrates, Plato and other philoso¬
phers went to Euclid at Megara, to shelter themselves
from the tyrants who governed Athens. Euclid admit¬
ted hut one chief good : which he sometimes called
God, sometimes Spirit, and sometimes Providence.
Euceid of Alexandria, the celebrated mathemati¬
cian, flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, about
277 B C He reduced all the fundamental principles
of pure mathematics, which had been delivered down
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and other mathema¬
ticians before him, into regularity and order, and add¬
ed many others of his own discovering: on which ac¬
count he is said to be the first who reduced arithmetic
and geometry into the form of a science. He likewise
applied himself to the study of mixed mathematics, and
especially to astronomy, in which he also excelleib 1 he
most celebrated of his works is his Elements of Geome¬
try, of which there have been a great number o edi-
lions in all lanpnages; and a fine edmon of all h.s
works was printed in .703, by David Gregory, Savi-
lian professor of astronomy at Oxford.
EUCRASY, (of sv, we//, and temperature),
in Medicine, an agreeable well proportioned mixture ot
... . 1 in ornncl order.
she declared herself entirely free from any stains of un¬
chastity. She was the author of a paraphrase on the
eight first books of the Old Testament in heroic verse 5
and of a great number of poems, which are lost.
EUDOXIANS, a party or sect of heretics in the
fourth century, so denominated from their leader Eu-
doxius, patriarch of Antioch and Constantinople, a
great defender of the Arian doctrine. The Eudoxians
adhered to the errors of the Arlans and Eunomians,
maintaining, that the Son was created out of nothing j
that he had a will distinct and different from that of
the Father, &c.
EVE. See Vigil.
Eve, the mother of all mankind ; who being deluded
by the serpent, occasioned the fall, and all its dismal
consequences. See Adam.
EVELYN, John, a most learned and ingenious
writer and natural philosopher, was born at W otton in
Surry, the seat of his father, in 1620. Alter making
the tour of Europe, he returned to England about the
year 1651, and lived very retired at his rural retreat,
Say’s Court, near Deptford in Kent j where his disgust
at the violence and confusion of the times operated so
far upon his studious disposition, that he actually pro¬
posed to Mr Boyle the establishing a kind of college
for persons of the same turn of mind, where they
might associate together without care or interruption.
It was owing to Mr Evelyn’s gratitude to the place
of his education, that Oxford became possessed of the
famous Arundelian marbles *, which he persuaded the
Lord Henry Howard to bestow on that university.
He was very assiduous in transmitting to the Royal^So¬
ciety whatever fell within the compass of his inquiries j
and'used humbly to style himself a pioneer in the service.
m meaieinc, <1.1  . a 1 . . 1 1
qualities, whereby a body is said to e in goo , humbl to style himself a pioneer in the service.
and disposed for a good state ot nea . , When the number of books he published is considered,
EUDIOMETER, an instrument for ascertaining the V ^ ^ behlnd him unftnlshed and unpublish-
purity of the atmospherical air, ^ 1 ^flvbv means of ed and^the variety of subjects on which he employed
oxygen or vital air contained in R, chie y y ’ industry and application are astonishing,
itsliminution, or the absorption of ^ V exj-g-r- Ir^^^^^e^onouraL Mr Walpole) was a
tain substances to its act“’"g Chemistry IndL course of inquiry, study, curiosity, instruction, and be-
,eEUDbslA,'n(ViTBEN.A before her conversion to nevolence. The works of the Creator, and the mimic
Christianity), a celebrated lady, the daughter of Leon¬
tius, a philosopher of Athens 5 who gave her such a
learned education, that at his death he left her only a
small legacy, saying she was capable to make hex own
fortune fbut pleading at Athens without success against
her two brothers, for a share in her father’s estate she
carried her cause personally by appeal to Constantino¬
ple ; recommended herself to Pulcheria, the sister of
the emperor Theodosius the younger 5 embraced Chris¬
tianity was baptized by the name of Eudosia, and
soon after married to the emperor. Their union lasted
a considerable time : but a difference at last taking
nlace, on account of the emperor s jealousy, excited
by Chrysapius the eunuch, she retired to Jerusalem,
where she spent many years in building and adorning
churches and in relieving the poor. Dupin says, that
she did not return thence till after the emperors
death • hut Cave tells us, that she was reconciled to
him returned to Constantinople, and continued with him
till his death ; after which she again went to Palestine
where she spent the remainder of her life in pmus
works. She died in the year 460, according to Du-
• „ rn according to Cave : the latter observes,
Et on b« deathbed, she took a solemn oatb, by wbieb
labours of the creature, were all objects of his pursuit
He unfolded the perfections of the one, and assisted the
imperfections of the other. He adored from examina¬
tion j was a courtier that flattered only by informing
his prince, and by pointing out what was worthy for
him to countenance; and was really the neighbour ot
the Gospel, for there was no man that might not have
been the better for him. He was one of the first pro¬
moters of the Royal Society, a patron of the ingenious
and indigent, and peculiarly serviceable to the lettered
world j for, besides his writings and discoveries, he ob¬
tained the Arundelian marbles for the university of Ox¬
ford, and the Arundelian library for the Royal Society :
nor is it the least part of his praise, that he who pro^
posed to Mr Boyle the erection of a philosophic col¬
lege for retired and speculative persons, had the honesty
to write in defence of active life against Sir George
Mackenzie’s Essay on Solitude. He knew that retire¬
ment in his own hands was industry and benefit to man¬
kind ; but in those of others, laziness and inutility.
There are five small prints of this gentleman’s journey
from Rome to Naples, drawn and etched by him ; and
among his published works are, 1. A Character ot
England y 2. The State of France j 3. An Essay ^
eve [ 341 ] E V I
Erdyn first book of Lucretius Tie rerum natura; 4. The
ft French gardener ; 5. A Panegyric on King Charles II.’s
veiham. coronation ; 6. Fumifugum, or the inconvenience of
the air and smoke of London dissipated j 7. The Hi¬
story and Art of Engraving on Copper; 8. A parallel
between the ancient architecture and the modern ;
9. Sylva, or a discourse of forest trees ; and several
others. This amiable gentleman died, full of age and
honour, in 1706. His son John Evelyn, born in 1654,
distinguished himself by his elegant translations and
poems : He was one of the commissioners of the re¬
venue in Ireland ; but died early in life, in 1698.
EVERGETES, a surname signifying bencfactory
given to Philip of Macedon, and to Antigonus Doson,
and Ptolemy of Egypt. It was also commonly given
to the kings of Syria and Pontus, and we often see
among the former an Alexander Evergetes, and among
the latter a Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Ro¬
man emperors also claimed that epithet of Benevolent
and Humane.
EVERGREEN, in Gardening, a species of peren¬
nials, which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the
year : such are hollies, phillyreas, lauristinuses, bays,
pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
EVERLASTING pea. See Lathyrus, Botany
Index.
EVES-droppers. See EAVES-Droppcrs.
EVESHAM, or Evesholm, commonly called E-
sam, a town of Worcestershire, seated on a gentle ascent
from the river Avon, over which there is a bridge of
seven arches. It is 95 miles from London, 14 miles
from Worcester, and has a harbour for barges. It is
an old borough, reckoned the second in the county;
and sends two members to parliament. It had former¬
ly an abbey with a mitred abbot; which abbey when
standing was one of the largest and most stately of any
in the kingdom. It was governed by a bailiff, till
King James I. at the request of his son Prince Henry,
gave it a charter for a mayor, 7 aldermen, 12 capital
burgesses, a recorder, and chamberlain, who are all of
the common council, with 24 other burgesses called
assistants. Four of the aldermen, and the mayor for
the time being, are justices of the peace ; and of oyer
and terminer, and of gaol delivery, for all offences in
the corporation, except high treason ; and the corpo¬
ration has power to try and execute felons within the
borough. Here are two parish-churches ; but the bells
of both have been removed to a beautiful old tower
which was one of the gates of the abbey. The town
is noted tor the great victory obtained near it by Prince
Edward, afterwards King Edward L over S-imon Mont-
fort, the great earl of Leicester, who was killed in the
battle. There is an open prospect from hence of the
spacious valley called the vale of Evesham or vide of
Gloucester, which so abounds with the best of corn, as
well as pasture for sheep, that it is reckoned the gra¬
nary of all these parts. The vale runs all along the
banks of the Avon, from Tewkesbury to Pershore,
and Stratford in Warwickshire, and the river is so
far navigable. It has a weekly market and four fairs.
The market-house, built by Sir Edward Hobby, has its
upper apartments used by the corporation for a sessions-
house, and formerly for the assizes of the county. There
are considerable garden grounds around the place,, the
produce of which supplies the adjacent towns.
EUGENE, Francis, prince of Savoy, descended Eugene
from Carignan, one of the three branches of the house il
of Savoy, and son of Eugene Maurice, general of the ^vii-Mero-
Swiss and Grisons, governor of Champagne, and earl . (1actl'
of Soissons, was born in 1663. Louis XIV, to whom * IL"'
he became afterwards so formidable an enemy, thought
him so unpromising a youth, that he refused him pre¬
ferment both in the church and the state, thinking him
too much addicted to pleasure to be useful in either.
Prince Eugene, in disgust, quitted France ; and, retir¬
ing to Vienna, devoted himself to the Imperial service.
The war between the emperor and the Turks aflorded
the first opportunity of exerting his military talents ;
and every campaign proved a new step in bis advance¬
ment to the highest offices in the army. He gave the
Turks a memorable defeat at Zewta ; commanded the
German forces in Italy, where be foiled Marshal Vil-
leroy in every engagement, and at length took him
prisoner. Our limits do not allow a detail of his cam¬
paigns; but Prince Eugene distinguished himself greatly,
when the emperor and Queen Anne united against the ex¬
orbitant power of Louis XIV. He died at Vienna in the
year 1736; and was as remarkable for his modesty and
liberality, as for his abilities in the field and the cabinet.
EUGENIA, the Yamboo ; a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the icosandria class; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 19th order, Hespcridece. See
Botany Index.
EVICTION, in Law, signifies a recovery of lands
or tenements by law.
EVIDENCE, that perception of truth which arises
either from the testimony of the senses or from an in¬
duction of reason.
Evidence, in Law, signifies some proof by testimony
of men upon oath, or by writings or records. It is
called evidence, because thereby the point in issue in a
cause to be tried is to be made evident to the jury;
for probationes debent esse evidentes etperspiciue. The
system of evidence, as now established in our courts of
common law, is very full; comprehensive, and refined ;
far different from, and superior to, any thing known
in the middle ages ;—as far superior in that as in all
other improvements and refinements in science, arts,
and manners.
The nature of evidence during the ages of ignorance
was extremely imperfect, and the people were inca¬
pable of making any rational improvement. Thus it
was the imperfection of human reason that caused the
invention and introduction of the ordeal, as an appeal
to the Supreme Being. As men are unable to com¬
prehend the manner in which the Deity carries on the
government of the universe, by equal, fixed, and ge¬
neral laws, they are apt to imagine, that in every case
which their passions or interest render important in
their own eyes, the Supreme Ruler of all ought visibly
to display his power in vindicating innocence, and pu¬
nishing vice.
EVIL, in Philosophy, &c. is either moral or natu¬
ral. Moral evil is the disagreement between the ac¬
tions of a moral agent, and the rule of those actions;
whatever it is Natural evil is, whatever destroys or* See jl/o-
any way disturbs the perfection of natural beings : suchr^^^0"
as blindness, diseases, death, &c.
King's Evil, or Scrophula. See Medicine Index.
Evil-Merodach, the son and successoroi Nebuchad¬
nezzar,
E U L
[ .342 ]
E U L
E,ril- nezzar the great, king of Babylon, succeeded to the
Merotlacli, crown in the year of the w'orld 3443 2 governed
Kuler- the kingdom during the indisposition of his father,
who, after seven years, having recovered his understand¬
ing, once more ascended the throne j and, as some be¬
lieve, imprisoned his son Evil-Merodach. In this con¬
finement it is supposed that Evil-Mercdach made an
acquaintance and friendship with Jehoiachim king of
Judah, who had been carried to Babylon by Nebu¬
chadnezzar. However that was, it is certain, that
soon after his succession to the throne, he delivered the
king of Judah out of prison, after a confinement of 37
vears, heaped many favours on him, and placed him
above all the other kings who were at the court
of Babylon, (2 Kings xxv. 27. Jer. lii. 31.). Evil-
Merodach reigned but one year, according to the
chronology of Archbishop Usher; but Dr Prideaux
will have him to have reigned two years; and w?as suc¬
ceeded by Neriglissar his sister’s husband, who having
been at the head of a conspiracy that put him to
death, reigned in his stead. Others will have it, that
this prince was immediately succeeded by his son Bel¬
shazzar.
EULER, Leonard, professor of mathematics,
member of the imperial academy of Petersburgh, an¬
cient director of the royal academy of Berlin, and fel¬
low of the royal society of London, as also correspond¬
ent member of the royal academy of sciences at Paris,
was born at Basil, April 15. 1707, of reputable pa¬
rents. The years of bis infancy were passed in a rural
retreat at the village of Richen, of which place his
father was minister.—Being sent to the university of
Basil, he attended regularly the different professors.
As his memory was prodigious, he performed his aca¬
demical tasks with uncommon rapidity ; and all the
time he gained by this was consecrated to geometry,
which soon became his favourite study. The early pro¬
gress he made in this science, only added new ardour
to his application ; and thus he obtained a distinguished
place in the attention and esteem of Professor John Ber-
nouilli, who was at that time one of the first mathe¬
maticians in Europe. In 1723, M. Euler took his de¬
gree as master of arts; and delivered on that occasion
a Latin discourse, in which he drew a comparison be¬
tween the philosophy of Newton and the Cartesian sys¬
tem, which was received with the greatest applause.
He afterwards, at his father’s desire, applied himself
to the study of theology and the oriental languages.
Though these studies were foreign to his predominant
propensity, his success was considerable even in this
line : however, with his father’s consent, he returned
to geometry as his principal object. He continued to
avail himself of the counsels and instructions of M.
Bernouiili ; he contracted an intimate friendship with
his two sons Nicholas and Daniel ; and it was in con¬
sequence of these connexions that he became after¬
wards the principal ornament of the academy of Peters¬
burgh. The project of erecting this academy, which had
been formed by Peter the Great, was executed by
Catherine I.; and the two young Bernouillis being in¬
vited to Petersburgh in 1725, promised Euler, who was
desirous of following them, that they would use their
utmost endeavours to procure for him an advantageous
settlement in that city. In the mean time, by their
advice, be applied himself with ardour to the study of
physiology, to which he made a happy application of y
his mathematical knowledge; and he attended the me- s—
dical lectures of the most eminent professors of Basil.
This study, however, did not wholly engross his time :
it did not even relax the activity of his vast and com¬
prehensive mind in the cultivation of other branches of
natural science. For while he was keenly engaged in
physiological researches, he composed A Dissertation on
the Nature and Propagation of Sound, and an answer
to a prize-question concerning the masting of ships ;
to which the academy of sciences adjudged the accessit,
or second rank, in the year 1727. From this latter
discourse, and other circumstances, it appears that
Euler had early embarked in the curious and important
study of navigation, which he afterwards enriched with
so many valuable discoveries.
M. Euler’s merit would have given him an easy ad¬
mission to honourable preferment, either in the magis¬
tracy or university of his native city, if both civil and
academical honours had not been there distributed by
lot. The lot being against him in a certain promo¬
tion, he left his country, set out for Petershurgh, and
was made joint professor with his countrymen Messrs
Hermann and Daniel Bernouiili in the university of
that city. At his first setting out in his new career,
he enriched the academical collection with many me¬
moirs, which excited a noble emulation between him
and the Bernouillis ; and this emulation always con¬
tinued, without either degenerating into a selfish jea¬
lousy, or producing the least alteration in their friend¬
ship. It was at this time that he carried to new de¬
grees of perfection the integral calculus, invented the
calculation of sinuses, reduced analytical operations to
a greater simplicity, and was thus enabled to throw
new light on all the parts of mathematical science. In
1730, he was promoted to the professorship of natural
philosophy; and in 1733 he succeeded his friend D.
Bernouilli in the mathematical chair. In I735> a Pr0*
Idem was proposed by the academy which required
expedition, and for the solution of which several emi¬
nent mathematicians had demanded the space of some
months. The problem was solved by Euler in three
days, to the great astonishment of the academy: but
the violent and laborious efforts it cost him threw him
into a fever, which endangered his life, and deprived
him of the use of his right eye. The academy of
sciences at Paris, which in 1738 had adjudged the prize
to his memoir concerning the Nature and Properties
of Fire, proposed for the year 1740 the important sub¬
ject of the sea tides ; a problem whose solution required
the most arduous calculations, and comprehended the
theory of the solar system. Euler’s discourse on this
question was adjudged a masterpiece of analysis and
geometry ; and it was more honourable for him to share
the academical prize with such illustrious competitors
as Colin Maclaurin and Daniel Bernouiili, than to have
carried it away from rivals of less magnitude. Rarely,
if ever, did such a brilliant competition adorn the an¬
nals of the academy ; and no subject, perhaps, propo¬
sed by thq£ learned body was ever treated with such
accuracy of investigation and force of genius, as that
which here displayed the philosophical powers of these
three extraordinary men.
In the year 1741, M. Euler was invited to Berlin
to augment the lustre of the academy, that was there
rising
E U L
rising into fame. He enriched
[
the last volume
the miscellanies (melanges}, of Beilin with five me¬
moirs, whicli make an eminent, perhaps the principal,
figure in that collection. These were followed with an
astonishing rapidity by a great number of important
researches, which are scattered through the memoirs
of the Prussian academy ; of which a volume has been
regularly published every year since its establishment
in 1744. The labours of Euler will appear more espe¬
cially astonishing, when it is considered, that while
he was enriching the academy of Berlin with a prodi¬
gious number of memoirs, on the deepest parts of ma¬
thematical science, containing always some new points
ol view, often sublime truths, and sometimes discove¬
ries of great importance j he did not discontinue his
philosophical contributions to the academy of Peters-
burgh, which granted him a pension in 1742, and
whose memoirs display the marvellous fecundity of Eu¬
ler’s genius. It was with much difficulty that this
great man obtained, in 1766, permission from the king
of Prussia to return to Petersburg!), where he desired
to pass the rest ol his days. Soon after his return,
which was graciously rewarded by the munihcence of
Catherine II. he was seized with a violent disorder,
which terminated in the total loss of his sight. A ca¬
taract, formed in his left eye, which had been essen¬
tially damaged by a too ardent application to study,
deprived him entirely of the use of that organ. It was
in this distressing situation that he dictated to his ser¬
vant, a taylor’s apprentice, who was absolutely devoid
of mathematical knowledge, his elements of algebra $
which by their intrinsical merit, in point of perspicuity
and method, and the unhappy circumstances in which
they were composed, have equally excited applause and
astonishment. This work, though purely elementary,
discovers the palpable characteristics of an inventive
genius; and it is here alone that we meet with a com¬
plete theory of the analysis of Diophantus.
About this time M. Euler was honoured by the
Academy of Sciences at Paris with the place of one of
the foreign members of that learned body ; and, after
this, the academical prize was adjudged to three of
his memoirs, Concerning the Inequalities in the Motions
of the Planets. The two prize questions proposed by
the same academy for 1770 and 1772 were designed to
obtain from the labours of astronomers a more perfect
theory of the moon. M. Euler, assisted by his eldest
son, was a compeUtor for these prizes, and obtained
them both. In this last memoir, he reserved for far¬
ther consideration several inequalities of the moon’s
motion, which he could not determine in his first theo¬
ry, on account of the complicated calculations in which
the method he then employed had engaged him. He
had the courage afterward to review his whole theory,
with the assistance of his son and Messrs Krafft and
Lexell, and to pursue his researches until he had con¬
structed the new tables, which appeared, together with
the great work, in 1772. Instead of confining him¬
self as before, to the fruitless integration of three dif-
lerential equations of the second degree, which are
furnished by mathematical principles, he reduced them
to the three ordinates, which determine the place of
the moon j he divided into classes all the inequalities
of that planet, as far as they depend either on the elon¬
gation of the sun and moon, or upon the eccentri-
343 ] E U L
of city, or the parallax, or the inclination of the lunar
orbit. All these means of investigation, employ-
ed with such art and dexterity as could only he ex¬
pected from analytical genius of the first order, were
attended with the greatest success; and it is impos¬
sible toj observe, without admiration, such immense
calculations on the one hand, and on the other the
ingenious methods employed by this great man to a-
biidge them, and to facilitate their application to the
leal motion of the moon. But this admiration will be¬
come astonishment, when we consider at what period
and in what circumstances all this was effectuated by
M. Euler. It was when he was totally blind, and con¬
sequently obliged to arrange all his computations by
the sole powers of his memory and his genius. It
was when he was embarrassed in his domestic circum¬
stances by a dreadful fire, that had consumed great
pait of his substance, and forced him to quit a ruined
house, of which every corner was known to him by
habit, which, in some measure, supplied the place of
sight. It was in these circumstances that Euler com¬
posed a work, which, alone, was sufficient to render his
name immortal. The heroic patience and tranquillity
of mind which lie displayed here, need no descrip¬
tion : and he derived them not only from the love of
science, but from the power of religion. His philo¬
sophy was too genuine and sublime to stop its analysis
at mechanical causes; it led him to that divine philo¬
sophy of religion which ennobles human nature, and
can alone form a habit of true magnanimity and pa¬
tience in suffering.
Some time after this, the famous Wenzell, by
couching the cataract, restored M. Euler’s sight; but
the satisfaction and joy that this successful operation
produced, were 01 short duration. Some instances oi*
negligence on the part of his surgeons, and his own
impatience to use an organ, whose cure was not com¬
pletely finished, deprived him of his sight a second
time; and this relapse was accompanied with torment¬
ing pain. He, however, with the assistance of his sons,
and of Messrs Krafft and Eexell, continued his labours;
neither the loss of his sight, nor the infirmities of
an advanced age could damp the ardour of his genius.
He had engaged to furnish the academy of Peters¬
burg!! with as many memoirs as would be sufficient to
complete its acts for 20 years after his death. In
the space of seven years he transmitted to the academy
by Mr Golswin, above 70 memoirs, and above 200
more, which were revised and completed by the au¬
thor of this paper. Such of the memoirs as were of
ancient date were separated from the rest, and form a
collection that was published in the year 1783, under
the title of Analytical Works.
Euler’s knowledge was more universal than could be
well expected in one who had pursued with such un¬
remitting ardour mathematics and astronomy as his
favourite studies. He had made a very considerable
progress in medical, botanical, and chemical science.
What was still more extraordinary, he was an excel¬
lent scholar, and possessed what is generally called eru¬
dition in a very high degree. He had read, with at¬
tention and taste, the most eminent writers of ancient
Home; the civil and literary history of all ages and all
nations were familiar to him; and foreigners, who were
only acquainted with his works, were astonished to
find
J'ttk-i
E U M t
’Eulef find in the conversation of a man, whose long
(j seemed solely occupied in mathematical and physical
Eumenes, researches and discoveries, such an extensive acquaint-
      ance with the most interesting branches of literature.
In this respect, no doubt, he was much indebted to a
very uncommon memory, which seemed to retain every
idea that was conveyed to it, either from reading or
from meditation. He could repeat the iEneid of
Virgil, from the beginning to the end, without hesi¬
tation, and indicate the first and last line of every page
of the edition he used. . . . . p
Several attacks of a vertigo, in the beginning ot
September 1783, which did not prevent his calculating
the motions of the aerostatical globes, were, neverthe¬
less the forerunners of his mild and happy passage
from this scene to a better. While he was amusing
himself at tea with one of his grandchildren, he was
struck with an apoplexy, which terminated his illus¬
trious career at the age of 76. His constitution was
uncommonly strong and vigorous 5 his health was good ;
and the evening of his long life was calm and serene,
sweetened by the fame that follows genius, the public
esteem and respect that are never withheld irom ex¬
emplary virtue, and several domestic comforts winch
be was capable of feeling and therefore deserved to
enJEULOGY, Eulogia, in church history. When
the Greeks have cut a loaf or piece of bread to con¬
secrate it, they break the rest into little bits, and distri¬
bute it among the persons who have not yet communi¬
cated, or send it to persons that are absent) and these
pieces of bread are what they call eulogies. The word
Is Greek, ivAey.*, formed of tv, bene, “ well, and A.y«,
dico, “ I say, speak •” q. d. benedictum, blessed. _
The Latin church has had something like eulogies
for a great many ages 5 and thence arose the use ot their
holy bread. ... 1 1 u
The name eulogy was likewise given to loaves orcakes
brought to church by the faithful to have them blessed.
Lastly, The use of the term passed hence to mere pre¬
sents made to a person without any benediction, bee
the Jesuit Gretser, in his treatise de Benedictiombus et
Maledictionibus, lib. ii. cap. 22, 24. &c. where he
treats of eulogies thoroughly. r at
From a passage in Bolandus, on the life of bt JMe-
laine, cap. 4- it appears, that eulogies were not only
of bread, but any kind of meat blessed and hallowed
for that purpose. Add, that almost every body bles¬
sed and distributed eulogies) not only bishops and
priests, but even hermits, though laymen, made a
practice of it. Women also would sometimes send
The wine sent as a present was also held an eulogy.
Bolandus remarks farther, that the eucharist itself was
also called eulogy.
Eulogy, likewise means an encomium on any per¬
son on account of some virtue or good quality.
EUM ABIDES, of “ easy,” among the an¬
cients, a kind of shoes common to men and women.—
The enmarides were used for pomp and delicacy, being-
neat, and painted with various colours.
EUMENES, a Greek officer in the army ot Alex¬
ander, son of a charioteer. He was the most worthy
of all the officers of Alexander to Jcceed after the
death of his master. He conquered Paphlagoma, and
3
344 ] E U M
life Cappadocia, of which he obtained the government, till Emnene,.
the power and jealousy of Antigonus obliged him to
retire. He joined his forces to those of Perdiccas,
and defeated Craterus and Neoptolemus. Neoptole-
mus perished by the hands of Eumenos. V hen Cra¬
terus had been killed during the war, his remains re¬
ceived an honourable funeral from the hand of the con¬
queror) and Eumenes, after weeping over the ashes ol a
man who was once his dearest friend, sent his remains
to his relations in Macedonia. Eumenes fought against
Antipater and conquered him ) and after the death ol
Perdiccas his ally, his arms were directed against An¬
tigonus, by whom he was conquered A. U. C. 433,
chiefly by the treacherous conduct of his officers. This
fatal battle obliged him to disband the greatest part of
his army to secure himself a retreat 5 and he fled with
only 700 faithful attendants to a fortified place on the
confines of Cappadocia, called-Nora, where he was soon
besieged by the conqueror. He supported the siege
for a year with courage and resolution, but some dis¬
advantageous skirmishes so reduced him, that his sol¬
diers, grown desperate, and bribed by the offers of the
enemy, had the infidelity to betray him into the hands
of Antigonus. The conqueror, from shame or re¬
morse, had not the courage to visit Eumenes ; but when
he was asked by his officers, in what manner he wished
him to be kept, he answered, keep him as carefully as
you would keep a lion. This severe command was
obeyed) but the asperity of Antigonus vanished in a
few days, and Eumenes, delivered from the weight of
chains, was permitted to enjoy the company of his
friends. Even Antigonus hesitated whether he should
not restore to his liberty a man with whom he had
lived in the greatest intimacy while both subservient to
the command of Alexander ) and these secret emotions
of pity and humanity were not a little increased by the
petitions of his son Demetrius for the release of Eu¬
menes. But the calls of ambition prevailed) and
when Antigonus recollected what an active enemy he
had in his power, he ordered Eumenes to be put
to death in the prison. His bloody commands were
executed 3x5 years before the Christian era. Such was
the end of a man who raised himself to power by merit
alone. His skill in public exercises first recommended
him to the notice of Philip; and under Alexander, his
attachment and fidelity to the royal person, and
particularly his militarv accomplishments, promoted
him to the rank of a general. Even his enemies re¬
vered him ) and Antigonus, by whose orders he pe¬
rished, honoured his remains with a splendid funeral,
and conveyed his ashes to his wife and family in Cap¬
padocia. ‘ It has been observed, that Eumenes had
such a universal influence over the successors of Alex¬
ander, that none during his lifetime dared to assume the
title of king. , , t , •
Eumenes I. king of Pergamus, who succeeded to hi,
uncle Philetserus about 264 years hefore Christ, lie
made war against Antiochus the son ot Seleucus, an
enlarged his possessions by seizing upon many ot the
cities of the kings of Syria. He lived in alliance with
the Komans, and made war against Prus.as king ot
Bithynia. He was a great patron of learning) but
being much given to wine, he died of an excess in
drinking, after a reign of 22 years. He was succeed-
ed by Attalus. Zmzn,
E U M
lUiiticaes
11.,
no! pines
EuMENES II. succeeded his father Attalus on the
throne of Asia and Pergamus. His kingdom was small
^ and poor, but he rendered it powerful and opulent} and
his alliance with the Romans did not a little con¬
tribute to the increase of his dominions after the victo¬
ries obtained over Antiochus the Great. He carried
his arms against Prusias and Antigonus j and died 160
years before Christ, after a reign of 40 years, leaving
the kingdom to his son Attalus II. He has been ad¬
mired for his benevolence and magnanimity 5 and his
love of learning greatly enriched the famous library of
Pergamus, which had been founded by his predecessors
in imitation of the Alexandrian collection of the Ptole¬
mies. His brothers were so attached to him and de¬
voted to his interest, that they enlisted among his body
guards to show their fraternal fidelity.
Eumenes, a celebrated orator of Athens about the
beginning of the fourth century. Some of his harangues
and orations are extant. An historical writer in Alex¬
ander’s army.
EUMENIDEb, a name given to the Furies by the
ancients. I hey sprang from the blood of the wound
which Ccelus received from his son Saturn. According
to others, they were daughters of Earth, and conceived
fiom the blood of Saturn. Some make them daugh¬
ters of. Acheron and Night, or Pluto and Proserpine.
According to the more received opinions, they were
three in number, lisiphone, Megara, and Alecto, to
which Some add Nemesis. Plutarch mentions only one
called ddrasta, daughter of Jupiter and Necessity.
They were supposed to be the ministers of the vengeance
of the gods. They were stern and inexorable ; and
were always employed in punishing the guilty upon
earth, as ivell as in the infernal regions. They inflict¬
ed their vengeance upon earth by wars, pestilence, and
dissensions, and by the secret stings of conscience ; and
in hell they punished the guilty by continual flagella¬
tion and torments. They were also called Furice and
Erinnys. Their worship was almost universal; and
people dared not to mention their names or fix their
eyes upon their temples. They were honoured with sa-
cnfices and libations ; and in Achaia they had a temple,
which when entered by any one guilty of a crime, sud¬
denly rendered him furious, and deprived him of the use
of his reason. In the sacrifices the votaries used branch¬
es of cedar and of alder, hawthorn, saffron, and juni¬
per; and. the victims were generally turtle doves and
sheep, with libations of wine and honey. They were
usually represented with a grim and frightful Aspect,
w'ith a black and bloody garment, and with serpents
writhing round their heads instead of hair. They held
a burning torch in one hand, and a whip of scorpions
m the other; and were always attended by Terror,
Rage, Paleness, and Heath. In hell they were seated
around Pluto’s throne, as the ministers of his ven¬
geance.
EUMENIDIA, festivals in honour of the Eumeni-
des, called by the Athenians 0£*<, “ venerable
goddesses.. They were celebrated once every year,
with sacrifices of pregnant ewes, with ofl’erings of cakes
made by the most eminent youths, and libations of ho¬
ney and wine. At Athens none but freeborn citizens
W’eie admitted, such as had led a life the most virtuous
and unsullied.
EUMOLPIDES, the priests of Ceres at the cele-
Vol. VIII. Part I. f
[ 345 ]
E U N
bration of her festivals at Eleusis. They were descend-Eumolpidc5
ed from Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was made 11
priest of Ceres by Erechtheus king of Athens. He j^"®niians-
became so powerful after his appointment to the priest- ^" 1 ’
hood, that he maintained a war against Erechtheus.
I his u'ar proved fatal to both. Erechtheus and Eu¬
molpus were both killed, and peace was re-established
among their descendants, on condition that the priest¬
hood ever remained in the house of Eumolpus, and the
regal power in the family of Erechtheus. The priest¬
hood remained in the family of Eumolpus for 1200
years ; and this is still more remarkable, because he who
was once appointed to the holy office was obliged to
remain in perpetual celibacy.
EUMOLPUS, a king of Thrace, son of Neptune
and Chione. He was thrown into the sea by his mo¬
ther, who wished to conceal her shame from her father.
Neptune saved his life, and carried him into -/Ethiopia,
where he was brought up by a woman, one of whose
daughters he married. An act of violence to his sister-
in-law obliged him to leave ^Ethiopia, and he fled to
1 brace with his son Ismarus, where he married the
daughter of Tegyrius the king of the country. This
connection to the royal family rendered him ambitious ;
he conspired against his father-in-law, and fled, when
the conspiracy was discovered, to Attica, where he was
initiated in the mysteries of Ceres of Eleusis, and made
hierophantes or high priest. He was afterwards recon¬
ciled to Tegyrius, and inherited his kingdom. He
made war against Erechtheus king of Athens, who had
appointed him to the office of high priest, and perished
in battle about 1380 years before the Christian era.
His descendants were also invested with the priest¬
hood, which remained for about 1200 years in that fa¬
mily.
EUN AIIUS, a native of Sardis in Lydia, a cele¬
brated sophist, physician, and historian, who flourished
in the 4th century, under the emperors Valentinian,
^ a.lens, and Gratian. He wrote “ The lives of the
Philosophers and Sophists,” in which he frequently
shows himself a bitter enemy to the Christians : also a
“ History of the Caesars,” which he deduced from the
reign of Claudius, where Herodian left off, down to that
of Arcadius and Honorius. The history is lost; but
we have the substance of it in Zosimus, who is suppo¬
sed to have done little more than copy it.
EUNOMIANS, in church history, Christian here¬
tics in the 4th century. They were a branch of A-
rians, and took their name from Eunomius bishop of
Cyzicus, whose confession of faith here follows, ex¬
tracted from Cave’s Historia Literaria, vol. i. p. 223.
“ There is one God, uncreated and without beginning ;
who has nothing existing before him, for nothing can
exist before what is uncreated; nor with him, for what
is uncreated must be one ^ nor in him, for God is a
simple and uncompounded being. This one simple and
eternal being is God, the creator and ordainer of all
things; first indeed and principally of his only-begot¬
ten Son ; and then, through him, of all other things.
For God begot, created, and made, the Son, only by
his direct operation and power, before all things, and
every other creature ; not producing, however, any be¬
ing like himself, or imparting any of his own proper
substance to the Son : For God is immortal, uniform,
indivisible ; and therefore cannot communicate any part
X x of
E U N
[ 3+6 1
E V O
Euuoimansof his own proper substance to another. He alone is
6 unbewotten 5 and it is impossible that any other being
Euntich. s|1011|ci jje formed of an unbegotten substance. He did
4 'r~~J not use his own substance in begetting the Son, but his
will only ; nor did he beget him in the Inceness ot his
substance, but according to his own good pleasure. He
then created the Holy Spirit, the first and greatest of
all spirits, hy his own power indeed and operation me¬
diately, yet by the immediate power and operation of
the Son. After the Holy Spirit he created all other
things in heaven and in earth, visible and invisible, cor¬
poreal and incorporeal, mediately by himself, by the
nower and operation of the Son,” &c.
EUNOMIUS, a famous heresiarch of the 4th cen¬
tury, the disciple of Elius, but abundantly more subtile
than his master, as well as more bold in propagating
the opinions of his sect, who after him are called Eu-
nnmians. He was ordained bishop of Cyzicus } but
gave so much disturbance by the intemperance of his
zeal, that he was deposed more than once. At last,
tired with being tossed about, he petitioned to retreat
to the place of his birth, Dacora in Cappadocia j where
he died very old about the year 374, after experiencing
a variety of sufferings. The greatest part ot his works
are lost. There is, however, besides two or three small
pieces, a
confession of his faith remaining, which Cave
inserted in his Hisloria Literaria, from a manuscript in
ArchbishopTenmson’s library. Seethe preceding article.
EUNUCH, a castrated person. See the article Ca¬
stration.—The word is formed from ww q- d.
lecti curum habet, “ guardian or keeper of the bed.”
In Britain, France, &c. eunuchs are never made but
upon occasion of some disease, which renders such an
operation necessary *, but in Italy they make great num¬
bers of children, from one to three years of age, eu¬
nuchs, every year, to supply the operas and theatres of
all Europe with singers. M. de la Lande, in his Voy¬
age d'Italic, asserts, that there are public shops at Na¬
ples where this cruel operation is performed, and that
over the door of these shops is inscribed Qui si castrano
ra<ra%%i. But Dr Burney informs us, that he was not
only utterly unable to see or hear of any such shops du¬
ring his residence in that city, but was constantly told,
both by the natives and English settled there, that the
laws against such a practice were so numerous and se¬
vere, that it was never performed but with the utmost
secrecy.
In the eastern parts of the world, they make eunuchs
m order to be guards or attendants on their women.
The seraglios of the eastern emperors are chiefly served
and guarded by eunuchs ; and yet, from good autho¬
rity, we learn, that the rich eunuchs in Persia and
other countries keep seraglios for their own use. Those
who, out of an imprudent zeal to guard themselves from
sensual pleasures, made themselves eunuchs, were, by
the council of Nice, condemned and excluded from holy
orders. There are several severe prohibitions in Ger¬
many against the making of eunuchs ; and in France
an eunuch must not marry, not even with the consent
of the woman. . i
Though the practice of castration is detestable in
every point of view •, yet there appears no real founda¬
tion for the injurious opinion generally entertained of
eunuchs, viz. that they are all cowards, and devoid of
genius for literature or any solid study. “ As to genius
(says the author last quoted), I never found those of the Eamich
first class in music deficient in intellectual abilities for 11
more serious studies. Indeed I have seen real genius . Tvocati,
and dispositions for literary pursuits, in more than one
great opera singer} and as for composition, and the
theory of music, not only the best singers of the pope’s
chapel ever since the beginning of the last century, but
the best composers, are among the soprani in that ser¬
vice.” With respect to the operation affecting the mind
so much as to deprive it of all fortitude in times of dan¬
ger, there is great reason to doubt the fact: most of the
generals of eastern monarchs having been at all times
of this class ; and the bravest stand that ever was made
against Alexander the Great was at Gaza, under the com¬
mand of one of Darius’s generals, who was an eunuch.
Ammianus Marcellinus gives an account of Menophilus,
a eunuch, to whom Mithridates intrusted his daughter j
which proves the possibility of such unfortunate persons
possessing a heroism equal to that of the most determin¬
ed Stoic.
It is very certain, that the ancients never supposed
eunuchs to have been men of inferior intellects, or that
they possessed less vigour of mind than other men. At
least the Persians were not of this opinion ; for Hero¬
dotus * relates, that when they had taken possession of*Lib. »i.
some Ionian cities, ts ras tv sihrlxlvs 3^ PA5^*
xect STreitvv ctvlt utcci 2v»a^;a«. It is cer- ^ • el'
tain, however, Herodotus+, in relating the melancholy ^ Li^\E
story of Hermotimus, says, that rota-t /SagSaWip, ms.
t£ tticSligoi tin u ivwxu, TTicrhog etytxx Trxrtii, ray ivo^iuy,
“ among the barbarians, the eunuchs are more valued
than other men, on account of their universal fidelity.”
It appears from this passage of Herodotus, that in Per¬
sia eunuchs were far from being objects of contempt j
and were even frequently promoted to the highest ho¬
nours. This was indeed the case with Hermotimus.
We find in Agathias, who was one of the Byzantine
historians, that a general in the Roman army, named
Narses, was a eunuch. This was in the latter ages.
In Plutarch’s Life of Aristides, Themistocles is related
to have chosen an eunuch, whose name was Arnaces,
from among his prisoners, to send on a secret embassy
to Xerxes. This surely may serve to show, that mental
imbecility was not supposed by the Greeks to be the
characteristic of eunuchism. The same story of the con¬
fidence placed in Arnaces, who was one ot the Persian
king’s eunuchs, is related also in the life ot Ihemisto-
cles. Aristotle paid such high respect to Hermias,.who
was a eunuch and governor of Atarnea, which is in
Mysia, that he even offered sacrifices in honour of him *,
as Lucian informs us in his Dialogue entitled Eunuchus.
This regard of Aristotle for Hermias has been often ce¬
lebrated, and is mentioned by Suidas, Harpocration, and
others. . .
Eunuchs, in church history, a sect 01 heretics in the
third century, who were mad enough to castrate, not
only those of their own persuasion, but even all others
they could lay hold of. They took their rise from the
example of Origen, who, misunderstanding the follow¬
ing words of our Saviour, “ and eunuchs who made
themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven,” castra¬
ted himself. ,
EVOCATI, soldiers among the Romans, who hav¬
ing served their full time in the army, went afterwards
volunteers at the request of some favourite general j on
whicn
Erociti
tl.
aaUidte.
E U P
which account they were called hy the
names of Emeriti and Benejiciarii.
^ EVOCATION (Evocatio), among the Romans, a
religious ceremony always observed by them at the un¬
dertaking a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon
the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it and
come over to them. Without the performance of this
ceremony, they either thought that the place could not
be taken, or that it would be a sacrilege to take the
gods prisoners. They always took it for granted that
their prayer was heard, and that the gods had deserted
the place and come over to them, provided they were
able to make themselves masters of it.
EUODIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
tetrandria class. See Botany Index.
EVOLUTION, in Algebra, the unfolding or open-
ing of a curve, and making it describe an evolvent.—
The word evolutio is formed of the preposition e, “ out;”
and volvo, “ I roll, or wind q, d. an unwinding or
unrolling;.
Tae equable evolution of the periphery of a circle,
or other curve, is such a gradual approach of the cir¬
cumference to rectitude, as that its parts do all concur
and equally evolve or unbend ; so that the same line
becomes successively a less arc of a reciprocally greater
circle: till at last they change into a straight line. In
irate*.
[ 347 ] E U P
honourable the Geomorl anil Deminrgi. The F.upalnu'aj, by The- E„n,>rid)>
seus’s establishment, had the right of choosing magi- |j
strates, teaching and dispensing the laws, and interpre- Pupbf
ting holy and religious mysteries. The whole city, in '—'
all other matters, was reduced to an equality. The
Geomori were husbandmen, and inferior to the Eupa-
tndae in point of fortune; the Demiurgi were artificers,
and feU short of the Eupatridse in number.
EUPHONY, in Grammar, an easiness, smoothness,
and elegance of pronunciation. The word is formed
ol tv, bene, “well;” and ©oa? , “voice.” Quin¬
tilian cz\\s eup/tonia, “ vocalitas Scaliger, “ facilis
pronunciation J
Euphonia is properly a kind of figure whereby we
suppress a too harsh letter, or convert it into a smooth-
ei, contiary to the ordinary rules. There are examples
enough in all languages.
EUPHYMISM. See Oratory.
EUPHORBIA, Spurge ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the dodecandria class ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See
the Phil. Trans. N° 260. a new quadratrix to the circle
is found by this means, being the curve described by
the equable evolution of its periphery.
Evolution, is also used for the extraction of roots
out of powers ; in which sense it stands opposed to in¬
volution. See Algebra.
Evolution, in the art of war, the motion made by
a body of troops, when they are obliged to change their
form and disposition, in order to preserve a post or oc¬
cupy another, to attack an enemy with more advantage,
01 to be in a condition of defending themselves the
better.
It consists in doublings, counter marches, conversions,
&c. A battalion doubles the ranks, when attacked in
front or rear, to prevent its being flanked or surround¬
ed; for then a battalion fights with a larger front. The
files are doubled, either to accommodate themselves to
the necessity of a narrow ground, or to resist an enemy
that attacks them in flank. But if the ground will al¬
low it, conversion is much preferable ; because, after
conversion, the battalion is in its first form, and opposes
the file-leaders, which are generally the best men, to
the enemy ; and likewise, because doubling the files in
a new or not well-disciplined regiment, they may hap¬
pen to fall into disorder. See Doubling.
EVOLVULUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandna class; and in the natural method ranking
under the 29th order, Campanacece. See Botany
Index.
EUONYMUS, the Spindle Tree ; a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria class ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 43d order, Dumoscc.
See Botany Index.
EUPATORIUM, Hemp Agrimony ; a genus of
plants belonging to the syngenesiaclass; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 49th order, Composites.
See Botany Index.
EUPAI RIDiE, in antiquity, a name given by
neseus to the nobility of Athens, as distinguished from
Botany Index.
EUPHORBIUM, in the Materia Medico, a gum¬
mi-resinous substance, which exudes from a large orien¬
tal tree, (Euphorbia qfficinurum). See Materia
Medica Index.
EUPHORBUS, a famous Trojan, son of Panthous.
He was the first who wounded Patroclus, whom Hec¬
tor killed. He perished by the hand of Menelaus, who
bung his shield in the temple of Juno at Argos. Py¬
thagoras, the founder of the doctrine of the metem¬
psychosis or transmigration of souls, affirmed that he had
been once Euphorbus, and that his soul recollected
many exploits which had been done while it animated
that Trojan’s body. As a further proof of his assertion,
he showed at first sight the shield of Euphorbus in the
temple of Juno.
EUPHORION o/Chalcis, a poet and historian,
born in the 126th Olympiad. Suetonius says that Ti¬
berius composed verses in imitation of Euphorion, Ria-
nius and Parthenius ; with whom he was charmed to
such a degree, that he ordered their writings and their
pictures to be kept in all the public libraries, amoncr the
ancient and celebrated authors.
EUPHRASIA, Eye-Bright ; a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia class ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Personates. See
Botany Index.
EUPHRATES, a river universally allowed to take
its rise in Armenia Major ; but in what particular spot,
or in what direction it afterwards shapes its course, there
is the greatest disagreement. Strabo says, that the Eu¬
phrates rises in Mount Abus, which he joins with, or
accounts a part of, Mount Taurus; that its beginning
is on the north side of Mount Taurus ; and that run-
ning, first westward through Armenia, then striking off
to the south, it forces its way through the mountain ;
and thus it rises in the south of Armenia, Mount Tau¬
rus being the boundary on that side ; and runs through
its south part, quite to Cappadocia, conterminal with
Armenia Minor; or quite to this last, or to its south
limit; to reach which, it must bend its west course a
little north ; because Taurus, from which it rose, lies
lower, or more to the south, and almost parallel with
Melitene : and that then it turns to the south, in order
X X 2 to
E V R
[
Euplr.te. to t.reik tlirougt. Taurus, and escape to Syria, and then
II take a new hend to Babylonia, io tins account of
Evreiuond. strab0 Pliny runs quite counter; adducing eye-wit-
'     nesses,’who carry the Euphrates from north to south in
„ r-trrlrf Imp till it meets Mount Iaurus ; placing the
a right line, till it meets Mount laurus _
springs to the east, as Strabo does ; whence, he says it
runs in a long course westward, before it bends south ;
and that it rises not from Mount laurus, but far to the
north of it ; and he makes it run straight west from its
rise, then turn south spontaneously, without any inter¬
posing obstacle, in a manner quite different from Strabo,
Mela, and others, who make Taurus the cause ol this
turn. The Euphrates naturally divides into two chan¬
nels, one through Babylon, and the other through Se-
leucia, besides the several artificial cuts made between
it and the Tigris about Babylon : and these cuts or
trenches are what the Psalmist calls the rivers ot Baby¬
lon, on the willows of which the captives hung their
harps. It is probable, that the Euphrates naturally
poured into the sea at one particular mouth, before these
cuts were made. A thing appearing so evident to the
ancients, that Pliny has set down the distance between
the mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris ; and he
says, some made it 25, and others 7, miles ; but that the
Euphrates being for a long time back intercepted in
its course by cuts, made for watering the fields, only
the branch called the Pasitigris fell into the sea, the
rest of it into the Tigris, and both together into the
Persian gulf. Overflowing the country through which
it runs, at stated times of the year, like the Nile, it
renders it lertile. , ,, • 1 i
EUPOLLS, an Athenian comic poet, iloimslieit
about the 85th Olympiad. He took the freedom of
the ancient comedy in lashing the vices 0 the people.
He lost his life in a sea fight between the Athenians
and Lacedaemonians ; and his fate was so much lament¬
ed, that after his death it was enacted that no poet
should serve in the wars. Some say Alcibiades put
him to death for his satirical freedom.
EVREMOND, Charles de St Denis, a polite
scholar and soldier, was born at St Denis le Guast in
Lower Normandy in 1613. He was intended for the
profession of the law, and entered on the study j but
he soon quitted it, and was made an ensign before he
was 16. A military life did not hinder him from cul¬
tivating polite literature ; and he signalized himself by
his politeness and wit as much ashy his bravery, ihe
kimr made him a mareschal de camp, and gave him a
pension of 30CO livres per annum. He served under
the duke of Candale in the war of Guienne; and 111
Flanders, till the suspension of arms was agreed on be¬
tween France and Spain : he afterwards accompanied
Cardinal Mazarine when he went to _ conclude the
peace with Don Lewis de Haro, the king, of Spain s
first minister. He wrote, as he had promised,.a long
letter to the marquis de Crequi, of this negotiation;
in which he showed, that the cardinal had sacrificed
the honour of France to his own private interest, and
rallied him in a very satirical manner. Hus letter fall-
line into the hands of the cardinal’s creatures some time
after his death, was represented as a state crime, and
he was obliged to fly to Holland He had too many
friends in England (whither he had taken a tour the
vear before with the count de Soissons, sent to com¬
pliment Charles II. upon his restoration) to make any
348 ] EUR
long stay in Holland; and therefore passed over into r vrerrenJ,
England, where he was received with great respect, and Eunpide<.
admitted into intimate friendship with several persons
of distinction. The king gave him a pension of 300I.
a-vear. He had a great desire to return to his native
country ; and, after the peace, of Nimeguen, wrote a
letter in verse to the king of France to ask leave, but
in vain. Upon the death of King Charles, he lost his
pension. He did not rely much on King James, though
that prince had shown himself extremely kind to him.
The Revolution was advantageous to him. King Wil¬
liam, who had known him in Holland, gave him sub¬
stantial marks of his favour. He died of . a stran¬
gury in 1703, aged 90 ; and was. interred in West¬
minster abbey, where a monument is erected to lus me¬
mory. His behaviour was engaging, his humour
cheerful, and he had a strong disposition to satire : he
professed the Roman religion, in which he was born ;
hut at the bottom was certainly a freethinker. He
always spoke of his disgrace with the resolution of a
gentleman: and whatever strong desire he had tore-
turn to his country, he never solicited the favour with
meanness; therefore, when this leave was signified to
him unexpectedly in the decline of his life, he re¬
plied, that the infirmities of age did not permit him to
leave a country where he lived agreeably. I here have
been many editions of his works : hut the best is that
of Amsterdam in 1726, in 5 vols. i2mo, to which is
prefixed his life by Doctor Des Maizeaux ; who has also
given an accurate English translation of them in 3 vols.
8 vo.
EURIPIDES, one of the Greek poets who excel¬
led in tragedy, was born about 468 B. C. in the isle oi
Salamis, whither his father and mother had retired a
little before Xerxes entered Attica. He learned rhe¬
toric under Prodicus, morality under Socrates, and na¬
tural philosophy under Anaxagoras; but at 18 years
of age abandoned philosophy, in order to apply fiim’
self to dramatic poetry. He used to shut himself up
in a cave to compose his tragedies, which were ex¬
tremely applauded by the Greeks. The Athenian ar¬
my, commanded by Nicias, being defeated in Sicily,
the soldiers purchased their lives and liberties by re¬
citing the verses of Euripides; such esteem and vene¬
ration had the Sicilians for the pieces wrote by this ex¬
cellent poet. Socrates, the wisest of the philosophers,
get such a value upon them, that they were the only
tragedies he went to see acted; and yet his perform¬
ances seldom gained the prize. Euripides frequently
intersperses through them moral sentences, and se¬
vere reflections on the fair sex ; whence he was called
the Woman-hater. He was, nevertheless, married : but
the scandalous lives of his two wives drew upon him the
raillery of Aristophanes, and other comic poets; winch
occasioned his retiring to the court ol Archelaus, king
of Macedon, where he was well received. 1 hat prince
was fond of learned men, and drew them to him by his
liberality. If we may believe Solinus, he made Euri¬
pides his minister of state, and gave him other extra¬
ordinary proofs of his esteem. He had, however, pas¬
sed hut a few years there, when an unhappy accident
put an end to his life. Hie was walking in a wood, and,
according to his usual manner, in deep meditation,
when, unfortunately happening upon Archelaus s hounds,
he was by them torn in pieces. It is not certain w ie-
ther
EUR
'.uripides ther his death happened by chance, or through envy of
IS some of the great courtiers. However, Archelaus bu-
don^" r’ec^ ^‘m £reat magnificence ; and the Athenians
. were so much afflicted at his death, that the whole city
went into mourning. Of 92 tragedies which he com¬
posed, only 19 are remaining: the most valuable edi¬
tions of which are those of Aldus in 1503, 8vo j of
Plantin, in 1570, sexesimo j ofComelin, in 1597, 8vo J
of Paul Stevens, in 1604, 4U) j and of Joshua Barnes,
1694, folio.
EURIPUS, a canal or strait which divides the island
of Euboea, now Negropont, from the continent of
Greece. In one place it is so narrow, that a galley
can scarcely pass through it. The agitations of the
Euripus were much spoken of by the ancients. Some
say that the canal has a flux and reflux six times in 24
hours j others, that it ebbs and flows seven times a day j
but Livy does not allow this flux and reflux to be so
regular. Father Babin, a Jesuit of great learning, who
made many observations on the spot during his long
abode in the island of Negropont, tells us, that the Eu¬
ripus is regular in its ebbing and flowing the first eight
days of the moon : the same regularity he observed from
the 14th to the 20th day inclusive, and in the three last
days : but in the other days of the lunar month, it is
not so regular ; for it sometimes ebbs and flows 11, 12,
13, and 14 times in the space of a natural day. In this
place, as the story commonly goes, Aristotle drowned
himself out of chagrin, for not being able to account
for so unusual a motion.
Euripus has since become a general name for all
straits, where the water is in great motion and agitation.
The ancient circuses had their euripi, which were
no other than pits or ditches on each side of the course,
into which it was very dangerous falling with their
horses and chariots as they ran races. The term eu¬
ripus was more particularly applied by the Romans to
three canals or ditches which encompassed the circus
on three sides, and which were filled occasionally to
represent naumachite or sea battles. The same people
called their smaller fountains or canals in their gardens
euripuse.t; and their largest, as cascades, &c. niles.
EUROCLYDON, (of e^, east wind, and xXvouv,
wave'), is a species of wind, of which we have an ac¬
count only in Acts xxvii. 14. and concerning the nature
of which critics have been much divided. Bochart,
Grotius, Bentley, and others, substitute another read¬
ing, supported by the Alexandrian MS. and the Vul¬
gate, viz. or Dut'o-aquilo ; but Mr Bryant
defends the common reading, and considers the Euro-
clydon, i. e. Evga? as an east wind that causes a
deep sea or vast inundation. He maintains, in oppo¬
sition to Dr Bentley’s reasoning, who supposes that the
mariners in the ship, the voyage of which is recited in
this passage, were Romans, that they were Greeks of
Alexandria, and that the ship was an Alexandrian ship
employed in the traffic of carrying corn to Italy ; and
therefore, that the mariners had a name in their own
language for the particular typbonic or stormy wind
here mentioned. He also shows from the passage
itself, that the tempestuous wind called Euroclydon,
beat (x*t upon the island of Crete ; and there¬
fore, as this is a relative expression, referring to the si¬
tuation of the person who speaks of it, who was at that
time to the windward or south of it, the wind blew up-
EUR
on shore, and must have come from the south or south- Enrody-
east •, which, he adds, is fully warranted by the point don
where the ship was, and the direction it ran in after- 11
wards, which was towards the north and north-west. . ^nroPe*
EUROPA, in fabulous history, a daughter of Age- T
nor king of Phoenicia and Telephassa. She was so
beautiful that Jupiter became enamoured of herj and
the better to seduce her, he assumed the shape of a
bull and mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Eu-
ropa, with her female attendants, were gathering flowers
in the meadows. Europa caressed the beautiful ani¬
mal j and at last had the courage to sit upon his back.
The god took advantage of her situation ; and with pre¬
cipitate steps retired towards the shore, crossed the sea
with Europa on his back, and arrived safe in Crete.
Here he assumed his original shape, and declared his
love. The nymph consented., though she had once
made vows of perpetual celibacy *, and she became mo¬
ther of Minos, Sarpedon, and Rbadamanthus. After
this distinguished amour with Jupiter, she married As-
terius, king of Crete. This monarch seeing himself
without children by Europa, adopted the fruit of her
amours with Jupiter, and always esteemed Minos, Sar¬
pedon, and Rhadamanthus, as his own children. Some
suppose, that Europa lived about 1552 years before
the Christian era.
EUROPE, one of the four quarters of the world.
This is considerably the smallest of the four grand di¬
visions of the terraqueous globe. Its length, from east
to west, according to the most authentic accounts, mea¬
sures about 3300 miles British measure, and its breadth
2350. The continental part of it is bounded on the
south by the Mediterranean sea, on the west by the At¬
lantic ocean, comprehending the most distant isle of
Europe, viz. that of Iceland, for Greenland is now
considered as constituting a part of North America.
Many geographers of eminence have given the Azores
to Europe, from their greater proximity to Portugal
than to any other continental country, and have consi¬
dered the Madeiras as a constituent part of Africa for
a similar reason. Europe is bounded on the north by
the Arctic ocean and the new land ; while its eastern
limits appear to be more uncertain in the estimation of
geographers. It appears evident, however, that a very
natural limit might be ascertained by the river Oufa,
the Kama, and the Volga, which would make its divi¬
sion extremely natural to the town of Sarepta j it re¬
quiring only an imaginary line of very small extent
from that place to the river Don. The superficies of
Europe, including the Azores, Iceland, &c. is about
3,432,000 miles.
The western and southern parts of Europe anciently
consisted of the people called Celts ; the Fins occupied
the north-east; and the Laplanders, a people equally di¬
minutive with the Samoieds of Asia, possessed its re¬
motest parts toward the north, who rendered their own
language less uncouth and barbarous by assimilating it
to that of the Fins. The Goths from Asia seem to
have driven those ancient inhabitants towards the east
and north, whose descendants occupy the greater part
of Europe. From the Sclavonic tribes, who also came
from Asia, the Poles, Russians, &c. were descended.
These were accompanied by the Heruli, who made use
of what is now denominated the Lettic speech, to be
met with in Courland, Livonia, Lithuania, Prussia, anJ
Samogitiaj.
f 349 ]
EUR [ 35<
Samogitia, ami nearly allied to the Sclavonic language,
according to the account of Tooke in his view ot Rus¬
sia. At an early period the colony of Iberi and nor¬
thern Mamitani, came over into Spain 5 and at a later
period both the Hungarians and Turks emigrated from
Asia.
Notwithstanding the high character of d’Anyille as
a geographer, we believe that his opinion respecting the
geographical knowledge ef the ancients is greatly ex-
agaerated. It appears evident that nothing more of
Scandinavia was known to the ancients than the south¬
ern part as far as the lakes of Weter and Wener. It is
no doubt true that the Romans, by means of their ship¬
ping, even in the imperfect state of navigation at that
period, traversed the southern shores of the Baltic, as
far as to the river Rubo, ascertaining the names ol va¬
rious tribes along that coast 5 but it the maps of Ptole¬
my are admitted as decisive proofs in this case, it is cer¬
tain that they were wholly unacquainted with the inte¬
rior of Germany 5 and consequently the tribes of which
be makes mention, may rather be considered as having
dwelt along the northern shores of the Baltic, or the
southern parts on the left of the Danube. They were
no doubt acquainted with the Carpathian mountains $
but their knowledge of Europe towards the north-east
was undoubtedly circumscribed by the 50th or J2d de¬
gree of north latitude.
In many barbarous languages, the same word was of¬
ten used indiscriminately either for a mountain or a fo¬
rest, the want of attention to which has frequently been
the prolific source of error, and placed mountains of the
greatest consequence where the hand of nature had
planted trees. It has been supposed that the Riphaean
mountaiiis were the Uralian chain, of which the an¬
cients knew nothing, instead of a forest of prodigious
extent from east to west. It is also well known that
the Venedici Montes of Ptolemy have no existence up¬
on earth, and therefore must once have been a very ex¬
tensive forest with which the moderns are unacquaint¬
ed, and perhaps no traces of it are now anywhere to be
met with.
Christianity is the predominant religion all over Eu¬
rope, except’in Turkey; and even there it has been
computed, that about one-half of the inhabitants are
members of the Greek church. The Christian religion
has always been accompanied in its progress with the
diffusion of knowledge, the extension of industry, and
the civilisation of manners, whereas the barbarous tribes
in the northern parts of Europe advanced by very slow
degrees, and the Scandinavians continued in a state of
pagan ignorance till the eleventh century. Some tribes
of Sclavonia to the south of the Baltic, were not con¬
verted to Christianity till the thirteenth century, and
of course were for many ages in a state little superior to
brutality ; and the people of Lapland were not convert¬
ed to the Christian faith till about a century ago, by
means of missionaries sent from Denmark. The people
of Europe, as to matters of religion, are divided into
catholics and protestants, the former being chiefly con¬
fined to the southern parts of it, where the imagination
requires the gratifications arising from external pomp
and parade ; and the latter in the northern parts of it,
the simplicity of which is much better calculated to
please the predominant exercise of the judgment. The
Christian religion being thus diffused all over Europe,
2
d ] EUR
that division of the globe has hence become a kind of £U1
republic in respect of literature, every scientific inven- ' 
tion and discovery being transmitted from one portion
of it to another with the utmost dispatch. For this rea¬
son Europe has been sometimes compared to ancient
Greece, and it is to be hoped that Russia will never
prove another Macedon.
The greater part of this quarter of the globe lies
within the northern temperate zone, a distinction which
is now nearly annihilated by the interesting discoveries
of modern geography. Climate is found to depend
very frequently on causes which are purely local, since
the Alps, in a southern latitude, exhibit mountains of
ice which are not known even in Lapland, while the
torrid zone is plentifully supplied with water and habi¬
tations, and for any thing which can be determined to
the contrary, it may contain mountains which are cover¬
ed with snow. As it is happily delivered from those
intense heats which are peculiar to Asia and Africa, the
inhabitants are in general blessed with greater bodily
vigour and intellectual strength.
One of the most striking features of Europe in a ge¬
neral point of view is its inland seas, which give it a
decided superiority over the other more extensive divi¬
sions of the earth, and contribute powerfully to the ex¬
tension of its industry, commerce, and civilization. If
such blessings had been enjoyed by Africa, it is more
than probable that the consequences of her industry
would have been diffused far and wide. Of these in¬
land seas, the Mediterranean holds the most distinguish¬
ed place, as the centre of civilization both to the an¬
cient and modern inhabitants of Europe. It is about
2000 miles in length to its farthest extremity in Syria,
hut the maps of antiquity make it 500 more. The
oulfs of Venice and the Archipelago open on its nor¬
thern side, formerly denominated the Adriatic and
Egean seas, from the last of which there is a communi¬
cation with the sea of Marmora, or the Propontis, by
means of the Hellespont; and the strait of Constanti¬
nople leads into the Black sea, to the north of which is
the sea of Azof, (Pains Moeotis), or utmost maritime
boundary of Europe in that direction. This vast ex¬
panse of water is beautifully ornamented with numerous
islands and an opulent sea coast, exhibiting delightful
specimens of almost every thing in nature which is sub¬
lime and beautiful. Tides cannot be perceived except
in straits of very small dimensions, although naturalists
have observed, that a current sets along the shores of
Italy from west to east, while its direction is from east
to west towards the coast of Africa. In the gulf of
Venice the current runs along Dalmatia in a north-west
direction, and returns by the opposite shore of Italy.
There is abundance of fish to be met with in the Me¬
diterranean, some of which are but rarely to be found
in more northern latitudes. This sea in particular
abounds with coral, now certainly known to be the pro¬
duction of marine insects. This imaginary plant is
tri-coloured, composed of red, vermilion and white, and
does not exceed eleven inches in height. It is hard in
the sea, and in this respect undergoes not the smallest
change by exposure to the air; and the nets made use
of for procuring it, measure from 60 to 125 feet. From
the colour of its rocks or perilous navigation, the Black
sea is said to have derived its name. As the sea of
Azof almost always exhibits a muddy appearance, it
was
TSanmiism:
Xongitude East 5/ from Greenwich. i|o
EUR
Europe. IV‘IS ^01’ r^"500 denominated Palus by the ancients,
—’■V" ' ai1£^ *s united to the Euxine or Black sea by the strait
of CaflTa.
The next inland sea of Europe is the Baltic, to which
the Germans have given the name of the Eastern sea,
which accounts lor the people denominated Kasterlings
in the history of England, who undoubtedly came from
the shores oi the Baltic. It opens from the German
sea by a gulf trending north-east, known by the name
ot the Skager Rack, from whence it passes southward in
the Cattegat, to the south-east of which we meet with
the sound of Elsinore, where vessels become in some de¬
gree tributary .to the king of Denmark. It is after¬
wards divided into two branches of great extent, called
the gulfs of Bothnia and I inland, both of which are
covered with ice for nearly five months in the year.
The greatest depth of the Baltic is said not to exceed
jO fathoms ^ and according to the opinion of naturalists
its extent suffers a diminution of four feet every century.
It has been affirmed that its waters do not contain above
one-thirtieth ol salt, while other sea-waters frequently
contain one-tenth, which has been ascribed to the vast
quantity of ice; and when the north wind blows, these
waters, it is also said, may be employed for the purposes
of domestic economy. There are no tides in the Bal¬
tic, and but very few fish.
The White sea, in the northern parts of Russia, is
the last inland sea of Europe, which was well known to
the English in particular, before the commerce of Arch¬
angel was transferred to Petersburgh. It went by the
name of Quen sea in the reign of Alfred the Great; and
the writers of Iceland called it the sea of Ganviick, on
the shores of which stood their Biarmia. There are a
number of islands in the White sea, but the accounts
which geographers have hitherto given us, are neither
circumstantial nor satisfactory.
The German sea deserves to be mentioned among
the other maritime divisions of Europe, which has re¬
ceived the appellation because it waters the western
shores of ancient Germany, from the Rhine to the far¬
thest boundary of Jutland. It may properly be regard¬
ed as constituting a part of the Atlantic ocean, ending
at the straits of Dover, from whence the British chan¬
nel extends to the west. Another extensive inlet of the
Atlantic is the bay of Biscay j for the British channel
is rather to be considered as the wide frith of the Se¬
vern. St George’s channel lies on the south between
Great Britain and Ireland, and the Irish sea leading to
the .North channel, is situated in the centre. What the
ancients called the Deucaledonian sea lies to the north
of Scotland, which was likewise denominated the Sar-
matian, as extending throughout the Baltic.
The Arctic ocean lies to the north of Europe, the
dismal receptacle of countless miles of ice, piled up in
mountains, the hoary majesty of which, while it capti¬
vates the eye, can scarcely fail to strike terror into the
heart of the mariner. Yet from those dreary regions,
which at first appear only as a prodigious waste in the
works of creation, the benevolent Parent of the universe
diffuses innumerable millions of herrings for the use of
This is worthy of the divine being whose good-
[ 351 ]
EUR
man.
ness is whispered to us in every breeze, which glows in
the starry firmament of heaven, and is diffused through
the whole creation.
The Goodwin sands in the vicinity of the Kentish
coast, are as dangerous to the mariner as uninviting to Europe
the fisher 5 but excellent fish are to be found on many U '
banks on the coast of Holland, among which may be km7a*e-
ranked the cod, the soal, and the plaice. What are
called the Silverpits of the mariners, lying between the
Dogger and Well bank, supply the London market
with cod, which discovers a predilection for the deep
waters in the vicinity of the banks. The Hornriff, a
narrow strip extending to Jutland, is situated towards
the north east of the Dogger bank. The Juttsriff ex¬
tends from the mouth of the Baltic to the German sea,
in the form of a crescent.
I he.Mar bank takes its rise opposite to Berwick,
which is little more than 15 miles in length. To the
eastward of this lies the Long Forties, extending from
Buchanness to Newcastle, and from between 40 and
100 miles from the shore j and a bank reaches across
the German sea towards Juttsriff, from the coast of Bu¬
chan. It was thought necessary, in this concise account
of Europe, to mention some of the most considerable
banks or comparative shoals, which have often been re¬
garded as the summits of lofty mountains beneath the
surface of the deep j and which, as the haunts of fishes
of different species, have arrested the attention of na¬
tional industry.
A description of the principal rivers of Europe will
be given in our account of the countries through which
they respectively flow. The greater part of the Wolga
is considered as belonging to Europe j the next highly
celebrated river is the Danube, after which we may
rank the Nieper, the Rhine, and the Elbe. The Alps
are the loftiest mountains; next the Pyrenees; and
that vast ridge by which Norway is divided from
Sweden. The Carpathian mountains, the chain call¬
ed Emineh, and the Apennines, are of inferior mao-ni-
tude,
The European states and kingdoms may properly be
divided into, three classes. 1. Despotic monarchies, of
which Russia and Turkey may serve as specimens. 2.
Absolute monarchies, such as Spain and Denmark. And
3. Those of a limited nature, as the Germanic empire,
and the kingdom of Great Britain. Since the peace in
in 1815, constitutions formed on the model of that of
England have been adopted by Bavaria, Wirtemberg,
Baden, Hesse Darmstadt, and some other of the smaller
states. Spain and Portugal have established govern¬
ments on a more democratic plan. The two old com¬
mercial aristocracies of Venice and Genoa have been
suppressed.
It is customary with some geographers to divide the
constituent parts of Europe into first, second, and third
orders, according to their political importance ; the
first order including the united kingdoms of Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland, France, Russia, the Austrian domi¬
nions, Prussia, Spain, Turkey. In the second order stand
the United Provinces, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, and
Switzerland ; and the chief states of Germany and Italy
constitute the third, a detailed account of which our
readers will find in this work under their proper names.
For a detailed account of the recent changes in this
quarter of the globe, see the article Europe in the
Supplement.
EURYALE, in Mythology, one of the Gorgons,.
daughters of Phorcys, and sister of Medusa ; she was
subject neither to old age nor death.
EURYANDRA,
Euiyandra
H
Easebians.
E U S [35
EURYANDKA, a genus of plants belonging to the
polyandria class. See Botany Index.
EUKYDICE, in fabulous history, the wife of Or¬
pheus, who flying from Aristteus that endeavoured to
ravish her, was slain by a serpent. Her husband went
down to the shades, and by the force of his music per¬
suaded Pluto and Proserpine to give him leave to carry
back his wife; which they granted, provided he did
not look on her till he came to the light: but he break¬
ing the condition, was forced to leave her behind him.
See Orpheus.
EURYMEDON, in Ancient Geography, a noble
river running through the middle of Pamphylia ; famous
for a sea and land fight on the same day, in which the
Athenians under Cimon the son of ISIiltiades, defeated
the Persians. The sea fight happened first in the sea of
Pamphylia, towards Cyprus; the land engagement, the
following night on the Eurymedon. Cimon, after de¬
feating the Persian fleet, armed his men with the ar¬
mour of the captives, and set sail for the enemy, who
lay on the banks of the Eurymedon, in the ships taken
from the Persians ; who on seeing their own ships and
their own people in appearance, were off their guard,
and thus became an easy conquest.
EURYSTHEUS, a king of Argos and Mycenoe,
son of Sthenelus and Nicippe the daughter of Pelops.
J uno hastened his birth by two months, that he might
come into the world before Hercules the son of Alcme-
na, as the younger of the two was doomed by order of
Jupiter to be subservient to the will of the other.
AlcmENa). This natural right was cruelly exercised
by Eurystheus, who was jealous of the fame of Her¬
cules ; and who, to destroy so powerful a relation, im¬
posed upon him the most dangerous and uncommon en¬
terprises, well known by the name of the twelve labours
of Hercules. The success of Hercules in achieving
those perilous labours alarmed Eurystheus in a greater
degree, and he furnished himself with a brazen vessel,
where he might secure himself a safe retreat in case ot
danger. After the death of Hercules, Eurystheus re¬
newed his cruelties against his children, and made war
against Ceyx king of Trachinia, because he had given
them support, and treated them with hospitality. He
was killed in the prosecution of this war by Hyilus the
son of Hercules. His head was sent to Alcmena the
mother of Hercules; who, mindful of the cruelties
which her son had suflered, insulted it, and tore out
the eyes with the most inveterate fury. Eurystheus
was succeeded on the throne of Argos by Atreus his
nephew. The death of Eurystheus happened about 30
years before the Trojan war.
EURYTHMY, m Architecture, Painting, and Sculp¬
ture, is a certain majesty, elegance, and easiness, ap¬
pearing in the composition of divers members or parts
of a body, painting, or sculpture, and resulting from
the fine proportion of it.
EUSDEN, Laurence, an Irish clergyman, rector
of Conesby in Lincolnshire, and poet laureat alter the
death of Mr Rowe. His first patron was the eminent
Lord Halifax ; whose poem, on the battle of the Boyne,
be translated into Latin, and dedicated to his lordship.
He was esteemed by the duke of Newcastle, who re¬
warded an epithalamium he wrote on his marriage with
the place of poet laureat. He was the author of many
poetical pieces, though but little known before his pre¬
ferment: he died in I730,
2 ] E U S
EUSEBIANS, a denomination given to the sect of Eusebiaui
Arlans, on account of the favour and countenance which 11
Eusebius, bishop of Csesaria, showed and procured for r‘uas^tla‘
them at their first rise. See Arians and EusE- t....,
BIUS.
EUSEBIUS, surnamed PampHILIUS, a celebrated
bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, and one of the most
learned men of his time, was born in Palestine about
the latter end of the reign of Callienus. He was the
intimate friend of Pamphilus the Martyr; and, after
his death, took his name in honour to his memory. He
was ordained bishop of Caesarea in 313. He had a con¬
siderable share in the contest relating to Arius ; whose
cause he, as well as several other bishops of Palestine,
defended, being persuaded that Arius had been un¬
justly persecuted by Alexander bishop of Alexandria.
He assisted at the council of Nice in 325 ; when he
made a speech to the emperor Constantine on his coming
to the council, and was placed next him on his right
hand. He was present at the council of Antioch, in
which Eustathius bishop of that city was deposed ; but
though he was chosen by the bishop and people of
Antioch to succeed him, he absolutely refused it. In
335, he assisted at the council of Tyre held against
Athanasius ; and at the assembly of bishops at Jerusa¬
lem, at the time of the dedication of the church there.
By these bishops he was sent to the emperor Constan¬
tine to defend what they had done against Athanasius ;
when he pronounced the panegyric made on that em¬
peror during the public rejoicings in the beginning of
the 30th year of his reign, which was the last of his
life. Eusebius survived the emperor but a short time,
for he died in 338. He wrote, 1. An Ecclesiastical
History, of which Valetius has given a good edition in
Greek and Latin ; 2. The life of Constantine; 3. A
treatise against Hierocles ; 4. Chronicon; 5. Prepaj'a-
tiones Evangelic*; 6. De demonstrations Evangelica,
of which there are but 10 books extant out of 20;
and several other works, some of which are lost.
EUSTACKIUS, Bartholomew, physician and
anatomist at Rome, flourished about the year 1550.
His anatomical plates were discovered there in 1712,
and published in 1714. „ ,
EUSTATHIANS, a name given to the Catholics
of Antioch in the 4th century, on occasion of their re¬
fusal to acknowledge any other bishop beside St Eusta¬
thius, deposed by the Arians.
The denomination was given them during the epis¬
copate of Paulinus, whom the Arians substituted to St
- Eustathius, about the year 330, when they began to
hold their assemblies apart. About the year 350,
Leontius of Phrygia, called the eunuch, who was an
Arian, and was put in the see of Antioch, desired the
Eustathians to perform their service in his church;
which they accepting, the church of Antioch served
indifferently both the Arians and Catholics. _ _
This, we are told, gave occasion to two institutions,
which have subsisted in the church ever since. The first
was psalmody in two choirs ; though M. Baillet thinks,
that if they instituted an alternate psalmody between
two choirs, it was between two Catholic_ choirs, an
not by way of response to an Arian choir. I he se¬
cond was the doxologv, Glory be to the Father, and the
Son, and the Holy Ghost. See DoxologY.
This conduct, which seemed to imply a kind of com¬
munion with the Arians, gave great offence to abun-
4
E U S
dance of Catholics, who began to hold separate meet¬
ings } and this formed the schism of Antioch. Upon
this, the rest, who continued to meet in the church,
ceased to be called Eustathians, and that appellation
became restrained to the dissenting party. St Flavianus,
bishop of Antioch in 381, and one of his successors,
Alexander, in 481, brought to pass a coalition, or re¬
union, between the Eustathians and the body of the
church of Antioch, described with much solemnity by
Theodoret, Eccl. lib. iii. c. 2.
Eustathians were also a sect of heretics in the
fourth century, denominated from their founder Eus¬
tathius, a monk so foolishly fond of his own profession,
that he condemned all other conditions oflife. Whe¬
ther this Eustathius w'as the same with the bishop of
Sebastia and chief of the Semi-Arians, is not easy to
determine.
. He excluded married people from salvation ; prohi¬
bited his followers from praying in their houses j and
obliged them to quit all they had, as incompatible
with the hopes of heaven. He drew them out of the
other assemblies of Christians to hold secret ones with
him, and made them wear a particular habit j he ap¬
pointed them to fast on Sundays } and taught them,
that the ordinary fasts of the church were needless, af¬
ter they had attained to a certain degree of purity
which he pretended to. He showed great horror for
chapels built in honour of martyrs, and the assemblies
held therein. Several women seduced by his reasons,
forsook their husbands, and abundance of slaves desert¬
ed their masters houses. He was condemned at the
council of Gangra in Paphlagonia, held between the
years 326 and 341.
EUSI AriHUS, bishop of Thessalonica, in the
12th century, under the reigns of the emperors Ema¬
nuel, Alexander, and Andronicus Comnenus. He was
a very eminent grammarian 5 and wrote commentaries
upon Homer, and Dionysius the geographer. The
best edition of his Commentaries on Homer is that of
Rome, printed in Greek, in 1542, in four volumes
folio. His Commentaries on the Periegesis of Diony¬
sius were printed by Mr Hudson at Oxford, in 1697,
8vo. Eustathius appears to have been alive in the
year 1194.
EUSTATIA, St Eustatia, or Eustatius, one of
the Caribbee islands, belonging to the Dutch, and si¬
tuated in W. Long. 62. 56. N. Lat. 17. 29. It is lit¬
tle else than a huge mountain, which formerly has, in
all probability, been a volcano. Its situation is so
strong, that it has but one landing place ; and that is
fortified in such a manner as to be almost impregnable.
Tobacco is the chief product of the island ; and it is
cultivated to the very top of the pyramid which termi¬
nates in a large plain surrounded with woods, but ha¬
ving a hollow in the middle, which serves as a large
den lor wild beasts. No fewer than 5000 white people
and 15,000 negroes subsist on this spot, where they
rear hogs, kids, rabbits, and all kinds of poultry, in
such abundance, that they can supply their neighbours,
after having served themselves.
'I he first Dutch colony sent to this island consisted
of about 1000 people. They were dispossessed by the
English from Jamaica in 1665. Soon after, the Dutch
and French becoming confederates, the English were
expelled in their turn. The French continuing to hold
Vol. VIII. Part I. ° f
[ 353 ]
E U S
a garrison in the island till the treaty of Breda, when Euifalill
it was restored to the Dutch. Soon after the revolu-
tion, the French drove out the Dutch, and were in
their turn driven out by the English under Sir Timo¬
thy Ihornhill, with the loss of no more than eight men
killed and wounded, though the fort they took mount-
ed 16 guns, and was in every other respect very strong.
Sir Timothy found it necessary for the protection of
the Dutch, to leave a small English garrison in the
fort; but he granted the French no terms of capitula¬
tion, except for their lives and baggage. By the peace
of Ryswick, the entire property of this island was re¬
stored to the Dutch.
This island was reduced by the British in the year
1781* 1 hough not 20 miles in circumference, it
abounded at that time with riches, by reason of the
vast conflux of trade from every other island in these
seas. Being a free port, it was open to all the sub¬
jects of the belligerent powers; and thus a communi¬
cation was established among them, through which
they were enabled to carry on a commercial corre¬
spondence,^ which greatly mitigated the inconveniences
of war. I he greatest benefit, however, was reaped by
the Dutch ; who, by transacting all trading business
for other nations, were thus intrusted with numberless
commissions, and likewise enjoyed vast profits from
the sale of the merchandises to which they rvere en¬
titled. At the time the attack was made upon them,
they were so little under the apprehensions of such an
event, that their warehouses were not sufficient to con¬
tain the quantity of commercial articles imported for
sale, and the beach and streets were covered with
hogsheads of tobacco and sugar. In this situation
Admiral Rodney having received orders to commence
hostilities against the Dutch, suddenly appeared before
the island with such an armament of sea and land
forces, as in its defenceless situation was not only use¬
less but ridiculous. The governor could scarcely credit
the officer who summoned him to surrender; but be¬
ing convinced how matters stood, the only possible step
was taken, namely, to surrender the whole island and
every thing in it, at discretion. Along with the islamf
there fell into the hands of ti e captors a ship of 60
guns, with 250 sail of merchantmen, while the value
of property on the island was estimated at no less than
four millions sterling. This capture became afterwards
a subject of discussion in parliament, where the conduct
of the British commanders was severely scrutinized by
Mr Burke. The admiral and general made their de¬
fence in person : but the minority at that time were
far from being satisfied ; and it was supposed that on
the change of ministry a rigid inquiry would have been
set on foot, had not the splendour of Admiral Rodney’s
victory over de Grasse put an end to all thoughts of that
nature.
The island of St Eustatius is naturally of suc h diffi¬
cult access, as already observed, that it is almost impos¬
sible for an enemy to effect a landing if proper care is
taken by those who are in possession of it. This veiy
circumstance proved the ruin of the new possessors. The
British, secure in their inaccessible situation, conducted
themselves in such a manner as induced the Marquis de
Bouille to make an attempt to regain it. Having sail¬
ed from Martinico at the head of 2oco men, he arrived
on the 26th of November 1781, off one of the landing
Y y places
E U T [ 354-
Eitstatift places of the island, which was deemed so inaccessible
1! that it had been left without a guard. With much loss
Eutropins. antl difficulty, however, he landed here with four or five
' v ' hundred of his people during the night. The appear¬
ance of day put an end to his landing any more; and
lie now saw himself obliged either to relinquish the en¬
terprise or to attack the garrison, which was almost
double the number of those he had on the island.. He
chose the latter: and was favoured in his enterprise by
the extreme negligence of his antagonists.. A difficult
pass, which a few men might have occupied with suc¬
cess against a great number, was left unguarded, which
the marquis secured in time, and then pushed forward
with the utmost expedition. The British, mistaking
a bodv of Irish troops which attended the 1‘rench
commander for their own comrades, suffered them to
approach without thinking of opposing them. They
were then exercising on the parade j but were soon
made sensible of their fatal mistake by a close discharge
from their supposed friends, by which many were killed
and wounded. The surprise occasioned by this sudden
attack was so great, that no resistance could be made j
especially as their commanding officer, Colonel Cock-
burn, who happened at that instant to come upon the
parade, was made prisoner. A number of them, how¬
ever, hastened to the fort with a view of making head
against t nemy j but the French had already taken
possession the gate, and prevented the drawbridge
from being raised. They entered the fort 5 which, be-
ing surrendered by those who had taken shelter in it,
the rest of the garrison, dispersed in various places, and
imagining the number of the enemy to be much greater
than it reallv was, submitted without any opposition.
The French commander took this opportunity of show¬
ing his disinterestedness in pecuniary matters. Among
the spoils that fell into his hands a large sum of money
was claimed by the British commanding officer as be¬
ing his private property, which was generously restor¬
ed to him : in like manner the property of the Dutch
inhabitants was reserved to them. St Eustatia was re¬
stored to the Dutch at the peace of 1783, was taken
by the British again in 1801, and again restored to the
Dutch in 1814.
EUSTYLE, in Arclrilecture, a sort ol building in
which the pillars are placed at the most convenient di¬
stance one from another, the intercolumniations being
itist two diameters and a quarter of the column, except
those in the middle of the face, before and behind, which
are three diameters distant. .
EUTERPE, one of the Muses, daughter ot Jupiter
and Mnemosyne. She presided over music, and was
looked upon as the inventress of the flute. She 13 re-
presented as crowned with flowers, and holding a flute
in her hands : Some mythologists attributed to her the
invention of tragedy, more commonly supposed to be
the production of Melpomene. .
euthymia, among the Greeks, signified such a
disposition or state of the mind, as could not be ruffled
either by good or bad fortune, by sickness or health,
g°EUTROPIUS, Flavius, a Latin author, in the
Ath century, was secretary to Constantine the Great,
and afterwards bore arms under the emperor Julian,
and followed that prince in his expedition against the
Persians. He wrote an Abridgement of the Roman
5
] E U T
History, from the foundation of Rome to the reign Eutropiui,
of Valens j the best edition of which is that of Miss Eutjchi.
Le Fevre, afterwards Madame Dacier, published at. a"3- ^
Paris for the use of the Dauphin, in 4to, in the year ’
1683.
EUTYCHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
duplicity of natures in Christ j thus denominated from
Eutyches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a monastery
at Constantinople, who began to propagate his opinion
A. D. 448. He did not, however, seem quite steady
and consistent in his sentiments: for he appeared to al¬
low of two natures, even before the union y which was
apparently a consequence he drew from the principles
of the Platonic philosophy, which supposes a pre-exist¬
ence of souls : accordingly, he believed that the soul of
Jesus Christ had been united to the divinity before the
incarnation j but then he allowed no distinction of na¬
tures in Jesus Christ since his incarnation. This heresy
was first condemned in a synod held at Constantinople
by Flavian, in 448, approved by the council of Ephe¬
sus, called conventus latronum, in 449> re-exami¬
ned, and fulminated in the general council of Chalce-
don in 451- The legates of Pope Leo, who assisted at
it, maintained that it was not enough to define, that
there were two natures in Jesus Christ j but insisted stre¬
nuously, that, to remove all equivocations, they must
add these terms, without being changed, or confounded,
or divided.
The heresy of the Eutychians, which made a very
great progress throughout the east, at length became
divided into several branches. Nicephorus makes men¬
tion of no fewer than twelve : some called Schematic?) or
ApparenteSy as only attributing to Jesus Christ a phan¬
tom or appearance of flesh, and no real flesh . others,
TheodosianSy from Theodosius bishop of Alexandria .
others, Jacobites, from one James (Jacobus'), of Syria $
which branch established itself principally in Armenia,
where it still subsists. Others were called Acephah,
q. d. without head j and Severians, from a. monk called
Severus, who seized on the see of Antioch in 513.
These last were subdivided into five factions, viz. Ag-
noetce, who attributed some ignorance to Jesus Christ*,
the followers of Paul , that is, the black An-
gelites, thus called from the place where they were as¬
sembled *, and lastly, Adrites and Cononites.
Eutychians was also the name of another sect, half
Arian half Eunomian j which arose at Constantinople
in the fourth century.
It being then a matter of mighty controversy among
the Eunomians at Constantinople, whether or not the
Son of God knew the last day and hour of the world,
particularly with regard to that passage in the gospel
of St Matthew, chap. xxiv. ver. 36. or rather that in
St Mark, xiii. 32. where it is expressed, that the bon
did not know it, but the Father only ; Eutychius made
no scruple to maintain, even in writing, that the bon
did not know it j which sentiment displeasing the lead¬
ers of the Eunomian party, he separated from them,
and made a journey to Eunomius, who was then in
exile. That heretic acquiesced fully in Eutychius s
doctrine, and admitted him to his communion. Euno¬
mius dying soon after, the chief of the Eunomians at
Constantinople refused to admit Eutychius j who, up¬
on this, formed a particular sect of such as adhered to
him, called JSwtycfocws. ^ *
E X
Ex.
jutychians This same Eutychius, ■with one Theophrojiius, as was
said in Sozonoen’s time, were the occasions of all the
^ changes made by the Eunomians in the administration
of baptism ; which consisted, according to Nicephorus,
in only using one immersion, and not doing it in the
name of the Trinity, but in memory of the death of
Jesus Christ. Nicephorus calls the chief of that sect,
not Eutychiusi but Eupsychius, and his followers Euno~
miaupsychians.
EUTYCHIUS, patriarch of Alexandria, lived a-
bout the ninth age j and wrote annals in the Arabic
language, printed at Oxford in 1658, with a Latin ver¬
sion by Mr Pococke. Selden had printed something
of his before.
EUXINE or Black Sea, forms part of the boun¬
dary betwixt Europe and Asia. It receives the Nieper,
the Danube, and other large rivers } and extends from
28 to 41 degrees of E. Long, and from 41 to 47 of
N. Lat. The ancients imagined this sea to have been
originally only a lake or standing pool which broke first
into the Propontis, and then into the Egean, washing
away by degrees the earth which first kept it within
bounds, and formed the two channels of the Bosphorus
Thracius and Hellespont, now the Dardanelles.—-It
was anciently called the Axenus, supposed to be from
Ashkenaz the son of Corner, who is said to have settled
near it. This original being forgot in length of time,
the Greeks explained it by inhospitable, which the word
Axenos literally signifies j and therefore, when they
came to consider the inhabitants of these coasts as more
civilized and hospitable, they changed the name into
Euxinus. See Black Sea, Supplement.
EWE, the English name of a female sheep. See
Ovis, Mammalia Index.
EWERY, in the British customs, an office in the
king’s household, to which belongs the care of the table-
linen, of laying the cloth, and serving up water in sil¬
ver ewers after dinner.
EX, a river that rises in a barren tract of land, cal¬
led Exmore, in Somersetshire ; and after being joined
by several little streams, runs by Tiverton, where there
is a stone bridge over the river. About nine miles be¬
low Tiverton, it is joined by a pretty large stream cal¬
led the Colombian; and about two miles lower, by an¬
other stream formed by the junction of the Horton
and Credy. With these additions, it washes the walls
of Exeter. At Topsham, above four miles below Exe¬
ter, it receives another considerable addition to its
stream $ two miles farther, it is joined by the Ken j
and falls into the ocean at Exmouth, after a course of
about 40 miles. Ships of great burden go up to
Topsham, from whence vessels of 150 tons are convey¬
ed to the quay at Exeter, by means of an artificial ca¬
nal. The Ex is navigable for vessels of considerable
burden to Jopsham. The passage, however, at the
mouth of the river, is but narrow, having rocks on the
east side and broad sands on the west; nor is the water
on the bar more than six or seven feet deep at low wa¬
ter, but the tide rises 14 or 15 feet, so that it is deep
enough at high water. When ships are within the
bar they may ride afloat at a place called Starcross, a-
bout a mile and a half from the river’s mouth j but
those that go to Topsham lie aground on the ooze at
low water.
EX officio, among lawyers, signifies the power
[ 355 ]
E X A
a person has, by virtue of his office, to do certain acts
without being applied to. Thus a justice of peace ||
may, ex officio, at his discretion, take surety of the Exaltation,
peace, without complaint made by any person whatso- 1
ever.
There was formerly an oath ex officio, whereby a sup¬
posed offender was compelled in the ecclesiastical court
to confess, accuse, or clear himself of a crime j but this
law is repealed.
Ex Post Facto, in Law, something done after ano¬
ther . thus an estate granted may be good by matter
ex post facto, that was not so at first, as in case of elec¬
tion.
EXACERBATION. See Paroxysm.
EXACIION, in Law, a wrong done by an officer,
or a person in pretended authority, in taking a reward
or fee that is not allowed by all.
A person guilty of exaction may be fined and impri¬
soned. It is often confounded with Extortion.
EXACUM, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandna class j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 20th order, Rotacece. See Botany Index.
EXiERESIS, in Surgery, the operation of extract¬
ing or taking away something that is hurtful to the hu¬
man body.
EXAGGERATION, in Rhetoric, a kind of hy¬
perbole, whereby things are augmented or amplified
by saying more than the truth, either as to good or
bad.
Exaggeration, in Painting, a method by which
the artist, in representing things, changes them too
much, or makes them too strong, either in respect of
the design or colouring. It differs from caricaturing^
in that the latter perverts or gives a turn to the fea¬
tures of a face, &c. which they had not, whereas ex¬
aggeration only heightens or improves what they had.
EXAL1ATION, or Elevation, is chiefly used
in a figurative sense, for the raising or advancing a
person to some ecclesiastical dignity $ and particularly
to the papacy.
Exaltation of the Cross is a feast of the Romish
church, held on the 14th of September j in memory,
as is generally supposed, of this, that the emperor He-
raclius brought back the true cross of Jesus Christ on
his shoulders, to the place on Mount Calvary from
which it had been carried away 14 years before by
Cosroes king of Persia, at his taking of Jerusalem, un¬
der the reign of the emperor Phocas. The cross was
delivered up by a treaty of peace made with Siroe,
Cosroes’s son. The institution of this treaty is com¬
monly said to have been signalized by a miracle $ in
that Heraclius could not stir out of Jerusalem with the
cross while he had the imperial vestments on enriched
with gold and precious stones, but bore it with ease in
a common dress.
But long before the reign of Heraclius there had
been a feast of the same denomination observed both
in the Greek and Latin churches, on occasion of what
our Saviour said in St John xiii. 32. And I, if I be ex¬
alted, or lifted up, will draw all men unto me. And
again, in chap. viii. ver. 28. When you have exalted,
or lifted up the Son of Man, then shall ye know that 1
am he.
The feast of the dedication of the temple built by
Constantine was held, says Nicodemus, on the 14th of
Y y 2 September,
E X A
[ 35
Eiwn-tiioii Septemlier, tlie clay on cvliich t!ie temple licul been con-
11 secrated in the year ?35 ; and this feast was also call-
Evtmplc. e(j the exaitation of the mm, because it was a cere-
' ' mony therein, for the bishop of Jerusalem to ascend a
hioli place, built by Constantine for that purpose, m
manner of a pulpit, called by the Greeks the sacred
mysteries of God, or the holiness oj God, and there hoist
up the cross for all the people to see it.
" Exaltation, in Physics, denotes the act, or opera¬
tion, of elevating, purifying, subtilizing, or perfecting
any natural body, its principles and parts j also the
quality or disposition which bodies acquire by such ope¬
ration. The term exaltation has been peculiarly ailect-
td by the chemists and alchemists ; who imagining it
to have some extraordinary emphasis, are employing it
on every occasion. _ . . ...
Exaltation, in Astrology, is a dignity which a
planet acquires in certain signs or parts of the zodiac >
which dignity is supposed to give it an extraordinary
virtue, efficacy, and influence. The opposite sign, or
part of the zodiac, is called the dejection of the planet.
Thus the 15th degree of Cancer is the exaltation ot
Jupiter, according to Albumazor, because it was. the
ascendant of that planet at the time of the creation j
that of the sun is in the 19th degree of Aries, and 1U
dejection in Libra J that of the moon is in Taurus,
&c. Ptolemy gives the reason of this in his hrst book
De Quadrup.
EXAMINATION, an exact and careful search or
inquiry, in order to discover the truth or falsehood of
a thing. . , . . , , ,
Self-Examination, is a point much insisted on by
divines, and particularly the ancient fathers, by way ot
preparation to repentance. St Ignatius reduces it to
five points ; viz. 1. A returning thanks to God for Ins
benefits. 2. A begging of grace and light, to know
and distinguish our sins. 3. A running oyer a 1 our
actions, occupations, thoughts, and words, in order to
learn what has been offensive to God. 4. A begging
of pardon, and conceiving a sincere sorrow for having
displeased him. And, 5. Making a firm resolution
not to offend him any more ; and taking the necessary
precautions to preserve ourselves from it.
EXAMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that
court, who examine, upon oath, witnesses produced in
causes depending there, by either the complainant or
defendant, where the witnesses live m London or near
it. Sometimes parties themselves, by particular order,
are examined. In the country, above 20 miles from
London, on the parties joining in commission, witnesses
are examined by commissioners, being usually counsel¬
lors or attorneys not concerned in the cause.
EXAMPLE, in a general sense, denotes a copy or
pattern. ... , c
Example, in a moral sense, is either taken tor a
type, instance, or precedent, for our admonition, that
we mav be cautioned against the faults or crimes which
others have committed, by the bad consequences which
have ensued from them*, or example is taken for a
pattern for our imitation, or a model for us to copy
^That examples have a peculiar power above the naked
precept, to dispose us to the practice of virtue and ho¬
liness, may appear by considering, 1. That they most
clearly express to us the nature of our duties 111 their
6 1. E X A
subjects and sensible effects. General precepts form Example '
abstract ideas of virtue*, but in examples, virtues are ^
most visible in all their circumstances. 2. Precepts *-
instruct us in what things are our duty ; but examples
assure us that they are possible. When we see men
like ourselves, who are united to frail flesh, and in the
same condition with us, to command their passions, to
overcome the most glorious and glittering temptations,
we are encouraged in our spiritual warfare. 3* Ex¬
amples, by secret and lively incentive, urge us to imi¬
tation. We are touched in another manner by the
visible practice of good men, which reproaches our de¬
fects, and obliges us to the same zeal which laws,
though wise and good, will not effect.
The example of our Saviour is most proper to form
us to holiness j it being absolutely perfect, and accom¬
modated to our present state. There is no example ot
a mere man that is to be followed without limitation:
But the example of Christ is absolutely perfect J his
conversation was a living law : “ He wasjioly, harm¬
less, undefiled, and separate from sinners.”
Example, in Phetoric, denotes an imperfect kind ot
induction or argumentation *, whereby it is proved, that
a thing which happened on some other occasion wi
happen again on the present one, from the similitude
of the cases. As, “ The war of the Thebans, against
their neighbours thePhocians, was ruinous j consequent¬
ly, that of the Athenians against their neighbours,
will likewise be fatal.”
EXANTHEMA, among Physicians, denotes any
kind of efflorescence or eruption, as the measles, purple
spots in the plague, or malignant fevers, &c. .
EXARCH, in antiquity, an appellation given, by
the emperors of the east, to certain officers sent into
Italy, in quality of vicars, or rather prefects, to defend
that part of Italy which was yet under their obedience,
particularly the city of Ravenna, against the Lombards,
who had made themselves masters of the greatest part
of the rest. ...
The residence of the exarch was at Ravenna *, which
city, with that of Rome, was all that was lelt the
emperors. The first exarch was the patrician Boetius,
famous for his treatise, He Consolatione Philosoph.ee j
appointed in 568 by the younger Justin. I he ex¬
archs subsisted about 185 years, and ended m Euty-
chius : under whose exarchate the city of Ravenna
was taken by the Lombard king Astulphus, or Astol-
^The emperor Frederic created Heraclins, archbishop
of Jjyons, a descendant of the illustrious house ot
Montboissier, exarch of the whole kingdom of Bur¬
gundy j a dignity till that time unknown anywhere
hut in Italy, particularly in the city of Ravenna.
Homer, Philo, and other ancient authors, give like¬
wise the name exarchus to the choragus or master ot
the sino-ers in the ancient choruses, or him who sung
first: The word or signifying equally to
begin, and to commend. . . ,
Exarch of a Diocese was, anciently, the same wit 1
primate. This dignity was inferior to the patriarchal,
yet greater than the metropolitan.
Exarch also denotes an officer, still subsisting 1
the Greek church; being a kind of deputy or legate
h latere of the patriarch, whose office it is to visit the
provinces allotted him, in order to inform himself ot
E X C [' 357 ] E X C
dKftrch the lives and manners of the clergy ; take cognizance ■all their exceptions to the record at one time, and he- Exception
U of ecclesiastical causes ; the manner of celebrating di- fore the court has delivered any opinion of it. ||
Inception. v;ne service; the administration of the sacraments, EXCERPT, in matters of literature. See Ex-E,,cllan^-^t,•
particularly confession ; the observance of the canons; tract. v—
monastic discipline ; afiairs of marriages, divorces, &c. EXCESS, in Arithmetic and Geometry, is the dif-
but above all, to take an account of the several reve- ference between any two unequal numbers or quanti-
nues which the patriarch receives from several churches; ties, or that which is left after the lesser is taken from
and, particularly, as to what regards the collecting the or out of the greater.
EXCHANGE, in a general sense, a contract or
The exarch, after having greatly enriched himself in agreement, whereby one thing is given or exchanged
his post, frequently rises to the patriarchate itself. for another.
Exarch is also used, in the eastern church antiqui- Exchange, in commerce, is the receiving or paying
ty, for a general or superior over several monasteries ; of money in one country for the like sum in another^
the same that we otherwise call archimandrite ; being by means of hills of exchange.
exempted, by the patriarch of Constantinople, from the The security which merchants commonly take from
jurisdiction of the bishops; as are now the generals of one another when they circulate their business, is a bill
the Romish monastic orders. of exchange, or a note of hand : these are looked upon
EXAUCTORATIO, in the Roman military dis- as payment. See Bill, and Mercantile Laws.
cipline, differed from the missio, which was a full dis- The punctuality of acquitting these obligations is es-
charge, and took place after they had served in the sential to commerce ; and no sooner is a merchant’s
army 20 years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a accepted bill protested,, than he is considered as a bank-
partial discharge : they lost their pay indeed, but still nipt. For this reason, the laws of most nations have
kept under their colours or vex ilia, though not under given very extraordinary privileges to bills of exchange,
the czyw/Ytf (or eagle), which was the standard of the The security of trade is essential to every society ; and
legion ; whence, instead of Legionarii, they were cal- were the claims of merchants to linger under the for-
led Subsignani, and were retained till they had either malities of courts of law when liquidated by bills of
served their full time or had lands assigned them. exchange, faith, confidence, and punctuality would
The exauctoratio took place after they had served 17 quickly disappear, and the great engine of commerce
years. would be totally destroyed.
EXCALCEATION, among the Hebrews, was A regular bill of exchange is a mercantile contract,
a particular law, whereby a widow, whom her bus- in which four persons are concerned, viz. 1. The
band’s brother refused to marry, had a right to sum- drawer, who receives the value : 2. His debtor, in a
mon him to a court of justice ; and, upon his refusal, distant place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who
might excalceate him, that is, pull off one of his shoes, must accept and pay it: 3. The person who gives va-
and spit in his face ; both of them actions of great ig- lue for the bill, to whose order it is to be paid : and,
nominy. 4. The person to whom it is ordered to be paid, credi-
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings tor to the third,
and emperors, but now to ambassadors, generals, and By this operation, reciprocal debts, due in two dis-
other persons who are not qualified for that of high- tant parts, are paid by a sort of transfer, or permuta-
ness, and yet are to be elevated above the other infe- tion of debtors and creditors.
rior dignities. (A) in London is creditor to (B) in Paris, value
EXCENTRIC, in Geometry, a term applied to look (C) again in London is debtor to (D) in Paris
circles and spheres which have not the same centre, for a like sum. By the operation of the bill of ex-
and consequently are not parallel ; in opposition to change, the London creditor is paid by the London
concentric, where they are parallel, having one com- debtor; and the Paris creditor is paid by the Paris
mon centre. debtor; consequently the two debts are paid, and no
EXCENTRICITY, in Astronomy, is the distance money is sent from London to Paris nor from Paris to
of the centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre London.
of the sun; that is, the distance between the centre of In this example, (A) is the drawer, (B) is the ac-
the ellipsis and the focus thereof. cepter, (C) is the purchaser of the bill, and (D) re-
EXCEPTION, something reserved, or set aside, ceives the money. Two persons here receive the mo-
and not included in a rule. ney, (A) and (D) ; and two pay the money, (B) and
It is become proverbial, that there is no rule with- (C) ; which is just what must be done when two debt-
out an exception ; intimating that it is impossible to ors and two creditors clear accounts,
comprehend all the particular cases, under one and the This is the plain principle of a bill of exchange,
same maxim. But it is dangerous following the ex- From which it appears that reciprocal and equal debts
ception preferably to the rule. only can be acquitted by them.
Exception, in Law, denotes a stop or stay to an When it therefore happens, that the reciprocal debts
action; and is either dilatory or peremptory, in pro- of London and Paris (to use the same example) are
ceedings at common law ; but in chancery it is what not equal, there arises a balance on one side. Suppose
the plaintiff alleges against the sufficiency of an an- London to owe Paris a balance, value 100I. How can
swer, &c. this be paid P Answer, it may either be done with or
An exception is no more than the denial of what without the intervention of a bill,
is taken to be good by the other party, either in point With a bill, if an exchanger, finding a demand for
of law or pleading. The counsel in a cause are to take a bill upon Paris for the value of 100I. when Paris
4 x- owes-
E X C [ 358
E*eliaii»e. owes no more to London, sends loot, to his correspond-
  y-went at Paris in coin, at the expence (suppose) oi U.
and then, having become creditor on Paris, he can
give a bill for the value of 100I. upon his being repaid
liis expence, and paid for his risk and trouble.
Or it may be paid without a bill, if the London
debtor sends the coin himself to his Paris creditor, with¬
out employing an exchanger.
This last example shows of what little use bills are in
the payment of balances. As far as the debts are equal,
nothing can be more useful than bills of exchange ; but
the more they are useful in this easy way of business, the
loss profit there is to any person to make a trade of ex¬
change, when he is not himself concerned either as
debtor or creditor, 'v
When merchants have occasion to draw and remit
bills for the liquidation of their own debts, active and
passive, in distant parts, they meet upon’Changej where,
to pursue the former examples, the creditors upon Pans,
when they want money for bills, look out for those who
are debtors to it. The debtors to Paris again, when
they want bills for money, seek for those who are cre¬
ditors upon it. , , , , , i
This market is constantly attended by brokers, who
relieve the merchant of the trouble of searching for
those he wants. To the broker every one communi¬
cates his wants, so far as he finds it prudent •, and by
going about among all the merchants, the broker dis¬
covers the side upon which the greater demand lies,
for money or for bills. .
He who is the demander in any bargain, has con¬
stantly the disadvantage in dealing with him of whom
he demands. This is nowhere so much the case as m
exchange, and renders secrecy very essential to indivi¬
duals among the merchants. If the London merchants
want to pay their debts to Paris, when there is a ba-
lance against London, it is their interest to conceal
their debts, and especially the necessity they may be
under to pay them *, from the fear that those who are
creditors upon Paris would demand too high a price
for the exchange over and above par.
On the other hand, those who are creditors upon
Paris, when Paris owes a balance to London, are as
careful in concealing what is owing to theni by Pans,
from the fear that those who are debtors to Paris would
avail themselves of the competition among the Pans cre¬
ditors, in order to obtain bills for their money, below
the value of them, when at par. A creditor upon Pa¬
ris, who is greatly pressed for money at London, will
willingly abate something of his debt, in order to get
one who will give him money for it.
From the operation carried on among merchants up¬
on ’Change, we may discover the consequence of their
separate and jarring interests. They are constantly in¬
terested in the state of the balance. Those who are
creditors on Paris, fear the balance due to London *,
those who are debtors to Paris, dread a balance due
to Paris. The interest of the first is to dissemble what
they fear *, that of the last, to exaggerate what they
wisli. The brokers are those who determine the
course of the day *, and the most intelligent merchants
are those who despatch their business before the fact is
"Now, how is trade in general interested in the que-
] E X C
stion, Who shall outwit, and who shall be outwitted, Exchange
in this complicated operation of exchange among mer*
chants ?
The interest of trade and of the nation is principal¬
ly concerned in the proper method of paying and re¬
ceiving the balances. It is also concerned in preserv¬
ing a just equality of profit and loss among all the
merchants, relative to the real state of the balance.
Unequal competition among men engaged in the same
pursuit, constantly draws along with it bad consequen¬
ces to the general undertaking j and secrecy in trade
will be found, upon examination, to be much more use¬
ful to merchants in their private capacity, than to the
trade they are carrying on.
Merchants endeavour to simplify their business as
much as possible j and commit to brokers many opera¬
tions which require no peculiar talents to execute. .This
of exchange is of such a nature, that it is hardly pos¬
sible for a merchant to carry on the business of his bills
without their assistance, upon many occasions. When
merchants come upon ’Change, they are so full of fear
and jealousies, that they will not open themselves to one
another, lest they should discover what they want to
conceal. The broker is a confidential man, in some de¬
gree, between parties, and brings them together.
Besides the merchants who circulate among them¬
selves their reciprocal debts and credits arising from
their importation and exportation of goods, there is
another set of merchants who deal in exchange i
which is the importation and exportation of money and
bills.
Were there never any balance on the trade of na¬
tions, exchangers and brokers would find little employ¬
ment j reciprocal and equal debts would easily be trans¬
acted openly between the parties themselves. No man
feigns and dissembles, except when he thinks he has an
interest in so doing.
But when balances come to be paid, exchange be¬
comes intricate j and merchants are so much employed
in particular branches of business, that they are obliged
to leave the liquidation of their debts to a particular
set of men, who make it turn out to the best advantage
to themselves.
Whenever a balance is to be paid, that payment
costs, as we have seen, an additional expence to those
of the place who owe it, over and above the value of
the debt.
If, therefore, this expence be a loss to the trading
man, he must either be repaid this loss by those whom
he serves, that is, by the nation j or the trade he car¬
ries on will become less profitable.
Every one will agree, that the expence of high ex¬
change upon paying a balance is a loss to a people,
no way to be compensated by the advantages they reap
from enriching the few individuals among them who
gain by contriving methods to pay it off j and it an ar¬
gument is necessary to prove this proposition, it may
be drawn from this principle,. viz. whatever renders
the profit upon trade precarious or uncertain, is a
loss to trade in general j this loss is the consequence
of high exchange*, and although a profit does re¬
sult from it upon one branch of trade, the exchange
business, yet that cannot compensate the loss upon
every other.
E x c v C 359 ]< E X C
ichange. We may, therefore, here repeat what we have said
—y——' above, that the more difficulty is found in paying a ba¬
lance, the greater is the loss to a nation.
' The Course of Exchange,
The course of exchange is the current price betwixt
two places, which is always fluctuating and unsettled,
being sometimes above, and sometimes below par, ac¬
cording to the circumstances of trade.
When the course of exchange rises above par, the
country where it rises may conclude for certain that
the balance of trade runs against them. The truth of
this will appear, if we suppose Britain to import from
any foreign place goods to the value of ioo,oool. at rrch.nf(.p
par, and export only to the value of 8o,oool. In this >- -^ S j
case, bills on the said foreign place will be scarce in
Britain, and consequently will rise in value j and after
the 8o,oool. is paid, bills must be procured from other
places at a high rate to pay the remainder, so that per¬
haps 120,000!. may be paid for bills to discharge a debt
of IOO,cool.
1 hough the course of exchange be in a perpetual
flux, and rises or falls according to the circumstances of
trade ; yet the exchanges of London, Holland, Ham-
urgh, and Venice, in a great measure regulate those
ol all other places in Europe.
I. Exchange with Holland.
t
MONEY TABLE.
8 Pennings, or 2 duytes,
2 Groats, or 16 pennings,
6 Stivers, or 12 pence,
20 Schillings,
20 Stivers, or 40 pence,
6 Guilders, or florins,
24 Guilders or florins,
C8
E
J
' Par in Sterling.
1 groat or penny rr
1 stiver rr
I schilling ~
1 pound Flemish =
1 guilder or florin
1 pound Flemish =
, I rix dollar =r
s. d.
o 0.54
O I 09
o 6.56
10 II.18
I 9.86
10 II.18
4 6.66
In Holland there are two sorts of money, bank and
current. The bank is reckoned good security j de¬
mands on the bank are readily answered; and hence
bank money is generally rated from 3 to 6 per cent.
better than the current. The difference between the
bank and current money is called the agio.
Bills on Holland are always drawn in bank money;
and if accounts be sent over from Holland to Britain in
current money, the British merchant pays these accounts
by bills, and in this case has the benefit of the agio.
Pros. I. To reduce bank money to current money.
Rule. As ioo to ioo-}-agio, so the given guilders
to the answer.
Examp. What will 2210 guilders in bank money
amount to in Holland currency, the agio being 3^ per
cent. ?
Guild.
As 100 : 105-J :: 2210
8 8 825
800 825 11050
4420
17680
- — Guild, st. pen.
8100)18232150(2279 1 4 cur.
16... 20
22 I0|00(
16 8
Or, by practice.
50)2210
44-2 s 2 per cent.
22.1 “ 1 per cent.
2.7625 = \ per cent.
2279.0625
If the agio only be required, make the agio the mid¬
dle term, thus :
Guil. st. pen.
As 100 : 3*- :: 2210 : 69 14 agio. Or work by
practice as above. J
Pros. II. To reduce current money to bank money.
Rule. As 100+agio to 100, so the given guilders
to the answer.
Example. What will 2279 guilders 1 stiver 4 pen¬
nings Holland currency, amount to in bank money, the
agio being 3| per cent ?
Guild. Guild. Guild, st. pen.
As 103! : 100 :: 2279 1 4
8 8 20
825 800 45581
20 16
16500 273490
16 45581
65 2
56 16
72 32
72 S*
990 729300
165 800
8)264(000 8)583440(000
3)33 3)72930 Gu{M-
11 11)24310(2210 bank. .
At
E X C [36°
At Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Middlelmrgh, &c. books
and accounts are kept by some in guilders, stivers, and
pennings, and by others in pounds, shillings, and pence
Flemish. . .
Britain gives ll. sterling for an uncertain number
of shillings and pence Flemish. > The par ll. ster¬
ling for 36.593. Flemish j that is, ll. 16s. 7.0od.
Flemish. .
When the Flemish rate rises above par, Britain gams
and Holland loses by the exchange, and vice versa.
Sterling money is changed into Flemish, by saying,
As ll. sterling to the given rate,
So is the given sterling to the Flemish sought.
Or, the Flemish money may be cast up by practice.
Hutch money, whether pounds, shillings, pence 1 ie-
mish, or guilders, stivers, pennings, may be changed in¬
to sterling, by saying,
As the given rate to ll. sterling,
So the given Dutch to the sterling sought.
EXAMPLE I. A merchant in Britain draws on Am¬
sterdam for 782I. sterling : How many pounds Flemish,
and how many guilders, will that amount to, exchange
at 34s. 8d. per pound sterling ?
Decimally.
Fletn. Ster.
L. s. d. L.
If 1:34 81:782
12
416
782
832
3328
2912
12)325312
- ■ —— rf.
2|o)27io|9 4
1355 9 4 Flcm-
L. s. L.
If 1 : 34.0 : : 782
782
69a
27733
242066
210)27x019.3
L. 1355 9 4
By
1 os. —T
4s. =3-
8d. =*
practice
L. *.
782
391 n
156 8
26 1
d.
i4s.=to
Sd.rryo
Or thus
L.
782
547
26
s.
6.
If 37
2
5)75
4) >5
L.
I ;
E X
Fkm.
L. s.
■ 591 5
20
Exchange,
11825
2
— 5)23650
5) 473°
L.
Ans. 314
L.
d.
1355 9 4
6
Flem. pence.
4i0)3253Il2(32 rein.
s. d.
5 8 Ster.
5) L.
If 1-875 :
5) -375
5) •°75
.015
3) 946
3lSv
Decimally.
L. 5) L>
1 :: 591.25
1355 9 4 ^
1355 9 4i’/-l
Multiply the Flemish pounds and shillings by 6, and
the product will be guilders and stivers j and if there
be any pence, multiply them by 8 for pennings : or,
divide the Flemish pence by 40, and the quot will be
guilders, and the half of the remainder, if there be any,
will be stivers, and one penny odd will be half a stiver,
or 8 pennings, as follows :
5)118.25
5) 23.65
.015) 4-73(313-3
45
23
15
80
75
5°
45
Holland exchanges with other nations as follows,
JW.
Hamburgh, on the dollar, = 66y
France, on the crown, = 54
Spain, on the ducat, =
Portugal, on the crusade, =
Venice, on the ducat, =
Genoa, on the pezzo, =
Leghorn, on the piastre, =
Florence, on the crown, =
Naples, on the ducat,
Borne, on the crown, =
Milan, on the ducat, =
Bologna, on the dollar, =
i°9t
5°
93
100
100
120
74t
136
102
94*
Exchange between Britain and Antwerp, as ako the
Austrian Netherlands, is negotiated the same way as
with Holland ; only the par is somewhat different, as
will be described in article 2d following.
II. Exchange with Hamburgh.
Money Table.
Gmi’W. 8131 16 stiv. GwnW. 8132 16 stiv.
2. Change 591k 5s. Flemish into sterling money,
exchange at 37s. 6d. Flemish per h Sterling.
12
16
Phenning
Schilling-lubs
Marks
Marks
Marks
Par in Sterling.
^ (" I schilling-iub = 0
| u j 1 mark = 1
^ "rt ^ I dollar = 3
j = j I rixdollar = 4
J l^x ducat — 9
5 d.
ll
6
o
6
4.1
E X C [ 361
,'tehange. Books and accounts are kept at the bank, and by
most people in the city, in marks, schilling-lubs, and
phennings ; but some keep them in pounds, schillings,
and groots Flemish.
The agio at Hamburgh runs between 20 and 40 per
cent. All bills are paid in bank money.
Hamburgh exchanges with Britain by giving an un¬
certain number of schillings and groots Flemish for the
pound sterling. The groot or penny Flemish here, as
also at Antwerp, is worth 44 °f a penny sterling 5 and
is something better than in Holland, where it is only
xs^d. sterling.
Flemish.
6 Fhennings "] f
6 Schilling-lubs
I Schilling-lub }>• makes
I Mark
yf Marks J
The par with Hamburgh, and also with Antwerp, is
35s. 6jd. Flemish for il. sterling.
Examples. 1. How many marks must be received
at Hamburgh for 3C0I. sterling, exchange at 35s. 3d.
Flemish per 1. sterling ?
Z. s. d. L.
If i : 3; : 300
1 groot or penny
1 schilling
2 pence or groots
32 pence or groots
I pound.
s. d.
■ 35 3
12
42J
300
M. sch.
32)126900(3965 10
S>6 • •'
309
288
210
192
180
160
(20)
16
)32°
32
(°)
Decimally.
Flem. s. Marks. Flan. s.
If 20 : 7.5 :: 35.25
4 : :: 35*25
i-5
17625
3525
4)52-875
i3-2i875
300
3965.62500
16
375°
625
Schilling-lubs 10.000
Vol. VIII. Part I.
Marks in il. sterling
Marks in 300I. sterling
] E X C
2. How much sterling money will a bill of 3965
marks 10 schilling-lubs amount to, exchange at 35s. 3d. —-y——
Flemish per pound sterling ?
FI. s. d. L.St. Mks. sch.
If35 3 : 1 :: 3965 10
12 32 2
423
793°
21897
2od.
423(126900(300!. ster.
1269
Decimally.
4 : i-5 :: 35-25
I-5
17625
2225
4)52.875(13.21875
13.21875)3965.62500(300!. ster.
3965625
III. Exchange with France.
Money Table.
Par in Ster.
1 2 DeniersT f 1 sol*
20 Sols > make < I livre
3 Livres J (.1 crown
s.
=0
~o
d.
oil
9i
Si
At Paris, Rouen, Lyons, &c. books and accounts
are kept in livres, sols, and deniers $ and the exchange
with Britain is on the crown, or ecu, of 3 livres, or 60
sols Tournois. Britain gives for the crown an uncer¬
tain number of pence, commonly between 30 and 34,
the par, as mentioned above, being 29!^.
Example I. What sterling money must be paid in
London to receive in Paris 1978 crowns 25 sols, ex¬
change at 3 lid. per crown ?
Sols.
If 60
31!
Cr. sols.
1978 25
60
253
118705
253
356115
593525
2374!°
610)300323615 Retn.
8)5°0539 3
12)62567 11
2|o)52il3 13
L.260 13 ni Ans.
Z z
B.
[ 362 ]
Eiehanare*
E X C
By Practice.
Cr. So/s.
1978 25, at 31-f-il.
d.
3° = T
_ I
T—"f 2
Sols. 20 ~ -y
5 = 1
247
12
I
o
o
o
3
7z
io-J
21
260 J3 Ilf
If you work decimally, say,
Cr. d. Ster. Cr. d. Ster.
As 1 : 31.625 :: 1978.41^ : 62567.42708^.
2. How many French livres will 121 : 18 : 6 ster¬
ling amount to, exchange at 32^* Per crown *
d. Liv. L. s. d.
If 32-ir: 3 :• 121 18 6
  8 20
865
24 2438
12
29262
24
117048
58524
. . — Liv. sols. den.
263)702288(2670 5 11 Ans.
Kern. (78=5 sols 11 deniers.
IV. Exchange with Portugal.
Money Table.
Par in Ster.
8000 507 579012
4i358°
    Rem.
8ooo)4I937Q.i2o 2
12)52421 — 5d. •
20) 4368 — 8s.
L. 218 8 54 Ans.
E X
By Practice.
Rees.
Exehang*.
d.
60 = \
3 —iV
*   1
7  TT
i = a-
827.160, at 63^.
206.790
10.3395
.861625
.430812,5
218.4219375
The rees being thousandth-parts of the millrees, are
annexed to the integer, and the operation proceeds ex¬
actly as in decimals.
2. How many rees of Portugal will 500I. sterling
amount to, exchange at 5s. 4^d. per millree ?
d. Rees. L.
If 64! : ioco :: 500
  8 20
5X7   
8000 10000
12
120000
8000
Rees.
d.
il
7
ill
s. d. f.
1 ree rr o O O.27
400 rees 1 , V 1 crusade = 23
loco rees j-make|_i millree = S 7*
In Lisbon, Oporto, &c. books and accounts are ge¬
nerally kept in rees and millrees j and the millrees
are distinguished from the rees by a mark set between
them thus, 485 * 372 ; that is, 485 millrees and 372
Britain, as well as other nations, exchanges with
Portugal on the millree j the par, as in the table, be¬
ing 67ld. sterling. The course with Britain runs from
6ad. to 68d. sterling per millree. _
Example i. How much sterling money will pay a
bill of 827 * 160 rees, exchange at (?3g-d. sterling per
millree ?
Rees. d. Rees.
If 1000 : 63I :: 827.160
8 5°7
517)960000000)1856.866 Ans.
V. Exchange with Spain.
Money Table.
Par in Ster. s.
35 mervadiesT f I rial — 0
8 rials >• make 1 piastre = 3
375 mervadiesj L1 ducat — 4
In Madrid, Bilboa, Cadiz, Malaga, Seville, and most
of the principal places,. books and accounts are kept m
piastres, called also dollars, rials, and mervadies *, and
they exchange with Britain generally on the piastre,
and sometimes on the ducat. The course runs from
33d. to 43d. sterling for a piastre or dollar ot 8 rials.
Examp. I. London imports from Cadiz goods to the
value of 2163 piastres and 4 rials: How much sterling
will this amount to, exchange at 38! sterling per
piastre ?
Piast. Rials.
2163 4 at 38-Id.
     Rials.
d.
24
To-
A
2 = $
2l6
IDS
l8
2
I
d.
38!- each.
19rV
6
345 J7 *1
7tV
L. 345
18
5T7
Ans.
2. London remits to Cadiz 345I. 18s. S^d, How
much Spanish money will this amount to, exchange at
38|d. sterling per piastre ?
ucka*ige'
Xf38|
E
L.
345
X c
d.
i 8^
20
3°7
2
614
6918
12
614)1328389(2163 piastres,
1228 • • •
[ 363 ] E x c
2. How many ducats at Venice are equal to 385!
I 2s. 6d. sterling, exchange at 4s. 4cl. per ducat ?
L. Due. L.
83024
16
1003
614
498149
83024
3898
3684
Carried upi 3 28389
2149
1842
3°7
8
Fiast. Rials.
614)2456(4 rials.
2456
VI. Exchange with Venice.
Money Table.
5’ Soldi
gros
ducatrrjo^d. sterling.
Due. d.
If 1 : 52X :: 1459 18 1
2918
7295
d. 75868
4 = 729^
Sols.
10 =
5 =
2 =
1 rr
den. 1
— r
—— r
— -5*
—— 1
— T?
d.
52! rate.
26|
Si
2-s-
Og-
3^41"
47y
769624
47i
Rem.
12)77010(6(1.
210)64117(178.
L. 320 17 6 sterling,
If .210 : 1 :: 385.625
•2i£>385-625
'2i 385-625
Due.
I95)347°62.5(i779.8
I95
Ans.
1520
j365
I3^5
1912
I755
I575
1560
^ ^ T make 1
24 Gros 3 1
The money of Venice is of three sorts, viz. two of
bank money and the picoli money. One of the banks
deals in banco money, and the other in banco current.
The bank money is 20 per cent, better than the banco
current, and the banco current 20 percent, better than
the picoli money. Exchanges are always negotiated
by the ducat banco, the par being 4s. 24<1. sterling, as
in the table.
Though the ducat be commonly divided into 24 gros,
yet bankers and negotiators, for facility of computa¬
tion, usually divide it as follows, and keep their books
and accounts accordingly.
12 Deniers d’or") 1- T 1 S°1 d’01'
20 Sols d’or j- ma e-^ j ducatzr^ojd. sterling.
The course of exchange is from 454. to 558. sterling
per ducat.
Examp. i. How much sterling money is equal to
1459 <lucats 18 sols 1 denier, bank money of Venice,
exchange at 52^ sterling per ducat ?
Due. sol. den.
(15)
Bank money is reduced to current money, by allow¬
ing for the agio, as was done in exchange with Hol¬
land 5 viz. say, As 100 to 120, or as 10 to 12, or as
5 to 6, so the given bank money to the current sought.
And current money is reduced to bank money bv re¬
versing the operation. And in like manner may picoli
money be reduced to current or to bank money, and the
contrary.
100 ducats banco of Venice.
In Leghorn =73 pezzos I In Lucca =77 crowns
In Rome zr68£ crowns | In Frankfprt=l394florins
VIL Exchange with Genoa.
Money Table.
12 Denarii
make
I
1 soldi s. d.
20 Soldi i I x pezzo rr 4 6 sterling.
Books and accounts are generally kept in pezzos,
soldi, and denari j but some keep them in livres, soldi,
and denari ; and 12 such denari make 1 soldi, and 20
soldi make I lire.
The pezzo of exchange is equal to 54 lires ; and,
consequently exchange money is 5^ times better than
the lire money. The course of exchange runs from 47(1.
to 58d. sterling per pezzo.
Examp. How much sterling money is equivalent to
3390 pezzos 16 soldi of Genoa, exchange at 51^!. ster¬
ling per pezzo ?
Fez., soldi.
3390 16
20
Sold.
If 20
8
d.
S't
160
415
678x6
4I5
339080
271264
d.
L.
160)28143640(1758971=732 18 j|
Z z 2
If
lAeaMH.re.
E X C [364
If sterling money be given, it may be reduced or
changed into pezzos of Genoa, by reversing the former
operation. 1 1 •
Exchange money is reduced to lire money, by being
multiplied by sh as f°'lowS :
Fez. soldi. Decimally.
3390 16 3390,8
5! 5-75
]
E X C
Par in Sterling.
16054 o
£r= 1695 8
847 14
169540
237356
169540
Lires 19497 2 Lires 19497.100
And lire money is reduced to exchange money by
dividing it by 5! :
In Milan, 1 crown = 80
In Naples, l ducat = 86
In Leghorn, I piastre 20
In Sicily, 1 crown = 127^
VIII. Exchange with Leghorn.
Money Table.,
L. s.. d.
O 6 ly
O 3 4t
4i
0 5
o 4
Rome, I crown
Naples, I ducat
Florence, I crown
Milan, I ducat
Bologna, I dollar
Sicily, 1 crown
Vienna, 1 rixdollar
Augsburgh, I ' florin
Francfort, 1 florin
Bremen, I rixdollar
Breslau, I rixdollar
Berlin, 1 rixdollar
Stetin, I mark
Embden, I rixdollar
Bolsenna, I rixdollar
Dantzic, 13^- florins
Stockholm, 344 dollars
Russia, 1 ruble
Turkey, I asper
The following places, viz. Switzerland, Nurem-
burgh, Leipsic, Dresden, Osnaburgb, Brunswic, Co¬
logne, Liege, Strasburgh, Cracow, Denmark, Nor¬
way, Riga, Revel, Narva, exchange with Britain, when
direct exchange is made, upon the rixdollar, the par
being as. 6d. sterling.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I
I
o
o
7
3-
o
8
o
6
3
o
6
6
8
o
o
5
6
Exchange.
12 Denari
20 Soldi
I soldi s.
I piastrerr 4
d. Ster4.
6
Books and accounts are kept in piastres, soldi, and
denari. The piastre here consists of 6 lires, and the lire
contains 20 soldi, and the soldi 12 denari j and conse¬
quently exchange money is 6 times better than lire mo¬
ney. The course of exchange is from 484. to 58d. ster¬
ling per piastre.
Example. What is the sterling value of 731 piastres
at 55-id each ?
s. d.
4 or 48=4
6=4
1
731 piastres, at 55id.
146 4
1856
4 11 4f
L. 169 o io4 Ans.
Sterling money is reduced to money of Leghorn, by
reversing the former operation; and exchange money
is reduced to lire money by multiplying by 6, and lire
money to exchange money by dividing by 6.
100 piastres of Leghorn are
In Naples = 134 ducats 1 In Geneva = 1854 crowns.
IX. Exchange with America and the Wt;st Indies.
In North America and the West Indies, accounts,
as in Britain, are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence.
In North America they have few coins circulating
among them, and on that account have been obliged to
substitute a paper currency for a medium of their com¬
merce ; which having no intrinsic value, is subjected to
many disadvantages, and generally suffers a great dis¬
count. In the West Indies coins are more frequent,
owing to their commercial intercourse with the Spa¬
nish settlements. . w .
Exchange betwixt Britain and America, or the West
Indies, may be computed as in the following examples:
I The neat proceeds of a cargo from Britain to
Boston amount to 845I. 17s. 6d. currency : How
much is that in sterling money, exchange at 80 per
cent. ?
If 180 : 100
18 : 10 L. s. d.
9 : 5 :: 845 17 6
5
9)4229 7 6
L. 469 18 74 Ster. Ans.
Soldi of Leghorn.
In Sicily, 1 crown = I33t
In Sardinia, I dollar = 95^
The above are the chief places in Europe with which
Britain exchanges directly j the exchanges with other
places are generally made by bills on Hamburgh, Hol¬
land or Venice. We shall here, however, subjoin the
par of exchange betwixt Britain and most of the other
places in Europe with which she has any . commercial
intercourse.
2. Boston remits to Britain a bill of 469I. 18s. 7$d.
sterling : How much currency was paid for the bill at
Boston, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If 100: 180 L. s. d.
5 : 9 :: 469 18 74
9
5)4229 7 6
845 17 6 currency.
3. How much sterling money will 1780I. Jamaica
currency amount to, exchange at 40 Per
4
change.
E
If 140
H
7
X c
100
10
5
Z.
:: 1780.
5
7)8900
1271
d.
6^ Ster.
Bills of exchange from America, the rate being high,
is an expensive way of remitting money to Britain ; and
therefore merchants in Britain generally choose to have
the debts due to them remitted home in sugar, rum, or
other produce.
X. Exchange with Ireland.
At Dublin, and all over Ireland, books and accounts
are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence, as in Britain j
and they exchange on the look sterling.
The par of one shilling sterling is one shilling and
one penny Irish ; and so the par of look sterling is
jo81. 6s. 8d. Irish. The course of exchange runs from
6 to 15 per cent.
Examp. i. London remits to Dublin 586k 10s. ster¬
ling : How much Irish money will that amount to, ex¬
change at 9! per cent.
If 100
8
109!
800 : 877
Z.
586.5
877
41055
4*055
46920
800)514360.5
Ans. 642k 19s. Irish.
642.956625
p. cent.
10 = Tv
2— f
8 =
1 = T
4= i
'*   Y
¥ —- 7
9l
By practice.
586.5
58.65
11.75 suk*
46.92
S‘8(>5
2-932S
•733I25
56.450625 add.
642.950625
2. How much sterling will 625L Irish amount to,
exchange at 10^ per cent. ?
If 110I : 100 : : 62 c
8 800
883 800 883)500000(566 5 Ster. dns.
XI. Exchange betwixt London and other places in
Britain.
1 he several towns in Britain exchange with London
E X G
in favour of London $
[ 365 ]
for a small premium in favour of London $ such as Exchange.
I, 1^, &c. per cent. The premium is more or less, ac- y——'
cording to the demand for bills.
Examp. Edinburgh draws on London for 860k ex¬
change at i-|- per cent.: How much money must be
paid at Edinburgh for the bill ?
A ns,. Z.
860
per cent.
I “ *
1   Too*
l   I
*2 — *
1 — x
■jr — ^
8 12
2 3
11 16 6 premium.
871 16 6 paid for the bill.
To avoid paying the premium, it is an usual prac¬
tice to take the bill payable at London a certain num¬
ber ot days after date : and in this way of doing, 73
days is equivalent to I per cent.
XII. Arbitration of Exchanges.
The course of exchange betwixt nation and nation
naturally rises or falls according as the circumstances
and balance of trade happen to vary. Now, to draw
upon and remit to foreign places, in this fluctuating,
state of exchange, in the way that will turn out most
profitable, is the design of arbitration. Which is ei¬
ther simple or compound.
I. Simple Arbitration.
In simple arbitration the rates or prices of exchange
from one place to other two are given $ whereby is
found the correspondent price between the said two
places, called the arbitrated price, or par of arbitra¬
tion ; and hence is derived a method of drawing and
remitting to the best advantage.
Examp. i. If exchange from London to Amster¬
dam be 33s. 9d. per pound sterling ; and if exchange
from London to Paris be 32d. per crown ; what must
be the rate of exchange from Amsterdam to Paris, in
order to be put on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
s. s. d. d.
If 20 : 33 9 ’ • 32
12 12
230 405
32
810
1215
24o)i296o(54d. Flem. per crown. Ans.
2. If exchange from Paris to London be 3 2d. ster*
ling per crown $ and if exchange from Paris to Am¬
sterdam be 54d. Flemish per crown : what must be the
rate of exchange between London and Amsterdam, in
order to be on a par with the other two ?
If
Exchange.
E X
Stcr. F/em. Ster.
d.
If 32
d.
54 :
240
216
108
d.
240
    12 s. d.
32)12960(405(33 9 Flem. per. 1. Ster. Ans.
From these operations it appears, that if any sum of
money be remitted, at the rates of exchange mention¬
ed from any one of the three places to the second, ami
from the second to the third, and again from the third
to the first, the sum so remitted will come home entire,
without increase or diminution. , ,
From the par of arbitration thus found, and the
course of exchange given, is deduced a method ot
drawing and remitting to advantage, as in the tollow-
ing example. _ . , , ,
V If exchange from London to Pans be 320. ster¬
ling per crown, and to Amsterdam 405d. I lemish per
pound sterling ; and if, by advice from Holland to
France, the course of exchange between 1 aris and Am¬
sterdam is fallen to 52d. Flemish per crown 5 what may
he gained per cent, by drawing on Pans, and remitting
to Amsterdam? .
The par of arbitration between Paris and Am-te
dam in this case by Ex. r. is 54d. Flemish per crown.
Work as under.
d. St. Cr. L. St. Cr.
If 22 : 1 : t 100 : 750 debit at Paris.
Cr.'d.Fl. C. d.Fl.
If 1 : 52 :: 750 : 39000 credit at Amsterdam.
d.Fl.L.St. d.Fl. L. s. d. Ster.
11405 : 1 :: 39000 : 93 * * 6 * 5
100
366 ] E X C
in order to find how much a remittance passing through Exc]ian?(,
them all will amount to at the last place *, or to find ' y—..
the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration, between the
first place and the last. And this may be done by the
following
Rules. I. Distinguish the given rates or prices in¬
to antecedents and consequents 5 place the antecedents
in one column, and the consequents in another on the
right, fronting one another by way of equation.
II. The first antecedent, and the last consequent to
which an antecedent is required, must always be of the
same kind.
III. The second antecedent must be of the same kind
with the first consequent, and the third antecedent ot
the same kind with the second consequent, &c.
IV. If to any of the numbers a fraction be annexed,
both the antecedent and its consequent must he multi¬
plied into the denominator.
V. To facilitate the operation, terms that happen to
be equal or the same in both columns, may be dropped
or rejected, and other terms may be abridged. _
VI. Multiply the antecedent continually for a divi¬
sor, and the consequents continually for a dividend,
and the quot will be the answer or antecedent re¬
quired.
Examp. i. If London remit icool. sterling to Spain,
by way of Holland, at 35s. Flemish per pound sterling;
thence to France, at 58d. Flemish per crown j thence
to Venice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats 5 and thence
to Spain, at 360 mervadies per ducat: how many
piastres, of 272 mervadies, will the 1000I. sterling a-
mount to in Spain ?
IL
to be remitted.
3 J4
Q-S-
u9
L.St
If 1 :
d.FL
If 56
Cr
If I
d.Fl.
4° 5
Cr.
: 1 :
d. St.
32 :
L.St. d.Fl.
100 : 40500 debit at Amsterdam.
d.Fl.
; 405OO
Cr.
723tV
Cr.
7 23tV credit at Paris.
L. s. d. Ster.
8 64 to be remitted.
: 96
100
Antecedents.
Consequents.
35s. or 42od. FI.
I crown France
60 ducats Venice
Abridged.
But if the course of exchange between Pans and
Amsterdam, instead of falling below, rise above the par
of arbitration, suppose to 56d. Flemish per crown j m
this case if you propose to gain by the negotiation, you
must draw on Amsterdam, and remit to 1 aris. he
computation follows :
1 = 210
29= 31
17=
o
45
1
10
3 11 54 gained per cent.
In negotiations of this sort, a sum for remittance is
afforded out of the sum you receive for the draught j
knd your credit at the one foreign place pays your debt
at the other.
ll. Sterling =
ySd. Flemish =
IOO crowns France =
1 ducat Venice =360 mervadies Spain
272 mervadies = 1 piastre
How many piastres = 1000 sterling
In order to abridge the terms, divide 58 and 420 by
2, and you have the new antecedent 29, and the new
consequent 2I0-, reject two ciphers in 100 and loco,
divide 272 and 360 by 8, and you have 34 and 45 •
divide 34 and 60 by 2, and you have 17 and 30 ; and
the whole will stand abridged as above.
Then, 29 X 17=493 divisor j and 210 X 3°X45
4-10=2835000 dividend j and, 493) 2835000(575°*
piastres. Ans. .
Or, the consequents may be connected with the sign
of multiplication, and placed over a line by way ot nu¬
merator ; and the antecedent, connected in the same
manner, may be placed under the line, by way 0
nominator j and then abridged as follows :
210 x 60 x 36° x 10
420 X 60 X 360 X too,
J8~X 100 X 272
210 X 60 X 45 X 10
“ 29 X 34
29 x 1 X 272
210 X 30 X 45 X TO
II. Compound Arbitration.
In compound arbitration the rate or price of ex¬
change between three, four, or more places, is given,
2835000
493 "
29X *7
And, 493)2835000(57504 piastres. Ans.
The placing the terms by way of antecedent and con-
r s - sequent.
E X C Is6!
-Iiange. sequeot working as tlie rul«s direct, saves so many
statings of the rule of three, and greatly shortens the
operation. The proportions at large for the above
question would be stated as under.
L. St.
If i :
d. FI.
If 58 :
Cr.
If 100 :
Due.
If r :
Mer.
If 272 :
d.F/.
420
Cr.
1
Due.
60
Mer.
360
Piast.
1
Z. St.
1000
d.F.
420000
Cr.
724it-|
Due.
434414
Mer.
i564i374^
d.F/.
: 420000
Cr.
: 7241^
Due.
' 4344l|
Mtr.
■ 156413747
Piast.
• 575047t
Antecedents.
64d. ster.
400 rees
lood. Flem.
60 ducats
1 crown
How many d. Flem.
E X C
Consequents.
- 100 rees.
- 5od. Flem.
= I ducat.
0 100 crowns.
= 56d. Flem.
r 240 ster. ?
1000X30X100X56x240 87;
64x400x100x60 —and
2)875(4374c,-=36s. jid. Fiem. per L ster. Ans.
Oi the arbitrated price may be found from the answer
to the question by saying
If we suppose the course of direct exchange in Spain
to be 42^1. sterling per piastre, the 1000I. remitted
would only amount to 5647^ piastres \ and, consequent¬
ly 103 piastres are gained by the negotiation j that is,
about 2 per cent.
I. A banker in Amsterdam remits to London 400!.
Flemish ; first to France at jfid. Flemish per crown j
from France to Venice, at 100 crowns per 60 ducats
from Venice to Hamburgh, at icod. Flemish per du¬
cat; from Hamburgh to Lisbon, at jod. Flemish per
crusade of 400 rees ; and, lastly, from Lisbon to Lon¬
don at 64d. sterling per millree : How much sterling
money will the remittance amount to ; and how much
will be gained or saved, supposing the direct exchange
from Holland to London at 36s. lod. Flemish per
pound sterling ?
Antecedents. Consequents.
364. Flem. ~ 1 crown.
100 crowns = 60 ducats.
I ducat = rood. Flem.
jod. Flem. 400 rees.
xooo rees =: 64d. sterling.
How many d. ster. = 400I. or pfioood. Flemish ?
This, in the fractional form, will stand as follows.
60 X 100 X 400 X 64 X 96000 __ 3 68 640
65X100X50X1000 ~ 7 al‘
7)368640(52662^4. ster.= 2i9l. 8s. 64d. ster. Ans.
To find how much the exchange from Amsterdam
directly to London, at 36s. lod. Flemish per 1. sterling,
will amount to, say,
d. d.Fl.L.St. d. FI. L. s. d.St.
36 10 If 442 : r :: 96000 : 217 3 10*
12 219 8 6|
442 Gained or saved, 2 4 8|-
In the above example, the par of arbitration, or the
arbitrated price, between London and Amsterdam,
viz. the number of Flemish pence given for il. ster¬
ling, may be found thus :
Make 644. sterling, the price of the millree, the
first antecedent; then all the former consequents will
become antecedents, and all the antecedents will be¬
come consequents. Place 240, the pence in il. ster¬
ling, as the last consequent, and then proceed as taught
above, viz.
2
d. Ster. d. Flem. d. St.
If V 37g4-0 : 96000 :: 240
7
672000
240
2688
I344
— " ■ d. s. d.Flem.
368640) 161280000(437^—36 5^ as before.
Hie work may be proved by the arbitrated price
thus : As il. sterling to 36s. jfd. Flemish, so 219I. 8s.
6*i\. sterling to 400I. Flemish.
The arbitrated price compared with the direct course
shows whether the direct or circular remittance will be
most advantageous, and how much. Thus the banker
at Amsterdam will think it better exchange to receive
xl. sterling for 36s Flemish, than for 36s. xod.
Flemish.
Exchange, signifies also a place in most consider¬
able trading cities, wherein the merchants, negotiants,
agents, bankers, brokers, interpreters, and other persons
concerned in commerce, meet on certain days, and at
certain times thereof, to confer and treat together of
matters relating to exchanges, remittances, payments,
adventures, assurances, freightments, and other mercan¬
tile negotiations, both by sea and land.
In Flanders, Holland, and several cities of France,
these places are called burses; at Paris and Lyons,
places de change ; and in the Hanse towns, colleges of
merchants. These assemblies are held with so much
Exactness, and merchants and negotiants are so indis¬
pensably required to attend at them, that a person’s ab¬
sence alone makes him to be suspected of a failure or
bankruptcy. The most considerable exchanges in Eu¬
rope, are that of Amsterdam ; and that of London,
called the Royal Exchange.
Even in the time of the ancient Romans, there were
places for the merchants to meet, in most of the consi¬
derable cities of the empire. That said by some to
have been built at Rome in the year of the city 259,
493 }’eai’s before our Saviour, under the consulate of
Appius Claudius and Publius Servilius, was called col¬
legium mercatorum; whereof it is pretended there are
still some remains, called by the modern Romans loggia,
the lodge ; and now usually the place of St George.
This notion of a Roman exchange is supposed to be
founded
Exchange.
E X C
r 368 ]
E X C
Etclianije founded on tlie antholity ofLIvy, whose words are as
■ follows : Certumcn consu/ibus inciderat uter dedicaret
Mercurii cedem. Senatiis d se rem ad populum rejicit:
utri eorurn dedicatio jussupopuli data esset, eum prceesse
annome, mercatorum collegium instituerejussil. Liv.hb.
ii. But it must be here remarked, that collegium never
signified a building for a society in the purer ages of the
Latin tongue j so that collegium mercatorum instituefe
must not be rendered to build an exchange for the mer¬
chants, but to incorporate the merchants into a company.
As Mercury was the god of traffick, this cedes Mercurii
seems to have been chiefly designed for the devotions of
this company or corporation.
Exchange, hills of. The following information
concerning the origin of bills of exchange is extracted
from Beckmann’s History of Inventions.
“ I shall not here repeat (says he) tvhat has been
collected by many learned men respecting the important
history of this noble invention, but only lay before my
readers an ordinance of the year I394> concerning the
acceptance of bills of exchange, and also two bills of
the year 1404, as they may serve to illustrate farther
what has been before said on the subject by others.
These documents are, indeed, more modern than those
found by Raphael de Turre in the writings of the jurist
Baldus, which are dated March the 9th 132? j but
they are attended with such circumstances as sufficiently
prove that the method of transacting business by bills
of exchange was fully established so early as the four¬
teenth century ; and that the present form and terms
were even then used. For this important information
I am indebted to Mr Von Martens, who found it in a
book which, as far as I know, has never been noticed
in any literary journal, though it is much more deserv¬
ing of attention than many others better known. It is
a history, written in Spanish, of the maritime trade
und other branches of commerce at Barcelona, taken
entirely from the archives of that city, and accompa¬
nied with documents from the same source, which a-
bound with matter highly interesting (a).
“ Among these is an ordinance issued by the city of
Barcelona in the year 1394, that bills of exchange
should be accepted within twenty-four hours after they
Were presented 5 and that the acceptance should be
written on the back of the bill. #
“ In the year 1404, the magistrates of Bruges, in
Flanders, requested the magistrates of Barcelona to in¬
form them what was the common practice, in regard
to bills of exchange, when the person who presented a
bill raised money on it in an unusual manner, in the
case of its not being paid, and by these means increased
the expences so much that the drawer would not con¬
sent to sustain the loss. The bill which gave occasion Exchange,
to tliis question is inserted in the memorial. It is writ- —y—«.
ten in the short form still used j which certainly seems
to imply great antiquity. It speaks of usance *, and it
appears that first and second bills were at that time
drawn, and that when bills were not accepted, it was
customary to protest them.
“ As this article is of great importance I shall here
transcribe it, from vol. ii. p. 203 11 Cum de mensibus
Aprilis et Mali ultimo elapsis Antonius Quart!, merca-
tor Lucanus residens in villa Brugensi, a Joanne Colom,
mercatore civitatis Barchinonoe, etiam residente in prae-
dicta villa Brugensi, duo millia scutorum Philippi, quo-
libet scuto pro xxii grossis computato, solvendi per Fran-
ciscum de Prato mercatorem Florentiee, more solito, in
Barchinona, mediatim Petro Gilberto et Petro Olivo,
et mediatim Petro Scorp, et supradicto Petro Gilberto,
mercatonbus Cardonse: prout de dictis cambiis ap-
paret quatuor litteris papireis, quarum tenores sub-
sequuntur. < > .
“ Superscriptio autem primse litter* fuit tabs : Franc,
do Prato et comp, d Barselona. Tenor vero ejusdem ad
intra fuit tabs: Al nome di Dio, Amen, J xxviii.
Aprile 1404. P agate per questa prima di camb. d usan%a
d Piero Gilberto, e Piero Olivo scuti mille a sold. x. Bar-
selonesiper scuto, i quali scuti mille sonoper cambio che^
con Giovani Colombo dgrossixxii. di g. scuto: etpag.d
nostro canto, et Christo vi guardi. Subtus vero erat
scriptum : Antonio Quarti Sal de Bruggias.
“ Superscriptio vero secundse litter* fuit tabs : Fran¬
cisco de Prato et comp, d Barselona. Et ab intra sic
habebatur : Al nome de Dio, Amen, d di xvib. diMagio
1404. Pagate per questa prima di camp, d usan%a <3
Piero Gilberto et d P. de Seorpb scuti mille de Feiippo d
sold. x. Barselonesiper scuto: iquali scuti mille sono per
camb. che con Giov. Colombo d grossi xxii. dig. scuto: et
pag. d nostro conto: et Christo vi guardi. Subtus vero
erat sic scriptum: Ant. Quadn Sul de Bruggias*. ‘
Bills of exchange are justly considered as of theM"’
o-reatest importance to the interest of commerce 5 but
several queries have been proposed respecting them,
which do not as yet appear to have received a satisfac¬
tory solution. It still seems to be a disputed point,
whether the law ought to consider them as nothing more
than a deposit belonging to the drawer, and successive¬
ly confided to the remittees ; or as property capable of
being transferred, and entirely vested in the holder at
all times, who should be alone responsible for neglect¬
ing it, when its value is vitiated.
Professor Busch of Hamburgh thought that bills of
exchange should always be viewed as the exclusive pro¬
perty of the person holding them, which, in a work
published
( A) “ Memorias historicas sobre la marina commercio y artes de la antiqua de p0g|,^j* mention
de Capmany y de Montpalau. Madrid 1799, 2 vol. qto. As a proof of what I have said above I shall ment.on
the following important article, which may be found in this work. A custom-house an > " pvnlained.
the vear 1221 in which occur a great number of remarkable names and articles o meician is n . p
Anolher of the like kind in the year 1252. Letters of power to appoint consuls dlSt^nt C0"ntr;^ insl
ria Egypt, &c. dated in the years 1266, 1268, and 1321. An ordinance of the year 1458 respect g^v
rAnces which required that underwriting should be done in the presence of a no ary, an t/lf Bar-
fron j and of the oldest guilds or incorporated societies of tradesmen at Barcelona, 5c .
.^change,
'Kchequer
E X C [ 369
publislied in 1792, is defended by a number of plausible
„ arguments. This theory was applied to the difficult
and fluctuating case of the holder of a bill which has
several indorsements, where the drawer, the drawee,
and persons early indorsing it, have all become bank¬
rupts. Should the person holding it under each bank¬
ruptcy prove the entire amount of said bill, it is mani¬
fest that he must receive much more than he can in
justice claim as his due. It seems most equitable that
he should be forced to prove his debt against none but
his immediate predecessor, the assignees of such prede¬
cessor being allowed a similar proof up to the drawer.
To such as are in the habit of discounting bills, this
becomes a matter of the utmost consequence ; for far¬
ther information concerning which, see the work of
Professor Busch already alluded to, and Additions to
the Theoretical and Practical Delineation of Commercey
published in 1798 (b). See also the article Exchange
in the Supplement.
EXCHEQUER, in the British jurisprudence, an
ancient court of record, m which all causes concern¬
ing the revenues and rights of the crown are heard
and determined, and where the crown revenues are re¬
ceived. It took this name from the cloth that covered
the table of the court, which was party-coloured, or
chequered.
This court is said to have been erected by William
the Conqueror, its model being taken from a like court
established in Normandy long before that time. An¬
ciently its authority was so great, that it was held in
the king’s palace, and the acts thereof were not to be
examined or controlled in any other of the king’s
courts ; but, at present,, it is the last of the four courts
at Westminster.
In the exchequer, some reckon seven courts, viz.
those of pleas, accounts, receipts, exchequer-chamber
(which is an assembly of all the judges on difficult mat¬
ters in law), errors in the exchequer, errors in the
king’s bench, and, lastly, the court of equity in the
exchequer.
But the exchequer, for the dispatch of business, is
generally divided into two parts j one of which is chiefly
conversant in the judicial hearing and deciding of all
causes relating to the king’s coffers, formerly termed
the exchequer accounts : the other is called the receipt
of the exchequery as being principally employed in re¬
ceiving and paying of money.
] E X C
Officers of the receipt may take one penny in the Exchequer,
pound, as their fee, for sums issued out; and they are ^-—y—
obliged, without delay, to receive the money brought
thither ; and the money received is to be put into
chests under three different locks and keys, kept by
three several officers. All sheriffs, bailiffs, &c. are to
account m the exchequer; and in the lower part, term¬
ed the receipt, the debtors of the king, and persons in
debt to them, the king’s tenants, and the officers and
ministers of the court, are privileged to sue one another,
or any stranger, and to be sued in the like actions as
are brought in the court of king’s bench and common
pleas.
The judicial part of the exchequer, is a court both
oMaw and equity. The court of law is held in the
otfice of pleas, according to the course of common
law, before the barons : in this, court, the plaintiff
ought to be a debtor or accountant to the king; and
the leading process is either a writ of subpoena, or quo
minus, which last goes into Wales, where no process
out of courts of law ought to run, except a capias utla-
gatum.
I he court of equity is held in the exchequer cham¬
ber, before the treasurer, chancellor, and barons ; but
generally, before the barons only : the lord chief ba¬
ron being the chief judge to hear and determine all
causes. The proceedings of this part of the exchequer
are by English bill and answer, according to the prac¬
tice of the court of chancery ; with this difference, that
the plaintiff here must set forth, that he is a debtor
to the king,, whether he be so or not. It is in this
court of equity that the clergy exhibit bills for the re¬
covery of their tithes, &c. Here too the attorney-
general exhibits bills for any mattex-s Concerning the
crown ; and a bill may be exhibited against the kind’s
attorney by any person aggrieved in any cause prose¬
cuted against him on behalf of the king, to be relieved
therein; in which case the plaintiff is to attend on the
attorney general, with a copy of the bill, and procure
him to give an answer thereto ; in the making of which
he may call in any person interested in the cause, or
any officer, or others, to instruct him, that the king be
not prejudiced thereby ; and his answer is to be put in
without oath.
But, besides the business relating to debtors, farmers,
receivers, accountants, &c. all penal punishments, in¬
trusion, and forfeitures upon popular actions, are mat¬
ters
orn^tt^0 *** Un(*er t*ie art‘c^e the old duty on stamps is mentioned, and the new entirely
The following are the duties on such stamps for the year 1820. The duty on promissory notes for the pay¬
ment of money to the bearer on demand, for a sum not exceeding ll. is. is yd. For a sum exceeding il. is. and
not 2I. 2s.; lod. For a sum exceeding 2I. 2s. and not yl. ys.; is. 3d. For a sum exceeding yl. ys. and not
10b; is. pd. Which notes may be reissued after payment as often as shall be thought fit.
Bill of exchange, draft, or promissory or other note, payable to the bearer on demand or otherwise, not ex¬
ceeding 2 months after date, or 60 days after sight, for 40s. and not exceeding yl. ys.; is.
Bill of exchange, draft, order, or promissory note for the payment of money, where the sum shall exceed
51. ys. and not 20I.; is. 6d. Exceeding 20I. and not 30I. ; 2s. Above 30I. and not yol. ; 2s. 6d. Above
yol. and not 100I.; 3s. 6d. Above 100I. and not 200I.; 4s. 6d. Above 200I. and not 300I.; ys. Above 200I.
and not yool.; 6s. Above yool. and not 1000I.; 8s. 6d.
Foreign bills of exchange drawn in sets, where the sum shall not exceed 100I.; for each bill in each set,
1000I ^xcee<^n£ I0°^ ani^ not 200M 3s* Exceeding 200I. and not yool.; 4s. Exceeding yool. and not
Vol! VIII. Part I. f 3 A
E X C - [ 37° 3 E X C
Exchequer,ters likewise cognizable by this court ; where there
Excise, also sits a puisne-baron, who administers the oaths to
v—Y—-'high sheriff's, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, collectors,
comptrollers, surveyors, and searchers of all the cus¬
toms, &c. t ,
The exchequer in Scotland has the same privileges
and jurisdiction as that ot Kngland 5 and all matters
competent to the one are likewise competent to the
other.
Black Book of the Exchequer, is a book under the
keeping of the two chamberlains of the exchequer j
said to have been composed in H75 by Gervais
Tilbury, nephew of King Henry II. and divided into
several chapters. Herein is contained a description of
the court of England, as it then stood, its officers, their
ranks, privileges, wages, perquisites, power, and juris¬
diction *, and the revenues of the crown, both in money,
grain, and cattle. Here we find, that for one shilling,
as much bread might be bought as would serve too
men a whole day 5 that the price of a fat bullock was
only 12 shillings, and a sheep four, &c.
Chancellor of the Exchequer. See Chancellor.
Exchequer Bills. By statute 5 Ann. c. 13. the lord
treasurers may cause exchequer bills to be made of any
sums not exceeding 1,500,000!. for the use of the war;
and the duties upon houses were made chargeable with
4I. 10s. per cent, per annum to the bank for circulating
them. The bank not paying the bills, actions to be
brought against the Company, and the money and da¬
mages recovered ; and if any exchequer bills be lost,
upon affidavit of it before a baron of the exchequer, and
certificate from such baron, and security to pay the same
if found, duplicates are to be made out: also when bills
are defaced, new ones shall be delivered. The king,
or his officers in the exchequer, by former statutes,
might borrow money upon the credit of bills, payable
on°demand, with interest after the rate of 3d per diem
for every tool. bill. And by 8 and 9 HI* c» 20.
an interest of 5d- u day was allowed for every 100I.
Hut 12 W. III. c. I. lowered the interest oh these bills
to 4d. a-day per cent. And by 12 Ann. c. 11. it is
sunk; to 2d. a day. Forging exchequer bills, or the in¬
dorsements thereof, is felony.
EXCISE, (from the Belgic acciisse, tributum, “ tri¬
bute,”) an inland duty or imposition, paid sometimes
upon the consumption of the commodity, or frequently
upon the wholesale, which is the last stage before the
consumption. This is doubtless, impartially speaking,
the most economical way of taxing the subject; the
charges of levying, collecting, and managing the ex¬
cise duties, being considerably. less in proportion than
in other branches of the revenue. It also renders the
commodity cheaper to the consumer, than charging it
with customs to the same amount would do ; for Uie
reason just, now given, because generally paid m a much
later stage of it. But, at the same time, the rigour
oud arbitrary proceedings of excise laws seem hardly
compatible with the temper of a free nation. For the
frauds that might he committed in this branch of the
revenue, unless a strict watch is kept, make it necessary,
wherever it is established, to give the officers a power
of entering and searching the houses of such as deal
in exciseable commodities, at auy hour of the day,
and, in many cases, of the nigut. likewise. And. the
proceedings, in case of transgressions, are so summary
sudden, that a man may be convicted in two nays £xc[Sf
time in the penalty of many thousand pounds, by two u—y...
commissioners or justices of the peace ; to the total ex¬
clusion of the trial by jury, and disregard of the com¬
mon law’. For which reason, though Lord Clarendon
tells us, that to his knowledge the earl of Bedford
(who was made lord treasurer by King Charles I. to
oblige his parliament) intended to have set up the ex¬
cise in England, yet it never made a part of that un¬
fortunate prince’s revenue ; being first introduced, on
the model of the Dutch prototype, by the parliament-
itself after its rupture with the crown. Aet such ivas
the opinion of its general unpopularity, that when in
1642 “ aspersions were cast by malignant persons upon
the house of commons, that they intended to introduce
excises, the house for its vindication therein did de¬
clare, that these rumours were false and scandalous,
and that their authors should be apprehended and'
brought to condign punishment.” Its original esta¬
blishment was in 1643, and its progress was gradual;
being at first laid upon those persons and commodities
where it was supposed the hardship would be least per¬
ceivable, viz. the makers and venders of beer, ale,
cyder, and perry ; and the royalists at Oxford soon
followed the example of their brethren at Westminster,
by imposing a similar duty : both sides protesting that
it should be continued no longer than to the end of the
war, and then he utterly abolished. But tSie parlia¬
ment at Westminster soon after imposed it on flesh,
wine, tobacco, sugar, and such a multitude of other
commodities, that it might be fairly denominated ge/ie-
ral: in pursuance of the plan laid down by Mr Pymme
(who seems to have been the father of the excise), in
his letter to Sir John Hotham, signifying, “ that they
had proceeded in the excise to many particulars, and
intended to go on farther; but that it would be ne¬
cessary to use the people to it by little and little. —
And afterwards, when the nation had been accustomed
to it for a series of years, the succeeding champions of
liberty boldly and openly declared “ the impost of ex¬
cise to be the most easy and indifferent levy that could
be laid upon the people;” and accordingly continued'
it during the whole usurpation. Upon King Charles’s
return, it having then been long established, and its
produce well known, some part of it was given to the
crown, in 12 Car. H. by way of purchase for the feudal
tenures and other oppressive parts of the hereditary re¬
venue. But, from its first original to the present time,
its very name has been odious to the people. It has,,
nevertheless, been imposed on abundance of other com¬
modities in the reigns of King William III. and every
succeeding prince, to support the enormous expellees-
occasioned by our wars on the continent. Thus bran¬
dies and other spirits are now excised at the distillery,
printed silks and linens, at the printer’s:; starch and
hair powder, at the maker’s ; gold and silver wire, at-
the wiredrawer’s; all plate whatsoever, first in the hands
of the vender, who pays yearly for a license to sell it,
and afterwards in the hands of the occupier, who also
pays an annual duty for having it in his custody; ami-
coaches and other- wheel carriages, for which the occu¬
pier is. excised; though not with the 8as»e circumstances-
of arbitrary strictness with regard to plate and coaches
as in the othgr instances. To these we may add coffee
aad tea, cliocolate and cocoa paste, for whisk, the du-
Excise
E X C [ 37
ty is paid by the retailer; all artificial wines, com¬
monly called sweets ; paper and pasteboard, first when
made, and again, if stained or printed ; malt, as before
mentioned ; vinegars ; and the manufacture of glass ;
for all which the duty is paid by the manufacturer ;
hops, for which the person that gathers them is an¬
swerable ; candles and soap, which are paid for at the
makers; malt liquors brewed for sale, which are ex¬
cised at the brewery; cyder and perry at the ven¬
der’s ; leather and skins, at the tanner’s; and, lately,
tobacco, at the manufacturer’s: A list, which no
friend to his country would wish to see farther in¬
creased.
The excise was formerly farmed out: but is now
managed for the king by commissioners in both king¬
doms, who receive the whole product of the excise, and
pay it into the exchequer. These commissioners are
nine in number in England, and five in Scotland. The
former have a salary of loool. a-year, the latter 6ool.
They are obliged by oath to take no fee or reward but
from the king himself; and from them there lies an
appeal to five other commissioners called commissioners
of appeals.
EXCISION, in Surgery, the cutting out, or cutting
off, any part of the body.
Excision, in a scripture sense, means the cutting
off of a person from his people, by way of punishment
for some sin by him committed. The Jews, Selden
informs us, reckon 36 crimes, to which they pretend
this punishment is due. The Rabbins reckon three
kinds of excision ; one, which destroys only the body ;
another, which destroys the soul only ; and a third,
which destroys both body and soul. The first kind of
excision they pretend is an untimely death ; the second
is an utter extinction of the soul: and the third, a com¬
pound of the two former: thus, making the soul mortal
or immortal, says Selden, according to the degrees of
misbehaviour and wickedness of the people.
EXCLAMATION. See Oratory, N° 8 c.
EXCLUSION, or Bill o/-Exclusion, a bill pro¬
posed about the close of the reign of King Charles II.
for excluding the duke of York, the king’s brother,
from the throne, on account of his being a Papist.
EXCLUSIVE, is sometimes used adjectively, thus :
A patent carries with it an exclusive privilege. Some¬
times adverbially : as, He sent him all the numbers from
N° 145 to N° 247 exclusive ; that is, all between these
two numbers, which themselves were excepted.
EXCOECARIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia class, and in the natural method ranking under
the 38th order, Tricocccc. See Botany Index.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclesiastical penal¬
ty er censure, whereby such persons as are guilty of
any notorious crime or offence, are separated from the
communion of the church, and deprived of all spiritual
advantages.
Excommunication is founded on a natural right
which all societies have, of excluding out of their body-
such as violate the laws thereof; and it was originally
'instituted for preserving the purity of the church ; but
ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an
engine for promoting their own power, and inflicted it
on the most frivolous occasions.
I he power of exeommunication, as well as other
acts of ecclesiastical discipline, was lodged in the hands
1 ]
E X C
of the clergy, who distinguished it into the greater and Exomimu
lesser. The lesser excommunication, simply called cr/i/w- location.
rismoSy “ separation or suspension,” consisted in exclutl- * '-1
mg men from the participation of the eucharist, and the
players of the faithful. But they were not expelled the
church ; for they had the privilege of being present at
the reading of the Scriptures, the sermons, and the
prayers of the catechumens and penitents. This ex-
communication was inflicted for lesser crimes ; such as
neglecting to attend the service of the church, misbe¬
haviour in it, and the like.
. ^ie greater excommunication, called panteles apho~
nsmos, “ total separation and anathema,” consisted in
an absolute and entire exclusion from the church and
t le participation of all its rites. When any person was
thus excommunicated, notice of it was given by circu¬
lar letters to the most eminent churches over* all the
world, that they might all confirm this act of discipline,
by refusing to admit the delinquent to their commu¬
nion. The consequences of this latter excommunica¬
tion were very terrible. The excommunicated person
was avoided in civil commerce and outward conversa¬
tion. No one was to receive him into his house, nor
eat at the same table with him ; and when dead, he
was denied the solemn rites of burial.
The Romish pontifical takes notice of three kinds of
excommunication. 1. The minor, incurred by those
who have any correspondence with an excommunica¬
ted person. 2. The major, which falls upon those who
disobey the commands of the holy see, or refuse to sub¬
mit to certain points of discipline; in consequence of
which they are excluded from the church militant and
triumphant, and delivered over to the devil and his
angels. 3. Anathema, which is properly that pronoun¬
ced by the pope against heretical princes and countries.
In former ages, these papal fulminations were most ter¬
rible things ; but at present, they are formidable to
none but a few petty states of Italy.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts off the
offender from all communion with the 318 fathers of
the first council of Nice, and with the saints; consigns
him over to the devil and the traitor Judas ; and con¬
demns his body to remain after death as hard as a flint
or piece of steel, unless he humbles himself and makes
atonement for his sins by a sincere repentance. The
form abounds with dreadful imprecations; and the
Greeks assert, that if a person dies excommunicated,
the devil enter into the lifeless corpse ; and therefore,
in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceased cut
bis body in pieces, and boil them in wine. It is a cus¬
tom for the patriarch of Jerusalem annually to excom¬
municate the pope and the church of Rome ; on which
occasion, together with a great deal of idle ceremony,
he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a
mark of malediction.
The form of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus : “ By the authority of God
the Father Almighty, the Son and Holy Ghost, and
of Mary the blessed mother of God, we excommuni¬
cate, anathematize, and sequester from the pale of the
holy mother church,” &c. The causes of excom¬
munication in England are, contempt of the bishop’s
court, heresy, neglect of public worship and the sacra¬
ments, incontinency, adultery, simony, &c. It is de¬
scribed to be twofold. The less is an ecclesiastical cen~
3 A 2 sure.
E X C [37
sure, excluding the party from the participation of the
sacraments : the greater proceeds farther, and excludes
him not only from these, but from the. company of all
Christians. But if the judge of any spiritual court ex¬
communicates a man for a cause of which he hath not
the legal cognizance, the party may have an action
against him at common law, and he is also liable to be
indicted at the suit of the king.
Heavy as the penalty of excommunication is, consi¬
dered in a serious light, there are, notwithstanding,
many obstinate or profligate men, who would despise
the brutum fulmen of mere, ecclesiastical censures, es¬
pecially when pronounced by a petty surrogate in the
country, for railing or contumelious words, for non¬
payment of fees or costs, or other trivial cause. . The
common law, therefore, compassionately steps in to
their aid, and kindly lends a supporting hand to an
otherwise tottering authority. Imitating herein the,
policy of the ancient Britons, among whom, according
to Caesar, whoever were interdicted by the druids from
their sacrifices, “ In numero impiorum ac sceleratorum
habentur : ab iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum sermo-
nemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi
accipiant: neque eis petentibus jus redditur, neque ho-
nos ullus communicatur.” And so with us, by the com¬
mon law, an excommunicated person is disabled to do
any act that is required to be done by one that is probus
et Icgalis homo. He cannot serve upon juries j cannot be
a witness in any court } and, which is the worst of all,
cannot bring an action, either real or personal, to reco¬
ver lands or money due to him. Nor is this the whole :
for if, within 40 days after the sentence has been pub¬
lished in the church, the offender does not submit and
abide by the sentence of the spiritual court, the bishop
may certify such contempt to the king in chancery.
Upon which there issues out a writ to the sheriff of the
county, called from the bishop’s certificate a. significa-
vit 1 or from its effect, a writ de excommunicato capi¬
endo : and the sheriff shall thereupon take the offender
and imprison him in the county jail, till he is recon¬
ciled to the church, and such reconciliation certified by
the bishop 5 upon which another writ de excommuni¬
cato deliberando, issues out of chancery to deliver and
release him.
Excommunication was also practised among the
Jews, who used to expel from their synagogue such as
had committed any grievous crime. See the Gospel
according to St John, ix. 22. xii. 42. xvi. 2. < And Jo¬
seph. Antiq. Jud. lib. ix. cap. 22. and lib. xvi. cap. 2.
Godwyn, in his Moses and Aaron, distinguishes three
degrees, or kinds, of excommunication among the Jews.
The first he finds intimated in John ix. 22. The se¬
cond in 1 Cor. v. 5. And the third in 1 Cor. xvi. 22.
See NlDDUI.
The rule of the Benedictines gives the name of ex¬
communication to the being excluded from the oratory,
and the common table of the house ; in our inns of court
called discommoning. This was the punishment of such
monks as came too late.
Excommunication, or a being secluded from .a
participation in the mysteries of religion, was also in
use under paganism. >
Such as were thus excommunicated were forbidden
to assist or attend at the sacrifices, or enter within the
2 ] E X C
demons and furies of hell, with certain imprecations •, Exeojnmu.
which was called among the Romans diris devovere. mct*w
See Execration.
Excrement,
temples ; and were afterwards delivered over to the
The Druids among the ancient Britons and Gauls,
likewise, made use of excommunication against rebels •,
and interdicted the communion of their mysteries to
such as refused to acquiesce in their decisions. See
Druids.
EXCORIATION, in Medicine and Surgery, the
galling or rubbing off the cuticle, especially of the
parts between the thighs and about the anus. In adults,
it is occasioned by riding, much walking, or other ve¬
hement exercise, and may be cured by vulnerary ap¬
plications. In children there is often an excoriation,
not only of the parts near the pudenda, chiefly of the
groin and scrotum, but likewise in the wrinkles of the
neck, under the arms, and in other places j proceeding
from the acrimony of urine and sweat; and occasioning
itching pains, crying, watching, restlessness, &c. To
remedy this, the parts aflected may be often washed
with warm water, and sprinkled with drying, powders,
as chalk, hartshorn, but especially tutty, lapis calami-
naris, and ceruss, which may be tied loosely in a rag,
and the powder shook out on the parts.
EXCREMENT, whatever is discharged out of the
body of animals after digestion j or the fibrous part of
the aliment, mixed with the bile, saliva, and other fluids.
Urine and the feces are the gross excrements that are
discharged out of the bladder or belly. Other excre-
mcnts arc the various humours that are secreted from
the blood through the different strainers in the body,
and which serve for several uses such as the saliva,
sweat, bile, the pancreatic juice, lymph, the semen,
nails, the hair, the horns and hoofs of animals.
Alchemists, who have sought everywhere for their
great work, as they callefi it, have particularly operat¬
ed much on the excrements of men and other animals j
but philosophical chemistry has acquired no know¬
ledge from all these alchemical labours, from the ob¬
scurity with which their authors have described them.
The philosophic chemists have not much examined ani¬
mal excrements. Of these Homberg is the only one
who has particularly analyzed and examined human
ordure 5 and this was done to satisfy an alchemical
project of one of his friends, who pretended that from
this matter a white oil could be obtained, without
smell, and capable of fixing mercury into silver. 1 he
oil was found by Homberg, but mercury was not fixed
by it. . ,
The labours of this able chemist were not, however,
useless, like those of the alchemists *, because he has
clearly related the experiments he made on this matter,
in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. These
experiments are curious, and teach several essential
things concerning the nature of excrements. The re¬
sult of these experiments is as follows: Fresh human
feces, being distilled to dryness in a water, bath, iur-
nish a clear, watery, insipid liquor, of a disagreeable
smell, but which contains no volatile alkali j which is
a proof that this matter, although nearly in a putrelac-
tive state, is not however putrefied ; for all substances
really putrid furnish with this degree of heat a ma-
nifest volatile alkali*. The dry residuum of the fore-# See^F'
going experiment, being distilled in a retort.with a /
graduated fire, furnishes a volatile alkaline spirit and
EXE
iccremcnt sa^> a ^eti^ °^> an^ leaves a residuous coal. These are
the same substances which are obtained from all animal
matters.
Human feces, diluted and lixiviated in water, fur¬
nish by filtration and evaporation of the water an oily
salt of a nitrous nature, which deflagrates like nitre
upon ardent coals, and which inflames in close vessels
when heated to a certain degree. The same matter
yielded to Homberg, who treated it by a complete
fermentation or putrefaction, excited by a digestion
during 40 days in a gentle water-bath heat, and who
afterwards distilled it, an oil without colour, and with¬
out bad smell, and such as he endeavoured to find ;
but which did not, as we said before, fix mercury into
silver.
EXCRESCENCE, in Surgery, denotes every pre¬
ternatural tumour which arises upon the skin, either in
the form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born with
a person, as they frequently are, they are called ncevi
materni, or marks from the mother; but if the tu¬
mour is large, so as to depend from the skin, like a
fleshy mass, it is then called a sarcoma. See Surgery.
EXCRETION, or Secretion, in Medicine, a se¬
paration of some fluid, mixed with the blood, by means
of the glands. Excretions, by which we mean those
that evacuate superfluous and heterogeneous humours,
purify the mass of blood j the humours which are ge¬
nerated in the blood are excreted by the glands, and
are replaced by a sufficient quantity of aliment.
EXCRETORY, in Anatomy, a term applied to
certain little ducts or vessels, destined for the recep¬
tion of a fluid, secreted in certain glandules, and other
viscera, for the excretion of it in the appropriated
places.
EXCUBIJE, in antiquity, the watches and guards
kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They are
contradistinguished from the vigilice which were kept
in the night. The excubice were placed either at the
gates and intrenchments or in the camp j for the lat¬
ter there was allowed a whole manipulus to attend be¬
fore the prcelorium, and four soldiers to the tent of
every tribune. The excubice at the gates of the camp,
and at the entrenchments, were properly csWeH stationes.
One company of foot and one troop of horse were as¬
signed to each of the four gates every day. To de¬
sert their post, or abandon their corps of guards, was
an unpardonable crime.
The triarii, as the most honourable order of soldiers,
were excused from the ordinary watches j yet being
placed opposite to the equites, they were obliged to have
an eye over them.
Letters of EXCULPATION, in Scots Law, a
writ or summons issued by authority of the court of
justiciary, at the instance of a panne I, for citing wit¬
nesses to prove his defences, or his objections to any
of the jury or witnesses cited against him.
EXCUSATI, in church history, a term used to de¬
note slaves, who flying to any church for sanctuary,
were excused and pardoned by their masters $ but these
were obliged to take an oath to the purpose before
they could have them again ; and, if they broke the
oath, they were punished and fined as persons guilty
of perjury.
EXEAT, in church discipline, a Latin term used
for a permission which a bishop grants a priest to go
[ 373 ]
EXE
out of his diocese j or an abbot to a religious to go
out of his monastery.
EXECRATION, in antiquity, a kind of punish¬
ment, consisting of direful curses and marks of infamy;
such was that used against Philip king of Macedon
by the Athenians. A general assembly of the people
being called, they made a decree, that all the statues
and images of that king, and of all his ancestors, should
be demolished, and their very name razed j that all
the festivals, sacred rites, priests, and whatever else had
been instituted in honour of him, should be profaned ;
that the very places where there had been any monu¬
ment or inscription to his honour, should be detestable j
that nothing should be set up, or dedicated in them,
which could be done in clean places j and, lastly, that
the priests, as often as they prayed for the Athenian
people, allies, armies, and fleets, should as many times
detest and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land
and sea forces, and the whole race and name of the
Macedonians.
At the taking and demolishing of cities, it was
usual among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, to pro¬
nounce curses upon, and load with direful execrations,
the rebuilders of them.
EXECUTION, in a general sense, the act of ac¬
complishing, finishing, or achieving any thing.
Execution, in Law, the completing or finishing
some act, as of judgment, deed, &c. and it usually sig¬
nifies the obtaining possession of any thing recovered
by judgment of law.
Sir Edward Coke observes, that there are two sorts
of executions: the one final j and the other a quousque,
that tends to an end. An execution final is that which
makes money of the defendant’s goods, or extends to
his land and delivers them to the plaintiff, who ac¬
cepts the same in satisfaction; and this is the end of
the suit, and the whole that the king’s writ requires to
. be done. The writ of execution with a quousque,
though it tends to an end, yet is not final, as in the case
capias ad satisfac. where the defendant’s body is to be
taken, in order that the plaintiff may be satisfied for
his debt. See Capias.
Executions are either in personal, real, or mixed ac¬
tions. In a personal action, the execution may be made
three ways, viz. by the writs of capias ad satisfacien¬
dum, against the body of the defendant j fieri facias,
against his goods j or elegit, against lijs lands. See
Fieri Facias and Elegit.
In a real and mixed action, the execution is by writ
of habere facias sasinam, and habere possessionem*.
Writs of execution bind the property of goods only
from the time of delivery of the writ to the sheriff; but
the land is bound from the day of the judgment obtain¬
ed : and here the sale of any goods for valuable consi¬
deration, after a judgment, and before the execution a-
warded, will be good. It is otherwise as to lands, of
which execution may be made, even on a purchase af¬
ter the judgment, though the defendant sell such land
before execution. Likewise, sheriffs may deliver in
all the lands whereof others shall be seized in trust for
him against whom execution is had on a judgment,
&c.
When any judgment is signed, the execution may
be taken out immediately thereon 5 but il it be not is¬
sued within a year and a day after, where there is no
fault
Exeat
11
Execution.
EXE
[ 374 ]
"E X 5E
Execution. fau^t j'1 ^ie defendant, as in the case of an injunction,
• —¥— J writ of error, &.c« there roust be u savejcicicis^ to re-
vive the judgment j though, if the plaiutift sues out
any writ of execution within the year, he may continue
it after the year is expired. After judgment against
the defendant, in an action wherein special bail is given,
the plaintiff is at liberty to have execution against such
defendant, or against his bail: but this is understood
where the defendant does not render himself, accord¬
ing to law, in safeguard of the bail ; and execution
ment.
Blackst.
Comment
may not regularly be sued forth against a bail, till'a
default is returned against the principal: also if the
plaintiff takes the bail, he shall never take the princi¬
pal. It is held that-an execution may be executed af¬
ter the death of the defendant: for his executor, being
privy thereto, is liable, as well as the testator. The
execution is an entire thing, so that he who begins must
end it; therefore/ a new sheriff may distrain an old
one, to sell the goods seized on a distringas, and to
bring the money into court.
Execution, in criminal cases, the completion of
f See human punishment. This follows judgment f •, and
must in all cases, capital as well as otherwise, be per¬
formed by the legal officer, the sheriff or his deputy;
whose warrant for so doing was anciently by precept
under the hand and seal of the judges, as it is still prac¬
tised in the court of the lord high steward, upon the
execution of a peer: though, in the court of the Pe^s
in parliament, it is done by writ from the king. Af¬
terwards it was established, that in case of hie, the
judge may command execution to be done without any
writ. And now the usage is, for the judge to sign the
kalendar or list of all the prisoners names, with their
separate judgments in the margin, which is left with
the sheriff. As for a capital felony,_ it is written op¬
posite to the prisoner’s name, “ let him be hanged by
the neck:” formerly in the days of Latin and abbre¬
viation, “ sus.per.col.” for “ suspendatur per collum.”
And this is the only warrant that the sheriff has for
so material an act as the taking away the life of another.
It may certainly afford matter of speculation, that in
civil causes there should be such a variety of writs of
execution to recover a trifling debt, issued in the king s
name, and under the seal of the court, without which
the sheriff cannot legally stir one step ; and yet that the
execution of a man, the most important and terrible
task of any, should depend upon a marginal note.
The sheriff, upon receipt of his warrant, is to do
execution within a convenient time : which in the coun¬
try is also left at large. In London, indeed, a more
solemn and becoming exactness is used, both as to the
warrant of execution and the time of executing there¬
of: for the recorder, after reporting to the king in
person the case of the several prisoners, and receiving
his royal pleasure, that the law must take its course,
issues ’his warrant to the sheriffs, directing them to do
execution on the day and at the place assigned. And
in the court of king’s bench, if the prisoner be tried
at the bar, or brought there by habeas corpus, a rule
is made for his execution •, either specifying the time
and place, or leaving it to the discretion of the sheriff.
And, throughout the kingdom, by statute 25 Geo. II.
c. 37. it is enacted that, in case of murder, the judge
shall in his sentence direct execution to be performed
on the next day but one after sentence passed. But,
3
otherwise, the time and place of execution are by law Execution
no part of the judgment. It has been well observed, v—
that it is of great importance that the punishment
should follow the crime as early as possible *, that the
prospect of gratification or advantage, which tempts a
man to commit the crime, should instantly awake the
attendant idea of punishment. Delay of execution
serves only to separate these ideas} and then the exe¬
cution itself a fleets the minds of the spectators rather
■as a terrible sight, than as the necessary consequence
-cf transgression.
The sheriff cannot alter the manner of the execution,
by substituting one death for another, without being
guiltv of felony himself. It is held also by Sir Ld-
ward" Coke and Sir Matthew Hale, that even the king
cannot change the punishment of the law, by altering
the hanging or burning into beheading j though, when
beheading is part of the sentence, the king may remit
the rest. And, notwithstanding some examples to the
contrary, Sir Edward Coke strongly maintains, that jm-
dicandum est legibus, non exemphs. But others have
thought, and more justly, that this prerogative, being
founded in mercy, and immemorially exercised by the
crown, is part of the common law. For hitherto, in
every instance, all these exchanges have been for more
merciful kinds of death-, and how far this may also
fall within the king’s power of granting conditional
pardons (viz. by remitting a severe kind of death,, on.
condition that the criminal submits to a milder) is a
matter that may bear consideration. It is observable,
that when Lord Stafford was executed for the popish
plot in the reign of King Charles II. the then sheriffs
of London, having received the king’s writ for behead¬
ing him, petitioned the house of lords, for. a command
or order from their lordships, how the said judgment
should be executed : for, he being prosecuted by. im¬
peachment, they entertained a notion (which is said to
have been countenanced by Lord Russel), that the king
could not pardon any part of the sentence. The lords
resolved, that the scruples of the sheriffs were unneces¬
sary ; and declared, that the. king’s writ ought to he
obeyed. Disappointed of raising a flame in that assem¬
bly, they immediately signilied to the house ot com¬
mons by one of their members, that they were not satis¬
fied as to the powers of the said writ. That house took
two days to consider of it j and then sullenly resolved,
that the house was content that the sheriff, do execute
Lord Stafford by severing his head from his body. It
is farther related, that when afterwards the same Lord
Russel was condemned for high treason upon indictment,
the king, while he remitted the ignominious part of the
sentence, observed, “ That his lordship vyould now find
he was possessed of that prerogative, which in the case
of Lord Stafford he had denied him.” One can hardly
determine (at this distance frem those turbulent times),
which most to disapprove of, the indecent and sangui¬
nary zeal of the subject, or the cool and cruel sarcasm
of the sovereign.
To conclude: It is clear, that if, upon judgment to
be hanged bv the neck till he is dead, the criminal be
not thoroughly killed, but revives, the sheriff must hang
him again. ‘For the former hanging was no execution
of the sentence ; and, if a false tenderness were to be
indulged in such cases, a multitude of collusions might
ensue. Nay, even while abjurations were in force, such
E X E [• -7
uecntion a criminal, so reviving, rvas not allowed to take sanc-
II tuaiy and abjure the realm 5 but his fleeing to sanctuary
,;emp ar. was jjejj an escape jn t|1e 0ffJcer>
Execution, in the law ot Scotland.- See Law Index.
Execution, in the French music, is used to denote
the manner of singing, or of the performance of a song.
“ As to the manner of singing, called in France execu¬
tion, no nation may, with any probability, dispute it
with the French. If the French,, by their commerce
with the Italians, have gained a bolder composition, the
Italians have made their advantage of the French, in
learning of them a more polite, moving, and exquisite
execution.” St Evremond.
EXECUTIVE POWER. The supreme executive
power of these kingdoms is vested by our laws in a
single person, the king or queen for the time being.
See the article King.
The executive power, in this state, hath a right to
a negative in parliament, i. e. to refuse assent to any
acts offered ; otherwise the two other branches of legi¬
slative power would, or might, become despotic.
EXECUTOR, a person nominated by a testator, to
take care to see his will and testament executed or per¬
formed, and his effects disposed of according to the te¬
nor of the will. See Law.
Executor, in Scots Law, signifies either the person
entitled to succeed to the moveable estate of one deceas¬
ed, or who by law or special appointment is intrusted
with the administration of it.
EXECUTORY, in Law, is where an estate in fee,
that is, made by deed or fine, is to be executed after¬
wards by entry, livery, or writ. Lease for years, an¬
nuities, conditions, Stc. are termed inheritances execu¬
tory.
EXECUTRY, in Scots Law, is the moveable estate
falling to the executor. Under executry,or moveables,
is comprehended every thing that moves itself, or can
be moved; such as corns, cattle, furniture, ready mo¬
ney, &c.
EXEDRiE, in antiquity, denoted halls with many
seats, where the philosophers, rhetoricians, and men of
learning, met for discourse and disputation. The word
occurs in ecclesiastical writers as a general name for
such buildings as were distinct from the main body of
the churches, and yet within the limits of the church
taken in its largest sense. Among the exedrae the chief
was the Baptistery.
EXEGESIS, a discourse by way of explanation or
comment upon any subject. In tbe'Scotch universities,
there is an exercise among the students in divinity, call¬
ed an exegesis, in which a question is stated by the re¬
spondent, who is then opposed by two or three other
students in their turns ; during which time the profes¬
sor moderates, and solves the difficulties which the re¬
spondent cannot overcome.
EXEGEIES, (formed of “ I explain,”)
among the Athenians, persons learned in the laws,
whom the judges used to consult in capital causes.
EXEGETICA, in Algebra, the art of finding, ei¬
ther in numbers or lines, the roots of the equation of a
problem, according as the problem is either numerical
or geometrical.
EXEMPLAR, a model, or original, to be imitated
QI copied. See Model.
Exemplar also denotes the idea, or image, conceived
5 ] E X E
or formed in the mind of the artist, whereby he con¬
ducts his work. Such is the idea of Ccesar, which a
painter lias in his mind when he goes to make a picture
of Ciesar.
EXEMPLIFICATION of letters Patent, denotes
an exemplar, or copy of letters patent, made from the
enrolment thereof, and sealed with the great seal of
England. Such exemplifications are as effectual to lie
showed or pleaded, as the letters patent themselves.
EXEMPTION, in Lain, a privilege to he free from
some service of appearance : thus, barons and peers of
tie realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted
from being sworn upon inquests *, and knights, clergy¬
men, and others, from appearing at the sheriff’s turn.
1 ersons of 70 years of age, apothecaries, &e. are also
by law exempted from serving on juries 5 and justices
ol the peace, attorneys, &c. from parish offices.
EXERCISE, among physicians, such an. agitation
of the body as produces salutary effects in the animal
economy.
Exercise may be said to be either active or passive.
The active is walking, hunting, dancing, playing at
bowls, and the like j as also speaking and other la¬
bour of the body and mind. The passive is riding in
a coach, on horseback, or in any other manner. Ex¬
ercise may be continued to a beginning of weariness,
and ought to be used before dinner in a pure light
air; for which reason, journeys, and going into the
country, contribute greatly to preserve and re-establish
health.
Exercise increases the circulation of the blood, atte¬
nuates and divides the fluids, and promotes a regular
perspiration, as well as a due secretion of all the hu¬
mours ; for it accelerates the animal spirits, and facili-
tales their distribution into all the fibres of the body,
strengthens the parts, creates an appetite, and helps di¬
gestion. Whence it arises, that those who accustom
themselves to exercise are generally very robust, and
seldom subject to diseases.
Boerhaave recommends bodily exercise in diseases of
a weak and lax fibre. By riding on horseback, savs
his commentator, the pendulous viscera of the abdo¬
men are shaken every moment, and gently rubbed as
it were one against another, while in the meantime the
pure air acts on the lungs with greater force. But it is
to be observed that a weak man should not ride with a
lull stomach, but either before dinner, or after the di¬
gestion is nearly finished ; for when the stomach is di¬
stended, weak people do not bear these concussions of
the horse without difficulty ; but when the prim* vise
are nearly empty, the remaining feces are discharged by
this concussion Sailing in a ship is also an exercise of
great use to weak people. If the vessel moves with an
even motion, by increasing perspiration it usually ex¬
cites a wonderful alacrity, creates an appetite, and pro ¬
motes digestion. These exercises are more especiafU
serviceable to weak people ; but, in order to strengthen
the body by muscular motion, running and bodily ex¬
ercises are to be used. In these we should begin with
the most gentle, such as walking, and increase it b) de¬
grees till we come to running. Those exercises 0! the
body are more especially serviceable .which give delight
to the mind at the same time, as tennis, fencing, See.;
for which reason, the wisdom of- antiquity appointed
rewards.for those who excelled in these gymnasTc ex¬
ercises.
Excmrlar
II
Exercise.
EXE C 376
erases, that by this means the bodies of their youth
might be hardened for warlike toils.
As nothing is more conducive to health than mode¬
rate exercise, so violent exercise dissipates the spirits,
weakens the body, destroys the elasticity of the fibres,
and exhausts the fluid parts of the blood. No wonder,
then that acute and mortal fevers olten arise from too
violent exercise of the body j for the motion of the
venous blood towards the heart being quickened by the
contraction of the muscles, and the veins being thus
depleted, the arteries more easily propel their contain¬
ed humours through the smallest extremities into the
now less resisting veins j and therefore the velocity of
the circulation will be increased through all the vesse s.
But this cannot be performed without applying the
humours oftener, or in a greater quantity, to the secre¬
tory oro-ans in the same time, whence the moie fluid
parts of the blood will be dissipated, and what remains
Hill be inspissated; and by the greater actum of the
vessels upon their contained fluids, and of the leading
fluids upon the vessels, the blood acquires an inflamma¬
tory density. Add to this, that by the violent attri¬
tion of the solids and fluids, together with the heat
thence arising, all the humours will incline to a greater
acrimony, and the salts and oils of the blood will be¬
come more acrid and volatile. Hence, says Boerhaave,
those fevers which arise from too much exercise or mo-
tion, are cured by rest of body and mind, with such all-
ments and medicines as moisten, dilute, and soften or
allay acrimony. . ,
The exercise of a soldier in camp, considered as con¬
ducive to health, Dr Pringle distinguishes into three
heads : the first relating to his duty, the second to his
livino- more commodiously, and the third to Ins diver¬
sions! The first, consisting chiefly in the exercise of
his arms, will be no less the means of preserving health
than of making him expert in his duty : and frequent
returns of this, early, and before the sun grows hot,
will be made more advantageous than repeating it sel¬
dom, and staying out long at a time •, lor a camp af¬
fording little convenience for refreshment, all unneces¬
sary fatigue is to be avoided. As to the second article,
cutting boughs for shading the tents, making trenches
round them for carrying off the water, airing the straw,
cleaning their clothes and accoutrements, and assisting
in the business of the mess, ought to be no disagreeable
exercise to the men for some part of the day. Lastly,
As to diversions, the men must be encouraged to them
either by the example of their officers, or by small pre¬
miums to those who shall excel in any kind of sports
as shall be judged most conducive to health: but herein
great caution is necessary, not to allow them to fatigue
themselves too much, especially in hot weather or sick¬
ly times ; but, above all, that their clothes be kept dry,
wet clothes being the most frequent causes of camp dis-
eaSExERCisE, in military affairs, is the ranging a body
of soldiers in form of battle, and making them perform
the several motions and military evolutions with ditter-
ent management of their arms, in order to make them
expert therein. See also Words of Command.
' Exercise, in the royal navy, is the preparatory
practice of managing the artillery and small arms, in
order to make the ship’s crew perfectly skilled therein,
' ] E X E . .
so as to direct its execution successfully in the time of jlyeroUe,
battle. .
The exercise of the great guns was formerly very
complicated, and abounding with superfluities in our
navy, as well as all others. The following method was,
it is said, successfully introduced by an officer of distin¬
guished abilities.
1st, Silence.
2d, Cast loose your guns.
3d, Level your guns.
4th, Take out your tompions.
5th, Run out your guns.
6th, Prime.
7th, Point your guns.
8th, Eire.
9th, Sponge your guns.
10th, Load with cartridge.
nth, Shot your guns.
12th, Put in your tompions.
13th, House your guns.
14th, Secure your guns.
Upon beat to arms (every body having immediately
repaired to their quarters) the midshipman command-
ing a number of guns, is to see that they are not with-
out every necessary article, as (at every gun) a sponge,
powder horn, with its priming wires, and a sufficient
quantity of powder, crow, handspike, bed, quoin, train
tackle, &c. sending without delay for a supply of any
.1. .1 ^ . orwt fnr thfi oreater cer-
tdCKlC, J XL J
thing that may be wanting ; and for the greater cer¬
tainty of not overlooking any deficiency, he is to give
strict orders to each captain under him, to make the
like examination at his respective gun, and to take
care that every requisite is in a serviceable condition,
which he is to report accordingly. And (besides the
other advantages of this regulation) for the still more
certain and speedy account being taken upon these oc¬
casions, the midshipman is to give each man his charge
at quarters (as expressed in the form of the monthly
report), who is to search for his particular implements,
and, not finding them, is immediately to acquaint his
captain, that, upon his report to the midshipman, they
may be replaced. . ,
The man who takes care of the powder is to place
himself on the opposite side of the deck from that where
we engage, except when fighting both sides at once,
when he is to be amid ships. He is not to suffer any
other man to take a cartridge from him but he who is
appointed to serve the gun with that article, either in
time of a real engagement or at exercise. _
Lanthorns are not to be brought to quarters m the
night, until the midshipman gives his orders for so do¬
ing to the person he charges with that article. Lvery
thing being in its place, and not the least lumber in the
way of the guns, the exercise begins with,
1. “ Silence.” At this word every one is to observe
a silent attention to the officers. , ,
2. “ Cast loose your guns.” The muzzle lashin0
is to be taken off from the guns, and (being coiled up
in a small compass) is to be made fast to the eye-bolt
above the port. The lashing tackles at the same time
to be cast loose, and middle of the breeching seized to
the thimble of the pomillion. The sponge to be taken
down, and, with the crow, handspike, &c. laid upon
the deck bv the gun. N. B. When prepared for en-
E X E [ 5
Esei-cise. gag‘nS an f^my, the seizing within the clinch of the
yii. 'y— < breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come suffi¬
ciently within board for loading, and that the force oi
the recoil may be more spent before it acts upon the
breeching.
3. “ Level your guns.” The breech of your metal
is to be raised so as to admit the foot of the bed’s be¬
ing placed upon the axletree of the carriage, with the
quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even one
with the other. N. B. When levelled for "firing, the
bed is to be lashed to the bolt which supports the inner
end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its place by
the violence of the gun’s motion when hot with frequent
discharges.
4. “ Take out your tompions.” The tompion is to
be taken out of the gun’s mouth, and left hanging by
its laniard.
5. “ Run out your guns.” With the tackles hooked
to the upper bolts of the carriage, the gun is to be
bowsed out as close as possible, without the assistance
of crows or handspikes j taking care at the same time
to keep the breeching clear of the trucks, by hauling it
through the rings ; it is then to be bent so as to run
clear when the gun is fired. When the gun is out, the
tacklefalls are to be laid alongside the carnages in
neat fakes, that, when the gun by recoiling overhauls
them, they may not be subject to get foul, as they would
if in a common coil.
6. “ Prime.” ]f the cartridge is to be pierced with
the priming wire, and the vent filled with powder,
the pan also is to be filled ; and the flat space having a
score through it at the end of the pan, is to be covered,
and this part of the priming is to be bruised with the
round part of the horn. The apron is to be laid over,
and the horn hung up out of danger from the flash of
the priming.
7. “ Point your guns.” At this command the gun
is, in the first place, to be elevated to the height of
the object, by means of the side sights ; and then the
person pointing is to direct his fire by the upper sight,
having a crow on one side and a handspike on the other,
to heave the gun by his direction till he catches the
object.
N. B. The men who heave the gun for pointing are
to stand between the ship’s side and their crows or
handspikes, to escape the injury they might otherwise
receive from their being struck against them, or splin¬
tered by a shot; and the man who attends the captain
with a match is to bring it at (he word, “ Point your
guns,” and kneeling upon one knee opposite the train-
truck of the carriage, and at such a distance as to be
able to touch the priming, is to turn his head from the
gun, and keep blowing gently upon the lighted match
to keep it clear from ashes. And as the missing of an
enemy in action, by neglect or want of coolness, is
most inexcusable, it is particularly recommended to
have the people thoroughly instructed in pointing well,
and taught to know the ill consequences of not tak¬
ing proper means to hit their mark ; wherefore they
should be made to elevate their guns to the utmost
nicety, and then to point with the same exactness.
Having caught the object through the upper sight, at
the word,
8. “ Fire,” The match is instantly to be put to the
bruised part of the priming; and when the gun is dis-
V«L. MIL Part I. +
7 1 EXE
charged, the vent is to be closed, in order to smother
any spark of fire that may remain in the chamber of the
gun ; and the man who sponges is immediately to place
himself by the muzzle of the gun in readiness ; when,
at the next word,
9. “ Sponge your guns,” The sponge is to be ram¬
med down to the bottom of the chamber, and then
twisted round, to extinguish effectually any remains of
hre ; and when drawn out, to be struck against the
outside of the muzzle, to shake off any sparks or scraps
of the cartridge that may have come out with it; and
next, its end is to be shifted ready for loading; and
while this is doing, the man appointed to provide a
cartridge ,s to go to the box, and by the time the
sponge is out of the gun, he is to have it ready ; and at
the word,
10. “ Load with cartridge,” The cartridge (with
the bottom-end first, seam downwards, and wad after
it) is to be put into the gun, and thrust a little way
within the mouth, when the rammer is to be entered :
the cartridge is then to be forcibly rammed down ;
and the captain at the same time is to keep his priming-
wire in the vent, and feeling the cartridge, is to give
the word /tome, when the rammer is to be drawn, and
not before. While this is doing, the man appointed
to provide a shot is to provide one (or two, according
to the order at that time) ready at the muzzle, with a
wad likewise ; and when the rammer is drawn, at the
word,
11. “ Shot your guns,” The shot and wad upon it
are to be put into the gun, and thrust a little way doiVn,
when the rammer is to be entered as before. The shot
and wad are to be rammed down to the cartridge, and
there have a couple of forcible strokes; when the ram¬
mer is to be drawn, and laid out of the way of the guns
and tackles, if the exercise or action is continued ; but
if it is oyer, the sponge is to be secured in the place it
is at all tinres kept in.
12. “Put in your tompions.” The tompions to be
put into the muzzle of the cannon.
13. “ House your guns.” The seizing is to be
put on again upon the clinched end of the breeching,
leaving it no slacker than to admit of the guns beinp-
housed with ease. The quoin is to be taken from un¬
der the breech of the gun, and the bed, still resting
upon the bolt within the carriage, thrust under, till
the foot of it falls off the axletree, leaving it to rest
upon the end which projects out from the foot. The
metal is to be let down upon this. The gun is to be
placed exactly square; and the muzzle is to be close to
the wood, in its proper place for passing the muzzle-
lashings.
14. “ Secure your guns.” The muzzle-lashings
must first be made secure, and then with one tackle
(having all its parts equally taught with the breech¬
ing) the guu is to be lashed. The other tackle is to
be bowsed taught, and by itself made fast, that it may
be ready to cast off for lashing a second breeching.
N. B. Care must be taken to hook the first tackle to
the upper bolt ol the carriage, that it may not other¬
wise obstruct the reeving of the second breeching, and
to give the greater length to the end part of the fall.
No pains must be spared in bowsing the lashing very
taught, that the gun may have the least play that is
possible, as their being loose may be productive of very
3 B dangerous
ExerciUp.
Exercise,
Exercises,
E X E [
dangerous consequences. The quoin, crow, and hand¬
spike are to be put under the gun, the powder-horn
hung up in its place, &c. .
Being engaged at any time when there is a large
swell, rough sea, or in squally weather, &c. as the
stiip may be liable to be suddenly much heeled, the
port-tackle fall is to be kept clear, and (whenever the
working of the gun will admit of it) the man charged
with that office is to keep it in his hand at the same
time the muzzle-lashing is to be kept fast to the ring
of the port, and being hauled taught, is to be fasten¬
ed t'6 the eye-bolt over the port-hole, so as to be out
of the gun’s way in firing, in order to haul it in at any
time of danger.
This precaution is not to be omitted, when enga¬
ging to the windward, any more than when to the lee¬
ward, those situations being very subject to alter at too
short a warning.
A train tackle is always to be made use of vyith the,
lee guns •, and the man stationed to attend it is to be
very careful in preventing the guns running out at an
improper time
Exeter.
Exercise, may also be applied with propriety to
the forming our fleets into orders of sailing, lines o
battle, &c. an art which the French have termed evo¬
lutions, or tactiques. In this sense exercise may be de¬
fined, the execution of the movements which the dw-
ferent orders and disposition ot fleets occasionally re¬
quire, and which the several ships are directed to pei-
form by means of signals. See Tactics.
Exercises, are also understood of what young
gentlemen learn in the academies and riding schools,
such as fencing, drawing, riding the great horse, &c.
How useful, how agreeable soever, study may be to
the mind, it is very far from being equally salutary to
the body. Every one observes, that the Creator has
formed an intimate connexion between the body and
the mind •, a perpetual action and reaction, by which
the body instantly feels the disorders of the mind, and
the mind those of the body. The delicate springs of
our frail machines lose their activity and become ener¬
vated, and the vessels are closed by obstructions, when
we totally desist from exercise, and jhe consequences
necessarily affect the brain } a more studious and se¬
dentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to the body
and the mind. The limbs likewise become stiff j we
contract an awkward constrained manner j a certain
disgustful air attends all our actions, and we are very
near being as disagreeable to ourselves as to others. An
inclination to study is highly commendable •, but it
ought not, however, to inspire us with an aversion to
society. The natural lot ot man is to live among his
fellows: and whatever may be the condition of our
birth, or our situation in life, there are a thousand oc¬
casions where a man must naturally desne to render
himself agreeable-, to be active and adroit j to dance
with a grace j to command the fiery steed ; to defend
himself against a brutal enemy ; to preserve his life by
dexterity, as by leaping, swimming, &c. Many ra¬
tional causes have therefore given rise to the practice
of particular exercises-, and the most sagacious and be¬
nevolent legislators have instituted, in their academies
and universities, proper methods of enabling youth,
who devote themselves to study, to become expert also
in laudable exercises.
378 ] EXE
EXERCITOR, in Scots Law, be who employs a Exercitw
ship in trade, whether he be owner, or only freights 11
her from the owner.
EXERGESIA. See Oratory, N° 90.
EXERGUM, among antiquarians, a little space
around or without the figures of a medal, lelt for the
inscription, cipher, device, date, &c.
EXETER, the capital city of Devonshire, situated
on the river Ex, ten miles north of the British chan¬
nel. W. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 50. 44. Anciently the
name of this city was Isex, and Isa Dumnoniorum. The
present name is a contraction of Exccstev, that is, a
city upon the Ex. It is large, populous, and wealthy,
with gates, walls, and suburbs : the circumference of
the whole is about three miles. It is the see of a
bishop, transferred hither from Crediton, by Edward
the Confessor ; and is one of the principal cities in the
kingdom, for its buildings, wealth, and number of its
inhabitants. It had six gates, besides many turrets,
several of which are now pulled down. It had
formerly so many convents, that it was called Monk*
town, till King Athelstan changed its name to Exeter,
about the year 940-, at which time he also fortified
the city (which had before been only enclosed with a
ditch and a fence of timber) with circular walls, era-
battlements, towers, and turrets of squared stone, en»
circling the whole, except the western side, with a
deep moat. Besides chapels and five large meeting¬
houses, there are now 15 churches within the walls, and
four without. St Peter’s, the cathedral, is a magnificent
pile j though little now remains of the ancient fabric
of the church, except that part which is called Our
Lady's Chapel. It has a ring of J 2 hells, reckoned
the largest ring of the largest bells in England j as is
also its organ, whose largest pipes are 15 inches ill dia¬
meter. In 1763 the cathedral was repaired, beauti¬
fied, and new paved j when, in removing the old pave¬
ment, was found the leaden coffin of Bishop Bitton,
who died in 1307 j the top of which, being decayed,
afforded an opportunity of viewing the skeleton lying
in its proper form : near the bones of the finger was
found a sapphire ring set in gold ; the stone con¬
siderably large, but of no great value, on account
of several flaws in it. Near this stood a small neat
chalice and patten of silver gilt, but the damp had de¬
stroyed the greatest part of the gilding. In the centre
of the patten was engraved a hand, with the two fore¬
fingers extended in the attitude of benediction. The
top of the crozier was also found, but totally decayed.
A most beautiful modern painted glass window has been
lately erected at the western end of the cathedral, the
eastern end having before a remarkable fine antique one.
In the other windows there is much fine ancient paint¬
ed glass. The altar is remarkable for its beautiful de¬
sign and execution. On the left hand side of it there
yet exists the seat where Edward the Confessor and Ins
queen sat and installed Leofricus, his chancellor, the
first bishop of Exeter ; and in the fourth cross aisle is
the monument of the same Leofricus, who died 1073,
which at the time of his interment was a part of the
churchyard, but by the enlarging of the church by
his successors, became nearly the middle of the build-
insr. The grand western end of the church is most
adorned with the statues of the pa-
The chapter house was built in 1439*
The
magnificently
triarchs, &c.
E x E C 379 ] E X E
Eseter. The beautiful throne for the bishop was constructed
—~V 1 1 about 1466, and is said to be the grandest of the kind
in Britain. The great north tower was completed in
1485, which contains a bell, that weighs 12,500 pounds j
and exceeds the great Tom of Lincoln by 2500 pounds.
This city has had divers charters granted, or con¬
firmed by most of our kings ; but it was made a mayor
town in the reign of King John, and a county of itself
by King Henry VIII. It is governed by a mayor, 24
aldermen, four bailiffs, a recorder, chamberlain, sheriff,
town-clerk, &c. They have a sword-bearer, and four
stewards, four serjeants at mace wearing gowns, and
stafi’-bearers in liveries with silver badges. It had an¬
ciently a mint 5 and in the reigns of King William III.
and Queen Anne, many pieces of silver money were
coined here, which have the letter E under the bust.
Here are 12 or 13 incorporate city companies. All
pleas and civil causes are tried by the mayor, recorder,
aldermen, and common council ; but criminal causes,
and those relating to the peace, are determined by eight
aldermen, who are justices of the peace. Here are four
principal streets, all entering in the middle of the city,
which is therefore called Cai'fox, from the old Norman
word Quatre voice, i. e. the four ways. Near it is a
conduit, lately removed from the centre to the side of
the principal street, which was first erected by Wil¬
liam Duke, mayor of the city, in the reign of Ed¬
ward IV. and there are others well supplied with wa¬
ter brought in pipes from the neighbourhood. There
is an old castle in the north-east part of the city, call¬
ed Rougemont, from the red soil it stands on ; from
thence there is a pleasant prospect from the walls.
It is supposed to have been built by the West Saxon
kings, and that they resided here, as did afterwards
the earls and dukes of Cornwall. This castle was re¬
markably strong both by nature and art. The gate
which originally led into it, was walled up by order
of William the Conqueror, in token of his having re¬
duced it to his obedience after a very obstinate resist¬
ance ; and close by it an inferior gate was made in the
wall in which state they both remain. The outward
stone facing is kept in tolerable repair $ but the inside
being but earth, is gradually crumbled down. Here
yet remains the ancient chapel, built in 1260, and
kept in good repair, where prayers are read, and a
sermon preached in sessions weeks. The city itself
is healthy, and pleasantly situated on the sides of a
hill, having other hills to its N. W. and S. by which
it is sheltered from the force of storms. The bank
which sustained the ditch that in a great paxt surround¬
ed the castle, is planted and gravelled, and accommo¬
dated with seats, it being the place of resort for walk¬
ing for the inhabitants ; and the ditch between it and
the castle being filled up, is now thickly planted with
elms, which form a delightful grove. The old palace
is now entirely demolished, and an elegant sessions
house erected, where the assizes, quarter-sessions, and
county courts are held. In the city and suburbs are
prisons both for debtors and malefactors j a workhouse,
alms-houses, and charity schools ; an hospital for the
sick and lame poor of the city and county, upon the
model of the infirmaries of London and Westminster 5
and two free grammar-schools. It has markets on
Wednesdays and Fridays; and four fairs in the year.
Great trade is carried on here in serges, perpetuanas,
long ells, and other woollen goods, in which it is com- Exeter,
puted that at least 6oo,oool. a year is traded for : yet
no markets were erected here for wool, yarn, and ker¬
seys, till the 30th of Henry VIII. Before that time
the merchants drove a considerable trade to Spain and
France : they were incorporated in the reign of Queen
Mary I. by the name of “ The Governor, Consuls, and
Society of Merchant adventurers, trading to France.”
Here is also a weekly serge market, the greatest in
England, next to the Brigg market at Leeds in York¬
shire. It is said that some weeks as many serges have
been sold here as amount to 8o,oool. or 100,000!.; for
besides the vast quantities of their woollen goods ship¬
ped for Portugal, Spain, and Italy, the Dutch give
large commissions for buying up serges, perpetuanas,
&c. for Holland and Germany. It is particularly re¬
marked of this city, that it is almost as full of gentry as
of tradesmen ; and that more of its mayors, and bailiffs
have descended from, or given rise to good families, than
in any other city of its bigness in the kingdom : for the
great trade and flourishing state of this city tempted
gentlemen to settle their sons in it, contrary to the prac¬
tice of many of the inland as well as northern counties,
where, according to the vain and ruinous notion of the
Normans, trade was despised by the gentry as fit for
only mechanics and the vulgar. This city was under
the jurisdiction of the Romans, whose coins have been
frequently dug up in and about it. After they left
England, the Saxons drove the Britons out of it into
Cornwall, and encompassed it with a ditch, besides bul¬
warks. The Danes attacked and spoiled it in 875 •, and
afterwards in revenge of the general massacre of the
Danes by the English, Sweyn one of their kings, came
hither with a great force, put the men to the sword, ra¬
vished the women, massacred the'children, burnt the city,
and defaced the walls. A long time after this, just as it
was reviving, William the Conqueror besieged and took
it; and it was again besieged in the reigns of King
Stephen and Edward IV. In the reign of Henry VIL
it was again besieged by Perkin Warbeck, and batter¬
ed furiously ; but the citizens forced him to raise the
siege; which so pleased the king that he came hither,
and presented a cap of maintenance to the city, and
gave the very sword from his side to be borne always
before the mayor. In the reign of Edward VI. in
July 1544, it was smartly cannonaded by the rebels of
Cornwall and Devon, who almost starved it by break¬
ing down its bridges, cutting off its water, and stop¬
ping up all passages ; but it held out till the lord John
Russel came with a force and raised the siege on the
6th of August, which was then appointed as an anni¬
versary day of thanksgiving by the city, and is still ob¬
served as such. King Charles I.’s queen, to whom this
city gave shelter in the civil wars, was here delivered
of Henrietta, afterwards duchess of Orleans ; whose
picture is in its guildhall, as are also General Monk’s
and George I.’s, &c. In the south-east quarter of the
city was a house called Bedford house, wherein the above
queen was delivered of the princess. This having lately
been taken down, an elegant circus is built on the
spot, with a theatre adjoining it; and for the con-
veniency of the inhabitants, a passage has been made
through the town wall to Southern Hay, on which
green stands the county hospital, already spoken of,
besides a considerable number of new buildings. There
3B2
are
E X H
[ 380 ]
E X I
E„ler are remains of several ancient structures, rvhlcl, are
|| daily giving way to modern erections 5 among the rest,
Exhaus- an 0ld building, said to have been a palace of King
lions.
Athelstan. The guildhall is a spacious and convenient
building, whose front or portico projects a great way
into the street, and was first erected in 1330, to which
its present front was rebuilt in 1593, and repaired in
1720. An arm of the sea formerly flowed nearly up
to the city’s wall, till 1316, when Hugh Courtenay
earl of Devon, in revenge for an aftront, ruined the
navigation, by constructing wears and dams in the river ;
but to remedy it, in 1539, an act of parliament passed
for making a navigable canal, for the better convey¬
ance of goods in barges to and from the city to Top-
sham. This was carried into execution in 1581, but
not completed till 1675 j nor was it after alt found
sufficient, till the present haven was constructed in 1697,
when it was rendered capable of bringing ships of 150
tons quite to the quay, constructed near the walls ot
the city. In short, Exeter, by a constant adherence
to its motto, Semper jidelis, has been applauded by all
historians for its inviolable fidelity to its sovereigns,
whether they held their crown by hereditary or parlia¬
mentary right. The city sends two members to par¬
liament; and gives title of earl to the Cecils. Ine
number of houses in Exeter, according to the return
ordered by act of parliament in 1811, was 2971, and
the number of inhabitants amounted to 18,896.. 1 he
see of Exeter was once one of the most wealthy in the
kingdom $ but it revenues were most shamefully wasted
bv Bishop Voysey, who alienated its lands. What
little he left was so much encumbered, that the see has
never been able to recover its former grandeur j and so
small are its present revenues, that it has been found
necessary for the bishop to hold some other preferment
for the better support of his dignity and rank. I he
diocese contains the entire counties of Devonshire and
Cornwall, wherein are 604 parishes, whereof 239 are
impropriate. It hath four archdeacons, viz. of Corn¬
wall, Exeter, Barnstable, and Totness. The diocese
was formerly valued in the king’s books at 1556k 14s.
6d. •, but, since Bishop Voysey’s time, it is lowered to
cool, and is computed to be worth annually 2700I.
The clergy’s tenth is 1200I. 15s. 2|d. To the cathe¬
dral belong a bishop, a dean, four archdeacons, a chan¬
cellor, a treasurer, a chantor, 24 prebendaries, and
other inferior officers and servants.
EXFOLIATION, a term used by surgeons for the
scaling of a bone, or the separation of the dead part of
a bone from the living part. .
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or
steams raised from the surface of the earth in foim of
'aEXHAUSTIONS, in Mathematics. Method of
exhaustions, is a way of proving the equality of two
magnitudes, by a reductio ad absurdum ; showing, that
if one be supposed either greater or less than the other,
there will arise a contradiction.
The method of exhaustions was of frequent use
among the ancient mathematicians j as Euclid, Archi¬
medes, &c. It is founded on what Euclid says in his
tenth book •, viz. that those quantities whose difference is
less than any assignable quantity, are equal; for if they
were unequal, be tl.e difference never so small, yet it
mav be so multiplied,, as to become greater than either
of them j if not so, then it is really nothing. This he
assumes in the proof of Prob. I. book x. which imports,
that if, from the greater of two quantities, you take
more than its half, and from the remainder more than
its half, and so continually, there will, at length, re¬
main a quantity less than either of those proposed. On
this foundation it is demonstrated, that if a regular po¬
lygon of infinite sides be inscribed in, or circumscribed
about a circle ; the space, which is the difference be¬
tween the circle and the polygon, will, by degrees, be
quite exhausted, and the circle become equal to the
polvgon.
EXHEREDATION, in the civil law', with us or¬
dinarily called disinheriting, is the father’s excluding
his sons from inheriting his estate.
There are 14 causes of exheredation, expressed in
Justinian’s Novelise •, without some one of which causes,
he decrees the exheredation null, and the testament in¬
officious, as the civilians call it. Indeed, by the an¬
cient Homan law, the father might pronounce exhere¬
dation without any cause but the rigour of this law
was restrained and moderated by Justinian.
EXHIBIT, in Law, is where a deed, or other writ¬
ing, being produced in a chancery suit, to be proved
by witnesses, the examiner, or commissioner appointed
for the examination of any such, certifies on the back
of the deed or writing, that the same was shewn to the
witness at the time of his examination, and by him
sworn to.
EXHIBITION, in Law, a producing, or shewing,
of titles, authorities, and other proofs, of a matter in
contest. .
Anciently they used the phrase, exhibition of a tra¬
gedy, comedy, or the like ; hut now we say represen¬
tation in lieu thereof.
Exhibition, in our old writers, is used for an ai-
lowance of meat and drink, such as was customary
among the religious appropriators of churches, who
usually made it to the depending vicar. The benefac¬
tions settled for the maintaining of scholars in the uni¬
versities not depending on the foundation, are also call¬
ed exhibitions.
EXHORTATION, in Rhetoric, differs only from
suasion, in that the latter principally endeavours to
convince the understanding, and the former to work on
the affections.
EXHUMATION, (of ex, “ out of,” and humus,
« ground”) j the act of digging up a body interred in
ho?y ground, by the authority of the judge. In
France, the exhumation of a dead body is ordered, up¬
on proof that he was killed in a duel. By the French
laws, a parson has a right to demand the exhumation
of the body of one of his parishioners, when interred
out of the parish without his consent.
EXIGENCE, or Exigency, that which a thing
requires, or which is expedient or suitable thereto..
EXIGENT, in Law, a writ which lies where the
defendant in a personal action cannot be found, nor any
effects of his within the county, by which he might be
attached or distrained. _
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court or com¬
mon pleas, who make all exigents and proclamations,
in all actions where process ol outlawry lies. Writs 0
supersedeas, as well as the prothonotaries, upon exi¬
gents, are likewise drawn up in their office,
ixile
;[)>rcism
[
E X O
EXILE. See Banishment.
. _ Among the Romans, the word exilium properly sig¬
nified an interdiction or exclusion from water and fire •
the necessary consequence of which was, that the inter¬
dicted person must betake himself into some other coun¬
try, since there was no living without fire and water. 
Thus Cicero, adHerenn. observes, that the form of the
sentence did not express exilium, hut only aquce et ignis
interdictio. The same author remarks, that exile was
not properly a punishment, but a voluntarily flying or
avoiding the punishment decreed: Exilium non esse
supplicium, scdperfugium,partusque supplicii. He adds,
that there was no crime among the Romans, as among
other nations, punished with exile; but exile was a re¬
source to which people flew voluntarily, in order to
avoid chains, ignominy, starving, &c.
The Athenians frequently sent their generals and
great men into exile, out of envy of their merits, or
distrust of their too great authority. See Ostracism.
EXISTENCE, that whereby any thing has an ac¬
tual essence, or is said to be. See the article Meta¬
physics.
EXIT, properly expresses the departure of a player
from off the stage, when he has acted his part. The
word is also used in a figurative sense, to express any
kind of departure, even death.
EXITERIA, in antiquity, oblations or prayers to
any of the gods for a prosperous expedition or journey.
There were also feasts under this denomination, which
were celebrated by the Greeks with sacrifices and
prayers, when their generals undertook expeditions
against an enemy.
EXOCOETUS, the Flying Fish, a genus of fishes
belonging to the order of abdominales. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
EXODIARY, in the ancient Roman tragedy, was
the person who, after the drama or play was ended
sung the Exodium.
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek drama, one of
the four parts or divisions of a tragedy, being so much-
of the piece as included the catastrophe and unravel¬
ling of the plot, and answering nearly to our fourth
and fifth acts.
Exodium, among the Romans, consisted of certain
humorous verses rehearsed by the exodiary at the end
of the Fabulge Atellanas.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, signifies the end or
conclusion of a feast. Particularly, it is uised for the
eighth day of the feast of tabernacles, which, it is said,
had a special view to the commemoration of the exodus
or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Testament;
being the second of the Pentateuch, or five books of
Moses.
It is so called from the Greek the “go-
ingout” or departure of the children of Israel from the
land of Egypt ; the history of which is delivered in this
book, together with the many miracles wrought on
that occasion.
EXOMPHALUS, in Surgery, called also omphalo¬
cele and hernia umbi/icahs, is a preternatural tumor of
the abdomen, at the navel, from a rupture or disten¬
sion of the parts which invest that cavity.
EXORCISM, the expelling of devils from persons
possessed, by means of conjurations and prayers. The
381 ] E X O
Jews made great pretences to this power.
te Is several wonderful tales of the great success of seve¬
ral exorcists. One Eleazer, a Jew, cured many dtemo-
niacs, he says, by means of a root set in a ring. This
root, with the ring, was held under the patient’s nose,
and the devil was forthwith evacuated. The most part
of conjurors of this class were impostors, each pretend¬
ing to a secret nostrum or charm which was an over¬
match for the devil. Our Saviour communicated to
his disciples a real power over daemons, or perhaps over
the diseases said to be occasioned by daemons. See
Demoniac.
Exorcism makes a considerable part of the super¬
stition of the church of Rome, the rituals^of which for¬
bid the exorcising any person without the bishop’s leave.
Ihe ceremony is performed at the lower end of the
church, towards the door. The exorcist first signs the
possessed person with the sign of the cross, makes him
kneel, and sprinkles him with holy water. Then fol¬
low the litanies, psalms, and prayer ; after which the
exorcist asks the devil his name, and adjures him by
the mysteries of the Christian religion not to afflict the
person any more: then, laying his right hand on the
daemomac’s head, he repeats the form of exorcism,
which is this : “ I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the
name of Jesus Christ: tremble, O Satan ! thou enemy
ot the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast brought
death into the world ; who hast deprived men of life
and hast rebelled against justice : thou seducer of man¬
kind, thou root of evil, thou source of avarice, discord,
and envy.” The Romanists likewise exorcise houses
and other places, supposed to be haunted by unclean
spirits; and the ceremony is much the same with that
for persons possessed.
. EXORCiSTS, in church history, an order of men,
in the ancient church, whose employment it was to ex¬
orcise or cast out devils. See the preceding article.
. EXORDIUM, in Oratory, is the preamble or be¬
ginning, serving to prepare the audience for the rest of
the discourse.
Exordiums are of two kinds ; either just and formal
or vehement and abrupt. The last are more suitable
on occasions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or the
like. See Oratory, N° 26.
EXOSIOSIS (from 1%, out, and ersav, a bone), in
Anatomy, an acute eminence or excrescence, pushing
preternaturally above the bone.
EXOTERIC and Esoteric, are terms denoting
external and internal, and applied to the double doc¬
trine of the ancient philosophers : the one was public
or exoteric ; the other secret, or esoteric. The first was
that which they openly professed and taught to the
world ; the latter was confined to a small number of
chosen disciples. Ibis method was derived originally
from the Egyptians ;' who, according to the united
testimony of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo,
Plutarch, &c. had a twofold philosophy, one secret
and sacred, another public and common. The same
practice also obtained among the Persian Magi, the
Druids of the Gauls, and the Brachmans of India.
Ihe Egyptian priests, with whom it originated, sus¬
tained the character of judges and magistrates, and
probably introduced this distinction with a view to the
public welfare, and to serve the purpose of legislation
and government. Clement of Alexandria informs us,
that
Josephus Exorcism
El
Exoteric.
EXP
r 38
Exoteric
B
Expecta¬
tion.
that they communicated their mysteries principally to
those who were concerned in the administration 01 the
state- and Plutarch confirms the same declaration.
However, others have supposed that they invented the
' fables of their gods and heroes, and the other external
ceremonies of their religion, to disguise and conceal
natural and moral truths ; hut whatever was the mo¬
tive of their practice, it was certainly applied to politi¬
cal purposes. .... . .
EXOTIC, a term properly signifying^oragT* or ex¬
traneous, i. e. brought from a remote or strange coun¬
try. 1° which sense we sometimes say exotic ov barba¬
rous terms or words, &c. The word is derived from
the Greek extra, “ without, on the outside.
Exotic, is chiefly applied to plants which aie na¬
tives of foreign countries, particularly those brought
from the East or West Indies, and which do not na¬
turally grow in Europe. .
The generality of exotics, or exotic plants, do not
thrive in England without some peculiar care or cul¬
ture : they require the warmth of their own climates j
whence the use of hot beds, glass frames, green houses,
&c. See Gardening Index.
EXPANSION, among metaphysicians, denotes the
idea which we have of lasting distance, all whose parts
exist together.
Expansion, in Physics, the enlargement or in¬
crease of hulk in bodies, chiefly by means of heat.
This is one of the most general effects of that subtile
principle, being common to all bodies whatever, whe¬
ther solid or fluid. In some few cases, indeed, bodies
seem to expand as they grow cold, as water in the act
of freezing : but this is found to be owing to a new
arrangement of the particles, or to crystallization-, and
is not at all a regular and gradual expansion like that
of metals, or any other solid or fluid substance by means
of heat. In certain metals also, an expansion takes
place when they pass from a fluid to a solid state : but
this too is not to be accounted any proper effect of cold,
but of the arrangement of the parts of a metal in a
peculiar manner -, and is-therefore to be ascribed to a
kind of crystallization. t
The expansion of bodies by heat is very various, and
in solids does not seem to be guided by any certain
rule. In the 48th volume of the Phil. Trans. Mr
Smeaton has given a table of the expansions of many
different substances. See Chemistry Index.
EXPECTANCY, ESTATES IN, are of two sorts -,
one created by act of the parties, called a remainder;
the other, by act of law, called reversion.
EXPECTATION, in the doctrine of chances, is
applied to any contingent event, and is capable of be¬
ing reduced to the rules of cemputation. Ihus a sum
of money in expectation when a particular event hap¬
pens, has a determinate value before that event hap¬
pens -, so that if a person is to receive any sum, e. gr.
10I. when an event takes place which has an equal
probability of happening and failing, the value of the
expectation is half that sum or 5I. -, and in all cases the
expectation of obtaining any sum is estimated by mul¬
tiplying the value of the sum expected by the fraction
which represents the probability of obtaining it.. The
expectation of a person who has three chances in five
of obtaining 100I. is equal to }X 100 or 60I. and the
2 ] * E X P '
probability of obtaining look in this case is equal Expect*.
tO t*011
'expectation of Life, signifies, in the doctrine of R
life annuities, that share or number of the years of hu-
man life, which a person of any given age may expect
to enjoy on an equality of chance. .
According to Mr Simpson, by the expectation of life
we are not to' understand that period which a person
may have an equal chance of surviving, which is a dif¬
ferent and more simple consideration-, but the number
of years at which the purchase of an annuity ought to
be valued, granted on it without discount of money.
There will be a greater or less difference in this number
of years, in proportion to the various degrees of mor¬
tality to which the different stages of human life are
exposed. Thus, it is more than an equal chance that
an infant just come into the world, will not reach the
age of 10 years ; yet the expectation of life, or share of
existence due to it, is almost 20 years upon an average.
The reason of this vast difference is the excess of the
probability of death in the first tender years of exist¬
ence above that which respects the more advanced sta-
tres. If the numbers of those who die at every assign¬
able period were always found to be on an equality, the
two quantities already mentioned would be the same ;
but when these numbers constantly become less and less,
the expectation must of consequence become the greater
of the two. . ,
EXPECTORANTS, mPharmacy, medicines which
promote Expectoration. See Materia Medica
Index*
EXPECTORATION, the act of evacuating or
bringing up phlegm or other matters out of the tra¬
chea, lungs, &c. by coughing, banking, spitting, See.
EXPEDITAT10N, in the forest laws, signifies a
cutting out the balls in a dog’s fore feet for the pre¬
servation of the king’s game. ,
Every one that keeps any great dog not expeditated
forfeits three shillings and four pence to the king. In
mastiffs, not the ball of the feet, but the three claws,
are to be cut to the skin. Instit. Part VI. p. 308.
This expeditation was to be performed once 111 every
three years, and was done to every man’s dog who lived
near the forest, and even the dogs of the foresters
themselves. ,.
EXPEDITION, the march of an army to some di¬
stant place, with a view of hostilities. Such were the
expeditions of Cyrus against Artaxerxes, and ol Racclius
and Alexander into the Indies.
Expeditions for the recovery of the Holy Land were
called croisades. . , ,
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired by
long use without any teacher. It consists in the 1 eas
of things we have seen or read, which the judgment
has reflected on, to form for itself a rule or
Authors make three kinds of experience : 1 he first
is the simple uses of the external senses, thereby we
nerceive the phenomena of natural things witho Y
direct attention thereto, or making any appheaM
thereof. The second is, when we premeditately *
designedly make trials of various things oba
those done by others, attending closely to ale ^
and circumstances. Ihe third is that Pr^e J
foreknowledge, or at least an apprehension of the ev ,
2
EXP
EXP
[ 383 ]
and dnlerminea whether tlM apprehension were tree or result or effect of the applications and motions of cer. Era,rl„«t
lUwnt.false; winch two latter k.nds, especaliy the tb.rd, are tain natural bodies, in order to discover somethin* „fS^!l
° t’xVr iVnT t' V!'11 i Tp/^y / • ,t. • 1 r , their motions and relations, by which some of their pile-
EXPERIMENT, in n,hnphv, is the trial of the nomena or causes may be ascertained.
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY
TS that which has its foundation in experience, where-
in nothing is assumed as a truth but what is found¬
ed upon ocular demonstration, or which cannot be de¬
nied without violating the common sense and percep¬
tions of all mankind.
In former times philosophers, when reasoning about
natural things, instead of following this method, as¬
sumed such principles as they imagined sufficient for
explaining the phenomena, without considering whe¬
ther these principles were just or not. Hence for a
great number of ages no progress was made in science ;
but systems were heaped upon systems, having neither
consistency with one another nor with themselves. No
proper explanations indeed were given of any thing; for
all these systems, when narrowly examined, were found
to consist merely in changes of words, which were often
very absurd and barbarous. The first who deviated
from this method of philosophizing, if we may call it
by that name, was Friar Bacon, who lived in the 13th
century, and who spent 2000I. (an immense sum in
those days) in making experiments. The Admirable
Crichton, who flourished about the year 1580, not only
disputed against the philosophy of Aristotle, which
had for so long been in vogue, but wrote a book a-
gainst it. Cotemporary with this celebrated personage
was Francis Bacon lord chancellor of England, who is
looked upon to be the founder of the present mode of
philosophizing by experiments. But though others
might lay the foundation, Sir Isaac Newton is justly
allowed to have brought this kind of philosophy to
perfection ; and to him we are certainly indebted for
the greatest part of it. Unfortunately, however, nei¬
ther Lord Bacon nor Sir Isaac Newton had an oppor-
1 tunity of knowing many important facts relating to
the principles of fire and electricity, which have since
been brought to light. Hence all their philosophy
was merely mechanical, or derived from the visible
operations of solid bodies, or of the grosser fluids, upon
one another. In such cases, therefore, where the more
subtile and active fluids were concerned, they fell
into mistakes, or were obliged to deny the existence
of the principles altogether, and to make use of terms
which were equally unintelligible and incapable of
conveying any information with those of their prede¬
cessors. A remarkable instance of the errors into which
they were thus betrayed, we have in the doctrine of
projectiles, where the most enormous deviations from
truth were sanctified by the greatest names of the last
century, merely by reasoning from the resistance of the
air to bodies moving slowly and visibly, to its resistance
to the same bodies when moved with high degrees of
eE ;u/j- velocity j-. In other cases they were reduced to make
use of words to express immechanical powers, as attrac¬
tion, repulsion, rarefaction, &c. which have since tend¬
ed in no small degree to embarrass and confound science
iv the disputes that have taken place concerning them.
T he foundation* of the present system of experimental
philosophy are as follows :—
I* All the material substances of which the universe
is composed are called natural bodies. What we per¬
ceive uniform and invariable in these substances we call
\hz\v properties. Some of these are general and com¬
mon to all matter, as extension; others are proper to
particular substances, for instance fluidity ; while some
appear to be compounded of general and particular
properties, and thus belong to a still smaller number;
as the properties of air, which are derived from the ge¬
neral property of extension combined with those of
fluidity, elasticity, &c.
II. In taking a particular review of the properties
of bodies we naturally begin with that oi extension.
This manifests itself by the three dimensions of length,
breadth, and thickness. Hence proceeds the divisibility
of matter ; which the present system supposes to reach
even to infinity : but though this proposition be sub¬
ported by mathematical demonstrations, it is impossible
we can either have any distinct idea of it, or of the op¬
posite doctrine, which teaches that matter is composed
of excessively minute particles called atoms, which can¬
not be divided into smaller ones. The subtility indeed
to which solid bodies may be reduced by mechanical
means is very surprising ; and in some cases is so great,
that we might be tempted to suppose that a farther di¬
vision is impossible. Thus, in grinding a speculum,
the inequalities of its surface are so effectually worn off,
that the whole becomes in a certain degree invisible,
showing not itsell by the light which falls upon it, but
the image of other bodies; but the smallest scratch
which disturbs the equality of the surface is at once dis¬
tinctly visible.
III. From the arrangement of these ultimate parti¬
cles of matter, whatever we suppose them to be, arise
the various figures of bodies: and hence figure is a
property of all bodies no less universal than extension,
unless we choose to speak of the ultimate particles of
matter, which, as they are supposed to be destitute of
parts, must consequently be equally destitute of figure ;
and the same consequence will follow whether we adopt
this supposition or the other. The figures of bodies are
so extremely various and dissimilar, that it is impossible
to find any two perfectly alike. It is indeed the next
thing to impossible to find two in which the dissimila¬
rity may not be perceived by the naked eye ; but if any
such should be found, the microscope will quickly dis¬
cover the imbecility of our senses in this respect. Soli¬
dity is another property essential to all matter. By this
we mean that property which one quantity of matter
has of excluding any other from the space which itself
occupies
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
occupies at that time. Hence arises what we call re-
sistance, which is always an indication ol solidity j and
no less so in those bodies which we caUJlm'd than in
those which are the most solid. This may at first seem
to be a contradiction-, but fluids yield only when they
can get away from the pressure ; in all other cases they
resist as violently as the most solid bodies. Ihus water
confined in a tube will as effectually resist the impression
of a piston thrust down upon it as though it were the
most solid substance. Air indeed will yield for a certain
time-, but this, as appears from several experiments,
■is entirely owing to a more subtile fluid, viz. that of ele¬
mentary fire, being pressed out from among its particles.
As long as this fluid can be forced out, either from
among die particles of air, water, or any other more
gross fluid substance, the latter will be found compres¬
sible, as a heap of wet sand would be by squeezing the
water out from it; but when we come to the most sub¬
tile of all elements, such as we suppose that ot fire to
be, there cannot be any possibility of compressing it,
even though we had a vessel so close as to prevent it
from escaping through its sides 5 because its parts are
already as near each other as they can be.
IV. The distance of the parts of bodies from each
other is what we call their porosity, and was formerly
supposed to be owing to a vacuum interspersed between
them ; but now it is generally allowed that the pores
of solid bodies as well as of fluids are filled with an ex¬
tremely subtile matter which pervades all nature. The
porosity of bodies with regard to one another may be
thus explained. Wood or a sponge is porous with re¬
gard to water: but water itself is porous with regard to
air, which it absorbs in considerable quantity. But air
and water are porous with regard to the element of fire,
which produces very considerable changes upon them,
according to the quantity of it they contain, or the
manner it acts in their pores. The element itself,
however, is not porous with regard to any other sub¬
stance. Its pores, therefore, if it has any, must be ab¬
solute vacuities, destitute of any matter whatever. Va¬
cuities of this kind indeed are supposed to be absolutely
necessary to motion : for though we may say, matter
being divisible almost ad infinitum, that a body or sub¬
stance more solid may move in another substance that is
more subtile, and that will give way to its motion, we
must nevertheless have recourse to a last resort, and ad¬
mit of an ultimate vacuum, which will give room suffi¬
cient to the least corpuscle, that its part A may take
the place of its part B without the least resistance :
besides, it is not to be imagined, that nature, in fact,
admits of that infinite divisibility which our imagina¬
tion can conceive, and that every thing which is pos¬
sible in idea, is at all times practicable. All that
exists is possible, but all that is possible does not how¬
ever exist. By density, is understood the proportion
between the extension and solidity of a body ; one body
therefore is more dense than another, when, under the
same degree of extension, it contains more solid mat¬
ter : and this quality arises from condensation and com¬
pression. Elasticity is nothing more than that effort
bv which certain bodies, when compressed, endeavour
to restore themselves to their former state -, and this pro¬
perty supposes them compressible. As all these natural
properties of bodies are of great utility in explaining
the principles of physics, and in applying them to all the
arts, experimental philosophy proves their reality by &
thousand examples.
V. We discover still other properties in bodies ; such
as mobility, which we must not here confound with
motion. This mobility arises from certain dispositions
which are not in an equal degree in all bodies : from
whence it comes that some are more easily moved than
others : and this proceeds from the resistance to mo¬
tion which is perceived in all bodies : having regard
merely to their masses 5 and this resistance is called vis
inertice, or inert force. A body is said to be in motion
when it is actually moving from one place to another:
or, whenever a body changes its situation with regard
to the objects that surround it, either nearly or remote¬
ly, it is said to be in motion. There are three principal
matters to be considered in a moving body j its direc¬
tion, its velocity, and the quantity of its motion : and
here physics explains the force or moving power; it
likewise distinguishes between simple and compound
motion. Simple motion is that which arises from only
one force, or which tends to one point only. It describes
the laws, and explains the resistance, of mediums; the
resistance of friction ; the difficulties of a perpetual mo¬
tion ; the alteration of direction occasioned by the op¬
position of a fluid matter ; reflected or reverberated
motion ; the communication of motion by the shock of
bodies, &c. Compound motion is that of a body im¬
pelled to move by several causes or powers which act
according to their different directions. Physics here
likewise investigates the laws of motion ; and is particu¬
larly applied to the explaining, under this head, what
are called the central forces, which produce a motion
that is either circular or in a curve line, and which in¬
cessantly urge the moving body either to approach or
recede from the centre. To distinguish these from each
other, the former is called the centripetal force, and the
latter the centrifugal force. See Dynamics.
VI. By gravity, or ponderosity, is to be understood
that force which occasions bodies to pass from a higher
to a lower place, when nothing opposes their course,
or when the obstacles are not sufficient to stop them.
Speculative philosophy investigates its cause, and per¬
haps in vain. Experimental philosophy contents itself
with describing the phenomena, and teaching the laws
of gravity, which are thoroughly established by a thou¬
sand reiterated experiments. In order propeily to un¬
derstand this subject, we must take care not to confound
the term gravity with that of weight. By the former,
we understand that force which urges bodies to descend
through a certain space in a given time. By the latter,
is meant the quantity of a heavy body that is contain¬
ed under the same bulk. The phenomena are explain¬
ed by the experiments themselves, and by inferences
deduced from them.
VII. Hydrostatics is a science of which the object
is the gravity and equilibrium of fluids in particular.
Though the gravity of these bodies is the same with
that of others, and is subject to the same laws, yet
their state of fluidity gives rise to particular pheno¬
mena, which it is of consequence to know. But as hy¬
drostatics cannot be successfully treated without the
assistance of calculation, it has been ranked among the
mathematical sciences.
VIII. We say the same with regard to mechanics;
which is the art of employing, by the aid of machines,
the
the motion of bodies, in conformity to its properties
and laws, as well with regard to solids as fluids, either
more commodiously or more advantageously.
After it has made the most accurate experi¬
ments, and the most judicious observations, on all these
different subjects, and the properties of bodies in pai-
ticular, Experimental Philosophy passes to the exami¬
nation of the air, the water, fire, the wind, colours,
&c. The air is a fluid with which we are surrounded
from the instant of our birth, and without which we
cannot exist. It is by the properties and the influences
of the air, that nature gives increase and perfection to
all that it produces for our wants and conveniences c
it is the spirit of navigation : sound, voice, speech it¬
self, are nothing more than percussions of the air :
this globe that we inhabit is completely surrounded by
air 5 and this kind of coverture, which is commonly
called the atmosphere, has such remarkable functions,
that it evidently appears to concur to the mechanism
of nature. Experimental physics, therefore, considers
the air, I. Of itself, independent of its bulk, and the
figure of its whole body: it examines its essential pro¬
perties •, as its gravity, density, spring, &c. The air-
pump is here of indispensable use ; and by this ma¬
chine physics examines in what manner space, or a va¬
cuum, is made. It likewise shows the necessity of air
to the preservation of animal life \ the effect it has on
sound, fire, and gunpowder, in vacuo; and a hundred
other experiments of various degrees of curiosity. 2. It
considers the air as the terrestrial atmosphere, some¬
times as a fluid at rest, and sometimes as in motion.
And by these means it accounts tor the variation of the
mercury in the barometer, and why it sinks in propor¬
tion as the height of the atmosphere diminishes ; as also
for the figure, the extent, and weight of the atmospl tere :
it shows the method of determining the height of moun¬
tains, the nature of sound in general, of its propagation,
and of sonorous bodies. I he late discoveries have add¬
ed greatly to experimental philosophy, of which an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, &c.
X. It is here also, that experimental philosophv con¬
siders the nature of the wind ; which is nothing more
than agitated air, a portion of the atmosphere that
moves like a current, with a certain velocity and deter¬
minate direction. This fluid, with regard to its direc¬
tion, takes different names according to the different
points of the horizon from whence it comes, as east,
west, north, and south. Winds are likewise distinguish¬
ed into three sorts j one of which is called gram// or
constant, as the trade winds which continually blow be¬
tween the tropics : another is the ger/W/'ra/, which al¬
ways begin and end within a certain time of the year,
or a certain hour of the day, as the monsoons, the land
breezes and sea breezes, which arise constantly in the
morning and evening j and lastly, such as are variable,
as well with regard to their direction as their velocity
and duration.
M. Mariotte computes the velocity of the most impe¬
tuous wind to be at the rate of 32 feet in a second, and
Mr Derham makes it 66 feet in the same time. The
first, doubtless, meant the wind of the greatest velocity
that had then come to his knowledge. The invention
of aerostatic machines has tended more to show the real
velocity of the wind than any other invention as yet
made public *, but all of them move slower than the
VOL. VIII. Part I. f
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
aerial current j so that the real velocity of the wind re¬
mains yet undetermined.
XI. The force of the wind, like that of other bodies,
depends on its velocity and mass: that is, the quan¬
tity of air which is in motion; so the same wind has
more or less force on any obstacle that opposes it, in
proportion as that obstacle presents a greater or a less
surface : for which reason it is that they spread the sails
of a vessel more or less, and place the wings of a wind¬
mill in different directions. The machine by which
the winds are measured, are called anemometers. They
show the direction, the velocity, and the duration of
winds. It 1S by the agitations of the winds that the air
ls Pur*fied > that the seeds of trees and herbs are convey¬
ed through the forests and fields j that ships are driven
from one pole to the other; that our mills turn upon
their axles, &c.: and art, by imitating nature, some¬
times procures us artificial winds, by which we re¬
fresh our bodies, invigorate our fires, purify our corn,
&c.
XII. Water is an universal agent, which nature em¬
ploys in all her productions. It may be considered as
in three states : I. As a liquid $ 2. As a vapour; 3. As
ice. These three different states do not in any man¬
ner change its essence, but make it proper to answer
different ends. The natural state of water would be
that of a solid body, as fat, wax, and all those other
bodies which are only fluid when heated to a certain
degree ; for water would be constantly ice, if the par¬
ticles of fire, by which it is penetrated in the tempe¬
rate climates, did not render it fluid, by producing a
leciprocal motion among its parts j and, in a country
where the cold is continually strong enough to main¬
tain the congelation, the assistance of art is necessary
to make it fluid in the same manner as we do lead, &c.
Water, when not in ice, is a fluid that is insipid, transpa¬
rent, without colour and without smell, and that easily
adheres to the surface of some bodies, that penetrates
many, and extinguishes fire. Experimental philosophy
investigates the origin of fountains 5 the cause of the
saltness 01 the sea the means of purifying water 5 what
is its weight, and what are its effects when heated, &c.
It likewise examines this fluid in the state of vapour ;
and finds that a drop of water, when in vapour, occu¬
pies a space vastly greater than it did before. It
explains the ceolipile and its effects j fire engines $ and
the force of vapour that gives motion to immense ma¬
chines in mines and elsewhere, &c. And lastly, It con¬
siders water in the state of ice. Ice consequently is
more cold than water; and its coldness increases if it
continue to lose that matter, already too rare, or too
little active, to render it fluid. Experimental physics
endeavours to investigate the causes of the congelation
of water, and why ice is lighter than water; from
whence it derives that expansive force by which it breaks
the containing vessel ; the difference there is between
the congelation of rivers and that of standing waters ;
why ice becomes more cold by the mixture of salts ;
and many other similar phenomena.
XIII. The nature of fire is yet very much unknown
to the most learned philosophers. As objects when at a
great distance are not perceptible to our senses, so when
we examine them too nearly, we discern them but con¬
fusedly. It is still disputed whether fire be a homogene,
unalterable matter, designed, by its presence, or by its
3 C action,
386
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
action, to produce heat, inflammation, and dissolution,
in bodies •, or if its essence consists in motion only, or
in the fermentation of those particles which we call in¬
flammable, and which enter as principles, in greater or
less quantities, in the composition of mixed bodies.
The most learned inquirers into nature incline to the
former opinion*, and to have recourse to a matter
which they regard as the principle of fire. Ihey sup¬
pose. that there is in nature a fluid adapted to this pur¬
pose, created such from the beginning, and that no¬
thing more is necessary than to put it in action, ihe
numberless experiments which are daily made in elec¬
tricity seem to favour this opinion, and to t,ia^
this matter, this fluid, this elementary fire, is diflused
through all nature, and in all bodies, even ice itselt.
We cannot say to what important knowledge this great
discovery of electricity may lead if we continue our
inquiries concerning it. It appears, however, t a
we may believe, without any inconvenience or ab¬
surdity, that fire and light, considered in their first
principle, are one and the same substance dinerently
modified.
XIV. Be this matter however as it may, experi¬
mental philosophy is employed in making the most in¬
genious and most useful researches concerning tie na
tore of fire, its propagation, and the means by which
its power may be excited or augmented*, concerning
the phosphorus and its inflammation *, fire excited by
the reflection of the sun’s rays from a mirror $ and on
the effects of fire in general *, concerning lightning and
its effects j the fusion of metals*, gunpowder and its
explosion*, flame and the aliments of fire j and an in¬
finity of like objects which it explains, or concerning
which it makes new discoveries, by the aid of experi-
XV. By the word light, we understand that agent
by which nature affects the eye with that lively an
almost constantly pleasing sensation, which we call see¬
ing, and by which we discern the size, figure, colour,
and situation of objects, when at a convenient d‘s.tance*
All philosophers agree, that the light which is diflused
in any place, is a real body. But what this body is,
and by what means it enters that place where it is per¬
ceived, is a question about which philosophers are di¬
vided. . v j • r
XVI. Experimental philosophy is applied in disco¬
vering or proving, by an infinity of experiments, w at
is the nature of light, in what manner it is propagated,
what its velocity and progressive motion. It also inves¬
tigates and explains the principle of optics properly
so called, and shows the directions which light ob¬
serves in its motions. From thence it proceeds to the
examen of the principles of catoptrics, and describes
the laws and effects of reflected light. It next treats
of the principles of dioptrics, and explains the laws of
refracted light*, and lastly, it teaches, from the princi¬
ples of natural and artificial vision, the construction of
optical instruments, as lenses, concave mirrors, prisms,
telescopes, &c. &c. and the uses to which they are ap-
^ 'xvil. By resolving or separating the rays of light,
philosophy has obtained true and clear discoveries of the
nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that
colours, and their different degrees, make a part of the
bodies that present them to our sight*, that white is
inherent in snow, green in leaves and grass, and red in a
a stuff dyed of that colour. But this is far from being
true. If an object, which presents any colour to our
sight, be not illuminated, it presents no colour what-
soever. In the night all is black. Colours therefore
depend on light *, for without that we could form no
idea of them *, but they depend also on bodies *, tor ot
several objects presented to the same light, some appear
white, others red, blue, &x. But all these matters
being separate from our own bodies, we should never
acquire anv idea of them, if the light, transmitted or
reflected by these objects, did not make them sensible
to us, by striking upon the organs of our sight, and if
these impressions did not revive in us those ideas which
we have been used to express by certain terms. ±or
these reasons philosophy considers colours from three
points of view, I. As in the light*, 2. In bodies, as be-
ing coloured *, and, 3. From the relation they have
to0our visual faculties, which they particularly attect,
and by which we are enabled to distinguish them.
It is unnecessary in this place to say more, either on
colour in particular, or experimental philosophy m ge¬
neral The difterent subjects of this collective article
are particularly treated under their proper names in
the order of the alphabet: the reader will therefore
turn, as he has occasion, to Acoustics, Catoptrics,
Chromatics, Dioptrics, Hydrodynamics, Mecha¬
nics, Optics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Magne¬
tism, &c. &c. &c. Also, Aerostation, Atmo¬
sphere, Burju-sg Glass, Chemistry, &c. &c.
EXP
EXPERIMENTUM crucis, a capital, leading,
Egpenmen-or dec;sIve experiment; thus termed, either on account
jj 0f its being like a cross, or direction-post placed in the
Expiation, meeting of several roads, guiding men to the true know-
' .   kdge of the nature of that thing they are inquiring
after *, or, on account of its being a kind of torture,
whereby the nature of the thing is as it were extorted
by force. _ 0 _
EXPHORESIS. See Oratory, N 85.
EXPIATION, a religious act, by which satisfac-
E X P
n or atonement is made for the commission of some jxpiat^
me, the guilt done away, and the obligation to pu-'—v—
hment cancelled. ,
Expiations among the Heathens, were of several
,ds *, as sacrifices and religious washings. Ihey were
2d for effacing a crime, averting any calamity, anu
numberless other occasions, as purifying towns,
nples, and sacred places, and armies before and after
ttle. And they were performed for whole cities as
dl as particular persons.
2
EXP [ 387 ] EXP
lipiation ^ie me^10d of expiation among the Jews was chief-
g ly by sacrifice, whether for sins of ignorance, or to puri>
plosion, fy themselves from certain pollutions.
"—v""" ' Feast of Expiation, among the Jews, called by our
translators the day of atonement, was held on the tenth
day of Tisri, or the seventh month of the Jewish year,
answering to part of our September and October. It
was instituted by God himself, Levit. xxiii. 27, &c.
On that day the high-priest, the figure or type of Je¬
sus Christ, entered into the most holy place, and con¬
fessed his sins ; and, after several ceremonies, made an
atonement for all the people, to wash them from their
sins. Lev. chap. xvi. See Scape-Goat.
Expiation, in a figurative sense, is applied by di¬
vines to the pardon procured to the sins of the peni¬
tent by the merit of Christ’s death. See the article
Christianity.
EXPIRATION, in Medicine. See Exspiration.
Expiration, is also used figuratively, for the end
of a term of time granted, agreed on, or adjudged.
EXPLICIT, in the schools, something clear, di¬
stinct, formal, and unfolded.
EXPLOSION, in Natural Philosophy, a. sudden and
violent expansion of an aerial or other elastic fluid, by
which it instantly throws oft' any obstacle that happens
to be in the way, sometimes with incredible force, and
in such a manner as to produce the most astonishing ef¬
fects upon the neighbouring objects.
(Terence Explosion differs from expansion, in that the latter
; ween is a gradual and continued power, acting uniformly for
1 ilosion some time, whereas the former is always sudden, and
at expan-oniy 0f mornentary duration. The expansions of solid
substances do not terminate in violent explosions, on ac¬
count of their slowness, and the small space through
which the metal, or other expanding substance, moves ;
though their strength may be equally great with that
of the most active aerial fluids. Thus we find, that
though wedges of wood, when wetted, will cleave so¬
lid blocks of stone, they never throw them to any dis¬
tance, as is the case with gunpowder. On the other
hand, it is seldom that the expansion of any elastic
fluid bursts a solid substance without throwing the
fragments of it to a considerable distance, the effects
<1 icral are °ften very terrible. The reasons of this
<a ses of may comPrised in the two following particulars :
Plosions. J* The immense velocity with which the aerial fluids
expand, when affected by a considerable degree of
heat j and, 2. Their celerity in acquiring heat and
being affected by it, which is much superior to that of
solid substances. Thus air, heated as much as iron
when brought to a white heat, is expanded to four
times its bulk ; but the metal itself will not be expand¬
ed the 500th part of the space. In the case of gun¬
powder, which is a violent and well known explosive
substance, the velocity with which the flame moves is
calculated by Mr Robins, in his Treatise upon Gunnery,
to be no less than 7000 feet in a second, or little less
than 79 miles per minute. Hence the impulse of the
fluid is inconceivably great, and the obstacles on which
it strikes are hurried off with vast velocity, though
much less than that just mentioned ; for a cannon bul¬
let, with the greatest charge of powder that can be con¬
veniently given, does not move at a greater rate than
2400 feet per second, or little more than 27 miles per
minute. The velocity of the bullet again is promoted
by the sudden propagation of the heat through the Explosion.
whole body of air, as soon as it is extricated from the ——7  
materials of which the gunpowder is made j so that it
is enabled to strike all at once, and thus greatly to aug¬
ment the momentum of the ball. It is evident that
this contributes very much to the force of the explo¬
sion, by what happens when powder is wetted or mixed
with any substance, which prevents it from taking fire
all at once. In this case the force of the explosion,
even when the same quantity of powder is made use of,
cannot be compared to that of dry powder.
Upon these principles we may conclude that the
force of an explosion depends, 1. On the quantity of
elastic fluid to be expanded ; 2. On the velocity it ac¬
quires by a certain degree of heat j and, 3. On the
celerity with which the degree of heat affects the
whole of the expansive fluid. These three take place Electric ex¬
in the greatest perfection where the electric fluid js plosions the
concerned: as in cases of lightning, earthquakes, and *l^onKetl
volcanoes. This fluid, as is shewn in many parts of
this work, differs not from elementary fire or the light
ol the sun j it pervades the whole system of nature ; its
expansion is nothing else than its motion from a centre
towards a circumference, for it does not seem capable
of any proper expansion by a separation of its parts
like any other fluid. Hence, when it begins to expand
in this manner, the motion is propagated through it
with a velocity far exceeding that of any other fluid
whatever. Thus, even when the quantity is excessively
small, as when an electric spark is sent through a glass
full of water or of oil, the expansion is so violent as
to dissipate the glass into innumerable fragments, with
great danger to the bystanders, as is observed under
the article Electricity. In violent lightning, where
the electric fluid collects itself into balls, the strength
of the explosion is proportionable to the quantity.
Every one has heard of the prodigious effects of light¬
ning when it happens to strike buildings, trees, or even
the most solid rocks $ and in some cases, where the
quantity of electricity is still greater than in any flash
-of lightning, we hear of still more tremendous conse¬
quences ensuing. Dr Priestley gives an instance of a
large fire ball (undoubtedly a quantity of electric ma¬
ter) rolling on the surface of the sea, which after ris¬
ing up to the top-mast of a ship of war, burst with
such violence that the explosion resembled the dis¬
charge of hundreds of cannon fired at once. Great da¬
mage was done by it j but there is not the least doubt
that most of its force was spent on the air, or carried
down to the sea by the mast and iron work of the ship.
Indeed, considering that in all cases a great part of
the force of electric explosions is dissipated in this man¬
ner, it may justly be doubted whether they can be
measured by any method applicable to the mensuration
of other forces. Even in artificial electricity the force
is prodigiously great; insomuch that Dr Van Marum
calculated that of the great battery belonging to the
machine in Teyler’s museum to be upwards of 900
pounds.
In those cases where the electrical matter acts like Volcanic
common fire, the force of the explosions, though ex-“P10*1011*
ceedingly great, is capable of mensuration by comPar"
ing the distances to which the bodies are thrown with
their weight. This is most evident in volcanoes, where
the projections of the burning rocks and lava manifest
3 C 2 the
EXP
E*p'o ion greatness of the power, at the same time that they
—-y——> afford a method of measuring it. These explosions, as
is shown under the article Volcano, are owing to ex-
In vekst trication of aerial vapours, and their rarefaction by. in-
-nianner ae- tense heat. In all. of them the air is originally in a
rial exi>!*>- state of decomposition, viz. its invisible and solid part
siow. uke js jQjnej with Some terrestrial substances. Thus, when
p,uce‘ fixed air, for instance, is exposed to any pure earth
which attracts it, as calcined magnesia, a decomposi¬
tion instantly takes place. All these , vapours are
composed of elementary fire and some invisible sub¬
stance capable of assuming a solid form. The decom¬
position just mentioned is therefore easily explained ;
the solid part of the air joins itself to the magnesia, while
, the elementary fire or latent heat is dissipated, and
passes through the sides of the vessel. Were it now in
our power suddenly to restore the latent heat to the
whole of the fixed air, so that it would at once assume
its former expansion, a violent explosion would follow".
This seems to be precisely the case with the volcanic
explosions. An immense quantity of the fixed part of
different aerial fluids is united to the various substances
found below the surface of the earth. By means of the
electric fire which kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids
are suddenly restored to their elastic state } and not only
so, but their natural elasticity is greatly augmented, so
Explosion that the explosions take place with great violence. The
of guapow- case is the same with gunpowder j only that the con-
derexplain-dense{1 ajr jn ^ case i8 at first of the dephlogisticated
* ‘ kind, but is quickly phlogisticated by reason of the
combustible matters mixed with the nitre, while the
heat produced by the inflammation augments the elas¬
ticity of the generated air to four times what it usually
is, so that the whole force of the explosion is calculated
* See the at IOOO times the pressure of the common atmosphere *.
article Thus the explosions of gunpowder and of volcanoes
Gunnery. are essentially the same. The reason of the extreme
quickness of those of gunpowder is, that it takes fire so
readily by the intimate mixture and combustibility of
all the materials. In volcanoes the explosions likewise
follow one another very quickly, and are by no means
inferior in strength to those of gunpowder: but here
the quantity of vapour makes up for the comparative
slowness with which it is affected by the heat. Thus,
though we could not by any means contrive to fire can¬
non in quick succession by means of calcareous earth as
we can do with gunpowder, yet in the huge furnace of
a volcano the elastic matter is supplied in such quanti¬
ties, that the explosions are in a manner unremit¬
ting*, and even in ordinary experiments the confine¬
ment of aerial vapours has often occasioned violent ex¬
plosions in chemical vessels. In one case too the ex¬
traction of fixed air adds excessively to the force of an
OfpuWls explosion, viz. in that of pulvis fulminans. This is
fnlminan*. compounded of sulphur, saltpetre, and salt of tartar,
k®' The latter we know contains much fixed air : and it is
probable that the violence of the explosion is occasioned
by this air j for the greater quantity of it that the al¬
kaline salt contains, the greater force does it explode
with. Fulminating gold emits a quantity of phlogisti-
eated air, to which its explosive power is supposed to be
owing, as is explained under the article Chemistry ;
but that of fulminating silver is so extraordinary, that
scarce any force of aerial vapour that can be extricated
E X P
is likely to produce it, and it seems probable that elec- Esploslej.
tricity itself is concerned. '■—*—>—-j
Next in strength to the aerial vapours are those of ^xPlos or*
aqueous and other liquids. The most remarkable el-^
fects of these are observed in steam engines $ but there *
is one particular case from which it has been inferred W
that aqueous steam is vastly stronger than the flame of
gunpowder. This is when water is thrown upon melted Violent ex-
copper j for here the explosion is so strong as almost Plosioa of i
to exceed imagination j and the most terrible accidents
have been known to happen from such a slight cause as^,
one of the workmen spitting in the furnace where cop¬
per was melting. Here, however, it is most probable Probably
that a decomposition of the water takes place. That owing to a
this element can be decomposed, or resolved into elastic
vapours, has been completely established by the most sa-wate^1 4
tisfactory experiments, and is now, we believe, univer¬
sally admitted by chemical philosophers. See WATER,
Chemistry Index. The position is indeed denied by
the pblogistians *, but their arguments appear not to be
conclusive*, nor is it a fact which militates in the least
against their principles. On the supposition that the
water is decomposed in the present case, however, the
phenomenon in question is easily solved. The water he- Partienbr-
ing thrown in substance upon the melted copper, is de-^exPIai11*
composed by the violent heat *, and one part of it adheres
to the metal, thus converting it into a calx, or oxide,
while the other is converted into inflammable air, or
hydrogen gas, which expanding suddenly, throws the
melted metal all about with the greatest violence by
means of its reaction.
To understand the manner in which this is accom¬
plished, we must consider some of the principles of
GUNNERY laid down by Mr Robins, and related un¬
der that article. One of these is, that though the
air, in cases of ordinary velocity, makes no great re¬
sistance, it is far otherwise where the velocity of the
moving body becomes very great. In all cases ot ex¬
plosion also there is in the first instance a resisting va¬
cuum made by the exploding fluid j and consequently the
weight of the atmosphere is to be overcome, which a-
mounts to about 14 pounds on every square inch of sur¬
face. Supposing the surface of the exploding fluid, then,
on that of melted copper, to contain an area of 4 square
inches, it meets with a resistance of 60 pounds from the
atmosphere, and consequently communicates an equ-T
pressure to the fluid metal. Even this must of conse¬
quence throw it about, unless the same pressure was
exactly diffused over every part of the surface. But
much more must this effect be increased by the immense
velocity with which the fluid moves, and by which the
resistance of the atmosphere is augmented in a prodi¬
gious degree, as is explained under the article Gun¬
nery. The elastic fluid generated is then confined not
only by the fluid metal and sides of the furnace, but by
the air itself, which cannot get out of the way ; so that
the whole resembles a cannon closed at the mouth, and
filled with inflamed gunpowder. Hence not only the
melted metal, but the furnace itself and the adjacent walls
of the building, are hurried off as they would be by the
firing of a great quantity of gunpowder in a small space,
and which is well known to produce analogous effects.
In explaining the phenomenon hi question, Dr Black
supposes that the mere heat of the metal applied to the
aqueow«
[ 3^8 1
E X P [ 389 ] EXP
«pio»ron. aqueous steam produces the explosion j and in proof of
v this alleges, that copper imbibes a greater quantity of
^to mere ^iea^ ^u, *nS fusion than any other metal. Aqueous
j lieou* steam» however, seems to be too slow for producing such
Lsam in- sudden and violent effects. Explosions, it is true, will
:seiy be occasioned by it, but then it must be confinerl for a
sited. very considerable time ; whereas the effects of water
thrown upon melted copper are instantaneous,
hy such It may now be asked, Why such explosions do not
nouake take P!ace any otIier metal, iron for instance, when
ice with watey *s thrown upon its surface in fusion ? In answer
her me- to this we must observe, That though water is decom-
jb. posed by being applied to red-hot iron in the form of
steam, yet there is a possibility, that when the same
element is applied in substance to the fluid metal, no
decomposition may ensue. Something like this in¬
deed happens with copper itself j for, notwithstanding
the violent effects which take place on the contact of
water in substance with the melted metal, no explo¬
sion happens though aqueous steam be blown upon its
surface. On the contrary, the upper part of the metal
is thus cooled, and forms itself into cakes, which are
afterwards taken off, and new ones formed in the same
manner j neither does aqueous steam affect red-hot cop¬
per in the manner that it does iron in the same state.
A decisive proof that the explosion is not occasioned by
the mere heat of the aqueous steam may be deduced
from the example of melted glass, which produces no
explosion though we pour water upon it in that state ;
and yet the heat of melted glass is undoubtedly equal
ien heat Ht ^eas^ to t^at meltetl copper. It must be observed,
substan-however, that in all cases where a very hot body is
sure thrown upon a small quantity of water in substance, an
•own tip- explosion will follow 5 but here the water is confined
1 amkf's an^ suddenly rarefied into steam, which cannot get
water. away without throwing off the body which confines it.
Examples of this kind frequently' occur where masons
or other mechanics are employed in fastening cramps of
iron into stones, where, if there happens to he a little
water in the hole into which the lead is poured, the
latter will fly out in such a manner as sometimes to
burn them severely. Terrible accidents of this kind
have sometimes happened in founderies, when large
quantities of melted metal have been poured into wet
moulds. In these cases, the sudden expansion of the
aqueous steam has thrown out the metal with violence j
and if any decomposition has taken place at the same
time, so as to convert the aqueous into an aerial vapour,
the explosion must be still greater,
i water ^,‘s ^ast ^*nd of explosion we must refer that
0boiling takes place on pouring cold water into boiling
or burning oil or tallow. Here the case is much the
same whether we pour the oil on the water, or the
water on the oil. In the former case, the water which
lies at the bottom is rarefied into steam, and explodes j
m the latter, it sinks down through the oil by its supe¬
rior specific gravity, and explodes as it passes along,
fn either case, however, the quantity of aqueous fluid
must he but small in proportion to that of the oil : a
Very great quantity would put out the flange, or destroy
plosion ^le ^eal;’ whatever way we applied it.
i olidsub-. An°tller kind of explosion, is that which takes place
k >cesex ln s°lid substances, where we can scarcely suppose either
t »eii. aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The most
remarkable of these are the volcanic bombs mentioned
by Sir William Hamilton in the great eruption of Ve- Explosion,
suvius in I'jyg. They were large pieces of lava which ' t
burst in pieces like bombs as they fell to the ground j
but he does not inform us whether their bursting was
attended with any great violence or not. Indeed, amidst
such scenes of horror, and the continual tremendous
explosions of the volcano, smaller phenomena of this
kind would probably be overlooked. Other examples
are the Glass Tears, of which an account is given* un¬
der that article ; the bursting of electrical globes, when
put in motion 5 of other glass vessels spontaneously,
and seemingly without any cause j and lastly, the burst¬
ing of large cast metal vessels in the act of cooling.
These are all so similar to one another, that it is pro¬
bable they depend on one general cause. All of them
agree in this respect, that the extreme parts of them
are considerably cooled, while the internal remain very
hot. Thus, in the volcanic bombs, the current of air,
formed by their swift passage through it in falling, ne¬
cessarily carries off a great quantity of heat from the
parts which are in contact with it, while the rest are
scarce at all cooled. The glass tears are artificially
cooled on the outside by dropping them upon water;
and in consequence of this, their explosion is probably
more violent in proportion to their bulk than that of
the volcanic bombs. Glass vessels only burst sponta¬
neously when they have not been well annealed 5 and
we know that this bad annealing consists only in ap¬
plying cold too suddenly to the outside. Something
like this probably takes place when cast-iron vessels ex¬
plode ; and we are certain it dpes so with electrical
globes, for these last are not apt to burst if they have
been well annealed. In all cases, therefore, there is a
remarkable contraction of the outward surface by the
cold, while the internal parts remain as much expand¬
ed as ever. In this case there must be a continual ef¬
fort of that subtile fluid called eleinentary fire, from the
internal to the external part, as the contraction gra¬
dually proceeds the contrary way. Thus, wdien a vol¬
canic bomb, for instance, is cooled on the outside, its
parts are consolidated so that the internal fluid has not
such an easy passage through it as is necessary. In con¬
sequence of this it makes a greater effort, which is still
farther augmented by the cooling and eontractien of
the internal parts squeezing the fluid out from among
themselves, and forcing it to recoil upon that in the
centre, as well as to exert itself against the external
part; from which united operation the effect already
mentioned at last takes place. This explanation, how¬
ever, does not hold with respect to electrical globes,
glass tears, or ill annealed glass : but in order to ac¬
commodate it to all these, we have only to remember,
that fire, and the electric fluid acting from a centre
to a circumference, are not in the least different j so
that from whatever cause the electric matter is dispos¬
ed to act in this manner, the same effect will follow,
i. e. an explosion will take place if the substance does
not afford an equally ready passage through all its
parts, and that whether any sensible heat is felt in it
or not.
The only other kind of explosjon we have to take no-Explosion-
tice of is that produced by inflammable and dephlogisti-of hydrogeis
cated air, or oxygen and hydrogen gases, when mixed and oxygo®
together and set on fire. This differs from any of thoseRir*
hitherto considered, because in reality there is an abso¬
lute
Bxploiion.
Singular
phenome¬
non obser*
ved by Dr
Priestley.
EXP [ 39°
lute condensation rather than an expansion throughout
the whole of the operation ■, and the result is the lorma-
tion of water; and could the airs be made to take fare
throughout their whole substance abso utely at the same
instant, there *onld be no explosion, but only a sudden
production of heat. From this cause also ^rived a
very singular phenomenon, taken notice of by Dr Priest¬
ley in his experiments on that subject, recorded in the
Phil Trans. Having enclosed several quantities ot in¬
flammable and depblogisticated air in a copper vessel
firing them afterwards by the electric sparks, be fount
that the force of the explosion was directed more to¬
wards one part of the vessel than another; least on that
Uses to
which ex-
wards one part or me vesaci   
part where the electrical discharge was made, and most
upon that which was farthest from it. This inequality
was very considerable ; insomuch that he could not re¬
peat his experiments any number of times without inju¬
ring the vessel in that part which was farthest from the
discharge. The reason he gives for this is, that tb
mixture was not fired at the same instant but first at
the place where the discharge was made. 11ns first ex¬
plosion would have acted equally upon all parts of the
vessel, had it not been for the intervention of the air.
By the first momentary explosion, however, the air in
the farthest part of the vessel was condensed, so that the
next explosion was made stronger, while the copper m
the fore part of the vessel had the. whole of this strong
explosion to resist, the hinder part being but little coj
ceined, as the air in it was condensed and reduced al¬
most to a vacuum. . .
Though the phenomena of explosions are sometimes
which ex- verv destructive, they are likewise of considerable use
plosions are in rem0ving obstacles which could scarcely be
a?p,ied- got the better of by any mechanical power whatever.
The principal of these are the blowing up of rocks, the
separating of stones in quarries, and other purposes ot
that kind. The destruction occasioned by them in times
of war, and the. machines formed upon the principle ot
explosion for the destruction of the human race, are
well known; and if we cannot call these we
must allow them at least te be necessary evils. For the
production of explosions, gunpowder is the only sub¬
stance that has yet been found to answer ; nevertheless,
as its use is attended with considerable expence, several
attempts have been made to find out a cheap substitute
for it.P One of the most remarkable of these was by
mixing small quantities of water, enclosed in little b ad¬
ders or some easily destructible vehicles, along with a
charge of powder. By this contrivance it was hoped
that the water being converted into vapour when the
powder was inflamed, would augment the force of the
explosion : but instead of this, it was found greatly to
diminish it. The reason was evident, viz. that the con
version of the water into steam required so much ot the
latent heat of the inflamed gunpowder, that enough was
not left to give the necessary expansion to the aerial
fluid produced. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
gases has also been tried ; but the explosion here has
always been found too weak. In mines, indeed very
terrible effects are produced by such a mixture, but in
these the quantity is immense; so that the comparative
weakness of the mixture cannot be discovered. Ele -
tricity therefore seems to be the only resource we have ;
except by adding ingredients to gunpowder which may
increase die strength of it. There can be no doubt in-
, ] EXP
deed that the electric fluid is possessed of sufficient Exploit# fi
strength to perform every thing we could desire; and H
electricians have supposed, perhaps justly enough, that K
a cannon charged with water might, by means 01 elec- >
tricity, become more dangerous than one chaiged with
gunpowder: but this fluid is so exceedingly capricious,
go imperceptible and unmanageable, that the use of it
cannot as yet be thought practicable, nor m all proba¬
bility ever will be so. f u . ,
The effects of explosions, when violent, are lelt at a Effects of
considerable distance, by reason of the concussions they
<nve to the atmosphere ; for, as has been a ready n1"1'mospttre
ed all of them act upon the atmospherical iiuiu with anj eiec.
, ’ f ovovl nr»nn Iprrpstrial substan-Irie fluid.
Attempts
to super¬
sede the
use of gun¬
powder.
ed, all 01 mem aeo upuu  - . --
the very same force they exert upon terrestrial substan-trie fluid,
ces subjected to their action. Sir William Hamilton
relates that at the explosions of Vesuvius in 1767, the
doors and windows of the houses at Naples flew open if
unbolted, and one door was burst open though it had
been locked. A great quantity of gunpowder being
put into the ditch of a fortified city, and set on fire, de-
stroyed part of the wall, and broke down one ot the
gates. The blowing up of powder magazines or pow¬
der mills will destroy buildings and kill people, though
certainly without the reach of the flame, and untouched
bv any part of the shattered magazine or mill. But the
most curious effect is, that they electrify the air and
even glass windows, at a considerable distance. Ihis is
always observable in firing the guns of the Tower at
London i and some years ago, after an explosion of
some powder mills in the neighbourhood of that city, a
great number of people were alarmed by a rattling and
breaking of their china ware ; which by the vulgar was
taken for a supernatural phenomenon, but undoubtedly
was owing to some commotion in the electrical fluid
from the violent concussion of the atmosphere. In this
respect, however, the effects of electrical exp osions
themselves are most remarkable, though not in the un¬
common way just mentioned; but it is certain that the
influence of a flash of lightning is diffused for a great
way round the place where the explosion happens, pro¬
ducing many very perceptible changes both on the am-
mal and vegetable creation. . ,
EXPONENT, in Algebra, the same with index.
See Algebra.  
Exponent is also used in arithmetic, in the same
sense as index or logarithm. . , - ..ep
Exponential Calculus, the method of differencn g,
or finding the fluxions of exponential quantities, and
of summing up those differences, or finding their
^Exponential Curve, is that whose nature is defined
or expressed by an exponential equation ; as the curve
denoted by ox—by . .. , . .
Exponential Equation, is one in which is contain
ed an exponential quantity ; as the equation * -6, or
X%"exponential Quantity, is that whose po'™r
variable quantity ; as the expression ax, or **. ^xpo
nential quantities are of several degrees and orders, ac¬
cording to the number of exponents or powers, one over
an EXPORTATION, the shipping and carrying out
of the kingdom wares and commodities for other coun¬
tries. See the articles Commerce, Trade, and
PINC* ttyposING,
EXP [39i
EXPOSING, the act of setting a thing to public
upopin,, . T* •
* [| view. In the Romish church, the sacrament is said to
i.liositor. be exjvjsed when it is shown in public uncovered on fes-
.-Y—) tjva| t]ayg^ an(j tlUiing t|ie 0f plenary indul¬
gences.
Exposing is also used with a farther latitude j thus
we say, It is prohibited to expose false and clipped mo¬
ney. Such a house stands very high, and has a delici¬
ous prospect; hut it is exposed to all the four winds.
Such a city being on the frontiers, and not fortified, is
exposed to the insults of every party of forces.
Exposing of Children, a barbarous custom practised
by most of the ancients excepting the Thebans, who
had an express law to the contrary, whereby it was
made capital to expose children ; ordaining at the same
time, that such as were not in a condition to educate
them should bring them to the magistrates, in order to
be brought up at the public expence. Among the
other Greeks, when a child was born, it was laid on
the ground ; and if the father designed to educate his
child, he immediately took it up $ but if he forbore to
do this, the child was carried away and exposed. The
Lacedaemonians indeed had a different custom ; for
with them all new-born children were brought before
certain triers, who were some of the gravest men in
their own tribes, by whom the infants were carefully
viewed 5 and if they were found lusty and well favour¬
ed, they gave orders for their education, and allotted a
certain proportion of land for their maintenance j but if
weakly or deformed, they ordered them to be cast into
a deep cavern in the earth, near the mountain Tayge-
tus, as thinking it neither for the good of the children
themselves nor for the public interest, that defective
children should be brought up. Many persons exposed
their children only because they were not in a condition
to educate them, having no intention that they should
perish. It was the unhappy fate of daughters especial¬
ly to be thus treated, as requiring more charges to edu¬
cate and settle them in the world than sons.
The parents frequently tied jewels and rings to the
children they exposed, or any other thing whereby
they might afterwards discover them, if Providence
took care for their safety. Another design in adorn¬
ing these infants was either to encourage such as found
them to nourish and educate them, if alive, or to give
them human burial if dead. The places where it was
usual to expose children were such as people frequented
most. This was done in order that they might be
found, and taken up by compassionate persons who
were in circumstances to be at the expence of their
education. With this intention, the Egyptians and Ro¬
mans chose the banks of rivers, and the Greeks the
high-ways.
EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the setting a
thing open to public view. See Exposing.
Exposition, in a literary sense, the explaining an
author, passage, writing, or the like, and setting their
meaning in an obvious and clear light.
EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title which some
writers have given to a lesser kind of dictionaries or vo¬
cabularies, serving to expound or explain the meaning
of the obscure or difficult words of a language. It is
also used in the same sense with commentary and para¬
phrase.
] EXT
EX-post-Facto, in Law, denotes something done jj*
after another thing that was committed before. An
estate granted may be made good by matter ex-post-
facto, that was not so at first by election, &c.
EXPOSTULATION, in Rhetoric, a warm address
to a person who has done another some injury, repre¬
senting the wrong in the strongest terms, and demand¬
ing redress.
EXPOSURE, in Gardening, the situation of a gar¬
den wall, or the like, with respect to the points of the
compass, as south or east. See Gardening.
EXPRESSED oils, such oils as ax-e obtained from
bodies only by pressing. See CHEMISTRY and Mate-
ria Medica Index.
EXPRESSION, in Rhetoric, the elocution, diction,
or choice of words in a discourse. See Language,
Oratory, and Poetry.
Expression, in Music. See Composition.
Expression, in Rainting, a natural and lively re¬
presentation of the subject, or of the several objects in¬
tended to be shown.
The expression consists chiefly in representing the
human body and all its parts, in the action suitable to
it : in exhibiting in the face the several passions pro¬
per to the figures, and observing the motions they im¬
press on the external parts. See Painting.
Expression, Theatrical. See Declamation, Ar¬
ticle iv.
EXPRESSION, in Medicine, Chemistry, &c. the
act of expressing or extracting the juices or oils of
plants, fruits, or other matters, by squeezing, wringing,
or pressing them in a press. After having let the herbs
infuse a due time, their juice must be drawn by expres¬
sion in a linen cloth or by a press.
EXPULSION, in a general sense, the act of vio¬
lently driving a person out of any city, society, &c.
Expulsion, in Medicine, the act whereby any thing
is forcibly driven out of the place in which it is : thus
we say, the expulsion of the foetus in delivery.
EXSICCATION, (formed of ex siccus, “ dry,”)
in Chemistry, &c. the act of drying up or evaporating
the moisture of a thing.
EXSPIRATION, in Physic, that part of respira¬
tion by which the air is expelled or driven out of the
lungs. See Anatomy Index and Respiration.
EXSUDATION, or Exudation, the act of sweat¬
ing out. In which manner, gums, balsams, &c. are
usually produced from trees.
EXTANT, something that still subsists, or is in be¬
ing. It is but part of the history of Livy, of the writ¬
ings of Cicero, Caesar, &c. that are extant, the rest are
lost. We have nothing extant of Socrates, though be
wrote a great deal.
EXTASY, a transport which suspends the function
of the senses, by the intense contemplation of some ex¬
traordinary or supernatural object.
Extasy, in Medicine, a species of catalepsy, when
a person perfectly remembers, after the paroxysm is
over, the ideas he conceived during the time it lasted.
EXTENSION, in Philosophy, one of the common
and essential properties of body $ or that by which it
possesses or takes up some part of universal space, which
is called the place of that body. See Metaphysics.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to several
muscles.
post-
facto
0
Extensor.
EXT [39
r.«»..r muscles, from Ibeir extending or stretching the parts
ft to which they belong. See ANATOMY, Table oj the
Extortion. Muscles.
EXTENT, in Law, is used in a double sense, borne-
times it signifies a writ or command to the sheriff for
the valuing of lands or tenements 5 and sometimes the
act of the sheriff, or other commissioner, upon this
Old and New Extent, in Scots Law. See Law
Index. .....
EXTENUATION, the act of diminishing or les¬
sening the bulk or substance of a thing, especially of
the human body. Fevers, agues, long abstinences, &c.
occasion great extenuations or emaciations.
Extenuation, is also a figure in rhetoric, opposite
to the hyperbole. The Greeks call it
EXTERIOR, or External. See External.
EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating
or destroying something. ,
Extermination or Exterminating, in Algebra,
is used for taking away. Thus algebraists speak ot ex¬
terminating surds, fractions, and unknown quantities
out of equations. See Maclaur. Algebr. Part I. Chap.
12. where we have some general theorems for the exter¬
minating unknown quantities in given equations.
EXTERNAL, a term of relation applied to the sur¬
face or outside of a body, or that part which appears or
presents itself to the eye, touch, &c. in contradistinc¬
tion to internal.
External is also used to signify any thing that is
without side a man, or that is not within himself, par¬
ticularly in his mind; in which sense we say, external
objects, &c. ,
EXTINCTION, in general, denotes the putting
out or destroying something, as a fire or flame. See
Extinguishing of Fire. .
EXTINGUISHMENT, in Law, is a consolidation
or union, as where one has due to him a yearly rent out
of lands, and afterwards purchases the lands out 01
which the rent arises j in this case, both the property
and the rent being united in one possessor, the rent is
said to be extinguished. .
EXTIRPATION (formed of ex and stirps, root, )
the act of pulling up or destroying a thing to the very
roots. Among the prayers of the Romish jubilee, there
is one for the extirpation of heresy.
Extirpation is also used, in Surgery, for cutting
off any part entirely ; as a wen, &c. or the eating it
away, as a wart, &c. by corrosive medicines.
EXTISPEX, in antiquity, the person who drew
v presages from viewing the entrails of animals offered in
EXTORTION, in Law, is an illegal manner of
wresting any thing from a man, either by force, me¬
nace, or authority. It is also the exaction of unlawful
usury, winning by unlawful games, and taking more
than is due under pretence of right, as excessive tolls
in millers, &c. t
At the common law, extortion is punishable by tine
and imprisonment $ and the statute of 3 Eliz. I. c. 30.
has enacted, that officers of justice guilty of extortion
for the expedition of business, &c. shall render to the
party treble value. There are likewise divers other sta¬
tutes for punishing extortions of sheriffs, bailiffs, gaolers,
Expost,
faeto
2 ] EXT
clerks of the assize and of the peace, attorneys, soiici
tors, &c.
EXTRACT, in Pharmacy, is a solution of the II
purer parts of a mixed body inspissated, by distillation I'x;e'lso^
or evaporation, nearly to the consistence of honey.
Extract, in matters of literature, is something co¬
pied or collected from a book or paper.
EXTRACTION, in Chemistry and Pharmacy, the
operation by which essences, tinctures, &c. are drawn
from natural bodies.
Extraction, in Surgery, is the drawing any foreign
matter out of the body by the hand, or by the help of
instruments. See Surgery.
Extraction, in genealogy, implies the stock or
family from which a person is descended. See De¬
scent.
Entraction of Roots, in Algebra, and Arithmetic,
the method of finding the roots of given numbers or
quantities. See Algebra and ARITHMETIC.
EXTRACTOR, in Midwifery, an instrument or
forceps for extracting children by the head.
EXTRAJUDICIAL, something done out of the
proper court, or the ordinary course of law. As when
judgment is given in a cause, or case, not depending in
that court where such judgment is given, or wherein
the judge has no jurisdiction.
EXTRAORDINARII, amongst the Romans, was
a body of men consisting of the third part of the foreign
horse and a fifth of the foot, which was separated from
the rest of the forces borrowed from the confederate
states with great policy and caution, to prevent any
design that they might possibly entertain against the
natural forces. A more choice body of men were
drawn from among the extraordinarii, under the name
of ablecti. See Ablecti.
EXTRAORDINARY, something out of the com¬
mon course.
Extraordinary Couriers are those sent express on
some urgent occasion.
Extraordinary Ambassador, or envoy, is such a
one as is sent to treat or negotiate some special and im¬
portant affair, as a marriage, a treaty, confederacy, &c.
or even on occasion of some ceremony, as condolence,
congratulation, &c.
A gazette, journal, or other newspaper extraordi¬
nary is that published after some great and notable
event, containing the detail or particulars thereof, which
are not found in the ordinary papers.
EXTRAV AG ANTES, those decretal epistles which
were published from the Clementines.
They were so called, because at first they were not
di(rested or ranged with the other papal constitutions,
but seemed to be, as it were, detached from the. canon
law. They continued to be called by the same name
when they were afterwards inserted in the body of the
canon law. The first extravagantes are those of John
XXII. successor of Clement V. The last collection
was brought down to the year 1483, and was called
the common extravagantes, notwithstanding that they
were likewise incorporated with the rest ot the canon
EXTRAVASATION, in contusions, fissures, de¬
pressions, fractures, and other accidents of the cranium,
is when one or more of the blood-vessels, that are di-
4 stnbuteU
l
E X U
iravasa
itiou
distributed in tlie dura mater, is broken or divided,
whereby there is such a discharge of blood as greatly
oppresses the brain, and disturbs its office 5 frequently
j bringing on violent pains and other mischiefs ; and at
length death itself, unless the patient is timely relieved.
See Surgery and Medicine Index.
EXTREME, is applied to the last and outermost
part of any thing ; or that which finishes and terminates
it on that side.
Extremes, in Logic, denote the two extreme terms
of the conclusion of a syllogism ; viz. the predicate and
subject. Eliey are called extremes, from their relation
to another term, which is a medium or mean between
them. The predicate, as being likewise had in the
first proposition, is called the maji/s extremum, greater
extreme 5 and the subject, as being put in the second
or minor proposition, is called the minus extremum, les¬
ser extreme. Elms, in the syllogism, “ Man is an ani¬
mal : Peter is a man, therefore Peter is an animal the
word animal is the greater extreme, Peter the less ex¬
treme, and man the medium. See Syllogism.
Extreme and mean proportion, in Geometry, is when
a line is so divided, that the whole line is to the greater
segment, as that segment is to the other: Or, as it is
expressed by Euclid, when the line is so divided that
4he rectangle under the whole line, and the lesser seg¬
ment, is equal to the square of the greater segment.
Extreme Unction. See Unction.
EXIREMIPIES of figures, in Painting, is used
ioi the head, hands, and feet. These should be drawn
with more nicety and exactness, or more terminated
than other parts j and thus help to render the action
more expressive.
EXTRINSIC, among metaphysicians, is taken in
various senses. Sometimes it signifies a thing’s not be¬
longing to the essence of another ; in which sense the
efficient cause and end of a thing are said to be extrin¬
sic. Sometimes it signifies a thing’s not being contained
within the capacity of another 5 in which sense, those
causes are called extrinsic which introduce something
into a subject from without, as when a fire introduces
heat. Sometimes it signifies a thing added or applied
to another ; in which sense accidents and adherents
are said to be extrinsic to the subjects to which they
adhere. Sometimes the vision is said to be extrinsic
from some form which does not exist in that thing,
but is adjacent to it, or by some means or other with¬
out it.
__ EXTUBERANCES, in Medicine, are swellings or
risings up in the flesh or other parts of the body.
EXUBERANCE, (compounded of ex and uber,
“ plentiful”), in Rhetoric, a redundancy. See Re¬
dundance and Pleonasm.
EXUDATION. See Exsudation.
EXVERRiE, in antiquity, a kind of brush used in
cleansing houses, out of which a dead person had been
carried.
EXULCERATION, in Medicine, the act of
causing or producing ulcers. Thus, arsenic exulce-
rates the intestines j corrosive humours exulcerate the
skin.
. Exulceration is sometimes also used for an ulcer
itself; but more generally for those beginning erosions
which wear away the substance, and form ulcers.
EXUVIjE, among naturalists, denote the cast off
VOL. VIII. Part I. f
r 393 ]
E Y M
parts or coverings of animals, as the skins of serpents, T l„v
caterpillars and other insects.
Exuviae is also used for shells and other marine Evmouth.
bodies, frequently found in the bowels of the earth ;  
supposed to have been deposited there at the deluge •
as being the real spoils of once living creatures. See
Deluge, Conchology, and Geology.
. ,EY> i"our writers, the same with insula, “ an
island ; from which comes eyet, a small island or islet,
vulgarly called eyght.
E^YCK. See Bruges, John of.
EYE, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
A new born child shall be observed, perhaps, never to
keep its eyes fixed on any one object, but continually
changing from one to another, and if you put your
hand before them, the child will not wink. Hence some
have thought, that new-born infants have no siofit:
but this js a mistake ; and the true reason w-hy fheir
eyes are in perpetual motion is, that they have not yet
acquired the habit of examining one thing at once with
their eyes ; their not winking at the approach of the
hand, arises from their want of experience how easily
their eyes may be hurt; but in a few days they get the
habit of winking, so that afterwards their eyes do it
spontaneously at the approach of danger.
Artificial eyes are made of concave plates of gold,
silver, or glass, and are stained so as to resemble the
natural eye. They must, when fixed in the orbit, be
taken out and cleaned every night, and replaced in the
morning. If no more of a diseased eye is removed than
what is preternaturally projected, or if enough is left to
preserve the muscles unhurt, the artificial eye will have
a little motion from the muscles that remain. If the
eye does not fit well, it irritates and inflames the other
eye ; in which case lay it aside, until one can be had
that fits better.
Bulls Eye, in Astronomy. See Aldebaran.
Eye of a Block, in naval affairs, that part of the rope-
strop which is fastened to some necessary place in the
ship : the strop is a sort of wreath or rope formed into
a ring, and fixed round the block for the double con¬
venience of strengthening the block and fastening it in
any place where it is wanted.
Eye, in Agriculture and Gardening, signifies a little
bud or shoot, inserted into a tree by way of graft. See
Engrafting.
Eye of a Tree, a small pointed knot to which the
leaves stick, and from which the shoots or sprigs pro¬
ceed. See Gemma.
Eye, a town of Suffolk, 22 miles from Ipswich
and 91 from London. It may be called an island, be¬
cause it is surrounded by a brook near the borders of
Norfolk. It was incorporated by King John 5 has two
bailiffs, 10 principal burgesses, 24 common council, a
recorder, and town clerk. It is a mean-built place,
with narrow streets. The chief manufacture is bone-
lace and spinning. Here is, however, a large hand¬
some church ; and near it are the ruinous walls of an
ancient castle and monastery. The market is on Sa¬
turday, the fair on Whit-Monday. It has only sent
members to parliament since the reign of Edward IV.
Population 1893 in 1811.
EYE-Bright. See Euphrasia, Botany Index.
EYMOUTH, a town of Scotland in the county of
Berwick, formerly fortified to curb the garrison of Ber-
3 D wick.
E Z E [ 394 ] E Z R
..... . • • i _ w t n„ nrnnhesied at tbe same time in Judea. He foretold
Eyemouth wick, from which place tt mtl ^ W. L P J psrticu| , the deutntction of the temple,
|| I. SO- N. Lat. 55. JO. At g   , 4.1 mfoctronhe of those who revolted from Baby-
Ezekiel, kingdom of Scotllnd to Churchill, afterwards the great
duke of Marlborough; but he having no male issue, it
became extinct. Population 962 in 1811.
EYRAC, or Irac, Arabia, a province ot lurkey
in Asia, 345 miles in length, and 190 in breadth j ot
which Bagdad is the capital. . r •
Eyrac Agemi) the principal province of Persia, an¬
ciently called Parthia. r . . ,
EYRE, or Eire, in Law, the court of itinerant
iustices. See Assize.
EYRIE, in Falconry, a brood or nest, a place where
hawks build and hatch their young.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old lestament,
referring chiefly to the degenerate manners and corrup¬
tions of the Jews of those times. It abounds with fine
sentences and rich comparisons, and discovers a good
deal of learning in profane matters. . , _ , .
Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jehoi-
achin, and began his prophecies in the fifth year of the
captivity. He was cotemparary with Jeremiah, who
the fatal catastrophe of those who revolted from Baby- ^
Ion to Egypt, and the happy return of the Jews to their
own land.
EZION-gaber. See Asiongaber.
EZRA, a canonical book of the Old Testament;
comprehending the history of the Jews from the time
of Cyrus’s edict for their return, to the 20th year of
Artaxerxes Longimanus. It specifies the number of
Jews who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation jor the
rebuilding the temple, together with the laying its
foundation, the obstruction it met with, and the finish¬
ing thereof in the reign of Darius.
The illustrious author of this book was also the re¬
storer and publisher of the canon of tbe Old Testament.
See Bible.
The books of Ezra, called in the English version the
First and Second Book of Esdras, though held by some,
particularly the Greeks, for canonical, are thrown by
the English church into the number of apocryphal
books, being only extant in Greek.
Ezekiel
1!
Ezra,
F.
F T? THE. fourth consonant, and sixth letter of the
-v—' A 9 alphabet. The letter F is borrowed from the
digamma or double gamma of the iEolians as is evi¬
dent from the inscription on the pedestal oi the Colo -
sus at Delos; and was undoubtedly formed from the
old Hebrew van; and though this letter is not found in
the modern Greek alphabet, yet it was m the ancient
one, from whence the Latins received it and transmit-
tC It is formed by a strong expression of the breath, and
ioining at the same time the upper teeth and under lip.
It has but one sort of sound, which has a great amnity
with t; and ph, the latter being written for it by us m
all Greek words, as philosophy, &c. though the Italians
write \t filosofia. _ . , -p
The Romans for some time used an inverted , j[,
instead of V consonant, which had no peculiar figure
in their alphabet. Thus, in inscriptions we meet with
TERMINA xlT, DI.il, &C. Lipsius and others say,
that it was the emperor Claudius who introduced the
use of the inverted digamma, or i : but it did not long
subsist after his death ; for Quintilian observes, that it
was not used in his time. . , . . ..
F or FA, in Music, is the fourth note in rising in this
order of the gamut, ut, re, mi, fa. It likewise de¬
notes one of the Greek keys in music, destined for the
*)a F in physical prescription, stands for Fiat, or
« Let it be done.” Thus /. 5. a. signifies fiat secun-
dum artem. . . .
F, was also a numeral letter signifying 40; accord¬
ing to the verse,
Sexta quaterdenos gent qua distat ah alpha.
And when a dash was added at top, thus, F, it signi¬
fied forty thousand. ... , ,
F, in the civil law. Two f’s joined together thus,
ff, signify the Pandects. See Pandects.
F, in the civil law, a stigma or brand put upon felons
with a hot iron, on their being admitted to the benefit
of clergy ; by stat. 4 Hen. VII. c. 13.
FABA. See Vicia, Botany Index.
FABAGO, a species of bean-caper. See ZYGO-
phyllum, Botany Index.
FABER. See Zeus, Ichthyology Index.
FABIAN, Robert, an alderman of the city of
London, and sheriff in the year 1494, was a person of
learning for the times be lived in, a good poet, and
author of a Chronicle of England and France, entitled
The Concordance of Stories, in two volumes folio, be¬
ginning with Brute, and ending with the 20th ot
Henry VII. 1504. It contains several curious parti¬
culars relative to the city ot London, not elsewhere to
be found. Stow calls it “ a painful labour, to the
great honour of the city, and of the whole realm: VVe
are told that Cardinal Wolsey caused as many copies
of this book as he could procure to be burned, be¬
cause the author had made too clear a discovery 0
the large revenues of the clergy. Fabian ie 1
"^FABII, a noble and powerful family at Rome, who
derived their name from faha, a bean, because some ot
their ancestors cultivated this pulse. They were once
30 numerous that they took upon themselves to wage
FAB [ 395 ] FAB
Fabii, a war agains^ tlie Veientes. They came to a general
Wbius. engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family,
consisting of 306 men, were totally slain, in the year
of Rome 277. There only remained one whose tender
age had detained him at Rome, and from him arose the
noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABIUS Maximus Rullianus, was the first of the
Fabii who obtained the surname of Maximus, for les¬
sening the power of the populace at elections. He
was master of horse : and his victory over the Samnites
in that capacity nearly cost him his life, because he
engaged the enemy without the command of the dic¬
tator. He was five times consul, twice dictator, and
once censor. He triumphed over seven different na¬
tions in the neighbourhood of Rome, and rendered him¬
self illustrious by his patriotism.
Fabius Rusticus, an historian in the age of Claudius
and Nero. He was intimate with Seneca ; and the
encomiums which Tacitus passed upon his style, make
us regret the loss of his compositions.
Q. Fabius Maximus, a celebrated Roman, who
‘ from a dull and inactive childhood was raised to the
highest offices of the state. In his first consulship he
obtained a victory over Liguria ; and the fatal battle of
Thrasymenus occasioned his election to the dictator¬
ship. In this important office he began to oppose
Hannibal, not by fighting him in the open field, like
his predecessors, but he continually harassed his army
by countermarches and ambuscades, from which he re¬
ceived the surname of Cunctator or Delayer. Hannibal
sent him word, “ That if he was as great a captain as
he would be thought, he ought to come into the plain
and give him battle.” But Fabius coldly replied,
u That if he was as great a captain as he would be
thought, he would do well to force him to fight.”
Such operations for the commander of the Roman ar¬
mies gave offence to some 5 and Fabius was even accu¬
sed of cowardice. He, however, continued firm in his
first resolution j and patiently bore to see his master of
horse raised to share the dictatorial dignity with him¬
self by means of his enemies at home. When he had
laid down his office of dictator, his successors for a
while followed his plan j but the rashness of Varro, and
his contempt for the operations of Fabius, occasioned
the fatal battle of Cannae. Tarentum was obliged to
surrender to his arms after the battle of Cannae ; and
on that occasion the Carthaginian army observed that
Fabius was the Hannibal of Rome. When he had
made an agreement with Hannibal for the ransom of
the captives, which was totally disapproved by the
Roman senate, he sold all his estates to pay the mo¬
ney, rather than forfeit his word to the enemy. The
bold proposal of young Scipio to go and carry the
war from Italy to Africa, was rejected by Fabius as
chimerical and dangerous. He did not, however, live
to see the success of the Roman armies under Scipio,
and the conquest of Carthage by measures which he
treated with contempt and heard with indignation.
He died in the 100th year of his age, after he had
been five times consul, and twice honoured with a
triumph. The Romans were so sensible of his great
merit and services, that the expences of his funeral
were defrayed from the public treasury. His son bore
the same name, and shewed himself worthy of his noble
father’s virtues. During his consulship he received a
visit from his father on horseback in the camp. The Fabius
son ordered his father to dismount j and the old man |i
cheerfully obeyed, embracing his son, and saying, “ I Fabriano,
wished to know whether you knew what it is to be »
consul.” He died before his father, and Cunctator,
with the moderation of a philosopher, delivered a fune¬
ral oration over the dead body of his son.
Fabius, styled Pictor, a Roman general and histo¬
rian. He first introduced painting at Rome; and ha¬
ving caused the walls of the temple of Health to be
painted, some authors have erroneously reckoned him
a painter. He died about 216 B. C.
FABLE, a tale, or feigned narration, designed ei¬
ther to instruct or divert, disguised under the allegory
of an action, &c.
Fables were the first pieces of wit that made their
appearance in the world ; and have continued to be
highly valued, not only in times of the greatest simpli¬
city, but in the most polite ages of the world. Jo-
tham’s fable of the trees is the oldest that is extant,
and as beautiful as any that have been made since.
Nathan’s fable of the poor man is next in antiquity.
We find jiEsop in the most distant ages of Greece; and
in the early days of the Roman commonwealth, we read
of a mutiny appeased by the fable of the belly and the
members. As fables had their rise in the very infancy
of learning, they never flourished more than when
learning was at its greatest height; witness Horace,
Boileau, and Fontaine.
Fable is the finest way of giving counsel, and most
universally pleasing, because least shocking ; for, in the
reading of a fable, a man thinks he is directing himself,
whilst he is following the dictates of another, and con¬
sequently is not sensible of that which is the most un¬
pleasing circumstance in advice. Besides, the mind is
never so much pleased as when she exerts herself in any
action that gives her an idea of her own abilities ; this
natural pride of the soul is very much gratified in the
reading of fable.
Fable, is also used for the plot of an epic or dra¬
matic poem; and is, according to Aristotle, the prin¬
cipal part, and, as it were, the soul of the poem. See
Poetry.
FABRI, Hoxorius, a laborious Jesuit, born in the
diocese of Bellay, distinguished himself by his skill in
philosophy and the mathematics, and by writing a
great number of books ; the most curious of which
treat of geometry, optics, the loadstone, the motion of
the earth, the ebbing and flowing of the sea, &c. He
died at Rome in 1688.
FABRIANO, Gentile da, painter of history, was
born at Verona in 1332, and became a disciple of Gio¬
vanni da Fiesole. In that early age of painting he
rendered himself very famous, and was employed to
adorn a great number of churches and palaces at Flo¬
rence, Urbino, Siena, Perusia, and Rome, but parti¬
cularly in the Vatican ; and one picture of his, repre¬
senting the Virgin and Child, attended by Joseph,
which is preserved in the church of S. Maria Maggiore,
was highly commended by Michael Angelo. By or¬
der of the doge and senate of \ enice, he painted a
picture in the great council chamber, which was con¬
sidered as so extraordinary a performance, that his em¬
ployers granted him a pension for life, and conferred on
him the highest honour of their state, which was, the
3 D 2 privilege
FAB
[ 396 1
FAC
Fabriano
!!.
Fabricius.
privilege of wearing the habit of a noble \enetian.
He <!ied in I41 2.
FABRIC, in general, denotes the structure or con¬
struction of any thing ; but particularly of buildings,
as a church, hall, house, &c. See Architecture.
Fabric Lands, those formerly given towards re¬
building and repairing of cathedrals and other churches*,
for anciently almost every body gave more or less, by
his will, to the fabric of the parish church where he
dwelt.
FABRICIUS, C. a celebrated Roman, who in his
first consulship, year of Rome 47°> obtained several
victories over the Samnites and Lucanians, and was
honoured with a triumph. The riches which were ac¬
quired in those battles were immense, the soldiers were
liberally rewarded by the consul, and the treasury was
enriched with 400 talents. Two years after, labri-
cius went as ambassador to Pyrrhus, and refused with
contempt presents, and heard with indignation offers,
which might have corrupted the fidelity of a less vir¬
tuous citizen. Pyrrhus had occasion to admire the
magnanimity of I abricius; but his astonishment was
more powerfully awakened when he saw him make a
discovery of the perfidious offers of his physician, who
pledged himself to the Roman general for a sum of
money to poison his royal master. To this greatness
of soul was added the most consummate knowledge of
military affairs, and the greatest simplicity of manners.
Fabricius never used rich plate at his table. A small
salt-cellar, the feet of which were of horn, was the only
silver vessel which appeared in his house. This con¬
tempt of luxury and useless ornaments Fabricius wished
to inspire among the people ; and during his censorship
he banished from the senate Cornelius Ruffinus, who had
been tivice consul and dictator, because he kept in his
house more than ten pounds weight of silver plate.
Such were the manners of the conqueror of Pyrrhus,
who observed that he wished rather to command those
that had money, than possess it himself. Fie lived and
died in the greatest poverty. His body was buried at
the public charge, and the Roman people were obliged
to give a dowry to his two daughters when they had
arrived at years of maturity.
Fabricius, George, a learned German, horn at
Chemnitz in Misnia, in 1516. After a liberal edu¬
cation, he visited Italy in quality of tutor to a young
nobleman *, and, examining all the remains of antiqui¬
ty with great accuracy, compared them with their de¬
scriptions in Latin writers. The result of these obser¬
vations was his work entitled Roma, containing a de¬
scription of that city. He afterwards settled at Mise-
num, where he conducted a great school to the time of
his death in 1571. He was also the author of a great
number of sacred Latin poems, wrote seven books of
the Annals of Misnia, three of the Annals of Meissen,
and Travels.
Fabricius, Jerom, a celebrated physician in the
latter end of the 16th century (surnamed Aquapendente,
from the place of his birth), was the disciple and suc¬
cessor of Fallopius. He chiefly applied himself to sur¬
gery and anatomy, which he professed at Padua for 40
years with extraordinary reputation. The republic of
Venice settled a large pension upon him, and honoured
him with a gold chain and a statue. He died in 1603 j
leaving behind him several works which are much es- Fafedcmiii
teemed. ij
Fabricius, John Albert, one of the most learned .
and laborious men of his age, was horn at Leipsic in
1668. He was chosen professor of eloquence at Ham¬
burgh in 1699, and was made doctor of divinity at
Kiel. His works are. numerous : and he died at Ham¬
burgh in 1736, after a life spent in the severest literary
application to collect and publish valuable remains of
ancient learning.
I\abricius, Vincent, born at Hamburgh in 1613,
was a good poet, a great orator, an able physician, and
a learned civilian. He was for some time counseliop
to the bishop of Lubec, and afterward burgomaster and
syndic of the city of Dantzic j from whence he was
13 times sent deputy into Poland, where he died at
Warsaw in 1657, during the diet of that kingdom.
The most complete edition of Fabricius’s poems and
other works was published at Leipsic in 1685, under
the direction of his son Frederic Fabricius.
Fabricius, Baron, one of the finest gentlemen of
his time, and known to the public by his letters rela¬
ting to the transactions of Charles XII. of Sweden du¬
ring his residence in the Ottoman empire, was descend¬
ed from a good family in Germany. He was taken
early into the service of the court of Holstein *, and was
sent in a public character to the king of Sweden whilst
he was at Bender *, where he soon acquired the good
graces of that prince. He accompanied him in his
exercises : gave him a turn for reading 5 and it was
out of his hand Charles snatched Boileau’s satires, when
he tore out those that represented Alexander the Great
as a madman. Fabricius was also in favour with Sta¬
nislaus, and with our King George I. whom he accom¬
panied in his last journey to Hanover, and was with
him when he died. A translation of his letters was
published in Ijondon 1761.
FABROT, Charles Hannibal, one, of the most
celebrated civilians of his time, was born at Aix in
1681 j and acquired an extraordinary skill in the civil
and canon law, and in the belles lettres. He published
the Basilicce, or Constitutions of the Emperors ot the
East, in Greek and Latin, with learned notes, in seven
vols. folio; and editions of Cedrenus, Nicetas, Anas*
tasius Bibliothecarins, Constantine Manasses, and Ctf-
jas, with learned and curious notes.
FABULOUS, something consisting of, or connected
with, a fable.
Fabulous Age, among ancient historians. See
Ace.
I^ACE, the surface, or first side which a body pre¬
sents to the eye. We say, the face of the earth, of the
waters, &c. Polyhedrons have several faces. A die,
or cube, has six faces.
Face, is particularly used for the visage of an ani¬
mal, and especially of man j and comprehends, in the
latter, all that part of the head which is not covered
with the common long hair. The Latins call it facies,
vultus, os, &c.
The human face is called the image of the soul, as
being the seat of the principal organs of sense ; and the
place where the ideas, emotions, ,&c. of the soul are
chiefly set to view. Pride and disdain are shown in the
eyebrows, modesty on the cheeks, majesty in the fore¬
head,
FAC
h6A<!| &»c« It is tiie face shows the sexj tempcr&
ment, health, or disease, &c.
I he face, considered as toe index of the passions,
habits, &c. of the person, makes the subject of phy¬
siognomy. See Physiognomy.
Face, among painters and artists, is used to denote
a certain dimension of tiie human body, adopted for de¬
termining the proportion which the several parts should
bear to one another. See Drawing.
Face, in the military art, a word of command, in¬
timating to turn about: thus, face to the right, is to
turn upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right;
and, face to the left, is to turn upon the right heel a
quarter-round to the left.
FACIES Hippocratica, in Medicine, is when the
nostrils are sharp, the eyes hollow, the temples low,
the tips of the ears contracted and cold, the forehead
dry and wrinkled, and the complexion pale or livid 
^ be Hippocratic face is chiefly observed towards the
period of phthisis pulmonalis, and other consumptions,
and is held a sure prognostic of death. If it appear
within three days after the attack of an acute disease,
it is deemed to indicate death.
FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a state, city,
or company.
Faction, in antiquity, a name given to the differ¬
ent companies of combatants in the circus. They were
four, viz. the white, the red, the green, and the blue ;
to which Domitian added another of purple colour.
They were so denominated from the colour of the live¬
ries they wore; and were dedicated, according to M.
Aur. Cassiodorus, to the four seasons of the year ; the
green being consecrated to spring, the blue to winter,
the red to summer, and the white to autumn. It ap¬
pears from ancient inscriptions, that each faction had
its procurators and physician; and from history, that
party rage ran so high among them, that in a dissen¬
sion between two factions, in the time of Justinian, al¬
most 40,000 men lost their lives in the quarrel.
1ACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in opposi¬
tion to what is the production of nature. Thus, facti¬
tious cinnabar is opposed to native cinnabar.
FACTOR, in commerce, is an agent employed by
merchants residing at other places, to buy or sell goods,
or negotiate bills, or transact any kind of business on
their account; and entitled to a certain allowance for
his trouble.
A supercargo differs from a factor in this : The bu¬
siness of the former is limited to the care of a particu¬
lar cargo ; he goes along with it, and generally returns
when his business is completed: the latter has a lixed
residence abroad, and executes business for different
merchants. But their duties, and the circumstances for
which they are accountable, are the same.
The duty of a factor is to procure the best intelli¬
gence of the state of trade at his place ef residence ; of
the course of exchange; of the quantity and quality
of goods at market, their present price, and the pro¬
bability that it may rise or fall : to pay exact obedience
to the orders of his employers ; to consult their advan¬
tage in matters referred to his direction ; to execute
their business with all the dispatch that circumstances
admit; to be early in his intelligence, distinct in his
accounts, and punctual in his correspondence.
A factor’s power is either absolute or limited. Though
1 397 ]
FAC
intrusted with ample discretionary powers, he is not
warranted to take unreasonable or unusual measures, or
do any thing contrary to his employer’s interest; but
it is incumbent on the employer, if he challenge his
proceedings, to prove that he could have done better,
and was guilty of wilful mismanagement.
When a factor’s power is limited, he must adhere
strictly to his orders. If he exceeds his power, though
with a view to his employer’s interest, he is liable for
the consequence. For example, if he gives credit when
not empowered, or longer credit if not empowered, for
the sake of a better price, and the buyer proves insol¬
vent, he is liable for the debt. A factor has no power
to give credit unless authorized: But if the goods
consigned be generally sold on credit at the place of
consignation, the factor will.be vindicated for selling at
the usual credit, unless expressly restricted.
Although opinion will never justify the factor for
departing from orders, necessity sometimes will. If he
be limited not to sell goods under a certain price, and
the goods be perishable, and not in a situation for be¬
ing kept, he may sell them, to prevent their destruction,
even under the price limited.
A factor is never warranted to deal on trust, ex¬
cept with persons in good credit at the time. If the
employer challenges the debtors, it is incumbent on
him to prove that their bad circumstances werelcnown
at the time of sale; and the factor will be vindicated,
if he trusted them at the same time for goods of his
own.
If the iactor sells his employer’s goods on trust, and,
after the day of payment is elapsed, receive payment
from the purchaser for a debt of his own, he becomes
liable in equity for the debt.
In case of bankruptcy, the factor ought immediately
to lay attachments, and advise his employers ; and he
cannot withdraw his attachments, nor compound debts,
without orders.
If a factor sells goods belonging to different mer¬
chants to the same person, and the buyer proves insol¬
vent, they shall bear the loss in equal proportions;
and if the buyer has paid part before his insolvency,
without specifying for which, the payment ought to
be distributed in equal proportions ; but, if the days
of payment be fixed, and part of the debts only due,
the payment ought to be applied, in the first place, to
such debts as were due.
If he makes a wrong entry at the custom-house, and
the goods he seized in consequence thereof, he must
bear the loss, unless the error be occasioned by a mis¬
take in the invoice, or letter of advice.
The owner bears the loss of goods seized when at¬
tempted to be smuggled by his orders; but the factor
complying with an unlawful order is liable in such pe¬
nalties as the laws exact.
If a factor saves the duty of goods due to a foreign
prince, he shall have the benefit; for, if detected, he
bears the loss.
If a factor sells goods bought by his employer’s
orders for his own advantage, the employer may reco¬
ver the benefit, and the factor shall be amerced for the
same.
If a factor receives bad money in payment, he bears
the loss ; but if the value of the money be lessened by
the government, the employer bears the loss.
A
Factor.
FAC
[ 398 ]
FAG
Factor A factor is not liable for goods spoiled, robbed, or
H destroyed by fire. # .
Faculty. jf ^ factor receives counterfeit jewels Irom his em-
' ■' ployer, and sells them, the employer is liable to indem¬
nify him for any penalties he may incur.
If a factor be ordered to make insurance, and ne¬
glect it, and the subject be lost, he is liable to make it
good, providing he had effects in his hands.
If a factor buys goods for his employer, his bargain
shall be binding on the employer.
In case of a factor’s insolvency, the owner may re¬
claim his goods j and if they be sold on trust, the
owner (and not the factor’s creditors) shall recover pay¬
ment of the debts. , .
Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the mul¬
tiplier and multiplicand, because they constitute the
product. See Arithmetic. # . '
FACTORAGE, called also commission, is the al¬
lowance given to factors by the merchant who employs
them. . . 1 • j r
A factor’s commission in Britain, on most kinds o*.
goods, is per cent. •, on lead, and some other ar¬
ticles, 2 per cent. *, in Italy, per cent.; ml ranee,
Holland, Spain, Portugal, Hamburgh, and Dantzic,
2 per cent.; in Turkey, 3 per cent.; in North Ameri¬
ca, 5 per cent, on sales, and 5 per cent, on returns ; in
the West Indies, 8 per cent, for commission and storage.
In some places, it is customary for the factors to ensure
the debts for an additional allowance, generally ^
cent. In that case, they are accountable for the debt
when the usual term of credit is expired.
Factorage on goods is sometimes charged at a cer¬
tain rate per cask, or other package, measure, or weight,
especially when the factor is only employed to receive
or deliver them.
FACTORY is a place where a considerable number
of factors reside, to negotiate for their masters or em¬
ployers. See Factor. . _ . .i_
The most considerable factories belonging to the
British are those established in the East Indies, Portu-
o-al Turkey, &c. There are also English factories es¬
tablished at Hamburgh, Petersburgh, Dantzic, and in
Holland ; all endowed with certain privileges.
FACTUM, in Arithmetic, the product of two quan¬
tities multiplied by each other. _ .
FACUL7E, in Astronomy, certain bright and shining
parts, which the modern astronomers have, by means of
telescopes, observed upon or about the surface of the
sur-, they are but seldom seen.—The word is pure
Latin ; being a diminutive oifax, “ torch and sup¬
posed to be here applied from their appearing and dis¬
appearing by turns.
FACULTY, in Law, a privilege granted to a per¬
son, by favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law,
he ought not to do.
For granting these privileges, there is a court under
the archbishop of Canterbury, called the court of the
faculties. The chief officer of this court is styled master
of the faculties, and has a power of granting dispensa¬
tions in divers cases : as to marry without the banns
being first published, to eat flesh on days prohibited, to
ordain a deacon under age, for .s^son to succeed his fa¬
ther in his benefice, a clerk to fipld two or more liv¬
ings, &c. . ,. , . , rf
Faculty, in the schools, a term appliec to the dit-
3
ferent members of an university, divided according to
the arts and sciences taught there : thus in most univer¬
sities there are four faculties, viz. 1. Of arts, which
include humanity and philosophy. 2. Of theology.
3. Of physic. And, 4. Of civil law.
Faculty of Advocates. See Advocates.
Faculty is also used to denote the powers of the hu¬
man mind, viz. understanding, will, memory, and ima¬
gination. See Metaphysics.
FiECES, in Chemistry, the gross matter, or sedi¬
ment, that settles at the bottom after distillation, fer¬
mentation, and the like.—The fseces of wine are com¬
monly called Lees.
Faxes, in Medicine, the excrements voided by stool.
See Excrements.
FFECULENT, in general, is applied to thing?
abounding with faeces or dregs: thus the blood and
other humours of the human body are said to be fse-
culent, when without that purity which is necessary to
health. . T , . .
FAENSA, a city and bishop’s see of Italy, situated
in the pope’s territories, about 30 miles east of Bolog¬
na. E. Long. 12. 38. and N. Lat. 44. 30.
FAENZA, a city of Romagna in Italy with a bi¬
shop’s see. It is an ancient place, and has undergone
various revolutions. The river Amona washes its walls,
and passes between the city and the suburbs, which are
joined bv a stone bridge defended by two good towers.
The city is remarkable for its earthen ware, which is
the best in all Italy.
FAERNUS, Gabriel, a native of Cremona in Ita¬
ly, was an excellent Latin poet and critic of the 16th
century. He was so skilled in all parts of polite lite¬
rature,' that the cardinal de Medicis, afterwards Pope
Pius IV. was particularly fond of him. He was the
author of some Latin elegies j of 100 Latin fables, se¬
lected from the ancients, written in iambic verse *, and
of several pieces of criticism, as Censura emendationum
Livianarum, De Metris Comicis, &c. He was re¬
markably happy in deciphering manuscripts, and re¬
storing ancient authors to their purity: he took such
pains with Terence in particular, that Bentley has
adopted all his notes in the edition he gave of that
writer. He died at Rome in 1561; and Thuanus,
who wrote his eloge, says that the learned world was
greatly obliged to him *, yet had been still more so, ir,
instead of suppressing the then unknown fables of Pbse-
drus, for fear of lessening the value of his own Latin
fables, written in imitation of iEsop, he had been con¬
tent with imitating them. M. Perrault, however, who
translated Faernus’s fables into French, has defended
him from this imputation, by affirming that the first
MS. of Phsedrus’s fables, found in the dust of an olu
library, was net discovered till about 30 years after
Faernus’s death.
FAGARA, Iron Wood ; a genus of plants belonging
to the tetrandria class, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 43d order, Dumosce. See Botany Index.
FAGE, Raimond de la, an excellent designer amt
engraver, highly esteemed by Carlo Maratti, was born
at Toulouse in 1648. He applied himself to design¬
ing, through inclination, in spite of his parents ; and
had no master nor anv assistance: but his superior ta¬
lents supplied the want of them, and he became one ot
the best designers in Europe > his performances on >-
cetuious
Fage
Fagus.
[ 39? ]
It is reported liquor casks
FAG
centious subjects are the most esteemed,
of this artist, that he never made use of money, but
contracted debts j and when the accounts were brought
' him, he made some design upon the back of the bills,
and bid the owners sell the drawings to connoisseurs for
the amount, by which they were generally great gainers.
Several of those drawings are yet in the cabinets of the
curious. He led a loose, depraved life $ and his re¬
peated debaucheries put an end to it at the age of 42.
FAGGOT, in times of Popery here, was a badge
worn on the sleeve of the upper garment of such per¬
sons as had recanted or abjured what was then termed
heresy; being put on after the person had carried a
faggot, by way of penance, to some appointed place of
solemnity. The leaving o(F the wear of this badge was
sometimes interpreted a sign of apostasy.
Faggots, among military men, persons hired by
officers, whose companies are not full, to muster and
hide the deficiencies of the company; by which means
they cheat the king of so much money.
FAGIUS, Paul, alias Buchlin, a learned Protes¬
tant minister, born at Rheinzabem in Germany in
1504. He was a schoolmaster at Isna j but afterwards
became a zealous preacher, and wrote many books.
The persecution in Germany menacing danger to all town, by'privilege, for the more speedy ^and Tom mo'
rvhn rim nnf- nrrvFpcc tl-»c mIcl-» sinDJ!   * 1 •  f*   1 . t • . 1 1 . .
F A I
not being liable to shrink nor to
change the colour of the liquor it contains; it is also
strongly recommended as an underwood for hop-poles, K
stakes, &c. Its fruit too is valuable, not only for
swine and deer, but as a human food : Bread is said to
have been made of it. Upon the whole, the chesnut,
whether in the light of ornament or use, is undoubtedly
an object of the planter’s notice.
FAINT action, in Law^ a feigned action, or sucfi
as, although the words of the writ are true j yet for
ceitain causes, the plaintiff has no title to recover
thereby.
1 aint Pleader^ in Law^ a covinous, false, or col-
lusory manner of pleading, to the deceit of a third per¬
son.
FAINTING. See Lipothymia, Medicine Index.
FAINTS, in the distillery, the weak spirituous li¬
quor that runs from the still in rectifying the low wines
after the proof-spirit is taken off.
Faints are also the lastrunnings of all distilled spirits.
The clearing the worm of these is so essential a point in
order to the obtaining a pure spirit by the subsequent
distillation, that all others are fruitless without it.
FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a
Fagus
i)
Fair.
who did not profess the Romish doctrines, he and Bu-
cer came over to England in 1549, at the invitation of
Archbishop Cranmer, to perfect a new translation of
the Scriptures. Fagius took the Old Testament, and
Bucer the New, for their respective parts j but the de¬
sign was at that time frustrated by the sudden deaths of
both. Fagus died in 1550, and Bucer did not live
above a year after. Their bodies were dug up and
burned in the reign of Queen Mary.
FAGONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the de-
candria class, and in the natural method ranking under
the 14th order, Gruinales. See Botany Index.
FAGOPYRUM, or Buck-Wheat. See Poly¬
gonum, Botany Index.
FAGUS, the Beech Tree ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the moncecia class, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See
Botany Index.
The chesnut tree, one of the species belonging to this
genus, sometimes grows to an immense size. The lar¬
gest in the known world are those which grow upon
Mount iEtna in Sicily. At Tortworth in Glouces¬
tershire, is a chesnut tree 52 feet round. It is proved
to have stood there ever since the year 1150, and
was then so remarkable, that it was called the great
chesnut of Tortworth. It fixes the boundary of the ma¬
nor, and is probably near 1000 years old. As an orna¬
mental, the chesnut, though unequal to the oak, the
beech, and the esculus, has a degree of greatness be¬
longing to it which recommends it strongly to the gar¬
dener’s attention. Its uses have been highly extolled j
and it may deserve a considerable share of the praise
which has been given it. As a substitute for the oak,
it is preferable to the elm. For door-jambs, window-
frames, and some other purposes of the house carpen¬
ter, it is nearly equal to oak itself; but it is very apt
to be shakey, and there is a deceitful brittleness in it
which renders it unsafe to be used as beams, or in any
other situation where an uncertain load is required to
be borne. It is universally allowed to be excellent for.
dious providing of such things as the place stands in
need of.
The word fair, is formed from the French foire,
which signifies the same thing j and foire is by some
derived from the Latin forum, “ market j” by others
from the Latin ferice, because anciently fairs were al¬
ways held in the places where the wakes, or feasts of
the dedications of churches, called ferice, were held.
See Ferine.
It is incident to a fair, that persons should be free from
being arrested in it for any other debt or contract than
what was contracted in the same j or, at least, promi¬
sed to be paid there. These fairs are generally kept
once or twice a-year j and, by statute, they shall not be
held longer than they ought by the lords thereof, on
pain of their being seized into the king’s hands, &c.
Also proclamation is to be made, how long they are
to continue $ and no person shall sell any goods after
the time the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double the
value, one-fourth to the prosecutor and the rest to the
king. There is a toll usually paid in fairs on the sale
of things, and for stallage, picage, &c.
Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with toll,
and impost. The privileges of free fairs consist chief¬
ly, first, in that all traders, &c. whether natives or
foreigners, are allowed to enter the kingdom, and are
under the royal protection, exempt from duties, impo¬
sitions, tolls, &c. Secondly, that merchants, in going
or returning, cannot be molested or arrested, or their
goods stopped. They are established by letters-patent
from the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs, make
a very considerable article In the commerce of Europe,
especially that of the Mediterranean, and inland parts
of Germany, &c.
The most celebrated fairs in Europe are those,
1. Of Frankfort, held twice a-year, in spring and
autumn : the first commencing the Sunday before
Palm-Sunday, and the other on the Sunday before
the eighth of September. Each lasts 14 days, or two
weeks : the first of which is called the week of accep.
tance.
F A I
[ 400 ]
F A I
Fair.
iaticc, and the second the week of ‘payment. They aie
1 famous for the sale of all kinds ol commodities , but
particularly for the immense quantity of curious books
nowhere else to be found, and whence the booksellers
throughout all Europe used to furnish themselves. Be¬
fore each fair, there is a catalogue of all the books to
be sold thereat, printed and dispersed, to call together
purchasers: though the learned complain of divers un¬
fair practices therein ; as fictitious titles, names ot
books purely imaginary, &c. beside great faults in the
names of the authors, and the titles ol the real books.
 2. The fairs of Leipsic, which are held thrice a-
vear j one beginning on the first of January j another
three weeks alter Easter j and a third after Michael¬
mas. They hold 12 days apiece*, and are at least
as considerable as those of Francfort. 3. The fairs
of Novi, a little city in the Milanese, under the do¬
minion of the republic of Genoa. There are four in
the year, commencing on the second ol February, the
second of May, the first of August, and second of
September. Though the commodities bought and
sold here be very considerable ; yet, what chiefly con¬
tributes to render them so famous, is the vast con¬
course of the most considerable merchants and nego¬
tiants of the neighbouring kingdoms, for the transact¬
ing of affairs and settling accounts. 4. The lairs of
Biga, whereof there are two in the year j one in May
and the other in September. They are much fre¬
quented by the English, Dutch, and French ships, as
also from all parts of the Baltic. The best time for
the sale of goods at Riga is during the fairs. Since
the building of the famous city of Petersburg!!, these
fairs have suffered some diminution. 5* Ta*rs Arch¬
angel, during which all the trade foreigners have with
that city is managed. It holds a month, or six weeks
at most, commencing from the middle of August.
The Muscovite merchants attend here from all parts
of that vast empire j and the English, Dutch, French,
Swedish, Danish, and other ships in the port of that
city, on this occasion, ordinarily amount to 300. But
this is no free fair as the rest are: The duties, of ex¬
portation and importation are very strictly paid, and
on a very high footing. 6. Ihe lair of fet Germain,
one of the suburbs of Paris, commencing on the third
of February, and holding till Easter; though it is
only free for the first 15 days. 7. The fairs of Lyons,
which Mons. du Chesne, in his Antiquity of Cities,
would insinuate, from a passage in Strabo, were esta¬
blished by the Romans; though it is certain, the fairs,
as they now stand, are of a much later date. There
are three in the year, each lasting 20 days, and free
for ever. They begin on Easter Monday, the 26th
of Julv, and the first of December. 8. Fair of Guibray,
a suburb of the city of Falaise in the Lower Normandy.
It is said to have been established by our William the
Conqueror, in consideration of his being born at Falaise.
It commences on the 16th of August; and holds 15
days free by charter, and longer by custom. 9. Fair of
Beaugaire, held partly in a city of that name, in Lan¬
guedoc, and partly in the open country, under tents,
&c. It commences on the 22d of July, and only holds
for three days; yet it is the greatest and most celebrat¬
ed of all the’ fairs in that part of Europe, both for the
concourse of strangers from all parts of the world, and
for the traffic of all kinds of goods : the money return-
ed in these three days amounting sometimes to above six ja;r,
millions of livres. v—
The fairs of Porto Bello, Vera Cruz, and the Ha-
vannah, are the most considerable of all those in Ame¬
rica. The two first last as long as the flota and gal¬
leons continue in those ports; and the last is opened as
soon as the flota or galleons arrive there upon their re¬
turn for Spain ; this being the place where the two
fleets join. See Flota and Galleons.
The principal British fairs are, 1. Sturbridge fair,
near Cambridge, by far the greatest in Britain, and
perhaps in the world. 2. Bristol has two fairs, veiy
near as great as that of Sturbridge. 3* Exeter. 4’
West Chester. 5. Edinburgh. 6. Wheyhill; and
7. Burford fair; both for sheep. 8. Pancras fair,
in Staffordshire, for saddle-horses. 9. Bartholomew
fair, at London, for lean and Welsh black cattle.
10. St Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts. 11.
Yarmouth fishing fair for herrings ; the only fishing fair
in Great Britain. 12. Ipswich butter fair. 13. Wood-
borough-hill, in Dorsetshire, for west country manufac¬
tures, as kerseys, druggets, &c. 14. Two cheese fairs
at Chipping Norton : with innumerable other fairs, be¬
sides weekly markets, for all sorts of goods as well our
own as of foreign growth.
Fair, in sea-language, is used for the disposition of
the wind, when it is favourable to a ship’s course, in op¬
position to that which is contrary or foul. The term
fair is more comprehensive than large, and includes a-
bout 16 or 18 points of the compass; whereas large is
confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a wind
which crosses the keel at right angles, or obliquely from
the stern, but never to one right a-stern.
Fair Isle, a small island lying between Orkney and
Shetland, 10 or 12 leagues E. N. E. from the former;
and seven, eight, or 10 leagues S. W. from the latter.
It is three miles long, and scarcely half a mile broad,
very craggy, with three high rocks which are visible
both from* Orkney and Shetland. It contains a small
quantity of arable land, which is very fruitful and well
manured; excellent pasturage for sheep; and affords
great plenty of sea and water fowl, and all kinds of fish
upon the coasts. There is in effect no port, though
they have two that are nominally so ; one at the south
end, which is full of rocks, where only small boats can
lie ; the other at the north-east end, larger and safer in
summer, so that it serves commodiously enough lor
their fishery. The duke of Medina Sidonia, when com¬
mander of the famous Spanish armada in 1588, was
wrecked on the east coast of this island. The ship
broke to pieces, but the duke and 200 made their es¬
cape. They lived here so long, that both they and the
inhabitants were almost famished. At length the duke
and the poor remains of his people were carried over to
the main land of Shetland, and thence to Dunkirk, by
one Andrew Humphry, for which service Andrew was
rewarded with 3000 merks. This island produced to
its former proprietor between §0 and 60I. sterling. It
was sold at Edinburgh in 1766, for about 850I. to
James Stewart of Burgh, Esq. ...
FAin-curve, is a rvinding line, used in delineating
ships, whose shape is varied, according to the part of
the ship which it is intended to describe.
F.UR-way, in sea language, the path or channel of
a narrow bay, river, or haven, in which ships usually
advance
F A I
advance in their passage up and down $ so that if any
vessels are anchored therein, they are said to lie in the
fair-way.
, FAIRFAX, Edward, natural son of Sir Thomas
I air fax, was an English poet who lived in the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I. He wrote several poetical
pieces, and was an accomplished genius. Dryden in¬
troduces Fairfax with Spenser, as the leading writers
of the times $ and even seems to give the preference
to the former in the way of harmony, when he observes
that Waller owned himself indebted for the harmony
of his numbers to Fairfax’s Godfrey of Boulogne, He
died about the year 1632, at his own house called New-
h'dl, in the parish of Fuyston, between Denton and
Xnaresborough, and lies under a marble stone.
I airfax, Sir Thomas, general of the parliamen¬
tary forces against Charles I. in 1644. See {History
vf) Britain, N° 127. et seq. He resigned in 1650 ;
after which he lived privately, till he was invited by
General Monk to assist him against Lambert’s army.
He cheerfully embraced the occasion j and, on the
third of December 1659, appeared at the head of a
body of gentlemen of Yorkshire $ when, upon the
reputation of his name, a body of 12,000 men for¬
sook Lambert and joined him. He was at the head
of the committee appointed by the house of commons
to attend King Charles II. at the Hague, to desire
him speedily to return to England $ and having rea¬
dily assisted in his restoration, returned again to his
seat in the country 5 where he lived in a private man¬
ner till his death, which happened in 1671, in the
60th year of his age.—He wrote, says Mr Walpole,
Memorials of Thomas Lord Fairfax, printed in 1699 ;
and was not only an historian, but a poet. In Mr
.Fhoresby’s museum were preserved in manuscript the
following pieces : The Psalms of David, the Can¬
ticles, the Songs of Moses, and other parts of Scrip¬
ture, versified, a poem on Solitude; Notes of Ser¬
mons, by his lordship, by his lady daughter of Ho¬
race Lord Vere, and by their daughter Mary the wife
of George second duke of Buckingham ; and a Trea¬
tise on the Shortness of Life. But of all Lord Fairfax’s
Works, says Mr Walpole, the most remarkable were
the verses he wrote on the horse on which Charles II.
rode to his coronation, and which had been bred and
presented to the king by his lordship. How must that
merry monarch, unapt to keep his countenance on more
serious occasions, have smiled at this awkward homage
from the old victorious hero of republicanism and the
covenant! He gave a collection of manuscripts to the
Bodleian library.
FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucestershire, with a
[ 401 ]
F A I
nifies a sort of deity, or imaginary genius, conversant
on the earth, and distinguished by a variety of fantas¬
tical actions either good or bad.
They were most usually imagined to he women of
an order superior to human nature, yet subject to wants,
passions, accidents, and even death ; sprightly and be¬
nevolent while young and handsome ; morose, peevish,
and malignant, if ugly, or in the decline of their beau¬
ty ; fond of appearing in white, whence they are often
called the white ladies.
Concerning these imaginary beings, no less a person
than Jervaise of Tilleberry, marshal of the kingdom of
Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th century,
writes thus in a work inscribed to the emperor Otlio IV.
It has been asserted by persons of unexceptionable
credit, that fairies used to choose themselves gallants
from among men, and rewarded their attachment with
an affluence of worldly goods ; but if they married, or
boasted of a fairy’s favours, they as severely smarted
for such indiscretion.” The like tales still go current
in Languedoc ; and throughout the whole province,
there is not a village without some ancient seat or ca¬
vern which had the honour of being a fairy’s residence,
or at least some spring where a fairy used to bathe.
This idea of fairies has a near affinity with that of the
Greeks and Romans, concerning the nymphs of the
woods, mountains, and springs ; and an ancient scho¬
liast on Theocritus says, “ The nymphs are demons
which appear on the mountains in the figure of women
and what is more surprising, the Arabs and other ori¬
entals have their gmn and peri, of whom they entertain
the like notions.
But fairies have been likewise described as of either
sex, and generally as of minute stature, though capable
of assuming various forms and dimensions. The most
charming representation imaginable of these children
of romantic fancy, is in the Midsummer Night's Dream
of Shakespeare ; in referring to which, we no doubt
have been anticipated by the recollection of almost
every reader.
Spenser’s Faery Queene is an epic poem, under the
persons and characters of fairies. This sort of poetrv
raises a pleasing kind of horror in the mind of the read¬
er, and amuses his imagination with the strangeness
and novelty of the persons who are represented in it;
but, as a vehicle of instruotion, the judicious object to
it, as not having probability enough to make any moral
impression.
The belief of fairies still subsists in many parts of
our own country. The
Swart fairy of the mine”
market on Thursdays. It is remarkable for the church, (of German extraction), has scarce yet quitted our sub-
which has curious painted glass windows. They are terraneous works; {vid. next article. Puck, or Ro-
said to have been taken in a ship by John Tame, Esq. ’ * ~
towards the end of the 15th century, who built the
church for their sake. They are preserved entire, and
the figures are extremely well drawn and coloured.
I hey represent the most remarkable histories in the
Old and New Testament, They are frequently visited
by travellers, and many go on purpose to view them,
as one of the greatest curiosities in England. The
painter was Albert Durer. Population 1442 in 1811.
W. Long. 1. 46. N. Lat. 31. 42.
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, eig-
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
bin Goodfellow, still haunts many of our villages.
And in many parts of Scotland, new-born children
are watched till the christening is over, lest they should
be stolen or changed by some of these fantastical exist¬
ences.
FAlRY'of the Mine; an imaginary being, an inhabitant
of mines. The Germans believed in two species ; one
fierce and malevolent: the other a gentle race, appear¬
ing like little old men dressed like the miners, and not
much above two feet high. These wander about the
drifts and chambers of the works; seem perpetually
3 E employed,
Fain
F A I [40;
employed, yet do nothing •, some seem to cut the ove,
ox- fling what is cut into vessels, or turn the windlass .
but never do any harm to the miners, unless provoked
as the sensible Agricola, in this point credulous, relates
in his book de Animantibus Subterraneis.
Fairy Circle or Ring, a phenomenon pretty fre¬
quent in the fields, &c. supposed by the vulgar to be
traced by the fairies in their dances. There are two
kinds of it; one of about seven yards in diameter, con¬
taining a round hare path, a foot broad, with green
grass in the middle ol it. JLhe other is of different
bigness, encompassed with a circumference of^ grass.
Mess. Jessop and Walker, in the Philosophical Trans¬
actions, ascribe them to lightning *, which is thought
to be confirmed by their being most frequently produced
after storms of that kind, as well as by the colour and
brittleness of the grass x’oots when first observed. Light¬
ning, like all other fires, moves round, and burns more
in the extremity than in the middle : the second circle
arises from the first, the grass burnt up growing very
plentifully afterwards. Others maintain that these
circles are made by ants, which are frequently found
in great numbers therein.—Mr Cavallo, in his treatise
on electricity, does not think that lightning is at all
concerned iix the formation of them : “ They are not
(says he) always of a circular figure •, and, as I am in¬
formed, they seem to be rather beds of mushrooms than
the effects of lightning.
We have frequently observed beds of mushrooms ar¬
ranged in a circular form like what are called fairy
rings ; but it will be difficult to account for the mush¬
room seed being disposed in this manner. It is pro¬
bable that the seed is dispersed over the whole field, and
remains dormant till it is acted on by some stimulus to
excite its vegetating powers. Perhaps this stimulus is
atmospheric electricity, which acting on particular spots
only, produces on them an abundant crop ol mushrooms,
while none appear in other places.
FAITH, in Philosophy and Theology, that assent
which we give to a proposition advanced by another,
the truth of which we do not immediately perceive from
our own reason or experience j or it is a judgment or
assent of the mind, the motive whereof is not any in¬
trinsic evidence, but the authority or testimony ot some
other who reveals or relates it. Hence, as there are
two kinds of authorities and testimonies, the one of
God, and the other of man, faith becomes distinguished
into divine and human.
Divine Faith, is that founded on the authority of
God •, or it is that assent we give to what is revealed by
God. .
The objects of this faith, therefore, are matters ot re¬
velation. See Revelation and Religion.
Human Faith, is that whereby we believe what is
told us by men. The object hereof is matter of human
testimony and evidence. See Metaphysics.
Faith, in practical theology, makes the first of the
theological virtues or graces.
Faith in God, in this sense, denotes such a convic¬
tion of his being, perfections, character, and govern¬
ment, as produces love, trust, worship, obedience, and
resignation.
Faith in Christ, as it has been defined by some, is a
mere assent to the gospel as true ; according to others,
it signifies such a persuasion that he is the Messiah, and
. ] F A K
such a desire and expectation of the blessings which he
has promised in his gospel to his sincere disciples, as JF
engage the mind to fix its dependence upon him, and
subject itself to him in all the ways of holy obedience.
See Theology.
Faith, likewise, in respect to futurity, is a moral prin¬
ciple, implying such a conviction ol the reality and im¬
portance of a future state, as is sufficient to regulate
the temper and conduct.
Faith, or Fidelity {Fides'), was deified by the an¬
cient Romans, and had a temple in the Capitol conse¬
crated to her by Attilius Catalinus. Her priests wore
white veils : unbloody sacrifices were offered to her,
and the greatest oaths were taken in her name. Ho¬
race clothes her in white, places her in the retinue of
Fortune, and makes her the sister of Justice, Od. 24,
35. 1. i. Public Faith is represented in a great number
of medals sometimes with a basket of fruit in one
hand, and some ears of corn in the other ; and some¬
times holding a turtle-dove. But the most usual sym¬
bol is two hands joined together. I he inscriptions are
generally, Fides Augusti, Tides Exercitus, or Tides
Militum, &c.
FAITHFUL, an appellation assumed hy the Ma¬
hometans. See Mahometans.
FAITHORN, William, an ingenious English ar¬
tist, a native of London, was the disciple ol I earC .me
painter, and worked with him three or four years.
At the breaking out of the civil war. Peak espoused
the cause of his sovereign : and Faithorn, who ac¬
companied his master, was taken prisoner by the re¬
bels at Baringbouse, from whence he was sent to Lon¬
don, and confined in Aldersgate. In this uncomfort¬
able situation he exercised his graver; and a small
head of the first Villars duke of Buckingham, in the
style of Melan, is reckoned among his performances at
that time. The solicitations of his friends in his fa¬
vour at last prevailed ; and he was released from pri¬
son, with permission to retire to the continent. In
France he found encouragement and protection from
the Abbe de Marolles ; and it was at this time that
he formed an acquaintance with Nanteuil, from whose
instructions he derived very considerable advantages.
About the year 1650 he returned to England, ami
soon after married the sister of a Captain Ground.
By her he had two sons ; Henry, who was a booksel¬
ler, and William an engraver in mezzotinto. lai-
thorn opened a shop near Temple-Bar, where he so.d
not only his own engravings, but those of other Eng¬
lish artists, and imported a considerable number ot
prints from Holland, France, and Italy. About the
year 1680, he retired from his shop, and resided 111
Printing-House Yard ; but he still continued to work
for the booksellers, especially Royston, Martin, and
Peak the younger, his former master’s brother. He
painted portraits from the life in crayons; winch art
he learned of Nanteuil during his abode in France.
He also painted in miniature; and his performances
in both these styles were much esteemed. His spirits
were broken by the indiscretion and dissipation oi his
son William ; and a lingering consumption put an end
to his life in 1691. He wrote a book Upon Drawing,
Graving, and Etching, for which he was celebrated by
his friend Thomas Flatman the poet.
FAKIRS, Indian monks or friars. They outdo
F A L
the severity and mortification of the ancient Anchorets
or Solitaries. Some ol them make a vow of continu¬
ing all their lifetime in one posture, and keep it effec¬
tually. Others never lie down 3 but continue in a
standing posture all their lives, supported only by a
stick, or rope under their arm pits. Some mangle
their bodies with scourges and knives. They look
upon themselves to have conquered every passion, and
triumphed over the world ; and accordingly scruple
not, as. if in a state of innocence, to appear entirely
naked in public.
The common people of East India are thoroughly
persuaded of the virtue and innocence of the fakirs ;
notwithstanding which, they are accused of committing
the most enormous crimes in private.
Ihey have also another kind of fakirs, who do not
practise such severities : these flock together in com¬
panies,. and go from village to village 5 prophesying,
and telling fortunes. They are wicked villains, and it
is dangerous for a man to meet them in a lone place :
nevertheless the Indian idolaters have them in the ut¬
most veneration. They make use of drums, trumpets,
and other musical instruments, to rouse their souls, and
work themselves up to an artificial ecstasy, the better
to publish their pretended prophecies.
. Some ot the votaries of these sages most devoutly
kiss their privy parts; and they receive this monstrous
declaration of respect with a kind of ecstatic pleasure.
The most sober and discreet Indians consult them in
this preposterous attitude; and their female votaries
converse with them a considerable time with the most
indecent freedom.
The fire they burn is made of cotvs dung, dried in
the sun. When they are disposed to sleep, they repose
themselves on cows dung, and sometimes on ordure
itself. They are so indulgent towards every living-
creature, that they suffer themselves to be overrun with
vermine, or stung by insects, without tiie least relue-
tancy or complaint.
It is more than probable, those Indian friars have
some secret art to lull their senses asleep, in order to
render themselves in a great measure insensible of the
excessive torments they voluntarily undergo. Oving-
ton assures us, that “ as he was one day in an assem¬
bly of fakirs, he observed, that they drank opiates in¬
fused in water; the intoxicating virtue thereof was
enough to turn their brain.”
The garment of the chief fakirs consists of three or
four yards of orange-coloured linen, which they tie
round them, and a tiger’s skin, which hangs over their
shoulders. Their hair is woven in tresses, and forms a
kind of turban. The superior of the fakirs is distin¬
guished from the rest by having a greater number of
piece’s in his garment, and by a chain of iron, two yards
long, tied to his leg. When he designs to rest in any
place, a garment is spread upon the ground; on which
he sits and gives audience, whilst his disciples publish
his virtues.
Some persons of quality in India have become fa¬
kirs : among others, five great lords belonging to the,-
court of Schah Gehan, Mogul of the Indies. It is said,
there are about two millions of fakirs in the East In¬
dies.
I ALASHA, a people of Abyssinia, of Jewish ori¬
gin, described by Mr Bruce, who was at great pains to
[ 403 ]
F A L
acquaint himself with their history by cultivating the p.,
friendship of the most learned persons among them he 1 a ^
could meet with.
According to the accounts received from them, the
Falasha are the descendants of those Jews who came
Irom Palestine into Ethiopia, as attendants of Menilek
the son of the queen of Sheba or Saba by Solomon.
Ihey agree in the relation given by the Abyssinians
of that princess, but deny that the posterity of those
who came with Menilek ever embraced the Christian
religion, as the Abyssinians say they did. They say,
that at the decline of the Jewish commerce, when the
poits of the Bed sea fell into the hands of other na¬
tions, and no intercourse took place betwixt them and
Jerusalem, the Jewish inhabitants quitted the sea coasts
and retired into the province of Dembea. While they
remained in the cities on the Red sea, they exercised
the trades of brick and tile making, pottery, thatching
houses, &c. and after leaving these coasts, they chose
the country of Ilembea on account of the plenty of
materials it allorded for exercising the trades they pro¬
fessed. Here they carried the art of pottery' to a
great degree of perfection, multiplied exceedingly,
and became very numerous and powerful about the
time that the Abyssinians were converted to Christia¬
nity. As this event was accounted by them an apos¬
tasy from the true religion, they now separated them¬
selves from the Abyssinians, and declared one Phineas,
of the line of Solomon, their king. Thus, they say*
they have still a prince of the house of Judah for then-
sovereign, though their assertion is treated with con¬
tempt, and a nickname bestowed on the Falashau fa¬
mily by the other Abyssinians. About the year 960
the queen of this people, after extirpating the Abyssi¬
nian princes on the rock Damo, assumed the sove¬
reignty of the whole empire, which they retained foe
some time ; hut their power being by degrees reduced,
they v\ ere obliged to take up their residence among the
rugged mountains of Samen; one of which they chose
for their capital, and which has ever since been called
the Jew's Rock. About the year 1600, they were aU
most entirely ruined by an overthrow from the Abyssi-
nians, in which both their king and queen were slain ;
since which time they have been in subjection to the
emperors of that country, hut are still governed by their
own princes. When Mr Bruce was in Abyssinia they
were supposed to amount to about 100,000 effective
men. Gideon and Judith were the names of the kill!’-
and queen at that time ; and these, according to our
author, seem to be preferred to others for tiie royal
family.
The language of this people is very different from
the Hebrew, Samaritan, or any other which the Jews
ever spoke in their own country. On being interro¬
gated concerning it by Mr Bruce, they said, that it
was probably one of those spoken by the nations or, the
Red sea, ^ among whom they had settled at their first
coming. They arrived in Abyssinia, speaking Hebrew,
and with the advantage of having books in that lan¬
guage ; but had now forgot it, which indeed is not to
be wondered at, as they had lost their Hebrew books,
and were entirely ignorant of the art of writing. At
the time, of their leaving Jerusalem, they were in pos¬
session both of the Hebrew and Samaritan copies of
the law ; but when their fleet was destroyed in the
3 T 2 time
F A L
[ 404 ]
F A L
Falasba
il
Falcon.
* See
Falco.
time of Rehoboam, and no farther communication with
Jerusalem took place, they were obliged to use trans¬
lations of the Scriptures, or those copies which were
in possession of the shepherds, who, they say, were all
Jews before the time of Solomon. On being asked,
however, where the shepherds got their copy, and
being told, that, notwithstanding the invasion ot Rgypt
by Nebuchadnezzar, there was still a communication
with Jerusalem by means of the Ishmaehte Arabs
through Arabia, they frankly acknowledged that they
could not tell: neither had they any memorials of the
history either of their own or any other country j all
that they believed in this case being derived from mere
tradition, their histories, if any existed, having been
destroyed by the famous Moorish captain Gragne.
They say that the first book of Scripture they received
was that of Enoch •, and they place that of Job inmie-
diately after it, supposing that patriarch to have lived
soon after the flood. They have no copy ol the Ulcl
Testament in the Falasha language, what they make
use of being in that of Geez. This is sold to them by
the Abyssinian Christians, who are the only scribes m
that country. No difference takes place about cor¬
ruptions of the text j nor do the Falaslia know any
thing of the Jewish Talmud, Targum, or Cabala. See
Abyssinia. . . ,
FALCADE, in the manege, the motion ot a horse
when he throws himself upon his haunches two or thiee
times, as in very quick curvets *, which is done in foim-
ing a stop and halt stop. See.STOP.
FALCATED, something in the form of a sickle :
thus the moon is said to hz falcated when she appears
horned. _ ,. , ,
FALCO, the eagle and hawk, a genus ot birds be¬
longing to the order of accipitres. See Ornithology
index %
FALCON, or FaucoN, a bird of prey of the hawk
kind, superior to all others for courage, docility, gen¬
tleness, and nobleness of nature*. Several authors
take the name falcon to have been occasioned by its
crooked talons or pounces, which resemble a falx or
sickle. Giraldus derives it afalcando, because it flies
in a curve. # » .
The falcon, or falcon gentle, is both for the fast and
for the lure. In the choice, take one that has wide
nostrils, high and large eyelids, a large black eye *, a
round head, somewhat full on the top ; barb feathers
on the clap of the beaks, which should be short, thick,
and of an azure colour ; the breast large, round and
fleshy j and the thighs, legs, and feet, large and strong,
with the sear of the foot soft and bluish : the pounces
should he black, with wings long and crossing the
train, which should he short and very pliable. ^
The name falcon is restrained to the female : for the
male is much smaller, weaker, and less courageous
than the female ; and therefore is denominated tassel,
or tircelet. The falcon is excellent at the river, brook,
and even field ; and flies chiefly at the larger game, as
wild "oose, kite, crow, heron, crane, pye, shoveler,
&c. ^ For further particulars, see FALCONRY and
Hawking.
The custom of carrying a falcon extended to many
countries, and was esteemed a distinction of a man ot
rank. The Welsh had a saying, That you may know
a gentleman by his. hawk, horse, and greyhound. In
fact, a person of rank seldom went without one on bis paicon
band. Harold, afterwards king of England, is paint- ||
ed going on a most important embassy, with a hawk on Falconry,
his hand and a dog under his arm. Henry VI. is re-‘ ’
presented at his nuptials, attended by a nobleman and
his falcon. Even the ladies were not without them in
earlier times*, for in an ancient sculpture in the church
of Milton Abbas, in Dorsetshire, appears the consort
of King Athelstan with a falcon on her royal fist tear¬
ing a bird.
FALCONER, a person who brings up, tames, and
makes, that is, tutors and manages, birds of prey ; as
falcons, hawks, &c. See Falconry.
The grand signior, it is said, usually keeps 6000 fal¬
coners in his service.—The French king had formerly
a grand falconer, which was an office dismembered from
that of great hunter, grand veneur. Historians take
notice of this post as early as the year 1250.
A falconer should be well acquainted with the qua¬
lity and mettle of his hawks, that he may know which
of them to fly early and which late. Every night after
flying he should give them casting; one while plumage,
sometimes pellets of cotton, and at another time physic,
as he finds necessary. He ought also every evening to
make the place clean under the perch, that by her cast¬
ing he may know whether she wants scouring upwards
or downwards. Nor must he forget to water his hawk
every evening, except on such days as she has bathed j
after which, at night, she should he put into a warm
room, having a candle burning by her, where she is lo
sit unhooded, if she be not ramage, that she may pick
and prune herself.—A falconer should always carry
proper medicines into the fields, as hawks frequently
meet with accidents there. Neither must he forget to
take with him any of his hawking implements; and it
is necessary he should be skilful in making lures, hoods
of all sorts, jesses, bewets, and other furniture. Neither
ought he to be without his coping irons, to cope his
hawk’s beak when overgrown, and to cut her pounces
and talons as there shall be occasion : nor should Ins
cauterizing irons be wanting.
Falconer, William, an ingenious Scots sailor, who,
about the year 1762, came up to London with a pretty
pathetic poem, called the Shipwreck, founded on a dis¬
aster of his own experience. The publication of this
piece recommended him to the late duke of^iork} ami
he would in all probability have been suitably prefer¬
red, if a second shipwreck, as may he supposed, had not
proved fatal to him, and to many gentlemen of rank
and fortune with whom he sailed. . In I77°» *ie went
out a volunteer in the Aurora frigate, sent to cany
Messrs Yansittart, Scraston, and Ford, the supervisors
appointed to regulate our East India settlements *, which
vessel, after it had touched at the Cape of Good Hope,
was never more heard of. Before his departure, he
published a very useful Marine Dictionary, in one vo¬
lume AtO.
FALCONRY, a kind of sport or amusement, re¬
specting the antiquity of which different opinions have
been entertained by the learned. It is denied by
Bloudus, Laurentius Valla, and others, that the an¬
cient Greeks knew any thing about falconry *, but the
learned Professor Beckmann, on the most unequivocal
authority, maintains that they did. He admits that
they might be ignorant of the art of hawking, °r c
F A L
Bloomy, chasing game with birds trained for that purpose j but
^y——» he contends that they employed some species of the
most rapacious of the winged tribe in hunting and fowl¬
ing. In the days of Ctesias, the Indians hunted hares
and foxes by means of rapacious birds j and Aristotle
says expressly, “ In Thrace, the men go out to catch
birds with hawks. They beat the reeds and bushes
which grow in marshy places, in order to raise the small
birds, which the hawks pursue and drive to the ground,
where the fowlers kill them with poles.”
Respecting Thrace, which is situated above Amphi-
polis, a wonderful circumstance is related, which to
many may appear almost incredible. We are informed
that boys w'ent into the fields, and pursued birds by the
assistance ot hawks. When they found a convenient
place for their purpose, they called their hawks by their
particular names, which came immediately on hearing
their voices, and pursued the birds into the bushes, where
the boys killed them with sticks, and thus made them
their prey. When the hawks themselves laid hold of
any birds, they threw them to the fowlers, and recei¬
ved, for their fidelity, a share of the game. If we add
the spaniel, now employed to find out the game, the
hood placed upon the head of the hawk, and the thong
for holding it, we may clearly perceive in these ancient
accounts the practice of modern times. Falconers still
give a portion of the game to the hawk, as was the
usual practice of the boys in Thrace.
According to the testimony of Philo, Pliny, y£lian,
and others, the birds were sometimes driven into nets
by the hawks employed in these sports. Fx-om India
and Thrace, therefore, it seems manifest, that the
Greeks obtained their first information as to the method
of fowling with birds of prey j but they themselves do'
not appear to have adopted the practice at a very early
period. In' Italy, however, it must have been extremely
well understood, since it is mentioned by Martial and
Apuleius as a thing everywhere known. After be¬
ing once known, it was never totally forgotten j but it
shared the fate of other inventions in this respect, that
it was originally admired, and afterwards much neglect¬
ed, by which means it received no material improve¬
ments for a considerable time; yet it was at length
brought to the utmost perfection. We find mention
made of this sport in the Roman laws, and in many
authors of the fourth and subsequent century. In the
time of Constantine the Great, Julius Firmicus Mater-
nus assures us, according to the superstitious notions of
that period, that such as are born under certain signs,
will become great sportsmen, and keep hounds and fal¬
cons. Sidonius, who flourished about the end of the
fifth century, praises Herdicius, the brother of his wife,
because be was the first in his territories who practised
hunting and fowling with dogs and hawks.
Falconry appears to have been carried to the greatest
perfection, and to have been much esteemed at the chief
courts of Europe, so early as the 12th century, for
which reason some have ascribed the invention to the
emperor Frederic I. whereas he appears to have been
only the first who introduced the practice into Italy,
according to the testimony of Rodericus and Collenuc-
cio ; and Frederic II. wrote a hook entitled, De arte
venandi cum aviln/s, to which the practice has been
much indebted. Falconry has had a number of admi¬
rers among the fair eex, perhaps in a superior degree to
[ 4°5 ]
F A L
any other sport or amusement whatever of a similar na¬
ture ; but their attachment was destroyed by the inven¬
tion of gunpowder, which was accompanied both with
alarm and danger. We conclude our remarks on the
history ol falconry with an observation of Demetrius,
who flourished in the 13th century, and who expressly
wrote at large on this subject. He desires sportsmen
to say their prayers (Taj mmciXivcivTis) before they
go out to the field, which appears wholly incompatible
with the practice ol modern times, and seems as impi¬
ous as to crave assistance ol God when preparing for a
piratical expedition.
I alconry, the art of training all manner of hawks,
but more especially the larger ones called falcons^ to the
exercise ol hawking. See Hawking.
W hen a falcon is taken, she must be seeled in such
a manner, that, as the seeling slackens, she may see what
provision lies before her; but care ought to be taken,
not to seel her too hard. A falcon or hawk newly ta¬
ken should have all new furniture, as new jesses of good
leather, mailled leashes with buttons at the end, and
newbewets. There should also be provided a small
round stick, to stroke the hawk ; because, the oftener
this is done, the sooner and better will she be manned.
She must also have two good bells, that she may be
found when she scattereth. Her hood should be well
fashioned, raised, and embossed against her eyes, deep
and yet strait enough beneath, that it may fasten about
her head without hurting her ; and her beak and talons
must be a little coped, but not so near as to make them
bleed.
II it be a soar-falcon, which had already passed the
seas, she will indeed be harder to reclaim, but will prova
the best of falcons. Her food must be good and warm,
and given her twice or thrice a-day till she be full gor¬
ged : the best for this purpose is pigeons, larks, or other
live birds; because she must be broken off by degrees
from her accustomed feeding. When she is fed, you
must hoop and lure, as you do when you call a hawk,
that she may know when you intend to give her meat.
On this occasion she must be unhooded gently ; and
after giving her two or three bits, her hood must be
put on again, when she is to get two or three bits more.
Care must be taken that she be close seeled ; and after
three or four days, her diet may be lessened : the falco¬
ner setting her every night to perch by him, that he
may awaken her often in the night. In this manner
he must proceed, till he find her to grow tame and
gentle; and when she begins to feed eagerly, be may
give her a sheep’s heart. He may now begin to unhood
her in the day time ; but it must be far from company,
first giving her a bit or two, then hooding her gently,
and giving her as much more. When she is sharp set,
he may now unhood her, and give her some meat just
against his face and eyes, which will make her less a-
fraid of the countenance of others. She must be borne
continually on the fist, till she is properly manned, cau¬
sing her to feed in company, giving her in the morning,
about sunrise, the wing of a pullet ; and in the evening
the foot of a bare or coney, cut off above the joint,
flayed and laid in water, which being squeezed, is to
be given her with the pinion of a hen’s wing. For two
or three days give her washed meat, and them plumage in
more or less quantity as she is thought to be more or <
less foul within. After this, being hooded again, she
is
Falconry.
Falconry,
Falerii.
F A L [ 406 ]
is to get nothing till she has gleamed and cast, svhen a tables, (Servius).
little hot meat may be given her in company 5 and, to-
wards evening, she may be allowed to plume a hen s
wing in company also. Cleanse the feathers of her cast¬
ing, if foul and slimy j if she be.clean within, give her
gentle castings ; and when she is reclaimed, manned,
and made eager and sharp set, he may venture to feed
her on the lure.
However, three things are to be considered before
the lure be showed her: I. That she be bold and fami¬
liar in company, and not afraid of dogs and horses.
2. Sharp set and hungry, having regard to the hour
of morning and evening, when you would lure her.
3. Clean within, and the lure well garnished with meat
on both sides ; and when you intend to give her the
length of a leash, you must abscond yourself. .
She must also be unhooded, and have a bit or two
given her on the lure as she sits on your fist; afterwards
take the lure from her, and hide it that she may not
see it; and when she is unseeled, cast the lure so near
her, that she may catch it within the length of her
leash, and as soon as she has seized it, use your voice as
falconers do, feeding her upon the lure, on the ground,
with the heart and warm thigh of a pullet.
Having so lured your falcon, give her hut little meat
in the evening and let tins luring be so timely, that
vou may give her plumage, and a juck of a joint next
morning on your fist. When she has cast and gleamed,
give her a little reaching of warm meat. About noon,
tie a creance to her leash 5 and going into the field,
there give her a bit or two upon her lure : then unwind
the creance, and draw it after you a good way j and
let him who has the bird hold his right hand on the
tassel of her hood, ready to unhood her as soon as you
begin to lure 5 to which if she come well, stoop round¬
ly upon it, and hastily seize it, let her cast two or three
bits thereon. Then, unseizing and taking her off the
lure, hood her and give her to the man again ; and,
going farther oft, lure and feed her as before.
& In this manner is the falconer to proceed, luring her
every day farther and farther olf, till she is accustomed
to come freely and eagerly to the lure j after which she
may he lured in company, taking care that nothing af¬
fright her. When she is used to the lure on foot, she
is to be lured on horseback •, which may be effected the
sooner’, by causing horsemen to be about her when she
is lured on foot.
When she has grown familiar to this way, let some¬
body on foot bold the hawk, and he on horseback must
call and cast the lure about his head, the holder taking
off the hood by the tassel; and if she seize eagerly on
the lure without fear of man or horse, then take oil
the creance, and lure her at a greater distance. And
if you would have her love dogs as well as the lure, call
dogs when you give her her living or plumage. See
Hawking.
FALERII, in Ancient Geograp/ij/, a town of Etru¬
ria, on the west or right side of the Tiber ; Falisci, the
people of the town and territory. The territory was
famous for its rich pastures ■, hence the gramen Falis-
cum m authors. Eutropius and Frontinus call the town
Falisci; which, according to the last, was surnamed
Colonia Junonia. The Falisci are called AFqui by Vir¬
gil $ because they afforded supplemental laws to the 12
4
F A L
(   Here they made an excellent sau¬
sage, called Venter Faliscus (Martial).
When the Falisci were besieged by Camillus, a __
schoolmaster went out of the gates of the city with his
pupils, and proposed to betray them into the hands ol
the Roman enemy, that by such a possession he might
easily oblige the place to surrender. Camillas heard
the proposal with indignation, and ordered the man to
be stripped naked, and whipped back to the town by
those whom his perfidy wished to betray. Phis instance
of generosity operated upon the people so powerfully
that they surrendered to the Romans.
FALERNUS, Mans Massicus so called, (Martial) ;
Falernus ager, a district at the foot of Mount Massicus
in Campania j famous for its generous wines, (Hoiace,
Pliny). Now mailed Monte Massico.
FALISCI. See Falerii.
FALKIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria class. See Botany Index.
FALKIRK, a town of Stirlingshire in Scotland, si*
tuated in W. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 56. 20. It is a
large ill-built place, and is supported by great fairs
for black cattle from the Highlands. A great deal of
money is also got here by the carriage of goods landed
at Carron wharf to Glasgow. I he population of the
town and parish, in 1811, was 9929’ to'vn *s re*
markable for a battle fought in its neighbourhood be¬
tween Edward I. of England, and the Scots command¬
ed by the steward of Scotland, Cummin of Badenoch,
and Sir William Wallace. The latter had been invent¬
ed with the supreme command ; but perceiving that this
gave umbrage to the nobility, he resigned his power in¬
to the hands of the noblemen above mentioned, reserv¬
ing to himself only the command of a small body who
refused to follow another leader. The Scots generals
placed their pikemen along the front, and lined the in-
Falerii
II
Falkland.
tervais between the three bodies oi which their army
was composed, with archers: and dreading the great
superiority of the English cavalry, endeavoured to se¬
cure their front by paflisadoes tied together with ropes.
The battle was fought on the 22d of July 1298. Lie
king of England divided his army likewise into three
bodies ; and by the superiority of his archers, defeated
the Scots with great slaughter. Wallace alone presei-
ved entire the troops he commanded ; and retiring be¬
hind the Carron, marched leisurely along the banks of
that river, which protected him from the enemy. In
this battle fell John de Graham, a gentleman much ce¬
lebrated for liis valour, and styled the right hand of the
gallant Wallace. His epitaph is still to be seen -on a
plain stone- in the churchyard of Falkirk. On the
18th of January 1746, a battle was fought here between
the king’s forces commanded by General Hawley, aw
the Highlanders headed by Charles Stuart. The El¬
mer was seized with a panic, and fled: hut Colonel
Husk with two regiments, who kept their ground, pre¬
vented the Highlanders from pursuing their victory.
Extensive ruins are perceived in the neighbourhood ot
this town, supposed by some antiquarians to have been
the capital of the Pictish _ government; but others be¬
lieve them to be the remains ol some Roman station.
FALKLAND, a small town of Fifeshire in Scot¬
land, made a royal burgh by James II. in 1458. Here
stood one of the seats of the Macdufts earls ol life, un
F A L
klaud,
'all.
the attainder of Munro Stewart, the 17th earl, it be-
came forfeited to the crown in 1424. James Y. who
grew very fond of the place, enlarged and improved it.
The remains evince its former magnificence and ele¬
gance, and the fine taste of the princely architect. The
gateway is placed between two fine round towers 5 on
the right hand joins the chapel, whose roof is of wood,
handsomely gilt and painted, but in a most ruinous con¬
dition. Beneath are several apartments. The front
next to the court was beautifully adorned with statues.
Heads in bass relief, and elegant columns not reducible
to any order, but of fine proportion, with capitals ap¬
proaching the Ionic scroll. Beneath some of these pil¬
lars was inscribed I. R. 3VI. G. 1537* 0I’ Jacobus Hex,
Marta cle Guise.—This place was also a favourite resi¬
dence of James VI. on account of the fine park and
plenty of deer. The east side was accidentally burnt
in the time of Charles II. and the park ruined during
Cromwell’s usurpation, when the fine oaks were cut
down in order to build the fort at Perth.—This P1 ace
gives title of viscount to the English family of Carey ;
Sir Henry Carey being so created by James VI. 1620.
His son was the celebrated Eucius, who sacrificed his
life in a fit of loyal despair at the battle of Newbury,
and from whom the present family is lineally de¬
scended.
Falkland, Lord. See Carey.
FALL, the descent of a heavy body towards the
centre of the earth. It is also the name of a measure
of length used in Scotland, containing six ells.
Fall of Man, in sacred history, that terrible event
by which sin and death were introduced into the world.
See Adam, and Antediluvians, and Original Six.
The account which Moses gives of this transaction is
extremely brief and concise. The serpent, he informs
ns, being more subtile than any beast of the field, ask¬
ed the woman, whether it was true that God had not
granted her and her husband leave to eat of every tree
in the garden ? She answered, That God had allowed
them to eat of all, except only the fruit of the tree
in the midst of the garden; which he commanded they
should not taste, nor so much as touch, lest they should
die. The serpent replied, That they should not die ;
for God knew the virtue of the tree ; and that so soon
as they ate'of it, their eyes would be opened, and they
would become like gods, knowing good and evil.
Eve, seeing the fruit tempting to the view, took of
the fruit and ate ; and gave also to her husband of it,
and he did eat. Immediately the eyes of both were
opened ; when perceiving they were naked, they sewed
fig leaves together and made themselves aprons. Adam
and Eve, hearing the voice of God walking in the
garden in the cool of the day, hid themselves among
the trees ; but, on God’s calling for Adam, he excus¬
ed himself for not appearing, because he was naked.
God demanded of him, who it was that told him he
was naked j and whether he had disobeyed his com¬
mand in eating the forbidden fruit P Adam confessed
that the woman had offered him the fruit, and be had
tasted it. She being examined likewise, acknow¬
ledged what she had done j but said, the serpent had
seduced and deceived her. God then proceeded to
judgment; he first cursed the serpent above all beasts,
ami condemned him to go on his belly, and eat the
L 407 ]
F A L
dust; adding, that he would put enmity between him
and the woman, and their offspring ; that the seed of
the woman should bruise the serpent’s head, who should
bruise the other’s heel. The woman was subjected to
the pains of childbirth, as well as the dominion of her
husband j and as to the man, God cursed the ground
foi his sake, declaring that it should bring forth thorns
and thistles, and he should earn his bread by the sweat
of his brow, till he returned to the dust, from whence
he. was taken. At last, having clothed them both with
skins, he turned them out of the garden, lest they should
take of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever : then,
to prevent any attempt to return to their former habi¬
tation, he placed cherubims at the east of the garden,
and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard
the passage to the tree of life.
This concise account being, at first view, encumber¬
ed with some difficulties, several learned and pious men
have been inclined to believe the whole ought to lie
taken in an allegorical sense, and not according to the
strictness of the letter: they allege, that the ancients,
and particularly the eastern nations, had two different
ways of delivering their divinity and philosophy, one
popular, and the other mysterious ; that the Scripture
uses both occasionally j sometimes accommodating it¬
self to the capacities of the people, and at other times
to the real but more veiled truth ; and that, to obviate
the many difficulties which occur in the literal history
of this sad catastrophe, the safest way is to understand
it as a parabolical story, under which the real circum¬
stances are disguised and concealed, as a mystery not
fit to be more explicitly declared.
. Though it cannot be denied that some of the an¬
cient philosophers affected such an allegorical way of
writing, to conceal their notions from the vulgar, and
keep their learning within the bounds of their oivn
school ; yet it is apparent Moses had no such design 5
and as he pretends only to relate matters of fact, just
as they happened, without art or disguise, it cannot be
supposed but that this history of the "fall is to be taken
in a literal sense, as well as the rest of his writings. It
is generally agreed, that the serpent which tempted
Eve was the devil, who envying the privileges of man
in innocence, tempted him, and was the cause of his
forfeiting all those advantages which he had received
from God at his creation ; and that to this end he as¬
sumed the form of a serpent. These interpretations
are supported by many passages of Scripture, where
the devil is called the serpent, and the old serpent, (See
John viii. 44. 2 Cor. xi. 3. and Rev. xii. 9.). Some be¬
lieve that the serpent had then the use of speech, and
conversed familiarly with the woman, without her con¬
ceiving any distrust in him ; and that God, to punish
the malice with which he had abused Eve, deprived
him of the use of speech. Others maintain, that a
real serpent having eaten of the forbidden fruit, Eve
from thence concluded, that she too might eat of it
without danger ; that in effect she did eat of it, and
incurred the displeasure of God by her disobedience.
This, say these last authors, is the plain matter of fact
which Moses would relate under the allegorical repre¬
sentation of the serpent conversing with Eve.
The opinion of such as believe this was m
Fall.
not a real
serpen*, but only the devil under that name, is no less
liable
F A L, [ 408
fall liable to exception than any of the rest. For thoygh
\\ the devil is frequently styled in Scripture the serpent
Fallopian. the old serpent^ yet why he should be called the
* most subtile beast of the fields we cannot conceive ; nei¬
ther will the punishment inflicted on the serpent sufl'er
us to doubt, but that a serpent’s body at least was em¬
ployed in the transaction.
- The nature of the forbidden fruit is another circum-.
stance in this relation that has occasioned no less va¬
riety of conjectures. The Kabbins believe it was the
vine ; others that it was wheat and others, from the
circumstance of Adam and Eve’s covering themselves
with fig leaves immediately after their transgression,
tell us^5 that this fruit rnust have been the fig j some
think it was the cherry \ and the generality of the
Latins will have it to be the apple.
Those who admire allegorical interpretations, will
have the forbidden fruit to have been no other than the
sensual act of generation, for which the punishment in¬
flicted on the woman was the pain of child-bearing.
But this opinion has not the least foundation in the
words of Moses, especially if we consider that Adam
knew not his wife till after their expulsion out of Pa¬
radise.
Many have been the suppositions and conjectures
upon this subject in general; and some have so far in¬
dulged their fancy in the circumstances of the fall,
that they have perverted the whole narration of Moses
into a fable full of the most shameful extravagances.
FALLACY, a deception, fraud, or false appear¬
ance.
The Epicureans deny that there is any such thing
as a fallacy of the senses : for according to them, all our
sensations and perceptions, both of sense and phantasy,
are true ; whence they make sense the primary criteri¬
on of truth.
The Cartesians, on the other hand, maintain, that
we should suspect as false, or at most as dubious, every
thing that presents itself to us by means only of the
external senses, because they frequently deceive us.
They add, that our senses, as being fallacious, were
never given us by nature for the discovery of truth, or
the contemplation of the principles of things •, but only
for pointing out to us what things are convenient or
hurtful to our bodies.
The Peripatetics keep a middle course. They say,
that if a sensible object be taken in its common or ge¬
neral view, the sense cannot be deceived about it j but
that if the object be taken under its specific view, the
sense may be mistaken about it, from the want of the
dispositions necessary to a just sensation, as a disor¬
der in the organ, or any thing uncommon in the me¬
dium : thus, in some disorders of the eye, all objects
appear yellow 5 a stick in water appears broken or
crooked, &c.
FALLING sickness, or Epilepsy. See Medi¬
cine Index.
Falling-Stars. See Star.
FALLOPIAN tubes, in Anatomy, two ducts aris¬
ing from the womb, one on each side of the fundus,
and thence extended to the ovaries, having a consider¬
able share in conception. They are called tuba;, from
their form, which bears some resemblance to a trum¬
pet ; and their denomination Fallopiance, they take
] F A L
from Gabriel Fallopius, mentioned in the next article. Fallopian
See Anatomy Inefc#. > 11
FALLOPIUS, Gabriel, a most celebrated physi-1 False-
cian and anatomist, was born at Modena in Italy, in , ^
the year 1523, and descended of a noble family. He
ma.de several discoveries in anatomy, one of which was
that of the tubes, called from him the Fallopian tubes.
He travelled through the greatest part of Europe, and
obtained the character of being one of the ablest phy¬
sicians of his age. He was made professor of anatomy
at Pisa, in the year 1548, and at Padua in the year
1551 : here he died in 1562, aged 39. His writings,
which are numerous, were first printed separately, and
afterwards collected under the title of “ Opera genui-
na omnia, tarn practica quam theoretica, in tres to¬
mes distributa.” They were printed at\enice in 1585
and in 1606, at Francfort in l6co, own operum ap¬
pendices and in 1606, in folio.
FALLOW, a pale red colour like that of brick
half burnt; such is that of a fallow deer.
Fallow Field, or Fallow ground; land laid up, or
that has been untilled for a considerable time.
FALLOWING of Land, a particular method of
improving land. See Agriculture Index.
FALMOUTH, a port town of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, situated in W. Long. 5* 30, 5°* \5' 011
a fine bay on the English channel. It is the richest
and most trading town in the county, and larger than
any three of its boroughs that send members to parlia¬
ment. It is so commodious a harbour, that ships of the
greatest burdeii come up to its quay. It is guarded by
the castle of St Mawes and Pendennis, on a high rock
at the entrance : and there is such shelter in the many
creeks belonging to it, that the whole royal navy may
ride safe here in any wind, it being next to Plymouth
and Milford-Haven, the best road for shipping in Great
Britain. It is well built *, and its trade is consider¬
ably increased since the establishment of the packet-
boats here for Spain, Portugal, and the West Indies,
which not only bring vast quantities of gold in specie
and in bars, on account of the merchants in London j
but the Falmouth merchants trade with the Portuguese
in ships of their own, and they have a great share also
in the gainful pilchard trade. The custom-house for
most of the Cornish towns, as well as the head collec¬
tor, is settled here, where the duties, including those
of the other ports, are very considerable. The num¬
ber of houses in 1664 amounted to 200 *, in 1801, they
amounted to 468 •, in 1811, 478, and at this last period
the number of inhabitants was 3933.
FALSE, in general, something contrary to truth,
or not what it ought to be : thus we say a false ac¬
tion, false weights, false claim, &c.
False Action, if brought against one whereby he is
cast into prison, and dies pending the suit, the law
gives no remedy in this case, because the truth or
falsehood of the matter cannot appear before it is tried ;
and if the plaintiff is barred, or non-suited at com¬
mon law, regularly all the punishment is amerce¬
ment. . .
False Imprisonment, is a trespass committed against
a person, by arresting and imprisoning him without
just cause, contrary to law j or where a man is un¬
lawfully detained without legal process : and it is a.-
3
F A M
False
II
Fama.
so used for a writ which is brought for this trespass. If
a person be any way unlawfully detained, it is false im-
^ prisonment; and considerable damages are recoverable
in those actions.
False News, spreading of, in order to make discord
between the king and nobility, or concerning any great
man of the realm, is punishable by common law with
fine and imprisonment; which is confirmed by statutes
Westm. i. 3 Edw. I. cap. 34. 2 Kich. II. stat. 1. cap.
5. and 12 Rich. II. cap. 11.
False Oath. See Perjury.
False Prophecy. See Prophecy.
False Quarter, in Farriery. See Quarters, Far¬
riery Index.
False Bay, a bay lying to the eastward of the Cape
of Good Hope ; frequented by vessels during the pre¬
valence of the north-westerly winds, which begin to
exert their influence in May, and render it dangerous
to remain in Table bay. It is terminated to the east¬
ward by False Cape, and to the westward by the Cape
of Good Hope. It is 18 miles wide at its entrance,
and the two capes bear due east and west from each
other.
FALSI crimen, in the civil law, is fraudulent sub¬
ornation or concealment, with design to darken or hide
the truth, and make things appear otherwise than they
are. The crimen falsi is committed, 1. P»y words, as
when a witness swears falsely. 2. By writing, as when
a man antedates a contract, or the like. 3. By deed,
as when he sells by false weights and measures.
FALSIFY, in Law, is used for proving any thing
to be false. Hence we find,
Falsifying a record, for showing it to be erroneous.
Thus lawyers teach, that a person purchasing land of
another, who is afterwards outlawed of felony, &c. may
falsify the record, not only as to the time wherein the
felony is supposed to have been committed, but also as
to the point of the offence. But where a man is found
guilty by verdict, a purchaser cannot falsify as to the
offence ; though he may for the time, where the party
is found guilty generally in the indictment, because the
time is not material upon evidence.
FALSTAFF. See Fastolff.
FALX, in Anatomy, a part of the dura mater, de¬
scending between the two hemispheres of the brain, and
separating the fore part from the hinder. It is called
falx, i. e. “sickle,” because of its curvature, occasioned
by the convexity of the brain. It divides the brain as
low as the corpus callosum.
FAMA clamosa, in the judicial procedure of the
church of Scotland, a ground of action before a presby¬
tery against one of its members, independent of any
regular complaint by a particular accuser. See Pres¬
bytery.
Any person who is of a good character, may give
to the presbytery a complaint against one of their
members j but the presbytery is not to proceed to the
citation of the person accused, until the accuser under
his hand gives in the complaint, with some account of
its probability, and undertakes to make out the libel,
under the pain of being considered as a slanderer. When
such an accusation is brought before them, they are
obliged candidly to examine the affair. But, besides
this, the presbytery considers itself obliged to proceed
against any of its members, if a fama clamosa of the
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
[ 409 ]
F A M
scandal is so great that they cannot be vindicated un- fama
less they begin the process. This they can do with- jj
out any particular accuser, after they have inquired Familiars,
into the rise, occasion, and authors, of this report. It
is a maxim of the kirk of Scotland, that religion must
suffer if the scandalous or immoral actions of a mini¬
ster are not corrected. And wherever a minister is re¬
puted guilty of any immorality (although before the
most popular preacher in the kingdom), none almost
will attend upon his ministry. Therefore the presbyte-
ly, for the sake of religion, is obliged to proceed against
a minister in case of a fama clamosa. This, however,
is generally done with great tenderness. After the\
have considered the report raised against him, then
they order him to be cited, draw out a full copy of
what is repoi ted, with a list of the witnesses names to
be led for proving this allegation. He is now to be
formally summoned to appear before them ; and he
has warning given him, at least 10 days before the
time of his compearance, to give in his answers to
what is termed the hhel,* and the names of the witnesses
ought also to be sent him. If at the time appointed
the minister appear, the libel is to be read to him,
and his answers are also to be read. If the libel be
found relevant, then the presbytery is to endeavour to
bring him to a confession. If the matter confessed be
of a scandalous nature, such as uncleanness, the presby¬
tery generally depose him from his office, and ap¬
point him in due time to appear before the congrega¬
tion where the scandal was given, and to make public
confession of his crime and repentance. If a minister
absent himself by leaving the place, and be contuma¬
cious, without making any relevant excuse, a new ci¬
tation is given him, and intimation is made at his own
church when the congregation is met, that he is to
be holden as confessed, since he refused to appear be¬
fore them j and accordingly he is deposed from his of¬
fice.
FAME, a heathen goddess, celebrated chiefly by the
poets. She is feigned to have been the last of the race
of Titans produced by the earth, to have her palace in
the air, and to have a vast number of eyes, ears, and
tongues.. She is mentioned by Hesiod, and particular¬
ly described by Ovid and Virgil.
FAMES canina. See Bulimia, Medicine Index.
FAMIA, or Afamia, the modern name of one of
the ancient Apameas. See Apamea.
FAMILIARS of the Inquisition, persons who
assist in apprehending such as are accused, and carry¬
ing them to prison. They are assistants to the inquisi¬
tor, and called familiars, because they belong to his
family. In some provinces of Italy they are called
cross-bearers, and in others the scholars of St Peter the
martyr ; and they wore a cross before them on the out¬
side garment. They are properly bailiffs of the inqui¬
sition ; and the vile office is esteemed so honourable,
that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have been
ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this surprising,
when it is considered that Innocent HI. granted very
large indulgencies and privileges to these familiars j and
that the same plenary indulgence is granted by the
pope to every single exercise of this office, as was
granted by the Lateran council to those who succour¬
ed the Holy Land. When several persons are to be
taken up at the same time, these familiars are com-
3 ^ manded
J’ftmilv
il '
Fan.
FAN [ 41
manned to order matters, that they may know nothing
of one another’s being apprehended •, and it is related,
that a father and his three sons, and three daughters,
who lived together in the same house, were carried pri¬
soners to the inquisition without knowing any thing of
one another’s being there till seven years afterwards,
when they that were alive were released by an act of
faith. , .
FAMILY denotes the persons that live together
in one house, under the direction of one head or chief
manager. It also signifies the kindred or lineage of a
person ; and is used by old writers for a hide or por¬
tion of land sufficient to maintain one family. See
Hide.
Family, in Natural History, a term used to express
any order of animals, or other natural productions,
which exhibit certain affinities, or the same characters.
FAMINE, dearth, or scarcity of food. For pre¬
servatives against hunger in times of famine, see the
article Hunger.
FAN, a machine used to raise wind, and cool the
air by agitating it.
That the use of the fan was known to the ancients
is very evident from what Terence says,
Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulurn huic sicfacito;
and from Ovid, Art. Amand. I. 161.
Profuit et tenues ventos movisse flabello.
The fans of the ancients were made of different ma¬
terials ; but the most elegant were composed of pea¬
cocks feathers, or perhaps painted so as to represent
a peacock’s feather.
The custom which now prevails among the ladies ot
wearing fans, was borrowed from the east, where the
hot climate renders the use of fans and umbrellas almost
indispensable.
In the east they chiefly use large fans made of fea¬
thers, to keep off the sun and the flies. In Italy and
Spain they have a large sort of square fans, suspended
in the middle of their apartments, and particularly over
the tables: these, by amotion at first given them, and
which they retain a long time on account of their per¬
pendicular suspension, help to cool the air and drive
off flies. , . . , , , r
In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands ot
the deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in al¬
lusion to a part of the deacon’s office -in that church,
which is to keep the flies off the priests during the ce¬
lebration of the sacrament.
What is called a fan amongst us and throughout the
chief parts of Europe, is a thin skin, or piece of pa¬
per, taffety, or other light stuff, cut semicircularly,
and mounted on several little sticks of wood, ivory,
tortoiseshell, or the like. If the paper be single, the
sticks of the mounting are pasted on the least ornament¬
ed side : if double, the sticks are placed between them.
Before they proceed to place the sticks, which they
call mounting the fan, the paper is to be plaited in such
a manner, as that the plates may be alternately inward
and outward. < .
It is in the middle of each plait, which is usually
about half an inch broad, that the sticks are to be
pasted y and these again are to be all joined and ri-
vetted together at the other end j they are very thin,
2
o ] FAN
and scarcely exceed one-third of an inch in breadth ; and jrtJ|
where they are pasted to the paper, are still narrower,
continuing thus to the extremity of the paper. The iFalU!:aw-
two outer ones are bigger and stronger than the others.
The number of sticks rarely exceeds 22. The sticks
are usually provided by the cabinet-makers or toy¬
men y the fan-painters plait the papers, paint, and
mount them.
The common painting is either in colours or gold
leaf, applied on a silvered ground, both prepared by
the goldbeaters. Sometimes they paint on a gold
ground, but it is rarely *, true gold being too dear,
and false too paltry. To apply the silver leaves on the
paper, they use a composition, which they pretend is
a great secret, but which appears to be no other than
gum arabic, sugar-candy, and a little honey, melted
in common water, and mixed with a little brandy.
This composition is laid on with a sponge 5 then lay¬
ing the silver leaves thereon, and pressing them gently
down with a linen ball stuffed with cotton, they catch
hold, and adhere together. When, instead of silver,
gold ground is laid, the same method is observed. The
ground being well dried, a number of the paper’s are
well beaten together on a block, and by this means
the silver or gold get a lustre as if they had been bur¬
nished. . rp.
Fan is also an instrument to winnow corn, me
machine used for this purpose by the ancients seems to
have been of a form similar to ours. The fan, which
Vir<fil calls mystica vannus laccht, was used at initia¬
tions into the mysteries of the ancients : For as the per¬
sons who were initiated into any of the mysteries, were
to be particularly good, this instrument, which separates
the wheat from the chaff, was the fittest emblem that
could he of setting apart the good and virtuous from
the vicious and useless part of mankind. It is figu¬
ratively applied in a similar manner in Luke iii. 17.
FANATICS, wild, enthusiastic, visionary persons,
who pretend to revelation and inspiration.
The ancients called those fanatici who passed their
time in temples { fana ), and being often seized with
a kind of enthusiasm, as if inspired by the divinity,
showed wild and antic gestures. Prudentius represents
them as cutting and slashing their arms with knives.
Shaking the head was also common among the fana¬
tic! for Lampridius informs us, that the emperor
Heliogabalus was arrived at that pitch of madness, as
to shake his head with the gashed fanatics. Hence the
word was applied among us to the Anabaptists, Qua¬
kers, &c. at their first rise, and is now an epithet given
to the modern prophets, Muggletonians, &c.
FANCY, or imagination. See Imagination. .
FANIONS, in the military art, small flags carried
along with the baggage.
FANNERS, a machine for winnowing corn,, or lor
separating the chaff from the grain. See, for its de¬
scription, Mechanics.
FANSHAW, Sir Richard, famous for his em¬
bassies and writings, was the tenth and youngest son
of Sir Henry Fanshavv of Ware Park in Hertfordshire,
where it is supposed he was born about the ycar * °7*
He distinguished himself so early by his abilities, that
in 1635 he was taken into government employments
by King Charles I. and sent resident to the court of
Spain} whence being recalled in the beginning °f ^
«
F A R [ 411 ] FAR
Fftsishaw troubles in 1641, he adhered to the royal interest, and
H was employed in several important matters of state.
Fare0' , During his vacant hours he wrote several poems, and
made several translations. At the Restoration it was
expected he would have been made one of the secreta¬
ries of state : however, he was made master of the re¬
quests ; a station in those times of considerable profit.
Afterwards, on account of his skill in the Latin lan¬
guage, he was made secretary for that tongue. In
l66r, he was sent envoy to the king of Portugal. In
1662, he was again sent to that court with the title of
ambassador, and negotiated the marriage of his master
King Charles II. with the infanta Donna Catherina.
Upon his return he was made one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1664, he was sent ambassador to both the
courts of Spain and Portugal ; at which time the foun¬
dation of peace betwixt those crowns and England was
laid by him. His conduct during his former employ¬
ments in those courts gained him such high esteem
there, that his reception was magnificent, exceeding
all that were before, which those kings declared was
not to be a precedent to succeeding ambassadors. He
died at Madrid in 1666, on the very day he had fix¬
ed for setting out on his return to England. Besides
some original poems, and other translations, he pub¬
lished a translation of Bathista Guarini’s Pastor Fido,
and another of the Lusiad of Camoens. Among his
posthumous publications are, “ Letters during his
embassies in Spain and Portugal; with his life pre¬
fixed.
FANTASIA, in the Italian music, signifies fancy ;
and is used for a composition, wherein the composer
ties himself to no particular time, but ranges accord¬
ing as his fancy leads, amidst various movements, dif¬
ferent airs, &c. This is otherwise called the capricious
style: before sonatas were used, there were many of
this kind, some of which remain even now.
FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place
consecrated to some deity. The deified men and wo¬
men among the heathens had likewise their /ima; even
the great philosopher Cicero erected one to his daugh¬
ter Tullia.
Fanum Vacunce, in Ancient Geography, a village of
the Sabines, situated between Cures and Mandela •,
where stood the temple of Vacuna, goddess of the idle
or unemployed, in an old decayed state : and hence the
epithet putre, used by Horace. Now called Vocone, in
the Ecclesiastic State.
FARANDMAN, a traveller, or merchant stran¬
ger, to whom, by the laws of Scotland, justice ought
to be done with all expedition, that his business or
journey be not hindered.
FARCE, was originally a droll, petty show, or en¬
tertainment, exhibited by charlatans, and their buf¬
foons, in the open street, to gather the crowd together.
—•The word is French, and signifies literally, “ force¬
meat or stuffing.” It was applied on this occasion, no
doubt, on account of the variety of jests, gibes, tricks,
&c. wherewith the entertainment was interlarded.
Some authors derive farce from the Latin facetia ; o-
thers from the Celtic farce, “ mockery }” others from
the Latin farcire, “ to stuff.”
At present it is removed from the street to the
theatre: and instead of being performed by merry-
andrews to amuse the rabble, is acted by comedians,
and become the entertainment of a polite audience.
Poets have reformed the wildness of the primitive far¬
ces, and brought them to the taste and manner of co¬
medy. The difference between the two on our stage
is, that comedy keeps to nature and probability, and
therefore is confined to certain laws prescribed by an
cient critics 5 whereas farce disallows of all laws, or ra¬
ther sets them aside on occasion. Its end is purely to
make merry ; and it sticks at nothing which may con¬
tribute thereto, however wild and extravagant. Hence
the dialogue is usually low, the persons of inferior
rank, the fable or action trivial or ridiculous, and na¬
ture and truth everywhere heightened and exaggerated
to afford the more palpable ridicule.
I ARCUS, or Farcy, a disease in horses, and some¬
times in oxen, &c. somewhat of the nature of a sca¬
bies or mange. See Farriery Index.
I ARDING-deal, the fourth part of an acre of
land. See Acre.
FARE, most commonly signifies the money paid
for a voyage, or passage by water ; but, in London, it
is what persons pay for being conveyed from one part
of the town to another in a coach or chair.
FAREWELL-cape, the most southerly promon¬
tory of Greenland, in W. Long. 50°, and N. Lat.
6o°.
FARIN, or Farm. See Farm.
FARINA, a Latin term signifying meal, or the flour
of corn. See Corn.
Farina Fcecundans, among Botanists, the supposed
impregnating meal or dust on the apices or antherse of
flowers. See Pollen.
The manner of gathering the farina of plants for
microscopical observations is this : Gather the flowers
in the midst of a dry sunshiny day when the dew is
perfectly off, then gently shake off the farina, or light¬
ly brush it off with a soft hair pencil, upon a piece of
white paper ; then take a single talc or isinglass be¬
tween the nippers, and, breathing on it, apply it in¬
stantly to the farina, and the moisture of the breath,
will make the light powder stick to it. If too great
a quantity be found adhering to the talc, blow a little
of it off; and, if there is too little, breathe upon it
again, and take up more. When this is done, put the
talc into the hole of a slider, and, applying it to the
microscope, see whether the little grains are laid as you
desire j and if they are, cover them up with another
talc, and fix the ring •, but be careful that the talcs do
not press upon the farina in such a manner as to alter
its form.
FARLEU, money paid by the tenants in the west
of England, in lieu of a heriot. In some manors of
Devonshire, farleu is often distinguished to be the best
goods, as heriot is the best beast, payable at the death
of a tenant.
FARM, Farin, or Ferm, [Firma), in Law, signi¬
fies a little country messuage or district, containing
house or land, with other conveniences j hired, or taken
by lease, either in writing, or parole, under a certain
yearly rent. See Lease.
This in divers parts is differently termed : in the
north, it is a tack; in Lancashire, fermcholt; in Es¬
sex, a wike, &c.
In the corrupted Latin, firma signified a place in¬
closed or shut in ; whence, in some provinces, Menage
3 F 2 observes,
FAR
Farm, observes, they call closene, or closure, what in otneis
—v ' they call a farm. Add, that we find locare adfirmam,
to signify to let to farm; probably on account ot the
sure hold the tenant here has in comparison of tenants
at Will*
Spelman and Skinner, however, choose to derive the
word farm from the Saxon fear me, or feorme, that is,
vkuis, “ provisionby reason the country people
and tenants anciently paid their rents in victuals and
other necessaries, which were afterwards converted in¬
to the payment of a sum of money. Whence a jeinn
was originally a place that furnished its landlord with
provisions. And among the Normans they still di¬
stinguish between farms that pay in kind,.i. e. provi¬
sions, and those which pay in money ; calling the for¬
mer simply fermes, and the latter blanche ferme, white
farm.” ...
Spelman shows, that the word firma, anciently sig¬
nified not only what we now call a yhr/w, but also a
feast or entertainment, which the farmer gave the pro¬
prietor or landlord, for a certain number of days, and
at a certain rate, for the lands he held of him. Thus
fearnie in the laws of King Canute is rendered by Mr
Lambard, victus : and thus we read of reddere firjnam
unius noctis, and reddebat unum diem de firma ; which
denote provision for a night and day, the rtents about
the time of the Conquest being all paid in provisions $
which custom is said to have been first altered under
King Henry I. We also say to farm duties, imposts,
&c.
Culture of a Farm. See Agriculture.
Farm, as connected with gardening, and susceptible
of embellishment. See Gardening.
In speculation, it might have been expected that the
first essays of improvement should have been on a farm,
to make it both advantageous and delightful; but the
fact was otherwise ; a small plot was appropriated to
pleasure, the rest was reserved for profit only. And
this may, perhaps, have been a principal cause of the
vicious taste which long prevailed in gardens. It
was imagined that a spot set apart from the rest should
not be like them: the conceit introduced deviations
from nature, which were afterwards carried to such an
excess, that hardly any objects truly rural were left
within the enclosure, and the view of those without
was generally excluded. The first step, therefore, to¬
wards a reformation, was by opening the garden to
the country, and that immediately led to assimilating
them; but still the idea of a spot appropriated to plea¬
sure only prevailed, and one of the latest improve¬
ments has been to blend the useful with the agreeable ;
even the ornamental farm was prior in time to the
more rural ; and we have at last returned to simplicity
by force of refinement.
Of a paste* I. The ideas of pastoral poetry seem now to be the
ral farm, standard of that simplicity ; and a place conformable
to them is deemed a farm in its utmost purity. An al¬
lusion to them evidently enters into the design of the
Leasowes (a), where they appear so lovely as to en¬
dear the memory of their author ; and justify the re¬
putation of Mr Shenstone, who inhabited, made, and
FAR
celebrated the place : it is a perfect picture of his Farm,
mind, simple, elegant, and amiable; and will always-y—
suggest a doubt, whether the spot inspired his verse, or
whether, in the scenes which he formed, he only rea¬
lized the pastoral images which abound in his songs.
The whole is in the same taste, yet full of variety ; and,
except in two or three trifles, every part is rural and
natural. It is literally a grazing farm lying round the
house ; and a walk, as unaffected and as unadorned
as a common field-path, is conducted through the se¬
veral enclosures. But for a detail of the plan and
scenery, as illustrative of the present subject, the read¬
er is referred to the particular description of the Lea¬
sowes published by the late Mr Dodsley. We shall only
take notice of one or two circumstances independent on
the general delineation.
The art with which the divisions between the fields
are diversified is one of them. Even the hedges are
distinguished from each other: a common quickset
fence is in one place the separation : in another, it is a
lofty hedge-row, thick from the top to the bottom j
in a third, it is a continued range of trees, with all their
stems clear, and the light appearing in the intervals
between their boughs, and the bushes beneath them j
in others, these lines of trees are broken, a few groupes
only being left at different distances; and sometimes a
wood, a grove, a coppice, or a thicket, is the apparent
boundary, and by them both the shape and the style
of the enclosures are varied.
The inscriptions, which abound in the place, are an¬
other striking peculiarity : they are well known and
justly admired ; and the elegance of the poetry, and
the aptness of the quotations, atone for their length
and their number. But, in general, inscriptions please
no more than once: the utmost they can pretend to,
except when their allusions are emblematical, is to
point out the beauties, or describe the effects, of the
spots they belong to ; but those beauties and those ef¬
fects must be ver/ faint, which stand in need of the as¬
sistance. Inscriptions, however, to commemorate a de¬
parted friend, are evidently exempt from the censure ;
the monuments would he unintelligible without them ;
and an urn, in a lonely grove, or in the midst of a field,
is a favourite embellishment at the Leasowes: they are
indeed among the principal ornaments of the place ;
for the buildings are mostly mere seats, or little root-
houses ; a ruin of a priory is the largest, and that has
no peculiar beauty to recommend it: but a multiplici¬
ty of objects are unnecessary in the farm; the country
it commands is full of them; and every natural ad¬
vantage of the place within itself has been discover¬
ed, applied, contrasted, and carried to the utmost
perfection, in the purest taste, and with inexhaustible
fancy.
Among the ideas of pastoral poetry which are here
introduced, its mythology is not omitted : but the al¬
lusions are both to ancient and to modern fables;
sometimes to the fairies ; and sometimes to the naiads
and muses. The objects also are borrowed partly
from the scenes which this country exhibited some
centuries ago, and partly from those of Arcadia : the
priory,
[ 412 ]
(a) In Shropshire, between Birmingham and Stourbridge. .
FAR/ [ 4
Farm, piiory, and a Gothic seat, still more particularly cha-
u—v—»racterised by an inscription in obsolete language and
the black letter, belong to the one ; the urns-, Virgil’s
obelisk, and a rustic temple of Pan, to the other. All
these allusions and objects are indeed equally rural :
but the images in an English and classical eclogue are
not the same ; each species is a distinct imitative cha¬
racter. Either is proper ; either will raise the farm it
is applied to above the ordinary level ; and within the
compass of the same place both may he introduced ;
but they should be separates when they are mixed, they
counteract one another j and no representation is pro¬
duced of the times and the countries they refer to. A
certain district should therefore be allotted to each, that
all the fields which belong to the respective characters
may lie together, and the corx-esponding ideas be pre¬
served for a continuance.
Of an an- 2. In such an assortment, the more open and polish-
dent farm. e(i SCenes will generally be given to the Arcadian shep¬
herd 5 and those in a lower degree of cultivation, will
be thought more conformable to the manners of the
ancient British yeomanry. We do not conceive that
the country in their time was entirely cleared, or dis¬
tinctly divided ; the fields were surrounded by woods,
not by hedges ; and if a considerable tract of improved
land lay together, it still was not separated into a num¬
ber of inclosures. 1 he subjects, therefore, proper to re¬
ceive this character, are those in which cultivation seems
to have encroached on the wild, not to have subdued
it ; as the bottom of a valley in corn, while the sides
are still overgrown with wood; and the outline of that
wood indented by the tillage creeping more or less up
the hill. But' a glade of grass, this circumstanced,
does not peculiarly belong to the species ; that may
occur in a park or pastoral farm ; in this, the pastures
should raflier border on a waste or common : if large,
they may be broken by straggling bushes, thickets, or
coppices ; and the scattered trees should be beset with
brambles and briars. All these are circumstances
which improve the beauty of the place ; yet appear to
be only remains of the wild, not intended for embellish¬
ment. Such interruptions must, however, be less fre¬
quent in the arable parts of the farm ; but there the
opening may be divided into several lands, distinguish¬
ed, as in common fields, only by difl’erent sorts of grain.
These will sufficiently break the sameness of the space ;
and the tillage does not furnish a more pleasing scene,
than such a space so broken, if the extent be moderate,
and the boundary beautiful.
As much wood is essential to the character, a spot
may easily be found, where turrets rising above the co¬
vert, or some arches seen within it, may have the re¬
semblance of a castle or an abbey. The partial conceal¬
ment is almost necessary to both ; for to accord with
the age, the buildings must seem to be entire; the
ruins ol them belong to later days : the disguise is,
however, advantageous to them as objects ; none can
be imagined more picturesque, than a tower bosomed
in trees, or a cluster appearing between the stems and
the branches. But the superstitions of the times fur¬
nish other objects which are more within compass :
hermitages were then real ; solitary chapels were com¬
mon ; many of the springs of the country being deem¬
ed holy wells, were distinguished by little’Gothic domes
built over them ; and every hamlet had its cross, even
3 ] FAB
this, when perfect, set on a little rustic pillar, and that Farm,
raised upon a base ol circular steps, may in some scenes
be considerable : if a situation can be found for a May-
pole, whence it would not obtrude itself on every view,
that also might not be improper; and an ancient church,
however unwelcome it may be when it breaks into the
design of a park or a garden, in such a farm as this
would be a fortunate accident; nor would the old yew
in the church yard be indifferent; it would be a me¬
morial of the times when it was useful.
Many other objects, significant of the manners of
our ancestors, might perhaps, upon recollection, occur;
but these are amply sufficient for a place of considerable
extent, and cottages must abound in every age and
every country ; they may therefore be introduced in
different forms and positions. Earge pieces of water
are also particularly proper; and all the varieties of
rills are consistent with every species of farm. From
the concurrence of so many agreeable circumstances in
this, be the force or the effect of the character what it
may, a number of pleasing scenes may be exhibited,
either in a walk or riding, to be contrasted to those
which in another part of the place may be formed on
Arcadian ideas ; or even to be substituted in their stead,
if they are omitted.
3. A part may also he free from either of these imita-0fa gj1Bple
tive characters, and laid out in a common simple farm. farm.
Some of the greatest beauties of nature are to be found
in the fields, and attend an ordinary state of cultiva¬
tion : wood and water may there be exhibited in seve¬
ral forms and dispositions ; we may enlarge or divide
the inclosures ; and give them such shapes and bounda¬
ries as we please ; every one may be an agreeable spot;
together, they may compose beautiful views ; the arable,
the pasture, and the mead, may succeed one another ;
and now and then a little wild may be intermixed with¬
out impropriety ; every beauty, in short, which is not
unusual in an inclosed country, whether it arises from
neglect or improvement, is here in its place.
The buildings, also, which are frequent in such a
country, are often beautiful objects ; the church and
the mansion are considerable : tiie farm-yard itself, if
an advantageous situation he chosen for it ; if the
ricks, and the barns, and the out-houses, are ranged
with any design to form them into groups, and if they
are properly blended with trees ; may be made a pic¬
turesque composition. Many of them may be detach¬
ed from the group, and dispersed about the grounds ;
the dove-cot, or the dairy, may be separated from
the rest ; they may be elegant in their forms, and pla¬
ced wherever they will have the best effect. A com¬
mon barn, accompanied by a clump, is sometimes
pleasing at a distance; a Dutch barn is so when near;
and a hay-stack is generally an agreeable circum¬
stance in any position. Each of these may be single ;
and besides these, all kinds of cottages are proper.
Among so many buildings, some may be converted to
other purposes than their construction denotes ; and,
whatever be their exterior, may within be made
agreeable retreats, for refreshment, indulgence, or
shelter.
With such opportunities of improvements, even to
decoration within itself, and with advantages of pros¬
pect into the country about it, a simple farm may un¬
doubtedly be delightful. It will be particularly ac¬
ceptable
Farui.
Of art or¬
namented
farm.
FAR
[ 4*4 ]
FAR
eeptable to the owner, if it be close to his park or his
garden : the objects which constantly remind him or
his rank, impose a kind of constraint ; and he feels
himself relieved, by retiring sometimes from the splen¬
dor of a seat into the simplicity of a farm : it is more
than a variety of scene ; it is a temporary change of
situation in life, which has all the charms of novelty,
ease, and tranquillity, to recommend it. A place,
therefore, can hardly be deemed perfect, which is not
provided with such a retreat. But if it be the whole
of the place', it seems inadequate to the mansion : a vi¬
sitor is disappointed j the master is dissatisfied} he is
not sufficiently distinguished from his tenants •, he
misses the appendages incidental to his seat and his
fortune •, and is hurt at the similarity of his grounds
with the country about them. A pastoral or an ancient
farm is a little above the common level; but even these,
if brought close up to the door, set the house in a field,
where it always appears to be neglected and naked.
Some degree of polish and ornament is expected in its
immediate environs j and a garden, though it be but a
small one, should be interposed between the mansion
and any species of farm.
4. A sense of the propriety of such improvements
about a seat, joined to a taste for the more simple de¬
lights'of the country, probably suggested the idea of
an ornamental farm, as the means of bringing every
rural circumstance within the verge of a garden. This
Idea has been partially executed very often *, but no¬
where, perhaps, so completely, and to such an extent, as
at Woburn farm, near (Weybridge in Surry). The place
contains 150 acres: of which near 35 are adorned to
the highest degree *, of the rest, about two-thirds are 111
pasture, and the remainder is in tillage. 'I he decora¬
tions are, however, communicated to every part : for
they are disposed along the sides of a walk, which, with
its anpendages, forms a broad belt round the grazing-
grounds ; and is continued, though on a more con¬
tracted scale, through the arable. Ibis walk is pro¬
perly garden-, all within it is farm-, the whole lies
on the two sides of a hill, and on a flat at the foot of
it: the flat is divided into corn fields -, the pastures
occupy the hill ; they are surrounded by the walk,
and crossed by a communication carried along the
brow, which is also richly dressed, and which divides
tbern into two lawns, each completely encompassed
with garden. #
These are in themselves delightful ; the ground in
both lies beautifully: they are diversified with clumps
and single trees 5 and the buildings in the walk seem
to belong to them. On the top of the bill is a large
octagon structure', and, not far from it, the ruin of a
chapel. To one of the lawns the ruin appears, on the
brow of a gentle ascent, backed and grouped with
wood ; from the other is seen the octagon, upon the
edge of a steep fall, and by the side of a pretty grove,
which hangs down the declivity. The lawn is further
embellished by a neat Gothic building ; the former by
the house, and the lodge at the entrance -, and in both,
other objects of less consequence, little seats, alcoves,
and bridges, continually occur.
The buildings are not, however, the only orna¬
ments of the walk ; it is shut out from the country,
for a considerable length of the way, by a thick and
lofty bedge-row, which is enriched with woodbine, jes¬
samine, and every odoriferous plant whose tendrils will pa
entwine with the thicket. A path, generally of sand —
or gravel, is conducted in a waving line, sometimes
close under the hedge, sometimes at a little distance
from it 5 and the turf on either hand is diversified with
little groups of shrubs, of firs, or the smallest trees,
and often with beds of flowers: these are rather too
profusely strewed, and hurt the eye by their little¬
nesses 5 but then they replenish the air with their per¬
fumes, and every gale is full of fragrancy. In some
parts, however, the decoration is more chasteand the
walk is carried between larger clumps of evergreens,
thickets of deciduous shrubs, or still more considerably
open plantations. In one place it is entirely simple,
without any appendages, any gravel, or any sunk fence
to separate it from the lawn j and is distinguished only
by the richness of its verdure, and the nicety of its
preservation. In the arable part it is also of giceu
sward, following the direction of the hedges about the
several inclosures : these hedges are sometimes thick¬
ened with flowering shrubs ; and in every corner or va¬
cant space, is a rosary, a close or an open clump, or a
bed of flowers : but if the parterre lias been rifled for
the embellishment of the fields, the country has on the
other hand been searched for plants new in a garden }
and the shrubs and the flowers which used to be deem¬
ed peculiar to the one, have been liberally transferred
to the other i while their number seems multiplied by
their arrangement in so many and such difierent dispo¬
sitions. A more moderate use of them would, however,
have been better; and the variety more pleasing, had
it been less licentious.
But the excess is only in the borders of the walk j
the scenes through which it leads are truly elegant,
everywhere rich, and always agreeaole. A peculiai
cheerfulness overspreads both the lawns, arising from
the number and splendor of the objects with which
they abound, the lightness of the buildings, the ine¬
qualities of the ground, and the varieties of the plan¬
tations. The clumps and the groves, though separate¬
ly small, are often massed by the perspective, and ga¬
thered into considerable groups, which are beautiful in
their forms, their tints, and their positions. The brow
of the hill commands two lovely prospects : the one
gav and extensive, over a fertile plain, watered by the
Thames, and broken by St Anne’s Hill and Windsor
Castle 5 a large mead, of the most luxuriant verdure,
lies just below the eye, spreading to the hanks of the
river ; and beyond it the country is full of farms, vil¬
las, and villages, and every mark of opulence and cul¬
tivation. The other view is more wooded : the steeple
of a church, or the turrets of a seat, sometimes rise
above the trees and the hold arch of Walton bridge
is there a conspicuous object, equally singular ana
noble. The inclosures on the flat are more retired
and quiet-, each is confined within itself; and altoge¬
ther they form an agreeable contrast to the open expo¬
sure above them.
With the beauties which enliven a garden are every¬
where intermixed many properties of a farm : both the
lawns are pastured ; and the lowings of the herds, the
bleating of the sheep, and the tinklings of the bell-wed-
der, resound through all the plantations : even the
clucking of poultry is not omitted for a menagerie of
a verv simple design is placed near the Gothic building;
far [ 415 ] FAR
farm a sma^ serpentine river is provided for the water-fowl;
Farmer, while the others stray among the flowering shrubs on
•—Y——■' the banks, or straggle about the neighbouring lawn :
and the corn fields are the subjects of every rural em¬
ployment which arable land from seed-time to harvest
can furnish. But though so many of the circumstances
occur, the simplicity of a farm is wanting $ that idea
is lost in such a profusion of ornament ; a rusticity of
character cannot be preserved amidst all the elegant
decorations which may be lavished on a garden.
FARMER, he that tenants a farm, or is lessee
thereof. Also generally every lessee for life, years, or
at will, is called farmer. As this word implies no my¬
stery, except it be that of husbandry, husbandman is
the proper addition for a farmer.
Farmer, Hugh, an English clergyman and a man of
literature, belonging to the protestant nonconformists,
was descended from people of respectability in North
Wales, and drew his first breath at Shrewsbury, in the
year 1714. Dr Charles Owen was for some time his
tutor, and prior to that period he was educated at a school
in Llanegrin. His parents from the first having de¬
signed him for the ministry, he was sent to prosecute
his studies under the justly celebrated Dr Doddridge at
Northampton, in 1730. Here, by the rectitude of his
conduct and wonderful proficiency, he gained the esteem
of that great man, who always spoke of him in the
most respectful terms. Having completed his academi¬
cal studies, Mr Farmer became the chaplain of William
Coward, Esq. of Walthamstow, in the county of Essex,
and was at the same time chosen minister to a dissent¬
ing congregation in that village. Notwithstanding the
gratitude with which Mr Coward ought to be remem¬
bered by many for his charitable institutions, he had
certain peculiarities of temper which rendered him a
very disagreeable domestic. His doors were shut at an
uncommonly early hour of the night, and neither visitor
nor constant resident could afterwards obtain admission.
Mr Farmer having one evening been detained a little
beyond that hour, found the doors shut against him,
and was under the necessity of applying to a William
Snell, Esq. solicitor, a man of eminence, and possessed
of many excellent qualifications, in whose family he
remained for 33 years, living in the greatest friendship
and intimacy. In this gentleman’s house he gradually
prepared those valuable treatises and dissertations which
were afterwards given to the public, and acquired him
so much celebrity as a man of letters. lie also conti¬
nued to discharge the duties of his ministerial function
to the people of Walthamstow.
When a. day of thanksgiving was appointed for the
fortunate suppression of the rebellion in 1745, Mr Far¬
mer preached a sermon on that occasion which was pub¬
lished the following year. His next work was of con¬
siderably greater importance, and was entitled, “ An
Inquiry into the Nature and Design of our Lord’s temp¬
tation in the wilderness,” 8vo. In this work it was the
design of Mr Farmer to prove that the whole was trans¬
acted in vision, the different stages of which were intend¬
ed to point out to him the difficulties and duties of his
subsequent ministry. The originality of thought and
profound erudition which this work displayed, soon
gave it a very extensive circulation, and called forth
the exertions of those who were of an opposite opinion.
It received one'reply under the title of “ Christ’s temp¬
tations real facts,” which possessed considerable merit, Farmer,
but much inferior to Mr Farmer’s for energy of ex» -y——
pression, depth of thinking, and force of argument.
But the most masterly, perhaps, of all Mr Farmer’s
literary productions, was his “Dissertation on Miracles,
designed to shew that they are arguments of a divine in¬
terposition, and absolute proofs of the mission and doc¬
trine of a prophet.” Some have believed, and perhaps
not without reason, that this work has no proper rival,
notwithstanding the many able treatises upon that sub¬
ject which have made their appearance in different ages.
It was first published in the year 1771. But as great
talents are frequently envied, and as this infernal prin¬
ciple is the prolific source of calumny and detraction,,
so this supereminent work of Mr Farmer was declared
to have been chiefly borrowed from M. le Moine on
the same subject j a slander which Mr Farmer refuted
in a very able and satisfactory manner. In the year
I775> ,ie published his celebrated “Essay on the De¬
moniacs of the New Testament,” which may be con¬
sidered as a masterly completion of the design he had,
in view by his dissertation on miracles. The hypothesis
he adopted had been formerly defended with great
ability by Mede, Sykes, Lardner, and others ; but it
was reserved for the critical acumen of Mr Farmer to
free it completely from those difficulties which still
hung around it. Elis essay on demoniacs was succes¬
sively attacked by Dr Worthington and Mr Fell, both
of them men of considerable erudition, but much in¬
ferior to their able antagonist.
Mr F armer having continued for several years the
sole pastor of the congregation at "Walthamstow, an
able colleague was appointed him in 1761, inconse¬
quence of which he became the afternoon preacher to
the congregation of Salter’s-hall, in the city of London,
and soon after the Tuesday lecturer at the same place.
He resigned his ministerial employments as he advanced
in years, which the people committed to his charge very
much regretted. In the year 1785 his eyes gave him
very much trouble, of the sight of which he was nearly
deprived, but by means of a surgical operation, be was
for some time enabled to resume his studies. But mor¬
tality is the inevitable lot of all men, and the growing
infirmities of Mr Farmer brought him to the grave in
1787, in the 73d year of his age.
By his last will he had ordered all his manuscripts to
be burnt after his death, a circumstance which men of
letters have just reason to lament. It is no doubt the
duty of executors to pay attention to the will of the de¬
ceased ; yet for the benefit of the Christian world they
would have been justified in taking a certain latitude in
the explanation of his meaning; as it does by no means
appear probable that he meant to consign to the flames
his manuscript entitled, “ A Dissertation on the story
of Balaam,” which appeared written in a fair hand, as
if manifestly intended for the press. When we say that
Mr F armer was a consummate scholar, we trust that
his numerous and able works will fully justify the asser¬
tion ; and his talents as a preacher were equally con¬
spicuous. His voice was remarkable for its clearness
and harmony, and his whole manner was peculiarly im¬
pressive. His piety was not morose, his conversation was
lively, and his whole deportment was a beautiful trans¬
cript of his moral injunctions.
Farmer, Richard, D. D. a scholar and critic of
considerable.
Farmer.
FAR [ 416 ] FAR
considerable eminence, was the son of a hosier at Lei¬
cester, at which place he was born in the year 1735.
Here he received the rudiments of his education, and
was afterwards a student at Cambridge, and pensioner
of Emanuel college. He was considered as a young
man w^ell acquainted with books, was much esteemed
amona' his friends, and looked upon as possessed of lively
parts,^even before he acquired any extraordinary repu¬
tation as a scholar. He was made B. A. in 1757, and
M. A. in 1760. Several years after this period, having
been for some time a curate, he took the degree of
B. D. and became a preacher at Whitehall. Besides the
attention he paid to the Grecian and Roman authors,
he prosecuted the study of books in his own language,
printed on black-letter, which laid the foundation ot a
work that added more to his literary reputation than
any other performance. This was “ An Essay on the
learning of Shakespeare,” which he published in 1766.
Men of letters had long turned their attention to the
learning of Shakespearean order to ascertain its real ex¬
tent. It could not be questioned that he was acquainted
with the history and mythology of the ancients,but it was
still a matter of dispute from what sources that acquaint¬
ance was derived. To obviate this difficulty, Mr Far¬
mer’s knowledge of books enabled him to demonstrate,
that translations of the far greater part of classical au¬
thors were to be met with in the time of the celebrated
dramatist 5 and as he proved that Shakespeare had even
copied the blunders and errors of such translations, he
made it manifest beyond the possibility of a rational
doubt, that he was wholly incapable of consulting the
originals. This essay passed through three editions in
a very short time 5 was much admired for the sprightli¬
ness of its composition, and the generality were persuad¬
ed that he had fully established his point.
This performance brought him so much into notice,
as to become extremely favourable to his professional
advancement. By the influence of Bishop Hurd, he
urocured the. chancellorship and a prebend in the cathe¬
dral of Lichfield, and in 1775 he was elected master of
Emanuel college, and took the degree of D. D. He
was soon after constituted principal librarian to the uni¬
versity, and served in turn the office of vice-chancellor.
He was made prebendary of Canterbury by Lord North,
at that time prime minister, and Mr Fitt made him
twice an offer of a bishopric $ but the constraints and
solemnity of the episcopal character were not congenial
to his natural temper, on which account he declined the
offer, and having resigned his office as prebendary, he ac¬
cepted of a residentiaryship of St Paul’s. This obliged
him to reside three months annually in London, which
he spent with pleasure and advantage in the company
of literary characters. From nature he inherited a fund
of good humour, and was of such an obliging turn, that
he buried party spirit in the satisfaction which he found
in the performance of beneficent actions. Though in
general an enemy to reforms of any kind, and anxious
to preserve things as they were, both in the church and
state, he was instrumental in amending the police of
Cambridge, especially as it related to the paving and
lighting of the streets. At his instigation also, monu-
mental°sculpture was admitted into the cathedral of St
Paul’s, which will continue to exhibit a striking proof
' of national gratitude, and serve to cover the nakedness
. of the walls.
It was at one time the intention of Dr Farmer to pub- Farmer
lish a history of the town and antiquities of Leicester, II
the expences to be defrayed by subscription j but either ,Farnab^
his independent circumstances, or a degree of native in¬
dolence, made him relinquish the design, and the few
materials he had collected were given to Mr John
Nichols, at that time engaged in an elaborate work on
the same subject. After a painful illness of some length,
Dr Fanner died at Emanuel college in the month of
September, 1797, in the 6zd year of his age. Dr Parr
wrote an epitaph for his tombstone, in which we find
the following testimony to his worth. “ Air facetus et
dulcis, festique sermonis, Grsecd et Latine doctus, in ex-
plicanda veterum Anglorum poesi subtilis et elegans.”
He had a considerable library, in which were a vast
number of books purchased at the stalls of London,
and afterwards disposed of for much more than they
cost.
Farmer, in mining, is the lord of the field, or one
that farms the lot and cope of the king.
FARN islands, two groups of little islands and
rocks, 17 in number, lying opposite to Bamborough
castle in Northumberland. At low water the points
of several others are visible besides the 17 just mention¬
ed. The nearest island to the shore is called the House-
island, and lies exactly one mile and 68 chains from the
coast. The most distant is about seven or eight miles.
Their produce is kelp, feathers, and a few seals, which
the tenant watches and shoots for the sake of the oil
and skins. Some of them yield a little grass that may
serve to feed a cow or two j which the people trans¬
port over in their little boats. The largest or House-
island is about one mile in compass, and has a fort and
a lighthouse. It contains about six or seven acres of
rich pasture •, and the shore abounds with good coals
which are dug at the ebb of tide. St Cuthbert is said
to have passed the two last years of his life on this
island. A priory of Benedictines was afterwards esta¬
blished here, for six or eight monks, subordinate to
Durham. A square tower, the remains of a church,
and some other buildings, are stiff to be seen on this
island $ and a stone coffin, which is pretended to be
that of St Cuthbert. At the north end of the isle is
a deep chasm, from the top to the bottom of the
rock, communicating with the sea j through which,
in tempestuous weather, the water is forced with
great violence and noise, and forms a fine jet d eau or
60 feet high. It is called by the inhabitants of the
opposite coast, the Churn. One of the islands in the
most distant group is called the Pinnacles, from
some vast columnar rocks at the south end, even at
their sides, flat at the tops, and entirely covered with
guillemots and shags. The fowlers pass from one to
the other of these columns by means of a board, which
they place from top to top, forming a narrow bridge
over such a dreadful gap that the very sight of it strikes
one with horror.
FARNABIE, Thomas, son of a carpenter at
London, born in 1575, staid a short while at Oxford;
where being enticed to abandon his religion, he went
to Spain, and was there educated in a college belong¬
ing to the Jesuits. Being weary of their severe disci¬
pline, he went with Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake in their last voyage in 1595. He was after¬
wards a soldier in the Low Countries : but being redu-
3
FAB [ 417 ]
Farnabie great want, returned to England, where wan- abroad and reduced to
|j dering about for some time under the name of Thomas
FarnoTians. Bainrafe, the anagram of his name, he settled at Mat-
;n Somersetshire, and taught a grammar-school
tvitli good reputation. He removed to London, and
opened a school with large accommodations for young
gentlemen. While he taught this school, he was made
master of arts at Cambridge, and incorporated into the
university of Oxford. Thence he removed, in 1636,
to Seven-oaks in Kent j and taught the sons of several
noblemen and gentlemen, who boarded with him, with
great success, and grew rich. His works gained him
reputation. Upon the breaking out of the civil com¬
motions in 164IJ he was cast into prison. It was
debated in the house of commons, whether he should
he sent to America; but this motion being rejected, he
was removed to Ely-house in Hoiborn, and there he
died in 1647. Mr Farnabie was a very eminent gram¬
marian ; and many writers have spoken with great
approbation of his labours. Mr Bayle in particular
says, “ His notes upon most of the ancient Latin
poets have been of very great use to young beginners;
being short, learned, and designed chiefly to clear up
the text.”
FARNHAM, or Fernham ; a town of Surry, and
capital of the hamlet of its own name, 41 miles from
London on the Winchester road. It is a large popu¬
lous place, situated on the river WTey, and supposed to
have its name from the fern which abounded here. It
was given by the West Saxon king Ethelbald to the
see of Winchester; the bishops of which have general¬
ly resided in the castle here, in the summer time, ever
since the reign of King Stephen, whose brother, its
then bishop, first built it. It was a magnificent struc¬
ture, with deep moats, strong walls and towers at pro¬
per distances, and a fine park ; but it is much decayed.
The town, which contains 437 houses, and 2508 inha¬
bitants, is governed by 12 masters or burgesses, of
whom two are bailiffs, (chosen annually). They have
the profit of the fairs and markets, and the assize of
bread and beer; and hold a court every three weeks,
which has power of trying and determining all actions
under 40s. From Michaelmas to Christmas here is a
good market for oats ; and one of the greatest wheat
markets in England, especially between All-Saints day
and mid-summer. The toll-dish here was once reckon¬
ed worth 200I. a year; but it is much diminished,
since the people about Chichester and Southampton
began to send their meal to London by sea. But this
loss is amply made up by the vast growth of hops, of
which there are 300 or 400 acres of plantations about
this town, and they are said to excel the Kentish hop-
yards both in quantity and quality. This town sent
members to parliament in the reign of Edward II.
but never since. The magistrates have their privi¬
leges from the bishop of Winchester, to whom they
pay an acknowledgement of I2d. a-year. The market
is on Thursday : and there are three fairs annually,
and a great market for Welsh hose.
FARNOVIANS, in ecclesiastical history, a sect of
Socinians, so called from Stanislaus Farnovius, who se¬
parated from the other Unitarians in the year 1568,
and was followed by several persons eminent for their
learning. This sect did not last long; for having
lost their chief, who died in 1613, it was scattered
VOL. VIII. Part II. t
FAB
_ nothing. Farnovius was enga-Famcwiam.
ged by Gonesius to prefer the Arian system to that of Fa rqukar.
the Socinians, and consequently asserted, that Christ' v 
had been produced out of nothing by the Supreme Be¬
ing before the creation of this terrestrial globe. His
sentiments concerning the Holy Ghost are not certainly
known ; however, it appears that he warned his disci¬
ples against paying the tribute ol religious worship to
the Divine Spirit.
FARQUHAR, George, an ingenious poet and
dramatic writer, the son of a clergyman in Ireland,
was born at Londonderry in 1678. He was sent to
T. rinity College, Dublin ; but his volatile disposition not
relishing a college life, he betook himself to the stage;
where, having dangerously wounded a brother actor in
a tragic scene, by forgetting to change his sword for a
foil, it shocked him so much that he left the Dublin
theatre and went to London. Here he procured a
lieutenant’s commission by the interest of the earl of Or¬
rery ; which he held several years, and gave many
proofs both of courage and conduct. In 1698, he
wrote his first comedy called Love and a Bottle ; which
for its sprightly dialogue and busy scenes, was well re¬
ceived. In the beginning of the year 1700, which was
the jubilee year at Rome, he brought out his Constant
Couple, or a Trip to the Jubilee : and suited Mr Wilks’s
talents so well in the character of Sir Harry Wildair,
that the player gained almost as much reputation as
the poet. This tempted him to continue it in another
comedy called Sir Harry Wildair, or The sequel of the
Tup to the Jubilee; in which Mrs Oldfield acquired
great applause. In 1702, Jie published bis Miscella¬
nies, which contain a variety of humorous sallies of
fancy. In 1703, appeared the Inconstant, or the Way
to Win him : in 1704, a farce called the Stage-coach ;
in 1703, the Twin Rivals; and in 1706, the Recruit¬
ing Officer, founded on his own observations while on
a recruiting party at Shrewsbury. His last comedy
was the Beaux Stratagem, of which he did not live to
enjoy the full success. Mr Farquhar married in 1703,
Before that time bis manner of life had been rather
dissipated. The lady, therefore, who afterwards became
his wife, having fallen violently in love with him, but
judging that a gentleman of his humour would not easily
be drawn into the trammels of matrimony, contrived
to have it given out that she was possessed of a large
fortune ; and finding means afterwards to let Mr Far¬
quhar know her attachment to him, interest and vanity
got the better of his passion for liberty, and the lady
and he were united in the hymeneal bands. But how
great was his disappointment when he found all his
prospects overclouded so early in life (for he was then
no more than 24), by a marriage from which he had
nothing to expect but an annual increase of family, and
an enlargement of expence in consequence of it far be¬
yond what his income would support. Yet, to his ho¬
nour be it told, though he found himself thus deceived
in a most essential particular, he never was known once
to upbraid his wife with it; but generously forgave an
imposition which love for him alone had urged her to,
and even behaved to her with all the tenderness and de¬
licacy of the most indulgent husband. Mrs Farquhar,
however, did not very long enjoy the happiness she had
purchased by this stratagem ; for the circumstances that
attended this union were in some respects perhaps the
3 G means
Farquliar.
FAR [ 418
means of shortening the period of the captain s life.
For, finding himself considerably involved m debt in
consequence of their increasing family, he was induced
to make application to a certain noble courtier, who
had frequently professed the greatest friendship for him,
and given him the strongest assurances of his intended
services. This pretended patron repeated his former
declaration ; but expressing much concern that he had
nothing at present immediately in his power, advised
him to convert his commission into money to answer his
present occasions, and assured him that in a short time
he would procure another for him. Farquhar, who
could not bear the thoughts of his wife and family be¬
ing in distress, followed this advice, and sold his com-
] FAR
mission but, to his great mortification and disappoint- Farquhaj.
ment, found, on a renewal of his application to this in- Farrier,
human nobleman, that he had either entirely forgotten, »—1
or had never intended to perform, the promise he had
made him. This distracting frustration of all his hopes
fixed itself so strongly on our author’s mind, that it soon
brought on him a sure, though not a very sudden, de¬
clension of nature, which at length carried him off the
stage of life in 1707, before he arrived at 30 years ot
age. His comedies have so much humour, and the
characters are so natural, that his plays still continue
to he represented to full houses.
FARIUER, one whose employment is to shoe horses,
and cure them when diseased or lame.
FARRIERY.
INTRODUCTION.
Oririn of HTHE t&cm farrier is probably a corruption otferrier,
the term i- Yv.ferrans, from the verb/errer, to shoe a horse;
farriery. a|j these words being derived from the Latin for rum,
“ fron.” There is no doubt that the word farrier was
at first used to denote a person who shod horses: but as
these persons were for a long period the only horse-
doctors, the term was soon used in the more extensive
sense of horse-doctor or horse-leech; and hence far¬
riery came to signify the art of curing the diseases of
horses.
There can be little doubt that the word farrier was
originally spelt ferrier or ferrer ; as we meet with this
latter orthography in some of our older writers. Ihus
Blundeville, who wrote in the time ot Queen Elizabeth,
in his “ Address to the Gentlemen of England,” book
iv. has the following sentence.
“ All horses, for the most part, do come into then-
decay, sooner than they should do, by one of these four
wales ; that is to say, either for lacke of being well
bred, or through the rashness of the rider, the negli¬
gence of the keeper, or else through the unskilfulnesse
ot ferrery . • n
Again, the same author mentions “ Martin Shelly
of Aston, called Martin Alman, chiefe ferrer to the
„ queen’s magistie.” . ^ f
Veterinary Farriery, in the usual acceptation of the word, forms
art. only a part of the more general art, which has seen
commonly called the veterinary art; by which is under¬
stood the art of medicine as applied to the interior ani¬
mals, which lias been long called by the French V art
veterinaire, or •medicine vetennaire. This word veteri¬
nary is of very ancient date, being derived from the
Latin vetcrinarius, which is used by Columella to de¬
note a horse-doctor or cattle-doctor. Hie term yetem-^
■nary, being derived from veiermus, qu. veheterinus, a
vehendo, carrying, is properly applicable only to beasts
of burden j but veterinary medicine is now commonly
employed in a more comprehensive sense, to denote the
art of curing the diseases of domestic animals in general.
T 3 The French, who appear to have first used the term
tended. ‘ in this general sense, usually distinguish that part of the
art which we call farriery, by the appellation 01 Hip*
piatrique from <Wef, a horse, and physician.
Thus, they have a Cours d"1 Hippiairique, a Dictionaire
d’’Hippiatrique, &c.
As there are considerable advantages attending the
consideration of the diseases of the several domestic ani¬
mals in the same treatise, we propose, in the present ar¬
ticle, not to confine ourselves to the medical treatment
of the horse, but to extend our views to the diseases of
such other of the domestic animals, as are of the most
importance to man, particularly the ox, sheep, and dog.
The diseases of the horse, as they are better known,
and more interesting, than those of the other domestic
animals, will of course occupy the greatest share of our
attention. The diseases of the dog have been as yet too
little investigated for us to give a very satisfactory ac¬
count of them ; hut as the subject of veterinary medi¬
cine has of late been much cultivated, it is probable
that these, as well as some other obscure diseases of ani¬
mals, may ere long receive some elucidation. If any
considerable improvements or discoveries shall be made
before the completion ot our wrork, we shall notice them
under Veterinary medicine. n
It may be thought, that, considering veterinary medi-objections
cine in this extensive point of view, it would have been answered,
more correct to defer the subject to the article ^ ETERI-
NARY 5 but most of our readers who have been ac¬
customed to see in our dictionary the article Farriery,
will expect an account of, at least, the diseases of the
HORSE, under this article, and would probably not lie
pleased to have this delayed till nearly the end of the
work besides, it is of little importance under which
article the diseases of animals are treated of, as, when
we have once defined our terms, we cannot he misun¬
derstood, provided we always employ them in the sense
of the definition. Again, as the term veterinary has
departed from its original signification, there can be
no objection to our employing the word farriery, a
term that is more familiar in the same general sense.
In fact, it has been so employed by a late writer on
the subject, Mr Feron, who has entitled his work, “ A
new System of Farriery,” though he professes to treat
in it of the horse, ox, and sheep.
In this article, then, we shall 0^ farriery as synony¬
mous with veterinary art, and shall consider both as
the
FARE
iatrodiic- ^ie art °f 'preserving the health and curing the diseases
tion. of domestic animals.
The study of veterinary medicine must be an interest-
naree*n£ 0^.iect eve,T person, whose profession, or situation
,f the sub- i*1 society, requires him to attend to the comforts and
ect diseases of domestic animals.
6 To the veterinanj practitioner, the study of the prin-
to the ve- c:p]es 0f l,is art, the history of the diseases which he is
•iretition- ca^e<^ 011 relieve, and the methods of treating them
;r. that have been found most successful, are as essential
as the study of the human economy, and the diseases to
which it is exposed, are to the medical practitioner. A
farrier who has studied his art scientifically, is as much
superior to the ignorant empiric, to whose mercy the
lives and limbs of horses and cattle are usually intrust¬
ed j as the regular physician to the illiterate quack,
who puffs off his pernicious nostrums in every news¬
paper, and enriches himself, by imposing on the credu¬
lity and folly of the public. The necessity of a regular
education to the farrier, as well as to the surgeon or
physician, which had long been seen, has led to the in¬
stitution of veterinary schools ; at first in France, and
within these few years in England. Of these we shall
presently give an account.
To the farmer and country gentleman this subject
To the
farmer and
country must be highly interesting. They will find their ac-
'cntleman. count in being able themselves to superintend the ma¬
nagement of their horses, dogs, sheep, and cattle, so as
best to preserve their health, and relieve their diseases,
without relying implicitly on their grooms, huntsmen,
and farriers, herdsmen and cattle-doctors, who are pro¬
bably either notoriously ignorant, or are induced from
interested views, or a fellow-feeling, to prolong the cure,
and pick the pockets of their masters (a). These
gentlemen therefore cannot employ a part of their
leisure time to greater advantage than in acquiring a
knowledge of the diseases of domestic animals.
The medical practitioner who wishes to derive an
to the me-
ical prac-
litioner.
advantage from analogy in some of the obscure diseases
to which the human frame is subject, and which would
probably receive considerable elucidation from a com¬
parison with similar diseases that affect the inferior ani¬
mals, must engage with peculiar interest, in a research
that promises so well to repay his labour. “ It is not
a little remarkable, (say the editors of a well-conducted
medical journal), that the diseases of horses, cattle, and
sheep, which occur so frequently, and are so seriously
lamented, should be so imperfectly understood. No
greater benefit could be conferred on physical science
than a complete history of the diseases of our domestic
animals, especially if given by any one endowed by na¬
ture with superior acuteness, and a talent for observa¬
tion, improved by habit and experience ; who could
describe the symptoms and appearances of the different
disorders, point out the analogies with those incident to
the human body, detect those minute circumstances
I E R Y. ,
which serve to distinguish them, class them under their introduc-
proper heads, and correct all the confusion in which tion.
they now lie involved. Veterinary medicine has lately ' *
occupied some share of attention, chiefly as relating to
horses, and as a distinct pursuit from the general study
of all the diseases of animals, but considered apart from,
any relation or inquiry concerning the treatment of the
morbid states of the human system. It is in this last* Edi?t.
point of view, that comparative pathology seems to offer Med. and
so many subjects worthy investigation ; and, when look- Sur-fourn-
ed upon in this light, itstrikes us as one of those studies'll T
quae ad nos pertinent, et qua; nescire malum est *. A
We shall see, from the historical sketch of farriery, Farriery
which will immediately be given, that the art never mu-h in-
made any considerable progress, or assumed any thing de,|Jtie^jto
like a scientific form, till it attracted the attention of
men who had made the human economy their study.
Almost the only rational improvements, that have been
made in the art, were either suggested or carried into
effect by medical men; and nothing will contribute so
much to its perfection as the interest which the profes¬
sion has lately shewed to it, and the attention that has
of late been paid to the study of comparative anatomy
and pathology. " j .
The healing art in general must profit by this. Analogy
There is not only an intimate connection between tbe between
structure of man and that of the inferior animals j bUt,lfee dlsease*
especially in those that have been domesticated, the dis-°fr I'd
eases of both ai’e nearly allied.
The murrains, that in the early part of the last cen¬
tury so frequently attacked the horned cattle through¬
out almost all Europe, nearly depopulating most of the
farms, are very analogous to some of the epidemic dis¬
eases of man ; and pestilential diseases among cattle,
have not unfrequently been the forerunners of similar
epidemics among the human race. Homer, in de¬
scribing the plague that harassed the Grecian camp, in
consequence of the affront given by Agamemnon to tbe
priest of Apollo, says that the domestic animals were
first affected.
Oil fa; fe,iv Trfrot hragele, km xvvz; ȣyis;,
'Avlilg irt-uT ccir&tri /3eA«s iptik,
BasAA1—— II. i, 50.
“ On mules and dogs th’ infection first began,
“ And last the vengeful arrows fix’d in man.”
Pope.
The plague of boils that raged among the Egyptians
(Exod. ix. xo.) affected both man and beast. Similar
instances are related both by sacred and profane histo¬
rians.
Almost the whole tribe of inflammations, even tbe
gout (according to Van Swieten) are found to affect
the domestic animals, are produced by the same causes,
and
(a) -It may be thought by some, that we have gone too far in accusing the farriers and grooms, &c. of having
a fellow-feeling j but, when it is known, that “ a part of every shilling paid to common farriers, is in some
shape returned to the groom, as a fee or perquisite j” that “ the servant receives at least five per cent, from the
farrier on every bill paid by his master j” and that “ if a horse dies under the care of a farrier, he generally be¬
comes the property of the groom;” See Veterinary Transactions, N° 1. Introduction): it will be allowed that
there is some ground for tbe surmise.
3G2
1
420
FARRIERY.
Jntroduc
lion.
ami yield
system,
to the same treatment as in the human
Domestic animals are subject to eruptive diseases,
both chronic, and such as are attended with fever ; and
both are very similar to those by which man is affected.
It is pretty certain that the smallpox sometimes rages
amoB<T sheep, as we shall see hereafter j and a com-
plaint>very like the measles often attacks swine. Some
vi them are transferable to man ; and to this trans-
j'erence in the case of the cowpox, a blessing which will
render immortal the name of Jenner, we owe the
probable annihilation ot one of the most dreadful pests
that ever affected the human race.
Scrofula and consumption attack monkeys. Apo¬
plexy, epilepsy, and many others of what are called ner¬
vous diseases, indigestion, and even mental derangement,
are not uncommon among domestic animals j spasmodic
affections are very frequent among them *, and it is said,
that for one case of tetanus or locked jaw among the
human species in these climates, there are ten or twenty
among horses. ,
The analogy might be pursued much farther 5 but
what has been stated is sufficient to shew the advanta¬
ges that medical men may derive from the study of vete¬
rinary medicine. Many obscure and dangerous diseases
may thus in time be illustrated or mitigated ; and the
effect of doubtful remedies may be ascertained by ex¬
periments on the inferior animals. For, though there
are a few instances of different effects following the ex¬
hibition of the same medicines in man and animals*,
yet, on the whole, the analogy is nearly as complete
with respect to remedies as diseases (n).
It will appear, fVom what has been said, that the
Laid be reasoning, and much of the treatment, in the diseases of
acquainted animals must be nearly the same as in man, and, of
withmedi* C0Urse, that the veterinary practitioner will gain much
by acquiring a knowledge of human medicine. Were
tlie practitioners in farriery generally instructed in the
principles of medicine, little more would be required in
a treatise on farriery, than to point out the difference
in the structure and functions of domestic animals, to de¬
scribe the diseases peculiar to these, and to mark the
varieties that it is necessary to observe in the treatment
of disease and the administration of remedies. But, as
many of these gentlemen have not the opportunity of
attending medical lectures, and most of them have not
received an education that would enable them to under¬
stand the language in which medical writings are usual¬
ly composed *, it becomes necessary in a treatise of this
kind to accommodate the language to the taste and
capacity of general readers, and to introduce much
that will be found in other articles on subjects connect¬
ed with medicine. To prevent repetition, as much as
possible, and to avoid swelling this article to a greater
length than is necessary, we shall, however, where the
ciue.
similarity of the subject will admit of it, occasionally Inlroduc-;
refer to some of the medical articles in this dictionary. don.
The successful practice of farriery, like that ot me-
dicine in general, requires that the practitioner should Knowledfj
possess a considerable share of knowledge. It is not requisite fu
sufficient to have been long in the habit of managing the veteri.
horses and cattle *, this indeed, to a person of a strong
mind, and attentive observation, will furnish a consider¬
able number of facts, with respect to the symptoms and
progress of the diseases to which domestic animals are
subject. But to mark the minute differences between
such as resemble each other, to investigate their causes,
and to contrive a rational mode of treatment, requires
a much greater share of abilities, and much more ex¬
tensive information, than we can expect to find among
grooms and shepherds, or falls to the lot of most ot
those who call themselves farriers and cattle-doctors. ^
It must be obvious to every thinking mind, that no Anatomy
practice either in medicine or farriery can be rational, and pbyii-
but such as is founded on a comprehensive knowledge ology.
of the structure and functions of those animals, the
treatment of whose diseases is the object of that prac¬
tice. The first thing, therefore, necessary to the vete-
1 inary practitioner is, to acquire some idea of the ana¬
tomical structure of the domestic animals. We have al¬
ready, in the second part of the article Anatomy, giv¬
en a general account of the structure of quadrupeds ;
and in exemplifying this, in the chapter on t/ie ana¬
tomy of a dog, we pointed out the most striking pecu¬
liarities that are to be found in this animal ; as we
have done with respect to ruminating animals, viz.
the cow and sheep, in the succeeding chapter of that
part. To that article we must refer our readers for the
anatomical part of our subject, as far as relates to
the ox, the sheep, and the dog. It will naturally be ex¬
pected, that a description of the structure of the horse
should be given in this article *, but this description
must, in general, be concise, as the nature of our plan
prevents us from enlarging on the subject, excepting in
those parts where a pretty minute knowledge appears
to be necessary.
Those who wish to study the anatomy of the horse
minutely, may consult \ iter's ISIedicine \etei inane,
tom. i.; Blaine’s Outlines, and Stubb’s elegant work
on the anatomy of the horse.
The practitioner should take'every opportunity of in¬
specting the bodies of those animals that die of diseases,
which are very important, or which are not very well
understood. Morbid dissections often throw consider¬
able light on the nature and treatment ot diseases 5 and
it fortunately happens, that with respect to domestic
animals, these dissections are very easy, and are not ob¬
structed by those absurd prejudices which, especially in
this country, are opposed to the dissection of human bo¬
dies. In treating of the diseases of domestic animals, in
fiD One of the most remarkable cases of anomaly in the effect of remedies is that of arsenic, which, m the
nuantitv of a few grains will prove a deadly poison to man and most animals, but may be given with impum y
Wses to the amount of two drams or more. The story of the different effects oi antimony, on hogs and monks
is well known. See Antimony. As to the example of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc), which proves en.e icii
the human subject, but produces no such effect in.the horse ; it is owing to the different structure 0 ^ ® om
in this animal, by which he is incapable of vomiting. Colocynthis, or hitter apple, is well known
violent purgative^o man, but in the W it has produced no effects in the cnormouse dose oSfow ounces.
FARRIERY.
Ifltroduc. a future part of this article, we shall give a concise
tion. view of the appearances on dissection, as far as they
have been ascertained, whenever they tend to illustrate
the nature, causes, or treatment of the disease under
consideration.
The study of the functions of domestic animals ought
to go hand in hand with that of their structure j and
the student will find it of considerable advantage, to
compare the functions of these animals with those of
man. This comparative view will be given in some fu*
ture article. In the present treatise, we can only speak
of the functions of domestic animals, as far as it is ne¬
cessary to illustrate the nature or the treatment of their
I4 diseases.
ifetural The natural history of these animals ought to form a
history. part of the studies of the veterinary practitioner. It is
a subject that is not only highly curious and interest¬
ing, but extremely useful. We find, that these ani¬
mals, in their native fields, enjoy a state of health and
vigour, which is interrupted only by those accidents to
which a life of liberty and wildness may expose them*
It is only when they are received under the protection
of man, that they become subject to disease. It is
therefore an interesting inquiry, to examine into their
native habits $ as, in our endeavours to preserve their
health, we should, as nearly as is compatible with con¬
venience and economy, imitate the habits that are found
to prevail amongst these animals in a state of nature.
It is the province of the naturalist to describe the ex¬
ternal conformation of these animals, and the advan¬
tages, and defects dependant on it, that fit or disqualify
them for the various purposes for which they are des¬
tined under the service of man ; it is his business to
describe the methods of breeding these animals in a state
of nature, and how far this may be improved for the
purposes of domestication, and to detail the method of
training and managing them. Many of these circum¬
stances are treated of by some of the writers on the ve¬
terinary art, in a complete system of which they ought
not properly to be omitted. We shall, however, not
treat of them in this article, as, according to the plan
of our work, they more properly fall to be considered
under the article Mammalia, in which will be given
,5 the natural history of all quadrupeds.
iSheminiy. Chemistry must form a necessary part of the studies
of every man who engages in the practice of medicine,
whether human or veterinary, as, without a knowledge
of its principles, neither the functions of the animal
economy, the intimate structure of its component parts,
nor the action of many remedies, can be properly un¬
derstood. In the article Chemistry, we have pre¬
pared abundant matter for the reader to make himself
acquainted with the elements of that admirable sci-
l6 ence.
'ttrgery. The practitioner, whether of human or veterinary
medicine, who is a proficient in anatomy, wants but a
little manual dexterity, and some practical experience,
to make him a tolerable surgeon. The operations to be
performed on brutes are few, and these are in general
very clumsily executed. Humanity, however, as well
as prudence, will readily point out to the farrier the ne¬
cessity of learning the best methods of performing these
cperations with dexterity and despatch, so as to give
the least pain to the unfortunate animals that are placed
ander his care. We shall describe the usual operations
421
immediately after treating of the anatomy of the introduc-
horse. tion.
It is of considerable consequence, that the person —v——'
who undertakes the management of domestic animals, 1, ‘-7,
should make himself acquainted with those circumstan-gy.
ces which experience has shewn to he most favourable
to the pieservation of their health, and the prevention
of their diseases. This subject forms what may be cal¬
led veterinary hygeio/ogy ; and will he considered at
some length in the fourth part of this article. ij
Before the practitioner can attempt to remove or al- Materia
leviate the diseases to which domestic animals are sub- medica.
ject, he must acquire a competent knowledge of the re¬
medies employed for that purpose, their nature, uses*
and doses, as adapted to the different animals, in vari¬
ous situations, and various diseases j with the methods
of preparing and compounding them into the several
forms that are usually employed 5 and with the best
means of administering them. This comprehends what
is called the veterinary materia medicat and will form
the subject of our fifth part. lo
With this previous knowledge, the veterinary, stu- Practice,
dent is prepared to enter on the consideration of the
diseases, which will be treated of in the sixth part of
our article. He must be particularly attentive to the
symptoms of each disease, as, on an accurate knowledge
of these, will depend the means of distinguishing those
complaints, which upon a superficial view hear con¬
siderable resemblance to each other, but which require
a very dilferent, and perhaps opposite mode of treat¬
ment. He must attend to the greater or less violence
of these symptoms, to the nature of the part which
they attack, and to the greater or less rapidity of their
progress j as these circumstances must considerably in¬
fluence the judgment he is to form of the danger, and
probable termination, of the disease. He must, as far
as possible, investigate the causes, that appear to have
produced the disease in question, or which seem to ag¬
gravate or keep up the morbid symptoms ; as on the
removal or mitigation of these causes, must depend the
only rational and scientific method of cure. Lastly,
he must make himself acquainted with the treatment
that experience has found most successful in the cure
of each particular disease, as well as with that which
has been found to be attended with little or no advan¬
tage.
As the proper means of attaining the best informar
tion is of the greatest importance, we shall here give
Mr Blaine’s instructions on this point.
“ The mode in which any art is attained, must he in
a great measure directed by the future views of the
learners. It appears to me that there are three distinct
classes of persons, who are likely to study this branch
of useful knowledge. The first are persons of enlarged
minds, and extended fortunes. The second are sur¬
geons, whose situation in country villages may render
their services in this art highly useful, upon occasions
when no farrier is at hand, or, in the end, in cases in
which farriers of the common class are unable to judge.
The third are farriers themselves, or persons intending
to profess veterinary medicine.
“ Gentlemen and amateurs, who wish to accumulate
information on this curious and interesting subject,
within the reach of the veterinary college, will find
their account in attending a course of lectures there y if
not,
farriery.
422
Introduc- not, they should apply themselves to the study of the
tion. more general parts ot the body, both of the human am
' ' animal ; the latter, I hope, they may attain by the fol¬
lowing sheets. They may direct the collar-maker,
huntsman, or tanner, to cut up their dead horses in
their presence. They may study physiology in a plea¬
sant and Interesting manner, from the ingenious work
on this subject by Mr Saumarez. The lighter parts of
the veterinary art may be acquired with pleasure, from
the elegant publication of Mr Richard Lawrence of
Birmingham 5 and a course of chemistry will amply re¬
ward them for their pains in acquiring it.
“ A good surgeon has travelled three-fourths of the
road tow'ards making a good veterinarian, but he must
diligently travel the remainder to arrive at excellence.
He must by no means sit down contented with the ana¬
logy between the human and brute ; which, if he does,
will lead him into very great error ; for though this
analogy is in some cases very striking, yet there are
others in which the similarity fails, and he is left to act
upon other principles. Hence in those diseases that are
conquered or mitigated by vomiting in the human; m
the horse he must pursue another mode of treatment.
In acute diseases removed by purging in the human, his
attempts on the horse would probably fail ; as before
the effects were produced, the animal might be past re¬
lief. It must be remembered that the operations ot me¬
dicines are very different in the one, and the other.. It
is not sufficient that a surgeon has an intimate acquaint¬
ance wuth the human frame; he must be equally.conver¬
sant with the animal he treats, or he will treat in vain ;
partieularly those diseases originating in a peculiarity
of form from the human, as all the diseases of the feet.
He should make himself particularly conversant with the
specific diseases of the horse, which bear no analogy to any
thino- in the human body; as farcy, glanders, strangles,
grease, &c. From the great strength of the arterial
system, he must ever be aware how prone the diseases
of the horse are to a rapid termination, and hence that
his treatment must be decisive and energetic; therefore,
in all cases, he must be very attentive to. diagnostics.
But what will much embarrass a surgeon in practising
the veterinary art, will be a want of knowledge of the
general usages, nomenclature, and idiom, if I may so
express it, among grooms and farriers ; without an ac¬
quaintance with which, these people at once.detect and
despise the practitioner. It should be the business there¬
fore of the surgeon, with his other acquisitions, to learn
their manners, and to make himselt acquainted with
their terms. The third class of persons, either farriers
already practising, or persons intending to practise, will
easily gain that. When it is in their power, I would ad¬
vise their taking the advantage of the veterinary col¬
lege ; but when they cannot, I would recommend the
prosecution of their studies in a regular manner. Begin
by first reading some general description of the human
body, such as Symond’s Anatomy, or the anatomical
part of the present work, carefully; let them pay atten¬
tion to the functions and uses of the parts, particularly
where the same uses are brought about by a variation in
structure ; this enlarges the mind, and prepares it to re¬
ceive the. benefits of dissection, which should now be
proceeded to. Any small animal may be first dissected,
to enable the learner to use his instruments properly.
He mav then proceed to dissect the horse with some
authorities by him, which will assist him at first to make introdcc. I
out parts, but too scrupulous an attention to numerous tion.
descriptions will only bewilder. The necessary instruc-
tions for dissection, and the, preservation of parts, may
be gained, by a recourse to Poole’s Anatomical Instruc¬
tor, which is professedly written to instruct the pupil
in these particulars. When he is well acquainted
with the Appearance of the animal in health, he should
take every opportunity of examining diseased appear¬
ances, which are seldom wanting at the tan-yard or the
kennel. He should now make himself acquainted more
intimately with physiology, for which purpose he may
read Haller’s works ; there is at present a translation
of Cuvier’s Treatise on Comparative Anatomy, which
he may likewise avail himself of. When he has become
acquainted with pathology, as at present received, he
mav peruse the older authors on farriery; to this should
succeed a knowledge in chemistry, preceded by an ac¬
quaintance with the materia medica; the proper works ^
for which he may see by a reference to that article, an^
nothing will now be wanting, but experience and prac-vol l ’ j
tice to perfect him # ^
Since the establishment of a veterinary school in Bri- Means of \
tain, little is wanting to promote the progress and
provement of the veterinary art, as far as relates to the farr[e'rj',
diseases of horses. But the art, with respect to the me¬
dical treatment of other animals, is still in the most de¬
plorable state of imperfection. Proposals have been
made for improving cattle medicine ; and among these
we think the following of Mr John Lawrence, entitled
to attention ; though, probably the proposer’s list of
works may be much improved and enlarged,, by refer¬
ring to the account of authors which will be immediate¬
ly given. t ^ 11
Mr Lawrence’s proposal is simply, “ that the affair of Mr Law- ]
providing the country with regular-bred surgeons, for rencets pro-j
the practice of cattle medicine, be immediately under-P058’
taken by the agricultural societies ; at least, that the
experiment be made by some of the most considerable,
each society engaging a gentleman of that description,
at a sufficient and respectable annual stipend. rI he con¬
tract mav run in such form, that should the surgeon’s
annual emolument from practice come short of the sti¬
pulated sum, the deficiency should annually be made
up by his patrons the society. No person to be engaged
on any pretence, but who shall have received the usual
education of a surgeon, and have attended the hospitals
the usual length of time. A selection of Veterinary
text-books to be made, and the books purchased for the
use of the surgeon, but to remain the property of the
society. This may consist of Gibson’s last edition, two
vols. Bracken, Bartlett, Osmer, Layard, with our late
writers ; and Latosse and Bourgeiat from the Fiencu,
with whatever may have been published since their time,
by authority of the French veterinary schools. All the
members of the society and their connections, as far as
their influence may extend, to entrust the care of their
diseased animals to the surgeon appointed, at a fair and
liberal charge for his attendance and medicines. The
surgeon to keep a regular history of all the cases which
shall come under his inspection, including the presumed
causes and symptoms of the disease, with the probable
methods of prevention, his mode of treatment, a particu¬
lar detail of the medicines prescribed, their operation,
with every relative and useful remark which may occur.
liPart I.
Histary.
|; Importance
* of being ac¬
quainted
with the
history.
FARR
A clear written copy of such veterinary transactions, to
be delivered annually, and on a certain day, to the so¬
ciety, to remain at their disposal*.”
It is of considerable consequence for the practitioner
to be informed of the rise and progress of the art which
he professes, and to he acquainted with the principal
authors that have written on the subject. We shall
here, therefore, give a brief sketch of the history of
Farriery, with a concise view of the writings that have
I E R Y.
appeared from the earliest authentic records to the pre¬
sent time (1806).
Though we shall enumerate all the authors that
have written professedly on this subject, who appear
deserving ot notice, we shall here characterize only
the general treatises, reserving our remarks on such
works as have appeared on individual diseases, &c.
to that part of our treatise, in which we shall consider
these subjects.
PART I. HISTORY.
Early hi- THE early history of farriery, as of every other art
itory of theand science, is involved in great obscurity. We shall
At veryob-not attempt to penetrate the cloud that hangs over the
ancient state of the art, or to supply the want of facts,
by conjectures, which, however rational, can lead to
no certain or useful conclusions.
There seems no doubt that in the time of Hippo¬
crates, and probably long before, the medical practi¬
tioner exercised his office in favour of the domestic ani¬
mals, as well as of man ; and Galen seems to have been
well skilled in the knowledge and treatment of some of
24 the diseases of animals.
* lolumella. Perhaps the earliest authentic writings on the subject
of the veterinary art, now extant, are to be found in the
works of Columella, the celebrated Homan author on
husbandry, who, in his work De Re Rustica, has given
many sensible directions for the management of horses
and cattle. Columella lived about the second century,
under the reign of the Homan emperor Tiberius, or, as
2(. some say, of Claudius Caesar,
elsus. It is understood that Celsus, the elegant imitator of
Hippocrates, who lived some time before Columella,
wrote much on the diseases of animals ; but none of his
writings on this subject have survived the general w'reck
of science and literature that accompanied the fall of
the Roman empire.
'egetius. We have no certain accounts of any author who
wrote expressly on this subject earlier than Vegetius,
who flourished, as is supposed, some time in the fourth
century, and probably during the reign of the empe¬
ror Valentiuian the third. The work of Vegetius, De
Arte Veterinarian is still considered as extremely valu¬
able, as it lias-handed down to us the only certain ac¬
count of the opinions and practice of the early practi¬
tioners in this art. The body of the work appears to
have been compiled from the most celebrated Greek
writers on the subject. It is divided into four books j
the prefaces or introductory chapters to which are
Written in very elegant language.
An edition of Vegetius was published at Basil, in
1574 > and the work has been translated into several
modern languages. Such of our readers as wish for a
particular account of the contents of Vegetius’s treatise,
will find a copious analysis of it, in the third volume of
27 M. Vitet’s Medicine Veterinaire.
Dili’s A collection of fragments of ancient writers on the
Action, veterinary art, was made by Rueliius, physician to
Francis I. king of France. It was first published in
Latin, in the year 1530 j and afterwards, in 1637, the
original Greek was published. The writers who con¬
tributed to this collection were chiefly Absyrtus, Eu-
melus, Hierocles, Petagonius, and Theomestus. Some
part of this collection is tolerably good; but, on the
whole, it appears to be a strange jumble of good, bad,
and indifferent, collected without judgment, and ar¬
ranged without taste.
It is said that Xenophon, who lived three or four Xenophon,
hundred years before the Christian era, wrote a small
treatise in twelve chapters, on the training, manage¬
ment, and external figure of horses; but, as he says
little or nothing with respect to their diseases, he can¬
not properly be ranked among the writers on veterinary
medicine.
A blank of more than a thousand years now occurs Dark ages,
in the history of farriery. During this long period of
darkness, ignorance, and barbarity, the veterinary art,
like most others, rather went back than advanced.
During some part of this gloom, however, the art of
shoeing horses with iron appears to have been invented ;
an art which seems to have contributed not a little to
throw tiie management of this noble animal into the
hands of a set of errant blockheads, who were now first
called fan-iers. We cannot here enter on a discussion
of the medical pretensions of these guardians of the
health of horses. They have been amply commented
on, by some of the best writers on the subject of far¬
riery, as Gibson, Bracken, Lafosse, and particularly
Mr John Lawrence, to whose useful and humane trea¬
tise on horses we refer our readers for some very spirited
remarks on the subject.
The first modern writer on farriery, whom we can Rnini.
mention, is Carlo Ruini, an Italian, who, in 1618, pub¬
lished at Venice his Anatomia del Cavallo. This work,
of which very few copies are now to be found, is em¬
bellished with many copperplates, which, for the time
when they were engraved, are very elegant. It is said
that many succeeding writers on the anatomy of the
horse have been indebted to them for most of their
figures. 21
We now come to a period at which the veterinary Progress of
art began to assume something of a scientific form.fa,liei?‘U
Many writers of eminence began to appear both in*rance*
France and England, countries which have been the
most distinguised for their attention to the manage¬
ment and diseases of domestic animals. As the French
writers were the first who did any thing considerable
towards the improvement of farriery, we shall trace the
progress of the art in that country, before we examine
the improvements it has received in England. 2.
In 1698 Solleysel published his grand work, “ Zt Solieyse!
par fait
33
Appear¬
ance of the
murrain in
Europe.
34
Sauvages,
35
Establish¬
ment of
▼eterinary
schools.
3«
Boucgelat.
F A B R
parfait MarcM," the complete a work
which gained its author a high reputaUon, and was
long thf only guide, as well in farnery as tn the ma-
neM. Solleysel was principal riding-master in France,
and this situation led him to pay much attent.on to the
diseases of horses ; and being a man of considerab e
abilities, and enlightened understanding, he saw the
errors that prevailed in his time j and his genius and
experience led him to expose and correct them. His
practical observations and remarks, which it would be
out of place to particularize in this early pait of o i
tide, in general merit considerable attention. His ob-
servatlons o,. the external figure „1 the horse a„a of
his blemishes and defects, are also very valuable. It is
much to he regretted that this ingenious author had
not studied the anatomy of the horse, as he would then
have avoided many errors and much false reasoning,
into which his ignorance of anatomy betrayed him.
Solleysel’s work passed through many editions, and wat
translated into most of the modern languages. A er-
sion of it into English was executed by bir VYilliarn
Hone one of his pupils, early in the i8th century.
The dreadful havock committed by the murrains or
epidemic diseases among horned cattle, that ravaged
Europe during the first half of the i8th century at-
tracted the atfention of medical men, and thus led the
wav to a greater improvement in the veterinary _ ,
than it hadSever before experienced. These epidemics
were first described by two Italian physicians, Ramaz-
zini in a treatise De Contagione Epidemica ; and Lan-
cisi physician to the pope, in a treatise Z><?
Pelte. But the most celebrated works on the prevai ing
epidemic seem to have been written by the faculty in
France. Among the first appeared a memoir by M.
v"blUheedkon™eo,olr Maladi,
Epidemique del Boeufi in Vivarats, by the celebrated
"“AboTuhe mUdle of this ceotory, the first steps were
taken towards the establishment of schools f»r theJ“^
lie instrootion of practitioners m farnery. 01 tl,e
most celebrated of these was the veter,oar, college of
^Ovcr this institution presided the famous Bourgelat,
a name that will be ever respectable in the history o
farriery Besides his office of professor at Lyons, he
was inspector general of the veterinary schools in
France ; commissary general to the royal staolcs ,
norary member of the Koyal Academy of i”13’ a"d
member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. M. Bom-
gelat was a voluminous writer, and mos
are still in much repute. In 1752, ^ published £/f-
rnens d'Hippiatriqve, “ Elements of Farriery in
3 vols The first volume is divided into eight chapters,
comprehending the knowledge of the horse, as far as
regards his external form. The first chapter treats of
the denomination and division of the parts that compose
the body of this animal-, the second treats of the
beauties^and defects of the fore part of the horse, or
what the French writers call VAvant Main ; the third
treats of the beauties and defects of the several parts
of the body the fourth of the beauties and defects of
the hind part of the horse, or PArnere Main ; the fifth,
of the different marks of horses ; the sixth of the mean
I E R Y.
Part I,
of ascertaining the age of horses ; the seventh, of the History,
geometrical proportions of the horse ; and the eighth,
°fThe6’second volume describes the anatomy of the
horse, as far as relates to the bones, the integuments*
the muscles, and blood vessels-, and the third volume
concludes the anatomy with a description of the paiU
that compose the head and chest. ^
In 176 s M. Bourgelat’s materia medica, for the use
of the veterinary pupils, came out. Soon after was pub¬
lished his Elementary Treatise on the Anatomy of the
Horse, which is the most complete work of the kind
that has ever yet appeared. In 1766 he pubUshei his
Elementary Botanical Demonstrations for the use of
the pupils of the veterinary college. He likewise gave to
the world a treatise on bandages applicable to the horse.
M. Bourgelat also furnished many of the best articles
on farriery for the French Encyclofedie. 37
About this time appeared a number of works on theBuffon an-
manege,^amfon natural history, particularly a work by
M. de la Guerincere, entitled Ecole de Cavalerie, and
the celebrated natural history by M. de Buffon and
Daubenton -, but as these works have little connection
with the diseases of animals, which they mention only
incidentally, we shall not here particularize their con-
tents 1 • *
Contemporary with Bourgelat and equal to him in Lajo^tl,
celebrity, flourished Lafosse the Elder, a member ofElder.
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and farrier to
the king of France. He made many discoveries, and
introduced several valuable improvements in the art of
farriery, particularly an improved method of shoeing
and a treatise on the glanders. These were at first
communicated in the form of memoirs to the Frenc 1
academy, and published in their annals. They were
afterwards collected in 1754 mto one volume, under
the title of Observations et Decouvertes Faitessur des^
Chevaux; “ Observations and Discoveries on Horses
\\ e shall have occasion, in future parts of our article,
to consider the merits of these memoirs, which were
well received, and have contributed much to the ad¬
vancement of farriery. . ,
The elder Lafosse also wrote some of the articles on
farriery in the EncyclopediE. < ,1 Tr39,
He "was soon followed by his son Lafosse theLatoe.
Younger, who occupied the same post as his father, ton g |
and has acquired much reputation, by following his
steps, and extending his improvements. He published
in 1766,his Guide de Mareehal; or“Farr.er s Gu.de,
a work well known in this country, though it has
• never, we believe, appeared in an English dress. It is
divided into five parts, treating, 1st, Of the means of
ascertaining the age of horses, and a succinct enumera¬
tion of the several parts-, 2d, Of the binders am
tricks of farriers-, 3d, Of the internal diseases 0 the
horse-, 4th, Of the external diseases, and
oortant operations j and, 5th, Of shoeing. Tins work
i characterized by M. Vitet, as one of the most accu¬
rate, simplest, and most precise, that had everappeare .
The anatomical part of the work is short, but compie-
hensive, and is illustrated by some tolerably good plates,
irr^ars .0 have been a »e,t of text-book to a coime
of lectures on farriery, which were afterwards, in 1772,
published in a superb form with 65 coloured plates
under the title of Cours de Hippiatnque ; or Course
A
Hi.toiy.
40
Garfault.
Part I. ' FARR
of Farriery.” This work is extremely scarce in Eri-
tain, where, according to Mr Blaine, there are only
three copies of it ; one of which belongs to the Me de¬
cal Society of Woolwich j another is in the hands of a
Mir Mathaisa, ci-devant pupil of the Veterinary Col¬
lege j and he believes Mr Morecroft has a third.
But the principal work of the younger Lafosse is his
Dictionaire d'Hippiatrique, in four volumes, which is
little known in this country, and which we have not
seen. Mr Blaine calls it “ the best practical system
of farriery that had ever appeared.”
In 1 803 was published an abridgement ofM.Lafosse’s
Guide, of which an English translation has lately ap¬
peared under the title of The Veterinarian’s Pocket
Manual. It is a useful little book, but it is a pity that
the author or tianslator had not observed a more metho¬
dical arrangement.
I hough, for the sake of uniformity, we have men¬
tioned the younger Lafosse immediately after his fa¬
ther 5 there were many works published in France be¬
tween the Memoirs and the Guide.
I755> Garfault published his Nouveauparj'ait
Marechal, an improvement on the Parfait Marechal of
Solleysel. It is divided into seven treatises j on the
Conformation of the Horse ; on Haras, or on the Me¬
thod of Breeding; on Stables j on the Diseases of
Horses ; on Operations j on Shoeing ; and on Horse
Medicines. This work is not without defects, but, for
the most part, it is very good, and by no means de¬
serves the brief character given of it by Mr Blaine in
his History of the Veterinary Art, that it “ does not
seem to merit any distinction in this place.”
The articles on farriery in the Encyclopedic that
had been written by Bourgelat and Genson, called forth
a work from M. Ronden, senior, farrier to the larger
stsibles of the king; who, in 1759, published Observa¬
tions sun les Articles de VEncyclopedic concei'nant la
Mareclmllerie. They appear to be ingenious, and con¬
tain much practical information.
In 1763 there appeared at Paris a work on agricul¬
ture in two volumes 410, entitled, La Nouvelle Maison
Rustiquc, which contains much useful matter respecting
the breeding, management, and diseases of domestic
animals, as well fowls as quadrupeds.
The contagious epidemics among horned cattle still
appeared occasionally in France and other parts of
Europe ; and many essays were written on them by
various physicians, particularly by M. Bovand of Be-
san^on, in 1766 ; by M. Leclerc and M. Barbaret, of
Paris, in the same year.
In 1768 Daubenton, the celebrated naturalist, al¬
ready mentioned, published a memoir on the mechanism
of rumination in sheep ; and in iq6g, appeared a small
volume entitled'Za Medicine des Betes a Laine; “ the
Medical Treatment of Sheep.”
Between 1776 and 1782, M. Vitet, a physician at
Lyons, published his Medicine Veterinaire, in 3 vols
8yo. of which the first contains a pretty full account
ot the anatomy of the horse and ox, with some judici¬
ous remarks on the beauties and defects of both, and on
some of the more important operations to which they
are exposed ; the second treats of the diseases of horses,
sheep, and cattle ; and the third gives an account of the
remedies employed in veterinary medicine ; and ends
with a copious analysis of most of the continental writ-
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
41
; toiiden.
i4*
maison
-stique.
43
let
I E R Y.
ings, and a few English, that had happened on the sub¬
ject, from Vegetius to 1770.
M. Vitet’s work is, for the most part, a compilation
from the best writers who have gone before him ; but
as he had read much, and appears to have selected with
judgment, his book is one of those which may be con¬
sulted with advantage. We know that it bears a high
character in France, and is often quoted with respect.
We are therefore disposed to rate it at a higher value
than a late writer has done ; and are inclined to suspect
that some of those who affect to think lightly of it are
indebted to it for much more than the “ names of many
of those who have written on this subject.”
Much about this time, but in what precise year we Rog er
cannot say, the abbe Rozier, well known as the editor
of the early volumes of the Journal de Physique, publish¬
ed his Lours cVAgriculture et de Medicine Veterinaire;
a work of much reputation in France, but, we believe,
little known on this side the water.
Another work appeared about this time on the epi-Pauleu
demies among cattle, entitled R-echerches Historiques et
Physiques sur les Maladies Epi%ooiiques ; “ Historical
and Philosophical Researches respecting Epizootic Dis¬
eases,” by M. Paulet. It contains an abridgement of
almost all that had been written on the subject, and is
particularly valuable for the account of the morbid ap¬
pearances that were discovered on dissection.
We shall finish our account of French writers in the
words of Mr Blaine. ^
“ After the death of Bourgelat and Lafosse, we hear Hazard
of no character of any great eminence for some years ; an(l tha-
but it appears, that since the revolution, the subject has
again been more diligently studied, and the names of
Chabert and Huzard stand forward. Soon after, or
about the time above alluded to, there appeared a con-
sideraule work, called, The Rational Dictionary of
Medicine, Surgery, and Farriery, in six volumes;” and
very soon after, a Veterinary Dictionary, by Buchon;
but it has no merit superior to that of Lafosse. In
1787, M. Chabert published a Treatise on the Mange
ol Horses ; since which he has likewise published upon
the peripneumonia of black cattle. There has also ap¬
peared an Essay on the Grease of Horses, which gained
the prize medal of the society for the promoting the
healtli of animals ; to which is joined a report on thick
wind and on broken wind; but we are not aware who is
the author. In 1788, there came out a treatise on the
haras, with the method of shoeing, cutting, and all the
lesser operations, translated from the Spanish of Hart¬
mann, by Huzard. Likewise “ Instructions and Obser¬
vations on Domestic Animals,” with remarks on the
breeding, rearing, buying and selling ; with an analysis
of previous authors, by Cbabert, Handrin, and Huzard.
The above authors have also published, conjointly, a
Veterinary Almanack, containing the history and pro¬
gress of animal medicine, since the establishment of the
veterinary schools. In 1791, M. Lampagieu Lapole,
veterinary surgeon, published observations on the health
of the animals of St Domingo, dedicated to the veteri¬
nary college at Alfort. In 1797, M. Chabert and * Blaine'$
M. Huzard published, by order of government, a treatise Outlines,
on ascertaining the existence of the glanders, the means vo*’ *'
of preventing it, and destroying the infection. *” Progres«of
Before we detail what has been done in Britain for farriery ou
the advancement of the art, we must take a cursory conti-
TI ‘ J nent.
3H
view
426
History.
4S
Goelicke.
49
Saunier.
So
X.inni«?us.
S1
llastfer.
52
Reynier.
S3
Hartmanu
54
Camper.
view of the principal writings that appeared during the
1 18th century in the rest ot Europe.
In 1730, Goelicke, a German, published a treatise
in 410, Lue Contagiosa Boviimi ; tl On the Conta¬
gious Disease of Cattle in which the symptoms of the
murrain that raged in Flanders about that time are well
described ; and there are added the appearances on dis¬
section.
In 1734, appeared at the Hague a work entitled
La parfaite Connoissance des Chevaux ; “ The Com¬
plete Knowledge of Horses by John Saunier, and
Gaspard his son. The latter boasts of this work, that
it was drawn up from the lectures of his father, an ex¬
perienced man *, and that it contains the result of nu¬
merous experiments on subjects of every description,
and diseases of every species; that it is the labour of
the life of two men, the offspring of their continual ap¬
plication and study. After all their boasting, however,
the work of Mynheers Saunier is little worth.
In 1745 and 1746, appeared two other treatises on
the epidemic of cattle by Mauchard and Ens.
In 1749, the illustrious and indefatigable Linne pub¬
lished at Upsal his Pan Suecicus, in which there is lit¬
tle that relates to our subject, if we except a table of
such plants as are eaten or refused by the domestic ani¬
mals, which is curious and useful.
Some time before 1756, Frederic Hastfer, a Swede,
published Instructions for Improving the Breed of
Sheep, which was in much repute, and was translated
into French.
In 1762, M. Reynier of Lausanne published a trea¬
tise on a contagious inflammatory disorder that raged
among horses and cattle, and which the Genevese call¬
ed la louvet. This will be considered hereafter.
In the same year there appeared at Vienna a work
on the epidemic of cattle by Dr Pleneiz, 5 and in 1765
Mich. Sagard of the same city published a work on a
contagious distemper that the year before attacked the
cattle in the circle of Iglaw in Moravia } and was at¬
tended with an appearance of aphthous crusts in the
mouth.
Of late veterinary medicine has been much cultivat¬
ed in Spain, where the works of Hartmann are held in
much esteem. In that country, it is said, a work on
farriery in nine volumes has been lately published j but
of this we know nothing.
We must not close our account of continental writers
without mentioning the name of the illustrious Camper,
whose works were lately collected and published at Paris.
Besides a long description of the structure of the oran-
outang, and some lesser essays on comparative anatomy,
these volumes contain an elaborate history of the epi¬
zootic disease that raged among the cattle on the conti¬
nent in the middle of last century, in the form of
lectures. We shall speak of this work hereafter.
We have thus brought the history of this art on the
continent, in a concise manner, down to the present
time j and from it may be learned what improvements
have originated there, and at what periods. It would
appear, that when the science began to command at¬
tention, from the exertions of Francis the First, and
Vegetius became studied, had it progressively improved
in the degree it might be supposed to be placed by a
conversance with this author, it would ere this have
been more approximating to perfection : but instead of
farriery.
proceeding on the rational system of Vegetius, it dwind¬
led again into ignorance of barbarity ; and the recipes
of manege-masters, and the operations of blacksmiths,
were the only ostensible marks of its assistance. From
this state the practitioner became in some degree roused
by the improved system of Solleysel 5 but he could only
combat present errors, he could not point the way to
future improvement, for he was ignorant of the ground¬
work whereon to build it, i. e. the anatomy ot the ani¬
mal. This defect was only in a small degree supplied
by the labours of Ruini, and in some measure farther
assisted by the demonstrations of Bourgelat. Many of
the remaining errors were combated by Lafosse with
great advantage ; and his experiments and discoveries
on glanders, the rationality and improvements of his
mode of shoeing, entitle him to great merit. Aet,^
though by these exertions, and by the establishment ol
veterinary seminaries, the art assumed a more regular
and scientific form, its attainments were by no means
adequate to its opportunities j which was almost wholly
owing to an obstinate adherence to the humoral patho¬
logy, by which the treatment of internal and acute
diseases continued inert and unsuccessful. Their pre¬
scriptions were filled with decoctions of simples, and
they were utterly unacquainted with the medicinal vir¬
tues of the more active remedies in use among us. Un¬
der an opinion that the blood and humours were the
constant seat of disease, they were continually washing
them sweet with correctors $ entirely ignorant or un¬
mindful of the derangement of the solids, and of the
connections between living blood and living vessels.
Nor did this influence only their treatment of internal
and acute diseases j but even of local and chronic affec¬
tions : hence their mode of treating farcy, grease, and
other complaints of a similar nature, were equally inert,
and all evinced an erroneous pathology. Upon a care¬
ful and unprejudiced review of the state of farriery
among ourselves, and on the continent of Europe, we
are not inclined to think it had any advantages of mo¬
ment at the beginning of the war in their favour ;
though it must be allowed, we are indebted to them for
many impi’ovements, and for the first hints towards
the establishment of a regular school of the art among
Since the war, our means of communication are
so few, that we are not aware of what is doing among
our neighbours. But though farriery, as a branch of
veterinary medicine here, has kept nearly equal pace
with its continental improvements, I do not think (says
Mr Blaine), the treatment of other animals, particular¬
ly of oxen, cows, and sheep, has been equally attended
to } and, in this particular, I am disposed to think we
are behind hand with them. Their severe visitations
of the epizootic distemper have made them more atten-J^.^
tive to this branch of the art f.n 55 !
In taking a review of the history of farriery, or ve- Progress j
terinary medicine in general, in our own country, it^'^n
will be seen, that we are much longer in improving the 11 1 1
art, and reducing it under a rational and scientific
form, than our neighbours on the continent. Our ear¬
liest writers on the diseases of horses and cattle, were
deplorably ignorant, not only of all principles of general
medicine and sound practice, but even frequently of
the common appearances of the diseases, which they
professed to cure. # . -f
Our first writers on the treatment of the diseases ot B tm
horses,Tlli *
S7
58
Markham
Part I. FARR
History, horses, were, as in France, chiefly riding-masters ; and
-n.; 0f these, the first that seems worthy of notice is Blun-
deville, who lived, as we have already observed, in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. His work appears to have
been principally compiled from the writings of Vege-
tius, and other ancient writers ; and it contains little
that can entitle it to any distinction, as a work of uti¬
lity. It may, however, be perused as a literary curio¬
sity.
The names of many writers, after Blundeville, are
mentioned by those who have written on the history of
farriery} but they are still inferior to Blundevxlle,
except perhaps Burdon, on whose work notes were
written by Dr Bracken.
About the end of the 17th century, lived Gervase
Markham, a name in high repute amongst grooms and
farriers even to this day. He published a work on
Farriery, which is called his Maister Peece, and which
is one of the strangest compounds of nonsense and ab¬
surdity that has ever appeared on the subject.
In the opinion of Mr Lawrence, Markham was no¬
thing more than a mere vulgar and illiterate compiler }
and his works, some few things excepted, are stuffed
with all the execrable trash that had ever been invent¬
ed by any writer, or practised by any farrier, ancient
or modern, on the subject of horses. It is necessary,
however, that we do justice to the character of Gervase
Markham } he certainly possessed a species of merit
which has not descended to all his successors, the copy¬
ists and plagiarists ; he very honestly gives the names
of those authors from whom he derives his know¬
ledge.
Some years after Markham, Michael Baret publish¬
ed a book, which he called the Vineyarde of Horseman¬
ship. This we have never seen, but it appears to be of
some repute. The next writer on this subject, is the
fewcastle. duke of Newcastle, who gave to the world a most su¬
perb work on an improved method of breeding and
managing horses. This work bears a very high cha¬
racter, not only from the name of the illustrious person
by whom it was composed, but from its own intrinsic
merit. The duke is quoted with respect by most suc¬
ceeding writers } and his work has been translated into
French, German, Dutch, and Italian. It chiefly relates
to horsemanship, but as it contains some excellent ob¬
servations and maxims on the breeding of horses, it na¬
turally comes to be considered here.
In the latter end of the 17th century, Andrew Snape,
who was farrier to Charles II. published a large work
on the anatomy of the horse, illustrated with many cop¬
perplates. These plates appear not to have been taken
from his own dissection, but are mostly copied from pre¬
ceding authors, especially from Ruini. Mr Blaine,
however, is mistaken in asserting that some of them are
copied from Saunier, as Snape’s work was published in
1683, whereas Saunier’s did not appear (according to
Vitet) betore 1734* It *s sa*^ that Snape had project¬
ed a larger work on the diseases of horses, but this he
did not live to execute.
Early in the 18th century, farriery experienced a
considerable improvement from the writings of Mr
William Gibson. This gentleman had been a surgeon
in the army, but relinquished that situation for the prac¬
tice of farriery, which he probably expected to find
more profitable. Mr Blaine places this writer in the
I E R Y.
59
kret
60
)uke of
; nape.
! .bsQB.
middle of the last century} but his first work, entitled
“ The Farrier’s New Guide,” was certainly published
previous to the year 1721, as we have seen a second
edition of it advertised in that year. This was the most
scientific vyork on the diseases of horses, that had then
appeared in the English, or perhaps any language.
The detail of symptoms is in general just, accurate, and
the plan of treatment advised is for the most part very
judicious. The anatomical part of Mr Gibson’s work
is not so valuable, being frequently incorrect, and evi-
dently not the result of his own observation. The
Fanlers Guide was soon followed by The Farriers Dis-
pensatory, containing an account ot the remedies em-
ployed in farriery, and the means of preparing and ex¬
hibiting them. Ibis work is far inferior to the former,
and is now of little use. In 1721, Mr Gibson publish¬
ed a small work on The True Method of Dieting
Horses, which contains some judicious remarks on the
means of preserving the health of this useful animal}
as also on the breeding of horses : with some observa¬
tions on their external form, their sagacity, and habits.
This book must have been very valuable at the time of
its publication, but is now in a great measure superse¬
ded by Clark and other later writers.
About 1750, Mr Gibson published a larger work.
On the Diseases of Horses, in winch he has brought to¬
gether the substance of his former works on farriery,
with some improvements. There is, we believe, a later
edition of it in two vols. Mr Gibson must be consider¬
ed as one of those to whom farriery is most indebted
for its improvements. He was almost the first, at least
in this country, to rescue the art from the hands of the
illiterate empirics, to point out their blunders and cor¬
rect their errors. Mr John Lawrence, who has given
a very full account of Mr Gibson in the first volume of
his treatise on horses, perhaps goes too far in ranking
him on an equality with some of our present writers }
while these again have erred as much on the other side,
in detracting from the merits of a man to whom they
are all more or less indebted for much of their most
valuable matter.
Gibson was followed in his plan for the improvement Bracken
of farriery by Dr Bracken, a physician at Lancaster,
and a pupil of Boerhaave, who published a work called
Farriery Improved. “Bracken (says Mr Blaine) was a
physician of great abilities and extensive knowledge in
his profession} a man of considerable erudition, a sports¬
man, and a wit of a peculiar cast. His works have by
some been as much admired and read for the peculiar
style in which they are written, and that peculiar free¬
dom and non-observance of rule or form, as for the real
information they contain.
“ Though there is great ingenuity in his writings, and
though in many respects he improved upon Gibson, yet
as a practical work it was much inferior } nor was his
information given in a way that could benefit the gene¬
rality of his readers : independent of his style being too
peculiar, and his reasoning too abstruse for farriers, his
manner of pursuing his subject was so desultory, that
few readers had patience to follow him. Neverthless
his works, which were several, and passed through many
editions, have raised him a fame that can only die with
the science.”
These two writers may justly be considered as the
fathers of English farriery} they established their system
3 H 2 on
4
2 8
History.
*4
BiirtlcU
^5
Osmtr.
66
Btockiet
by
67
Layard.
6S
tlark.
FARR
on the only sure foundation, the analogy which prevail¬
ed between the structure, economy, and diseases of man
and of brutes. The best practice in this country has
been derived from their instructions ; and their works
formed an example, by following which, later writers
have greatly improved the art.
The next writer of reputation was Mr John Bartlet,
also a medical man, who about the middle ot the last
century published his Gentleman’s Farriery, and after¬
wards his Veterinary Pharmacopeia. Bartlet had for¬
med himself on the model of Gibson and Bracken, the
best parts of tvhose writings he has given in hisfarriejy,
condensed into a more compendious view. He also en¬
riched his work by the most material improvements ot
Lafosse, whose memoirs on shoeing and on glanders, he
translated into English.
Soon after Bartlet, appeared Mr William Osmer, a
surgeon and a sportsman, who practised iarrieiy in
ford-street, London. He was the principal means of in¬
troducing into this country the French mode of shoe-
in«T, which, in his treatise on the lameness of horses, he
adapted to the English manners, so as to render of ser¬
vice, what had been before nearly useless and impracti¬
cable. Mr Osmer’s mode of shoeing will be mention¬
ed hereafter. From the above works many compilations
were soon made •, these were generally below medio¬
crity, amongst which, one called the Farrier’s Dic¬
tionary, though a very wretched composition, met with
a very rapid sale. We must except from these a small
treatise by a Mr Blount, surgeon, which is above the
common class, and worthy of notice, from an ingenious
contrivance, illustrated by a plate, for securing a trac-
tured limb.
In the year 1746, Dr Richard Brocklesby, a friend
of Dr Mead, published a pamphlet on the disorder that
just before raged among horned cattle. It should seem
that this book is very little known beyond the circle of
medical men, as we have not seen it referred to by any
writer on the diseases of cattle.
Brocklesby yvas followed on the same subject by Dr
Layard. We shall speak particularly of these two
authors, when we come to treat of the murrains.
About 30 years ago, Mr James Clark, farrier to his
majesty for Scotland, published an ingenious Treatise on
Shoeing, and on the Diseases of the Feet of Horses.
This was soon followed by his Treatise on the Preven¬
tion of Diseases Incidental to Horses. By this latter
work Mr Clark has acquired much reputation as a
scientific farrier, and a sensible writer. It contains
some judicious observations on stables, diet, and exercise,
on blood-letting, rowels, and setons j with remarks on
the uses and administration of the more common reme¬
dies. Mr Clark’s book is in general well calculated to
produce a more judicious and humane method of treat¬
ing horses, than usually prevails. But it would have
been more useful, had the author omitted much of the
theoretic discussion, into which he has entered on some
parts of the animal economy, on the nature of disease,
and on the action of remedies. Mr Clark is a good
practical writer, but his theory is often very lame, or
I E R Y. Part I.
very obscure. He had an easy opportunity of attending History,
the medical lecteres, which were taught at Edinburgh <—
in his youth, when the humoral pathology and the
theory of Boerhaave were in full vogue. Mr Clark
has here and there interspersed among his practical re¬
marks much of this old leaven. But as he probably
had not received such a prevrous liberal education as
might fit him for the judicious application of what he
heard, he is often deficient in that theoretical know¬
ledge which he takes so much pains to display. ^
Some years before the publication ot Mr Clark’s last j^ord I’em.
mentioned treatise, viz. in 1778, Lord Pembroke fa-broke,
vonred the public with his excellent dissertation on the
management ot dragoon horses, with some remarks oil
shoeing. This work is entitled, Military Equitation,
or a Method of Breaking Horses. Though the obser¬
vations contained in his lordship’s work were intended
for the use of the British cavalry, they are for the most
part applicable to horses in general, and well merit the
attention of farriers and others concerned in the manage¬
ment of horses. We do not well understand what J\Il
Blaine means by asserting that Lord Pembroke derived
the principle of his medical hints from Mr Claik. It
he means that his lordship borrowed any thing from
Mr Clark’s treatise on preventing the diseases ot horses,
he is certainly mistaken, as the first edition of this
treatise, which we believe has not been reprinted, ap¬
peared in 1788, and in it Mr Clark often quotes Lord
Pembroke’s work (c). _ _e
Much about this time Mr Stubbs published his ele-Slubb's
gant plates of the anatomy of the horse, of which work,
as the production of an artist, we cannot speak too
highly. Mr Stubbs is a very eminent painter of ani¬
mals, and to much professional excellence In this capa¬
city, he has added a considerable share of anatomical
knowledge. Hence his figures are in general extremely
correct, and will be found very useful to those who
have not the opportunity of availing themselves of real
subjects. > ... 71
One of the latest writers on the subject of farriery isTapiiB„
Mr Taplin, who for some time enjoyed a considerable,
reputation, both as a practitioner and as a writer.. But
this reputation has been materially sullied, since it was
discovered, that Mr Taplin is not only ignorant of the
anatomy of the horse, hut has liberally copied fiom
those very writers whom he takes every opportunity to
vilify and abuse. As from his flagrant plagiarism and
arrogance, Mr Taplin has well deserved t/ic dressing
which he has recently received from several late writers,
we shall turn him over into the hands of one of his
rivals, who does not seem disposed to show him any
mercy.
« This gentleman likewise began his career as a sur¬
geon, but turned aside to the then more profitable track
of farriery. Mr Taplin set out by decrying all that
had gone before him, all that were in practice with him,
and in fact every thing that has been done by any one
since. Yet Mr Taplin’s works are said to be compila¬
tions from those very authors whom he abuses} and, m
some instances, after abusing egregiously, he copies liter¬
ally.
(c) We find that Lord Pembroke’s work was first published about 1761.
is, we believe, the second.
The edition mentioned in the text
Part I. FARR
History, ally. Unfortunately for this gentleman, from some late
s—~ir—' improvements, the people of this country have learned
to distinguish in this art, as well as in others, between
scientific investigation and verbose quakery. Had Mr
Taplin set out by studying the structure and economy
of the animal, he might, and undoubtedly would, have
proved an ornament to the profession j but when he
permits his works to go through so many editions, in
the face of criticism from all quarters, with a chapter
on diseases of a part that has no existence in the horse,
i. e. the gall bladder, we must be aware that he is en¬
tirely ignorant of that, upon which every pretension to
professional merit must be grounded. Mr Taplin in¬
dulges himself in the most unrestrained freedoms in
speaking of those who have gone before him, yet copies
verbatim from them j he cannot wonder, therefore, that
he has been treated with considerable severity by later
writers j nor can he be surprised that a practice so be¬
gun and so continued has ended as it has*.”
Mr Taplin is the author of several works on farriery.
'His first publication was, we believe, The Stable Di¬
rectory, which had a great sale. He next published a
larger work, in two volumes ; and lately he has sent
out a small pamphlet called Multum in parvo, which is
supposed to be merely intended to advance the sale of
his prepared horse medicines.
. The end of the 18th century will ever be memora¬
ble in the history of farriery, for the establishment of
an institution for the public teaching of the veterinary
art in England, in imitation of those schools in France
of which we have already spoken.
The veterinary college owes its origin to M. St Bel,
a French gentleman, born at Lyons, and who was first
junior assistant to the professor of the Royal Veterinary
College there, and afterwards professor of anatomy at
the veterinary college of Montpelier. This gentleman
came to Britain in 1788, and published proposals for
establishing a veterinary school in this kingdom. These
proposals did not, at that time, meet with encourage¬
ment ; but two years after, when M. St Bel, driven
from his native country by the horrors of the revolu¬
tion, again visited England, his proposals were taken
again into consideration by an agricultural society at
Ockham in Hampshire. It had been the intention of
this society, to send two young men to France, to study
the veterinary art scientifically ; but on hearing the
proposals of M. St Bel, they abandoned this idea, and
appointed a committee to consult with him on the best
means of forming a school for teaching the art in this
kingdom. To this school they gave the name of the
Veterinary College of London; and M. St Bel was ap¬
pointed the first professor.
the following gentlemen were appointed to the ma¬
nagement of this institution.
His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, President.
Earl Grosvenor,
Earl Morton,
Earl of Oxford,
Lord Rivers,
Sir George Baker, Bart.
Sir T. C. Bunbury, Bart. M. P.
Sir W. Fordy ce,
John Hunter, E*q.
* Blaine's
Outlines,
to!, i. p. 63
72
London ve
terinary
college.
73
Si Bel,
> Vice Presid.
Directors.
^ Treasurers.
I E R Y.
Sir John Ingleby, Bart, M. P.
Sir H. P. St John Mildmay, Bart
G. M. Ascough, Esq.
Mr John Baynes,
Mr J. Burgess,
Rev. T. Burgess,
Rev. J. Cook,
Dr Adair Crauford,
John Gretton, Esq.
Dr Elamilton,
Mr Rennet,
Dr D. Mapleton,
Gra nville Penn, Esq.
Mr William Stone,
Richard Tophane, Esq.
Dr Williams,
J. Wollaston, Esq.
Messrs Ransom,
Moreland,
and Hamfnersly,
A house was taken, for the purpose of the institution,
and pupils were admitted to board in the house.
I he success of this institution, at first, by no means
answered the expectations of the founders. It appears
that M. St Bel was prevented, by the embarrassed state
of his circumstances, from executing the office of pro¬
fessor, with that ardour and activity which was neces¬
sary to the reputation of the infant school $ and indeed
it seems, from the specimen he has left us of his pro¬
fessional abilities, that these were not adequate to the
office he had undertaken. He possessed considerable
industry, and it is probable that, had he lived, he would
have succeeded better than his outset had promised..
But, in the year 1793> "as attacked with an illness,
which proved fatal in about a fortnight.
M. St Bel left behind him several works, viz. An
Essay on the Geometrical proportions of Eclipse. Lec¬
tures on the Elements of Farriery. The Art of Horse¬
shoeing, with Observations on the Diseases of the Feet.
And a volume of posthumous works.
We do not pretend to give our own opinion as to
the merits of these works, as we have not seen them.
But it is said that the Essay is merely an application of
the proportions long ago laid down by Bourgelat in his
Elemens d’Hippiatrique, to a particular case ; and that
many of his measurements are incorrect. Mr Blaine
roundly taxes him with translating Lafosse to furnish
matter for his Elements, and refers for proof of this to
the description and treatment of qitittor in St Bel’s
Elements, and Lafosse’s Dictionaire d'Hippiatriquc.
Mr Blaine brings many other instances of M. St
Bel’s want of information and science, for which we
must refer our readers to Mr Blaine’s Outlines of the
Veterinary art.
On the death of M. St Bel, there appears to have
been a competition for the vacant chair, between two
gentlemen, who were both well qualified to fill it, Mr
Edward Coleman and Mr Morecroft. Both of these
gentlemen had been bred to surgery, and the former
had acquired much reputation by an ingenious Essay
on Suspended Respiration. The latter was lately re¬
turned from France, where he had been studying the
veterinary art. We are not acquainted with the parti¬
culars.
74
man ap¬
pointed
professor
76
430 , FARR
History, culars of this competition ; but the choice of the sub¬
scribers fixed on Mr Coleman, under whose manage¬
ment the college has acquired considerable reputation.
The election of Mr Coleman was followed by some
new regulations. An anatomical theatre was fitted up,
with dissecting rooms for the use of the students. A
medical committee was also appointed for the purpose
of examining the pupils, who had completed their
,. education at the college, previously to their receiving
Examining a diploma as veterinary surgeons. This committee, in
ooumiittce. jggj^ wa3 composed of the following gentlemen.
Dr Fordyce, senior physician to St Thomas’s hospital.
- Dr Ilelph, physician to Guy’s hospital.
Dr Babington, Do.
Dr Bailie, physician to St George’s hospital.
Mr Cline, surgeon to St Thomas’s hospital.
Mr Home, surgeon to St George’s hospital.
Mr Astley Cooper, surgeon to Guy’s hospital.
Mr Abernethy, surgeon to Bartholemew’s hospital.
Mr Wilson, lecturer on anatomy and surgery, and
Mr Coleman, professor of the college.
77
Regula-
The following are the regulations of this useful insti-
tioiis of thetution as published in the year 1801.
college. The subscribers of the veterinary college pay two
guineas per annum, or twenty guineas for life. For
this subscription each subscriber, is entitled to send,
when sick or lame, any number of horses to the vete¬
rinary stables, where no charges are made for medi¬
cines, attendance, or operations. The subscriber pays
only for the keeping and shoeing of his horse, which is
generally less than the actual expence incurred by the
college. A committee of stablers is appointed to exa¬
mine the quality of the forage, and to regulate the
price of the keep of horses. For some years past, the
subscribers paid only 28. 6d. per night; but in conse¬
quence of the great advance in hay, corn, and straw,
and the college, by this moderate charge, having sus¬
tained a considerable loss, the keep of horses is now fix¬
ed at 39. per night. A separate committee inspects the
accounts of the college, and three times in the year
reports to the general meeting the state of the finances
of the college. No horses but those the property of
subscribers are admitted into the veterinary stables: but
the professor is allowed private practice, and horses not
belonging to subscribers may be sent to the college for
the professor’s opinion.
The horses not intended to be left in the stables of
the college may be sent for the professor’s advice on
Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, from twelve to
two o’clock. Where medicines are requisite, they are
prepared for subscribers horses at very reduced prices j
and the college receives all emoluments which may
arise from the sale of horse medicines.
The expellees incurred by subscribers, for shoeing, for
the keep of horses, or for medicines, must be paid for
before the animal be taken from the college. And as
some losses have been sustained from the strict letter of
this regulation not having been always attended to, the
clerk has now received positive orders from the commit¬
tee, not to allow any horse, before all the expences are
paid, to be taken from the college. The horses are pla¬
ced under the direction of the professor, who resides on
the spot, and the medicines he prescribes are compound¬
ed by a proper person employed for that purpose.
I E R Y. Part I,
As the great object of the veterinary establishment History,
is to form a national school for the improvement of far- v'“—v—
riery, pupils paying twenty guineas are admitted into
the college to learn the veterinary art.
Lectures are given by the professor on the forma¬
tion, economy, and diseases of horses, and other do¬
mestic animals 5 and most of the eminent medical
teachers in London, with a liberality peculiar to them¬
selves, have allowed the veterinary pupils to hear their
lectures without any fee or reward. The veterinary
students attend lectures on human anatomy and physio¬
logy, on the principles and practice of surgery, on the
materia medica, and chemistry, and practice of physic.
The period requisite for obtaining a competent know¬
ledge of the veterinary art, is regulated by the talents,
previous information, and industry of the individual pu¬
pil. The students continue to attend the college until
they are examined and approved by the medical com¬
mittee. Those pupils who are duly qualified receive a
diploma j but those who are found on examination to be
deficient, are rejected. There are four general exa¬
minations in the year. When examined and approved,
if no objections are made to their conduct, during their
study at the veterinary college, they may be recom¬
mended to any regiment of cavalry, not already provi¬
ded with a veterinary surgeon.
No fees of any kind are allowed by the college to
any of the servants of subscribers $ neither are the ser¬
vants of the college permitted to receive any perqui¬
sites from the subscribers.
A veterinary college has also been established near
Birmingham, and it is said that others are in contem¬
plation in other parts of the empire.
The advantages that have already accrued from this
establishment, to veterinary medicine in general, and
to our national cavalry in particular, are very consider¬
able. Almost every regiment of cavalry has been sup¬
plied from the college, with a veterinary surgeon •, and
many of these gentlemen have published works which,
for the most part, do much credit to themselves and
their academy.
In 1798, Mr Coleman published the first volume,
and in 1802, the second, of Observations on the Struc¬
ture, Oeconomv, and Diseases of the loot of the Horse.
This is a most useful and valuable work, but it is too
splendid and costly, especially the second volume, for
general circulation. The first volume contains a very
full account of the method of shoeing practised at the
veterinary college, of which we shall give an abstract
hereafter.
About this period, appeared also a pamphlet by Mr
Coleman, On the Formation and Uses of the natural
Frog of the Horse, with the description of an artificial
Frog.
In 1801, appeared the first number of the Veterinary
Transactions, published by order of the subscribers.
This pamphlet commences with a long introduction,
stating the object of the institution, the progress which
it had made, and the causes that tended to prevent its
complete success. These originate partly in the party
opposition of the common farriers, who deem it their
interest to do all in their power to circumvent the views
of the subscribers : but they have still more been derived
from the underhand malice of grooms and servants, with
whose interest the institution, from the liberal manner in
which
7*
iiracey
tlarke.
79
Slid.ng.
So
Denny.
Si
IVhite.
82
chard
( wren«e.
wlilcb It is conducted, must certainly clash. The body
of the pamphlet is occupied with a very neat view of the
consequences and treatment of wounds of joints, and
other circumscribed cavities, and it is concluded by an
account of the regulations of the college (see N° 77),
the list of the medical committee, a list of the examined
and approved veterinary surgeons that had at that time
passed at the college, and lists of the then managers
and subscribers to the institution.
The first pupil of the college, as we believe, who
distinguished himself as as author, was Mr Bracey
Clarke ; who, in the third volume of the Linnsean
Transactions, published a very ingenious paper on the
botts in horses and cattle, of which we shall speak here¬
after.
About the same time appeared a small volume on
Veterinary Pathology, by Mr Riding, veterinary sur¬
geon to the 18th regiment of dragoons.
In 1802, Mr John Denny of the 10th dragoons
published a small volume on the Diseases of Horses.
In this work Mr Denny has in general given the prin¬
ciples and practice of the veterinary college, and has
illustrated and confirmed these by his own attentive
observations and long experience.
In the same year appeared a very neat Compendium
of the Veterinary Art, by Mr James White, of the
1st dragoons. This is only a pocket volume, and of
course is very concise ; but the author has given a very
comprehensive view of the nature and treatment of dis¬
eases, and of the late improvement in the art of shoeing
introduced in the veterinary college ; and the work
will be found an useful companion to the young prac¬
titioner. This volume also contains the substance of a
former work, by the same author, on the Anatomy and
Physiology of the Horse’s Foot. In the year 1804, Mr
White published the Veterinary Materia Medica, con¬
taining a brief description of the various substances em¬
ployed in farriery, with an account of their particular
effects on the body of the horse. He occasionally in¬
troduces some pertinent remarks on the diseases of the
horse ; and in the latter part of the volume, comprising
the veterinary pharmacopeia, he has given a number of
the best and most scientific recipes that he had seen.
This work may be considered as the second volume of
Mr White’s compendium $ and the author considered
the two volumes as forming a complete system of the
veterinary medicine. Though we are disposed to think
very favourably of these volumes, as a practical com¬
pendium, we cannot help thinking that Mr White
might have contented himself with that modest title
without assuming the more pompous one of a system.
We must also remark, that the materia medica, which
is not large, is unnecessarily swelled by the admission
of many articles that seem to have been introduced
merely to tell us, that they are never used in the vete¬
rinary practice.
Mr White is also the author of an Address to the
Royal First Devon Yeoman Cavalry respecting the
management of their horses, when employed on actual
service.
In the year 1802, or we believe a little earlier, a
work of considerable elegance was published by Mr
Richard Lawrence, veterinary surgeon at Birmingham.
As we have not seen this work, we must copy the fol¬
lowing account of it from Mr Blaine. “ It is much
2
F A R H I E R Y.
to be regretted that a gentleman who possesses so much
ingenuity, should pass over subjects of such importance
in such a light cursory manner. The description and
treatment of some diseases occupy fewer lines than (to
treat the subject in such a manner as to prove useful)
they would require pages. The plates are elegant, and
extremely well designed, particularly those that regard
the proportions and paces of the horse ; those that re¬
gard the internal structure and diseases are not so happy.
Hie diction is very superior. As a cabinet work, it is
most certainly elegant and interesting j but as a useful
assistant to the art itself, it does not rank so high.” g
In the same year was published the first part of aBoanlman.
dictionary of the veterinary art by Mr Thomas Board-
man of the third regiment of dragoons. This work
was intended to he completed in sixteen parts. The
author seems to have availed himself of the latest and
best information on the several articles that compose his
work ; and he has introduced into it a variety of sub¬
jects on the principles of general medicine. *
One of the latest publications by pupils of the veteri- Ferem
nary college, is a new system of farriery by Mr John
Feron, veterinary surgeon to the thirteenth regiment of
light dragoons. This work is printed in quarto, and
affords a good instance to what extent a small quan¬
tity of matter may be carried by the modern tvpogra-
phical improvements of large type, broad margins,
wide spaces, and frequent breaks. The work is indeed
very elegant both in type and in plates. It also con¬
tains some useful information on the external structure
of the horse, with a view to point out and illustrate
what appeared to the author to be the most perfect
form of a blood horse, with the blemishes and defects
which appeared most likely to impede his velocity.
This appears to be the best part of the work, and is
well illustrated by the plates. The latter half of the
hook is occupied with the consideration of diseases j and
here we are led, from the author’s title page, to expect
an account not only of the diseases of horses, but of the
principal epidemics to which cattle, sheep, &c. are
subject. These epidemics are however discussed in the
course of seventeen pages ; hut we are given to un¬
derstand that the author intends in a future publica¬
tion to give a full comparative description, with the
proper mode of treatment of every disease that affects
domestic animals. Mr Feron’s observations are render¬
ed of less utility than they would otherwise have been,
by the want of a table of contents prefixed to the
work.
These are, we believe, the principal publications
that have proceeded from the pupils of the veterinary
college. A few other works on veterinary medicine g'
still remain to he considered. In 1796, a very elegant Freeman.,
work on horses was published by S. Freeman, Esq. whose
character is given by Mr Blaine as an amateur in the
manege, and a gentleman of fortune, learning, and great
ingenuity. This publication consisted in a description of
the structure and economy of the foot, accompanied with
a set of plates highly finished in Skelton’s best style.
The subjects were dissected under the inspection of Mr
Home, or an assistant 5 and except some slight errors in
the ligaments of the navicular hone, appear very cor¬
rect. This publication, for the elegance of its engra¬
vings, and the general spirit of the whole, will be long
without a competitoi'. It recommends a very ingeni¬
ous
§7
Downing.
38
Imperfec¬
tion of
works on
cattle me
diciae.
F A R R I
ous mode of slioeing, and the economy of the foot is
likewise very ingenious.
About the same time Mr John Lawrence published a
small volume on horses, chiefly composed of extracts
from St Bel, Osmer, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke ;
and in 1798, this gentleman brought forward his philo¬
sophical and practical treatise on horses, a work which
is as remarkable for the good sense and humanity of
the author, as for the whimsical eccentricity and angry
irritability which he occasionally displays. The work
embraces a great variety of subjects. It commences
with an account of the principal former writers on far¬
riery, in which high eulogies are paid to the memory of
Gibson and Bracken, and a very violent attack is made
on the ill-starred Mr Taplin. The latter part of the
work contains Mr Lawrence’s system of veterinary prac¬
tice, which is chiefly taken from his favourite authors,
as Mr Lawrence seems at that time not to have had
much practical experience. Ihe work also contains
some remarks on [the diseases of horned cattle, on the
treatment of cows, and on calving.
Mr Lawrence has since, in 1805, published a sepa¬
rate treatise on cattle, in which the management of neat
cattle, sheep, and swine, are handled in a masterly man¬
ner j and a much fuller account of diseases and then
treatment are given than could be expected in his for¬
mer treatise. We venture to recommend Mr Law¬
rence’s works as among the most instructive and most
entertaining we have met with.
Some years ago there appeared a work cn the de¬
scription and treatment of the diseases of cattle, by a
Mr Downing, a professor of cattle medicine •, which,
though very expensive, sold very fast, and was \erj ge¬
nerally esteemed among farmers and graziers. We
have not seen this work ; but from the account of it
that is given by Mr Blaine in his outlines, it should
seem that it abounds with important errors, and frequent¬
ly inculcates a dangerous mode ot practice^ Me can¬
not here enumerate the particular examples brought by
Mr Blaine in proof of his assertions, but we shall notice
the most important of them under their proper heads.
Perhaps no part of veterinary medicine has been so
little cultivated in this country, as that which considers
the diseases of cattle.' There is scarcely a work on this
subject in the English language that is worth perusal.
We cannot give a better idea of the little value that
must be placed on these works than by the following
extract from Mr Lawrence’s treatise on cattle.
“ I have never yet seen any of these cattle-doctor¬
ing books, which appeared to me to be written bona fide.
Well-intentioned ignorance, if not entitled to respect,
is at least venial •, but the slightest examination of most
of these printed guardians ot the health of cattle, by a
person qualified to judge, will evince, that they are pre¬
meditated impostures, goods merely varnished up .for
sale. They have either the names of living men tack¬
ed to them, who, in the strongest probability, never ei¬
ther did, or could write a line of them, or they are
published in the name of some one of the mighty dead,
among cow-doctors, who most unfortunately died at last,
after sixty years practice. One would expect to find
something original and valuable, from this long-con¬
tinued and extensive practice ; but the disappointment
is always complete. The chief of that which we meet
with, consist? of transcriptions from former writers, m-
4
E R Y. Part I.
terlarded with learned, medical, and physical disserta-j History,
tions, perhaps sound and good enough in their place, to
which are loosely and clumsily tacked the most nonsensi¬
cal and burlesque appendages by Mr Editor. The medi-j
cinal forms in these books, are frequently the strangest
jumble that imagination can conceive. Articles of a
directly opposite nature and intention, are blended in
one mass, which must inevitably act upon the animal
system with an effect similar to that of two men pulling
at opposite ends of a cord. We find balsam of Peru
and Glauber’s salts married together, the intent of
which, no doubt must be, as a Suffolk farrier once de¬
scribed to the late Mr Kush, “ a kind of heater, and a
kind of cooler.” Indeed the far greater number of the
prescriptions wear rather the appearance of having been
fabricated for the use of the book, than of having ever
been used and approved in real practice. One truly
laughable custom was introduced by the book published
under the name of Topham’s old one. It was to sub¬
join to every prescription of note, a set character, con¬
ceived in the most high sounding terms of panegyric, at
the same time, with a choice of words, at once so droll,
and so gravely professional, with so formal an arrange¬
ment, that he must be a man far surpassing me in gravi¬
ty, grave as I naturally am, who can peruse them with¬
out bursting into laughter. It must not be denied, how¬
ever, that these books contain a number of useful hints,
relative to the management and dieting of cattle, whe¬
ther or not such may have originated with the doctor,
or have been introduced by the editor.' They may al¬
so, to a certain degree, he consulted as to the symptoms
of diseases, although by no means to be implicitly re¬
lied on even in that respect. So far they have their
. use. With regard to doctoring, as it is termed, or
prescribing- medicines to cattle, they are most truly
blind guides; and when, unfortunately, they are set to
lead the blind, the fate of both parties may be very
readily anticipated. I am speaking of books, which
have been published within the last half century. As
to the ancient veterinary writers, none of them, not
even the celebrated Vegetius, were medical men, and
their medical practice is utterly beneath modern notice.
The same kind of books of our old English writers,
consist of a strange medley of ancient practice with va¬
rious sage additions of their own. A rational man can¬
not read over some of their prescriptions without a-
mazement, nor a humane one without extreme pity for
the harassed victim of such monstrous practice. By the
way, they who, for interested purposes, fabricate pre¬
tended cattle medicines, of the effects of which they are
careless or ignorant, commit an act of gross inhumanity
and crime, in too probably adding to the load of suf¬
ferings of a helpless animal already tortured by disease.
One of the greatest curiosities we meet with in the old
books, is their grand universal specific. It seems as
though they judged by a kind of compound arithmeti- * Lw
co-medical logic, that all medicines being conjoined rmcc on
and multiplied one into the other, the product must ne- Al ^
cessarily be the prevention or cure of all diseases*.” Cui!ey,
Mr Lawrence has excepted from the above general
condemnation, a work lately published by Mr Culley,
of Northumberland ; which, he says, ought to be in the
hands of every farmer in Great Britain. He considers
it as the only original work in our language, and, as
containing in a small compass, a most valuable fund of
information,
91
Blaiuc.
Part II. FARR
History, information, chiefly from the author’s own experi-
■ ence.
90 In the year 1800, Mr Morecroft, the rival candidate
Morccroft, wjtl, ]\Xr Coleman for the professorship of the veterinary
college, published a small pamphlet containing a cur¬
sory account of the various methods of shoeing horses,
with incidental observations. This work displays con¬
siderable ingenuity. We shall notice Mr Morecroft’s
method of shoeing by and by.
In 1802, appeared Mr Blaine’s Outlines of the Vete¬
rinary Art, or the Principles of Medicine as applied to
a knowledge of the structure, functions, and enconomy
of the horse, the ox, the sheep, and the dog; and to a
more scientific and successful manner of treating their
various diseases ; in two volumes. Mr Blaine is well
known as a practitioner of veterinary medicine, and as
the advertiser of a specific against the distemper in dogs.
In his Outlines, Mr Blaine, after giving a sketch of
the history of medicine in general, enters on the history
of veterinary medicine in particular, which he details
at considerable length ; not, however, without several
errors, some of which we have already pointed out.
He next proceeds to lay down very briefly what he con¬
ceives to be the proper means for the attainment of the
veterinary art. Then follows a long section on a sub¬
ject which we should scarcely expect to find in a work
of this kind, the history of chemistry. The first part
concludes with a sketch of comparative anatomy, in
which the structure and economy of the ox, sheep, and
dog are passed over much too lightly. The second
part, which occupies the rest of the first volume, and
one-half of the second, is taken up with a very minute
account of the anatomy of the horse, with some obser¬
vations on the economy and uses of the several parts.
We consider this as the best part of Mr Blaine’s book ;‘
but we think that he has made it unnecessarily prolix,
as by carrying it to such an extent, he has not left room
for a satisfactory account of diseases, which occupy the
rest of the second volume. Here we cannot but con¬
sider the author as very defective. Neither the symp¬
toms nor the treatment are given with that accuracy or
precision, which the public had a right to expect from
a practitioner of Mr Blaine’s long experience. Many
of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and especially of dogs,
are passed over in a manner that is by no means satisfac¬
tory. The work is w-ritten in a very slovenly manner,
and is everywhere filled with an ostentatious parade of
medical phraseology that must render it nearly unintel¬
ligible to the generality of readers. In his receipts,
Mr Blaine has for the most part adopted the new no¬
menclature, which, however we may approve in medi¬
cal formulae, we cannot think calculated for the meri¬
dian of farriers. We, however, by no means intend to
insinuate that Mr Blaine’s work is without merit: it
I E R y.
certainly contains much valuable matter j but we must
repeat that it is not what we should have expected from
the advantages ot information and experience’ which
Mr Blaine appears to have possessed.
In the following year, Mr Blaine published a smaller
work, which he calls a Domestic Treatise on the dis¬
eases of horses and dogs, which appears to be chiefly an
abridgement of the Outlines, with a sort of advertise¬
ment for the sale of Mr Blaine’s patent medicine.
In 1802 appeared a General View of the Agriculture Findlatcr
of the county of Peebles, by the Rev. Charles Findla-
ter, minister of the parish of Newlands, in that coun¬
ty. Tdiis work, though intended merely as a local sur¬
vey of the state of agriculture and improvements in a
small district, abounds with much excellent matter that
must piove of general utility'. Besides the observations
which the ingenious author has made, on the general
management of live stock, in the body of his work, he
has added in one of his appendices some valuable
information respecting some of the most important dis¬
eases of sheep, which are partly furnished from the com¬
munications of Dr Gillespie, late physician in Edin¬
burgh, and Dr Coventry professor of agriculture in that
university, and partly derived from his own experience. r
In 1805 was published an elegant work on practicalDickaon.
agriculture by Dr K. W. Dickson 5 the second volume
of which contains much useful instruction respecting the
choice, breeding, feeding, &c. of all the species of live
stock employed on a farm ; with a few very concise re¬
marks on the diseases of each species. But as these are
merely practical hints, they cannot be of much use, ex¬
cept to those who are already tolerably acquainted with
the subject.
In the same year, the Rev. Wjlliam Daniel perform-Danfeii.
ed a task, which, however ill suited to the character
and avocation of a clergyman, must be highly grateful
to every lover of the sports of the field, in the publica¬
tion of his Rural Sports, which contains perhaps the
most.complete account of every thing relating to dogs
that is to be found in the -English language. Among
other subjects connected with the management of this
favourite companion of man, the reverend author takes
occasion to treat pretty fully of his diseases. On this
subject, Mr Daniel has not only collected matter from
what he conceives to be the best sources, but, what is
more useful, as well as more to be depended on, he has
added much from his own observation and experience.
.One of the latest works on the diseases of domestic Harrison,
animals, which we have seen, is An Enquiry into the
Rot in Sheep, and other animals, by Dr Edward Harri¬
son, a respectable physician of Horn castle, in Lincoln¬
shire. Of this pamphlet we shall speak at large, when
we come to treat of the disease, whose nature and causes
it is intended to illustrate.
PART II. OX THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE.
IN the sketch which we are to give of the anatomy
of the horse, we must very slightly pass over such parts
as appear not to be of immediate importance in the prac¬
tice of farriery, in order to dwell more minutely on those
organs that are of greater consequence. Thus we shall
content ourselves with giving a tabular view of the
’ VOL. VIII. Part II. +
hones and muscles ; we shall entirely omit the brain and
nerves 5 but we shall describe some of the other viscera,
as the stomach, and the bowels, somewhat more mi¬
nutely. We shall be most particular on the anatomy of
the extremities, especially of the feet, as on an accurate
knowledge of these parts depend the principles of shoe-
3 1 ing j
FARRIERY.
Part II.
97
Importance
ing; which, without such knowledge, cannot be pro¬
perly understood, or rationally practised.
On the subject of the anatomy of the ^ we *ba11
be particularly indebted to the writings of Mr Oole-
man ; and we cannot shew the importance of the sub¬
ject in shoeing better than by the following remarks ot
that gentleman. . r . r *t
“ The organization and functions of the toot ot the
of an accu-|lorse WJ]1 he found rather complicated j but it is ot
rate know- cons|d€i able importance to these who wish to investigate
anJtomVof the principle, as well as the practice of shoeing, to
the foot. be well acquainted with every part ot that oig ♦
The practical part of shoeing is often well executed,
without an accurate knowledge of the contents of the
hoof. ,.
“ But, in many cases, it is very necessary to be well
acquainted with the structure and functions of the deep¬
er seated parts, and is most particularly useful for the
removal of many diseases incident to the foot. The im¬
mense weight supported by the feet of the horse, and
the rapidity with which this great animal is conveyed
from place to place, without violence to the external or
internal parts of the foot, naturally excite a desire to
ascertain the cause of so wonderful an effect. If the
human foot supported the same weight as the foot of the
horse, the sensible parts would he destroyed. Without
springs, no external covering could effectually support
the weight, and prevent the foot from being smash¬
ed. The physiologist will receive infinite satisfaction
in the investigation of the functions of this complicated
organ ; he will find as much order and beauty, as much
wisdom and utility, in the formation and economy of the
j. ,, , i foot, as ever was displayed in the structure and uses of
cm the any animal. It will be seen in many instances, that
Horse's the same part performs various functions, and all these
J1 cot, vol, ii. functions well
i. Bones of the Head. A.
o, c, Half of the frontal bone, which in the horse is
always composed of two pieces.
e,f One of the two parietal bones.
g, h, i, h, The occipital bone, with a process at k, that
is peculiar to the horse.
/, m, The temple, or temporal bone, of one side j n,
the cheek-bone of one side.
o, One of the small bones within the socket of the
eye, that answers to the os unguis in man.
p, p, Bones of the nose.
q, r, s, The upper jaw-hone.
t. The intermaxillary bone, or what is usually called
by veterinary writers the inferior jaw-bone. This is
not found in the human skeleton.
u, v. The posterior maxillary bone, which answers to
the lower jaw-bone in man.
Bones of the Spine. B.
i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The seven vertebrse of the neck.
a. The atlas $ b, the second vertebra, called in human
anatomy, dentata ; d, e,f its transverse process $ e, its
oblique process $ f its ridge, answering for a spinous
process ; g, h, i, k, l, m, n, third cervical vertebra j g,
its body ; above the letter is the hole for the transmis¬
sion of the vertebral arteries and veins $ i, k, anterior
and posterior transverse processes J /, a protuberance in
the fore part of the body.
8—25, The eighteen vertebrse of the back j a, the body
of eachj b, the transverse processes that articulate with
the ribs j c, the oblique processes j J, the spinous processes.
26 to 30, The five vertebra of the loins, which have
very long transverse processes, though these are not very
easily distinguished in the figure, from its having a side
Anatomy
of tfee
Horse.
CQr»r,nm
r\ t\r\co rl rvf fivo
In our description of the structure of the horse, we
shall, as far as possible, employ English names to de¬
note the parts described or enumerated, as we think the
writers on the subject have done wrong in giving to
the parts of the horse the Latin names that are employ¬
ed in the human anatomy j and we have no doubt that
the generality of veterinary students must, from this
circumstance alone, be in a great measure deterred
from paying the necessary attention to so important a
subject. But, that we may avoid affectation, we shall,
wherever it appears necessary, add the corresponding
Latin name, and some synonyms of the more respect¬
able writers on the anatomy of the horse.
Chap. I. ui Sketch of the Bones of the Horse.
in man.
From 31 to 43, the 13 bones composing the tail, an¬
swering to the os coccygis in man.
Bones of the Trunk. C.
a,b, I, 9, The true ribs *, 10 to 18 the false ribs j
a, the head articulating with the transverse process of
the first dorsal vertebra j under is seen the lower branch
of the head that unites with the seventh cervical and first
dorsal vertebra ; c, the end that unites with the sternum
or breast-bone j a, b, c, d, e,f, g, the two hip-bones, an¬
swering to the ossa innominata in the human anatomy
a, b, c, the ilium, with its tuberosity a, forming the
haunch or hip j e,f the ischium j g, g, the pubis with
its juncture or symphysis between the two letters.
Bones of the Fore Extremity. D. D.
99
Sktleton. When we take a general view of the skeleton of the
horse, supposed to stand before us, we shall observe that,
excepting the head and fore part of the neck, the skele¬
ton forms nearly a square, and approaches more nearly
to this form, as the body of the animal is more exactly
proportional. We remark this for the sake of painters
and sculptors, who commonly err considerably with re¬
spect to their proportion of length and breadth in their
figures of the horse.
We shall divide the skeleton into the head, the spine,
the trunk, and extremities. See Plate CCXI. fig. 1.
e,f g, h, i, l, m. The scapula or blade-bone 5 e, its
neck, below which is seen its glenoid cavity ; f, ante-
spinatus fossa ; h, its spine, which in the human ends in
the processus acromion, but as there is no clavicle in the
horse, it ends by a tuberosity ; i, coracoid process j be¬
tween m and i, the anterior costa j l, between this and
e, posterior costa, between m and /, is its base, and the
line above it marks the extent and situation of the car¬
tilage of the scapula ; n, 0, p, q, humerus or arm ; n, its
neck, above which is seen its head j 0, its anterior
head, forming the point of the shoulder, as it is commonly
called
2
Part II. FARRIERY.
Anatomy called in the horse j p, its tuberosity } q, its lower head,
of the' behind is seen the cavity for the reception of the olecra-
Hor*c. non j r, r, ulna; the upper part forms the olecranon
» * or elbow, the lower part is united by ligamentous
fibres to the radius j s, s, the radius ; i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
the carpus or knee j 1, I, pisiform 5 2, 2, scaphoid j
3, 3, lunar j 4, unciform j 5, magnum ; 6, cuneiform ;
4, trapezoid $ £, «, metacarpus j t, canon ; u, two small
njetacarpals j v, w, a;, y, ss, phalanges ; t?, first pha¬
lanx or pastern; w, sesamoids; x, coronet-bone, or
little pastern j y, coffin j ss, navicular or nut-bone.
Bones of the Hind Extremity. E. E.
/?, t, k, l, Thigh-bone; h, the neck, above which
is the head received into the socket of the pelvis j i, great
trochanter ; k, the outer trochanter j /, /, the inner tro¬
chanter ; in, m, the anterior condyles j n, n, the poste-
1 rior ditto ; p, p, semilunar cartilage j 0, 0, knee-pan or
patella j g, tibia or leg bone, commonly called the
thigh j r, fibula; the tibia is seen terminating in its
maleoli, toarticulatewith the tarsus; 1,2,3, 4> 5> 6, 7, 8,
tarsus or hock; I, 2, I, 2, calces, forming the point of
the hock, in man the heel; 3, 4, astragalus ; 5, 5, great
cuneiform bone; 6, cuboid bone; 7, middle cunei¬
form bone; 8, small cuneiform bone; s, s, t, t, meta¬
tarsus ; r, s, canon or shank ; t, t, two small metatarsals ;
u, pastern; v, sesamoids; w, coronet-bone or lesser
pastern ; x, x, coffin-bone ; y, navicular or nut-bone.
Of the Teeth.
100
fietL A male horse has 40 teeth, when he has completed
his full number. The mare has usually but 36.
They are divided into three kinds; the cutting teeth
or nippers; the cuspidatae or tushes, and the molares or
grinders. A knowledge of the horse’s teeth and of the
changes which they undergo, from their first appear¬
ance, is of the greatest consequence, as from it we de¬
rive the surest marks of the age of the horse ; at least,
till he is eight or nine years old.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and8, shew the appearanceofthe
teeth from their first cutting to the age of eight years.
Fig. 2. shews the appearance of the colt’s teeth at
the age of three weeks; fig. 3. that of the colt’s teeth
at three months. Fig. 4. shews the state of the teeth
from three months to about four or five years, where
a, a, are the pincers or nippers; b, b, what are called
the separators; c, r, the corners, or the last of the front
teeth at that age ; d, d, the tusks. Fig. 5. shews the
appearance of the teeth at the age of five years, and
figs. 6, 7, and 8, their appearance at the respective ages
of six, seven, and eight years.
Jeans of The age of a horse is easily known by his mouth, till
certain, he comes eight, after which the usual marks wear out.
'gthe age A horse, like many other brute animals, has his teeth
■ a borse. divided into three ranks ; viz. his fore-teeth which are
flat and smooth, his tushes, and bis back-teeth. His
back-teeth or jaw-teeth are called his grinders, being
those by which a horse chews and grinds his provender,
and are 24 in number, 12 above and 12 below: they
are strong double teeth, with sharp edges; but when a
horse grows old they wear much smoother.
The first that grows are his foal-teeth, which begin to
appear a few months after he is foaled: they are 12 in
number, six above and six below; and are easily dis¬
tinguished from the teeth that come afterwards by their
smallness and whiteness, not unlike the fore teeth of a
man.
When the colt is about two years and a half old
he casts the four middlemost of his foal-teeth, viz. two
above and two below : but some do not cast any of their
foal-teeth till they are near three years old. The new
teeth are easily distinguished from the foal-teeth, being
much stronger, and always twice their size, and are call¬
ed the incisors or gatherers, being those by which a
horse nips off the grass when he is feeding abroad in
the fields, or in the house gathers his hay from the rack.
When a horse has got these four teeth complete, he is
reckoned three years old.
W hen he is about three and a half, or in the spring
before he is four years old, he casts out four more of his
foal-teeth, viz. two above and two below, one on each
side the nippers or middle teeth : so that when you look
into a horse’s mouth, and see the two middle teeth full
grown, and none of the foal-teeth except the common
teeth remaining, you may conclude he is four that year
about April or May. Some indeed are later colts, but
that makes little alteration in the mouth.
The tushes appear near the same time with the four
last mentioned teeth, sometimes sooner than those, and
sometimes not till after a horse is full four years old : thev
are curved like the tushes of other beasts ; only in a young
horse, they have a sharp edge all round the top and on
both sides, the inside being somewhat grooved and flat-
tish, inclined to a hollowness.
When a horse’s tushes do not appear for some time
after the foal teeth are cast and the new ones come in
their room, it is generally owing to the foal-teeth having
been pulled out before their time by the breeders or
other dealers in horses, to make a colt of three years
old appear like one of four, that he may be the more
saleable; for when any of the foal-teeth have been pul¬
led out, the others soon come in their places ; but the
tushes having none that go before them, can never make
their appearance till their proper time, viz. when a horse
is about four or coming four ; and, therefore, one of the
surest marks to know a four years old horse is by his
tushes, which are then very small and sharp on the top
and edges.
When a horse comes five, or rather in the spring be¬
fore he is five, the corner teeth begin to appear, and at
first but just equal with the gums, being filled with flesh
in the middle. The tushes are also by this time grown
to a more distinct size, though not very large; they
likewise continue rough and sharp on the top and edges.
But the corner teeth are now most to be remarked ;
they differ from the middle teeth in being more fleshy
on the inside, and the gums generally look rawish upon
their first shooting out; whereas the others do not ap¬
pear in this way. The middle teeth arrive at their full
growth in less than three weeks; but the corner teeth
grow leisurely, and are seldom much above the gams
till a horse is full five: they differ also from the other
fore-teeth, in this, that they somewhat resemble a shell;
and thence are called the shell-teeth, because they en¬
viron the flesh in the middle half-way round : and as
they grow, the flesh within disappears, leaving a distinct
hollowness and openness on the inside. When a horse
is full five, these teeth are generally about the thickness
of a crown-piece about the gums. From five to five
3 I 2 and
435
Anatomy
of the
Horse.
Anatomy
of the
Horse.
FARRIERY.
Part II.
ami a half they will grow about a quarter of an inch
high, or more ; and when a horse is lull six, they will
he near half an inch, and in some large horses a full
lialf inch, about the gums.
The corner teeth in. the upper jaw fall out before
those in the under, so that the upper corner teeth are
seen before those below.’, on the contrary, the tushes in
the tinder gums come on before those in the upper.
When a horse is full six years old, the hollowness
on the inside begins visibly to fill up, and that which
was at first fleshy,, grows into a brownish spot, not un¬
like the eye of a dried garden bean, and continues so
till lie is seven ; with this diflerence only, that the tooth
is more filled up, and the mark or spot becomes faint,
and of a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in most
horses is quite worn out, though some retain the vestiges
of it a long time j and those who have not had a good
deal of experience, may sometimes be deceived by ta¬
king a horse of nine or ten years old for one of eight.
It is at this time only, when a horse is past mark, that
one can easily err in knowing the age of a horse j for
what practices are used to make a very young horse or
colt appear older than he is, by pulling out the foal-
teeth before their time, may be discovered by feeling
along the edges where the tushes grow, for they may
be felt in the gums before the corner teeth are put
forth } whereas, if the corner teeth come in some months
before the tushes rise in the gums, we may reasonably
suspect that the foal-teeth have been pulled out at three
years old.
It will, perhaps, he needless to mention the tricks
that are used to make a false mark in a horse’s mouth,
by hollowing the tooth with a graver, and burning a
mark with a small hot iron •, because those who are ac¬
quainted with the true marks, will easily discover the
cheat by the size and colour of the teeth, by the round¬
ness and bluntness of the tushes, by the colour of the
false marks, which is generally blacker, and more im¬
pressed than the true mark, and by many other visible
tokens, which denote the advanced age of a horse.
After the horse has passed his sixth year, and some¬
times at seven, nothing certain can be known by the
mouth. It must, however, be remembered, that some
horses have but indifferent mouths when they are young,
and soon lose their mark others have their mouths
good for a long time, their teeth being white, even,
and regular, till they are 16 years old and upwards, to-
gether with many other marks of freshness and vigour j
but when a horse comes to be very old, it may be dis¬
covered by several indications, the constant attendants
of age, viz. his gums wear away insensibly, leaving his
teeth long and naked at their roots. The bars of the
mouth, which, in a young horse are always fleshy, and
form so many, distinct ridges, are, in an old horse, lean,
dry, and smooth, with little or no rising. The eye-pits
in a young horse (except those come of old stallions) are
generally filled up with flesh, look plump and smooth j
whereas in an old horse, they are sunk and hollow, and
make them look ghastly, and with a melancholy aspect.
There are also other marks which discover a horse to
be very old, viz. gray horses turn very white, and many
of them all over flea-bitten, except their joints. This,
however, happens sometimes later and sometimes soon¬
er, according to the variety of colour and constitution.
Black horses are apt to grow gray over their eye-brows,
and very often over a good part of their face, especially
those who have a star or hlane fringed round with gray
when they are young. All horses, when very old, sink
more or less in their backs ; and some horses, that are
naturally long-backed, grow so hollow witlr age, that
it is scarce possible to fit them with a saddle. Of this
kind are several Spanish and Barbary horses, and many
Danish and Flanders breed. The joints also grow stiff
with old age, and their knees and hocks bend so, that
they are apt to trip and stumble upon the least descent,
though the way be smooth and noways rugged. After
which they can be of little use to the owner*.
Chap. II. Principal Muscles of the Horse.
Anr.toiny
of the
Hor?e.
* Board-
man's Die-
ticnary,
102
Muscles.
We shall here only enumerate the muscles of the
head, neck, and trunk, as being of less importance than
those of the extremities. Of these latter we shall give
a table, expressing, besides their usual names, their orir
gin, insertion, and uses.
Muscles of the Eyelids and Eye.
Orbicular of the eyelids.
Elevator of the upper eyelid, o, fig. 10.
Elevator of the eye.
Depressor of the eye.
Adductor of the eye.
Abductor of the eye.
Trochlear muscle of the eye.
Ohliquus major.
Eesser oblique.
Betractor of the eye.
Muscles of the Mouth and Jaws.
Orbicular, fig. 9. 0, fig. 10.
Buccinator, r, fig. 9. s, fig. 10.
Elevator of the corner of the mouth, m, n, fig. 10.
Long nasal of the upper lip, /, mt n, 0, fig. 9.
Masseter, p, q, fig. 9.
Ciliares, u, w, fig. 9.
Temporal, 2, 3, fig. 9.
Canine, 6, 7, fig. 9. m, n, fig. 10.
Depressor of the lower lip, 9, 10, fig. 9. p, q,
fig. 10.
Elevator of the chin, 12, fig. 9.
Dilatators of the nostrils, <7, 6, e, d,g,f fig. 9.
Muscles of the Necki
Sterno-mastoid ; ay b, c, fig. 9.
Coraco-hyoideus $ f f fig. 9. and o, b, c, d, e,
fig. 10.
Sterno-hyoideus ; g, fig. 9./, g, fig. 10.
Sterno-thyroideus 5 h, i, k, fig. 10.
Transversals j h, i, fig. 9. A, B, C, D, E, Fj C, H,
fig. 10.
Trachelo-mastoid ; M, O, P, Q, S, fig. 10.
Bectus internus major capitis 5 m, «, fig. 9. and w,
lutertransversales minores colli y o, fig. 9.
Long
FARRIERY.
Muscles of the Trunk,
Part Hi
Anatomy ^ong muscle of the neck; p, y, fig. 9. X, Y, fig,
of the 10.
Horse. Splenitis j r, s, t} fig. 9.
['— » Hyothyroidaeus j y, fig. 9.
Cricothyroidaeus j fig. 9.
Lower constrictor of the pharynx.
Rectus capitis posticus major j t, u, fig. 11.
minor j x, w, fig. 11,
Superior oblique of the head : f/, U, figv iq.
Inferior ditto •, W, W, fig. 10.
Intertransversales posteriores colli} L, &c. M, &c.
fig. 11.
Intervertebral muscles.
Multifidae spinas j r, (/, fig. 12.
Spinales cervicis : R, T, U, fig. n»
External oblique j I, K, L, M, fig. 9.
Obliquus internus ; s, t, u, tv, x, y, fig. 10.
Rectus abdominis ; ss, fig. 10.
Transversalis abdominis j p, q, r, fig. 11.
External intercostals j 1, 2, &c. fig. 11.
Internal ditto j 3, 4, &c. fig. 11.
Semispinalis and spinalis dorsi; a, h, c, d, e,f fig. ir.-
Longissimus dorsi j g, h, i, k, fig. n.
Sacrolumbal; /, m, n, &c. fig. 11.
Elevators of the ribs $ a, b, fig. 12.
Lateral of the tail j e,f fig. 12.
Intertransversals of the tail $ g, Sic. fig. 12.
Elevator of the tail; t, fig. 12.
Depressor of the tail; k, fig. 12..
437
Anatomy
of the
Horse.
103
Table of
ihe muscles
af the ex-
re.cities.
Name.
Trapezius.
Lager rhomboid.
Rhomboideus major,
a, b, fig. 9.
Triangulaire Vitet.
Lesser rhomboid..
Levator scapulce.
Lesser pectoral.
Depressor scapulce.
c, d,e,f fig. 9.
Triangular.
■
Anterior serrated.
Serratus anticus.
g, h, i, k, l, 0, p, fig. 9.
Ante-spinatus.
a, b, c, rf, c, f, fig. 9.
Post-spinatus.
h, k, l, n, fig. 9.
Extensor of the ligament.
Latissimus dorsi.
r, s, t, u, m, fig. 9.
Comon muscle.
Levator humeri.
Subscapular.
«, b, fig, 11.
Table of the Muscles of the Extremities.
1. Muscles of the Fore-leg and Foot*.
Origin and Insertion.
From the 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae j
from the first 12 or 13 dorsal vertebrae j and
from the cervical ligament, into the spine
of, the blade-bone.
From the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th dorsal verte¬
brae, below the cartilage of the blade-hone,
into the whole length of that cartilage. .
Use.
To raise and draw backwards
the blade-bone.
To raise the,, blade-bone, and
draw it a little forwards.
From the ligament of the neck, at about tli6
2d vertebra, into the cartilage of the blade-
bone.
From the lateral part of the breast-bone, into
the upper and fore-part of the blade-bone.
To draw the blade-bone for¬
ward when the neck is fix¬
ed, or vice versa.
To draw the blade-bone down¬
wards.
From the 4th and 5th vertebrae of the neck,
into the upper and fore part of the blade-
hone, above the pectoral.
From the true, ribs, and from, the 6th and 7th
cervical vertebrae, into the last cervical ver¬
tebra.
From the ante-spinatus fossa, by two tendons,
into the two tuberosities of the head of the
shoulder-bone.
From a fossa, so called, into the outer-side of
the shoulder-hone.
From the coracoid process of the blade-bone,
into the-whole of the capsular ligament.
From all the dorsal vertebrae connected with
the muscles of the back, and with the
fleshy pannicle, into the inner tuberosity
of the shoulder-bone, below. the blade-
bone.
From the tuberosity of the temporal bone,
and from the four first cervical vertebrae,
into the upper and outward part of the
arm.
From the hollow of the blade-bone, into the
inner side of the shoulder-bone.
To draw the blade-bone for¬
wards.
To connect the blade-bone with
the chest, and to draw it
downwards, and sometimes
to assist other muscles.
To extend the fore-leg and
move it forwards.
To move the fore-leg outward,
and away from its fellow.
To prevent the ligament from
being pinched between the
bones.
To draw the fore-leg back¬
ward, and towards the chest.•
To raise the arm, and when^
that is fixed, to draw the
head and neck downwards.
To move the arm towards its
fellow..
Larger,
438
Anatomy Name*
of the Larger pectoral.
Hor»e- i 2 3 4 5 6, fig. 9*
Sterno-brachial.
Coraco-brachial.
Adductor of the shoulder.
Teres major,
d, ej\ fig. ii.
Long abductor of the shoulder.
Teres minor.
o, q> fig- 9-
Short abductor of the shoulder.
Anterior radial flexor.
Flexor longus.
Biceps in human anatomy.
t, k, /, m, n, fig. io.
Oblique brachial flexor.
Fascialis cubiti.
Extensor longus.
Biceps extensor cubiti.
N, 0, P, fig. 9.
Internal brachial.
<r, b, c, fig. II.
Intermediate extensoV.
Large extensor of the canon.
Iladial extensor of the canon.
a, b, c, d, fig. io.
External flexor of the canon.
/, m, fig. Ii.
Inner flexor of the canon.
o,p, fig. ii.
Flexor of the carpus.
Anterior long extensor of the
foot.
The lateral extensor of the
foot.
Perforated flexor of the foot.
Perforating flexor of the foot.
FARRIERY.
Origin and Insertion.
From the side of the breast-bone, and the car¬
tilages of the six last true ribs, into the in¬
ner side of the shoulder-bone.
From the fore part of the breast-bone, into
the inner and lower part of the shoulder-
bone, and connected by expansion with the
radius.
From the coracoid process of the blade-bone
into the lower and back part of the shoulder-
bone.
From the upper part of the posterior edge of
the blade-bone, into the inside of the shoul¬
der-bone.
From the posterior edge of the blade-bone
into the outer tuberosity of the shoulder-
bone.
Below the last muscle, between the last and
the subscapula.
From the tuberosity of the blade-bone, above
the glenoid cavity, into the inner tuberosity
of the radius.
From the neck of the shoulder-bone into the
inner tuberosity of the radius.
From the posterior edge of the blade-bone in¬
to the olecranon, or elbow.
From the whole length of the posterior edge of
the blade-bone into the olecranon.
Below the inner side of the head of the
shoulder-bone, into the inner and upper
part of the olecranon.
From the neck and some part of the shoulder-
bone, into the olecranon.
From the outer condyle, and tuberosity of the
shoulder-bone, into the anterior tuberosity
of the canon-bone.
From the side of the radius downwards from
the middle into the small inner metacarpal
bone.
From the outer condyle of the shoulder-bone,
at its back part, into the pisiform, and
small outer metacarpal bones.
From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone,
into the back part of the canon.
From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone,
at its back part, into the pisiform bone.
From the lower and outer head of the shoul¬
der-bone, and upper part of the radius,
into the anterior protuberance of the coffin-
bone.
From the outer head of the radius, passing
over the knee through an annular ligament,
into the upper and back part of the bone
down to the foot.
From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone
passing behind the knee, into the arch of
the coffin-bone.
From the olecranon and the shoulder-bone at
the back part, into the arch of the coffin-
bone.
Fart 11.
i C/SF. Anatomy
To draw the fore-leg down- of the
wards and backwards. Hojse,^
To draw the fore-legs together,
and to assist the last in re¬
spiration, when the fore-leg
is fixed.
To draw the arm forwards and
outwards.
When the blade-bone is fixed,
to draw the fore-leg up¬
wards and inwards, and
vice versa.
To draw the shoulder-bone up¬
wards and outwards.
To turn the arm.
To bend the arm.
To turn the fore-arm, and as¬
sist the former in bending
it.
To bind down the muscles,
and assist in extending the
arm.
To extend the arm.
To oppose the oblique flexor.
To assist in extending the arm.
To extend the canon.
To assist the former, and turn
the foot outwards.
To bend the canon.
To assist the former.
To bend the carpus, and extri¬
cate the ligament.
To extend the foot.
To assist the former.
To bend the foot.
To assist the former.
a. Muscles
FARRIERY,
Part II.
Anatomy
of tile
Horse.
2Jamet fyc.
Posterior gluteus, w, tz, o, /?,
fig. 9.
Tensor vaginae femoris.
Fascia lata.
a, b, c, c,D, etf,g,h, fig. 9.
Semimembranosus. 17,18, 19,
fig. 9.
Biceps flexor eruris. 3, 4, 5
—11, fig. 9.
Posterior flexor of the leg.
The large gluteus. 7, Q, r, s,
t, fig. 9.
Capsular, c, 5, c, fig. 12.
Gracilis, e, y, fig. 9.
fig. II.
Sartorius.
Adductor longus.
P> q, r, 5, *, fig. 21. u,
fig. 12.
Large psoas.
Larger internal iliac, e, fig. 10.
Lesser internal iliac.
Pectineus. s, fig. 12.
Triceps adductor femoris.
Vastus externus. », otp, r, .9, t,
fig. 10.
Straight muscle of the leg.
Rutus cruris.
g, h, i, k, fig. 10.
V astus xnternus. b, c, fig. 10.
Crural. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. fig. 11.
External obturator.
Square muscle of the thigh.
Qvadratus femoris.
Gemini. frgy fig. i0.
2. Muscles of the Hmd Leg or Foot.
Origin and Insertion.
ii’orn the interior and posterior angles of the
ilium, into the little trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
From the anterior angle of the ilium, into a
tendinous expansion over the thigh.
From the tuberosity and lower angle of the
ischium, into the fore part of the thigh¬
bone, and into the tibia.
From the tuberosity of the ischium, and be¬
ginning of the tail, into the inner side of
the spine of the tibia.
Like the former, into the inner condyle of
the thigh-bone and upper end of the tibia.
From the vertebrae of the loins, and from the
sacrum, into the great trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
Rises from the brim of the acetabulum, into
the outer side of the thigh-bone.
From the pubis and ischium, into the fascia
of the thigh and the inner side of the head
of the tibia.
From the inner edge of the brim of the pelvis,
into the inner head of the tibia.
Use.
To extend the thigh, and draw
it outwards.
To stretch the fascia of the
thigh, and draw it inwards.
To draw the thigh outwards.
To bend the leg, and draw it
inwards.
To bend the leg.
To extend the thigh, and draw
it backwards and outwards.
To extricate the capsular liga¬
ment.
To make one thigh approach
its fellow.
To assist the former.
Jrom the three last dorsal, and four first
lumbar vertebrae, and from the two last
false ribs, into the inner trochanter of the
thigh-bone.
From the inner surface of the ilium, into the
lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone.
From the inner surface of the ilium, into the
^ lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone.
From the symphysis pubis, inserted below the
last.
From the inner edge of the pubis, from the
anterior branch of the ischium, and from
its tuberosity, into the back of the thigh¬
bone, the upper and inner part of the tibia,
and the tuberosity of the thigh-bone.
From the great trochanter, and the outer side
of the thigh-bone, into the side of the knee-
pan.
From the ilium above the socket, and from
the upper part of the thigh-bone, into the
upper part of the knee-pan.
From the neck, inner tuberosity, and whole
inner part of the thigh-bone,, into the inner
side of the knee-pan.
From the fore part of the thigh-bone, into the
inner side of the knee-pan.
From the inner part of the ischium, into the
hollow of the great trochanter.
From the lower part of the tuberosity of the
ischium, into the thigh-bone below the
great trochanteiv
From the ischium and pubis, one above the
other, inserted into the thigh with the last.
To bend the thigh.
To assist the former.
To assist the former.
To bend the thigh.
To draw one thigh towards its-
fellow.
To extend the leg.
To extend the leg strongly.
To assist the vastus externus,
and last muscle.
Ditto.
To roll the thigh-bone.
Assists the former.
Oppose the last.
Inner
439
Anatomy
of tjie
Horse.
>
440
Anatomy
of the
Horse.
Name, SjC.
Inner obturator. I,
12.
’Pyriform.
2> 3>
Popliteus. 28, 29, fig. II.
Tibialis anticus. 14.
Gastrocnemius.
Plantar. 40, fig. 9.
Perforated flexor of the foot.
Larger perforating flexor of
the foot.
Lesser perforating flexor of the
foot.
The long extensor of the foot.
Lateral extensor of the foot.
Lesser extensor.
FARRIERY.
Origin and Insertion. Use.
From the edge of the thyroid hole, into the To assist the gemini.
thigh with the preceding.
From the sacrum within the pelvis, inserted as Ditto,
the last.
From the external condyle of the thigh bone, To draw the leg inwards,
into the tibia.
From the fore part of the external condyle of To bend the leg strongly,
the thigh-bone, into both canons by two por-
tions.
From each condyle of the thigh-bone, into the To extend the canon,
hock.
From the upper part of the spine of the tibia,
inserted as the former.
From the hollow between the condyles of the To bend the pastern and foot,
thigh-bone, into each side of the pastern-
bone. cm
■From the back and outer part of the head of To bend the foot.
the tibia, into the arch of the coffin-bone.
From the back part of the head of the tibia, To assist the former;
inserted with the preceding.
From the tendon of the extensor of the ca- To extend the foot,
non, in the anterior protuberance of the
coffin-bone. _ „
From the outer head of the tlugh-bone, and Ditto,
from the head of the fibula, inserted with
the last. »
From the tendon of the long extensor to the To draw the tendons of the
lateral extensor. ^ong ant^ lateral extensors to¬
gether.
Part II
The four figures to which we have referred also re-
? present the following parts.
The broad ligaments of the eyelids 5 s, t, fig. 9.
Aloe narium j 2;, fig. 9.
Angular vein ; 14, fig. 9.
Angular artery J 15, fig* 9*
Parotid gland ; 26, fig. 9.
In the Neck.
Common jugular vein j i,fig. 9.
FiXternal anterior jugular j 2, fig. 9.
Posterior external jugular ; 3, fig. 9.
Part of the carotid artery ; 4, fig. 9-
Branches of the cervical arteries and veins j I, 2, fig. 10.
Thyroid gland ; a, fig. II.
Gullet j i, fig. II.
Windpipe j fig* II*
Cervical nerves *, 2, fig* II*
Ligament of the neck ", 5, fig. II. j 7> 12'
External carotid artery j I, fig. 13.
In the Trunk.
Epigastric artery, w, fig. II.
External iliac*, y, fig. 11.
The diaphragm 5 m m, fig. 12.
Intercostal artery j p, fig. 12.
In the Fore Extremity.
Internal plantar vein *, s, fig. 9.
Coronary ligament of the foot", 13* fig* 9‘
Cartilages of the coffin-bone 5 r, t, II.
In the Hind Extremity.
Vena saphaena *, 21, fig* 9.
Capsular ligament of the knee 5 3, 4, fig. 10.
Sciatic artery j 34, fig. H*
Gluteal artery j 35, 35, fig. II.
Crural vein ; 38, fig. 11.
Popliteal artery 5 39, 52, fig. I I.
 — vein *, 53, fig. 11.
Crural nerve ", 35, fig. 12.
Chip. III. Of the Stomach and Bowels.
104 1
In the horse there is but one stomach, which is very structureL
small in proportion to his general bulk; and is partly of the
membranous, partly cuticular, and partly muscular.8tomac!
It is situated immediately behind the diaphragm, in the
left hfpochondrium, and in part of the epigastrium,
with its expellent orifice extending across the spine to
the right, which is the reason that lying on that side is
judged more wholesome than sleeping on the left. It
has two surfaces, which may be called its sides, though
one is posterior, and the other anterior ; and two ex¬
tremities, a large and a small; the superior surface of
which receives the gullet, and is called its cardiac ori¬
fice ; while the former ends in the duodenum, and is
termed the "pyloric orifice; this extremity, when tie
stomach is distended, is the most posterior of the two.
The hollow part situated superiorly, only forms its
lesser curvature, as the lower portion forms its great
curvature.
Thus when the stomach is moderately distended, it
lies in an obliquely transverse direction, with its great
extremity a little forwards, and its twro orifices superi¬
or,
Part II. FARR
OF) but the cotdiuc the nio^t so, witti the lesser extre-*
mity rather posterior to the other, and the great curva¬
ture inferior. It is evident that the situation of the
stomach must vary much with its distension : the fore¬
going description answers to it when moderately dis¬
tended only; but where it is very much filled, the left
extremity will press upon the diaphragm, and the
right will be carried more posteriorly. In oxen and
sheep, where the first stomach is large, it is found, when
distended, to have its left extremity carried quite into
the left iliac region} in which part it is usually punctu¬
red, when they are hoved : but such an idea of the
stomach of the horse would prove very erroneous } for
( this animal has a very small one, and therefore its situ*
* Blaine s ation can never be such *.
voLii™’ From a distended stomach pressing upon the dia¬
phragm, we are at no loss to understand, why breathing
is impeded after a full meal, when a horse appears to
labour for breath } for he is forced to use the intercostal
muscles, and the muscles of the shoulder and fore ex¬
tremities, to open the chest, the posterior enlargement
being prevented from the diaphragm being fixed by the
pressure ol the stomach} hence we see the great impro¬
priety of galloping horses after watering, to warm it in
their bellies, as it is foolishly termed. Horses, when
grazing, if they drink, are never observed to do this}
if it was necessary, nature would dictate it to them.
How hurtful it is likewise to ride bard, alter a horse
has been fully fed, is equally evinced. The stomach
has externally a covering from the peritoneum, which
adheres closely to it, by means of its cellular portion }
and which portion is dipping in between the muscular
fibres. Its middle portion is made up of muscular fibres,
which are more numerous in this animal, than in the
ruminant 5 making this kind of stomach a medium be¬
tween the membranous one of some animals, and the
true muscular stomach of others. The direction of
these fibres is various} but they may principally be
referred to a longitudinal and a transverse order,
though neither ot them are regularly so, and are inter¬
mixed with others, whose direction is very oblique, and
interlaced with each other. The longitudinal plane is
the most external of the two, and appears a continua¬
tion of the external plane of the oesophagus, with
some original fibres, which spread over the lesser cur¬
vature, being carried obliquely round, and likewise
oyer the great extremity, forming themselves into a
kind of vortex, whose centre is in the middle of that
extremity. The inner plane is by much the larger,
and is not quite circular, but slightly oblique, crossing
the obfiquity of the longitudinal'plane. This circular
plane is very thick and strong round the cardia, or
that extremity into which the oesophagus terminates.
They are here so very thick as to form a true sphinc¬
ter } and to this it is in some measure owing, that a
horse cannot vomit} for when the circular and longi¬
tudinal fibres are acting from the pylorus to the cardia,
by any irritation that reverses the usual motion, pro¬
ducing an effort to vomit, the circular and longitudinal
fibres of the cardia being infinitely stronger and more
numerous, are contracting this orifice (especially the
circular), as the others are contracting the other parts}
for as the muscular fibres exist equally throughout the
stomach, by which the motions are effected, it cannot
be simply from the existence of the circular covering to
Vol VIII. Part II. f
!asons for
s horse’s
't vomit-
I E R Y.
the first portion of his stomach, that he cannot vomit}
for it is reasonable to suppose the fibres act throughout
the stomach by the common consent of parts } nor do
they of actual necessity want an immediate stimulus to
their surfaces ; for were this the case, the fibres of the
oesophagus would not by the presence of the masticated
bolus be stimulated to contract through the cuticular
coat, which equally here lies over the fibres} neverthe¬
less, the cuticular coat of the stomach is probably assist¬
ing in this difficulty to regurgitate: it does it by lessen¬
ing the liability to nausea, which seldom takes place in
the horse} and as vomiting is only an effort to remove
nausea or its cause, so nature not having given the dis¬
ease, has not provided the means for its removal. As
likewise vomiting appears to be a reversing of the peri¬
staltic motion of the stomach } which motion, in its na¬
tural state, begins from the caxdia, and ends at the py¬
lorus ; so in this reversed state, it commences at the
pylorus, and ends at the cardia, thus regurgitating its
contents } so it is very probable that the cuticular co¬
vering may lessen this inverted peristaltic motion in the
upper portion, though it cannot wholly destroy it} and
hence cannot be the only, or the principal reason of the
impossibility, or rather of the difficulty with which this
animal vomits } for instances have occurred where it
has taken place. A horse in Sussex was seen to regur*
gitate a large quantity of grains, and we have heard of
one or two other instances} but these must be regarded
as very rare occurrences.
It is not, therefore, that the stomach of the horse
cannot be irritated to make an attempt to vomit, that
no such effect generally takes place } for though it is
but very seldom that nausea occurs, and perhaps never
in a state of nature, yet it may be excited by means of
aconite, hellebore, and some other substances, which
have caused fruitless efforts to vomit. But the true
and principal reason that ahorse may he said, naturally
not to he able to vomit, arises, in that nature has wise¬
ly so constructed the parts, that the very effort to it
increases the resistance by the very strong sphincter
placed at the mouth of the cardia. Had this resistance
not been placed, and every means taken to increase the
almost impossibility of vomiting in a horse, it is evident
that from the curtain of the palate stopping the open¬
ing of the mouth, this action, had it taken place, would
have occasioned suffocation. The inner coat of the
stomach is composed of two portions, the one cuticular
and the other villous. This species of cuticular cover¬
ing to nearly one half of the stomach, is peculiar to
such animals as appear destined to live on grain, as
horses, asses, rats, and mice ; and this forms a third
species of stomach between the true membranous one of
graminivorous animals, and the muscular of the carni¬
vorous tribes, and it may be considered in a slight de¬
gree, as a species of gizzard, resembling the structure
of those animals, as fowls, who have organs to make up
for the want of teeth. For a horse has not the means
of re-mastication, as in oxen or sheep, nor does he usu¬
ally masticate his food at first sufficiently to comminute
it} for the wants of the constitution stimulate him to a
hasty deglutition of his food, which, if there was not
some other structure than that common to stomachs in
general, would not be sufficiently digested : for the food
is solid, and the stomach small} therefore this cuticular
tmat may be useful, as its insensibility allows it to press
3 K in
441
Anatomy
of the
Horse.
106
442
Anatomy in a small degree upon the food, and perform a slig
of the trituration upon it. This cuticular coat is spread over
Hofse. the first p0rtion of the stomach, taking in all the great
 v   extremity, and forming between a third and half of its
extent. It is formed into folds at the cardia in the
same manner as at the internal part of the oesophagus •,
but as soon as it has passed this orifice, these folds take
an irregular direction, but are less than those formed on
the villous surface.
The villous or sensible portion of the stomach, though
it occupies more ol the length of the stomach, yet per¬
haps in real extent is little more than half ol its surface.
It unites with or is connected to the cuticular. Its ex¬
ternal surface is firm, and appears as it were a distinct
portion, but is only dense cellular substance, which has
given rise to the description of four tunics to the
stomach. The tunica villosa is so called from its re¬
semblance to the pile of velvet j its fine villi are pro¬
bably the extreme fine ends of vessels secreting the gas¬
tric juice. The villous coat being much larger in ex¬
tent than the muscular, is thrown into folds which are
more considerable than those of the cuticular coat.
These are largest at the portion toward the great extre¬
mity, and are irregularly waving: towards the duode¬
num they become less, and when at the pylorus they
form a fold that makes a kind of valve to this part of
the stomach, preventing the return of the food, and its
too speedy passage out. The folds not only hinder the
too speedy passage of the food, but by this means apply
A R R I E R Y. Partll.
length of his intestines, and the slow passage of the all- Anatomy
ments through them by this length and his position. of the
The first portion of the bowels, which answers to the , iloJsc-_
duodenum in man, though in the horse it is nearer 20 icg
inches than 12, is attached to the stomach, having its jr;rst
pyloric orifice ending in it; its course in the horse istion.
rather different from that in the human, and by this it
acquires a more complete covering from the peritoneum.
It hangs loose and pendulous, being attached to the
concave surface of the liver, where making a turn, it
is fixed to the vertebrse : it then takes the name of jV-
junum. It appears rather larger in circumference than
the other small intestines, and is remarkable for having
the pancreatic and biliary ducts penetrating it, some¬
times entering it obliquely close together, and some¬
times at a distance from each other. . r . Ic9
The jejunum and ilium differ very little from the Jejunum,
same bowels in the human species. no
The great intestines are very properly so called in Large in.
the horse j and as they have very little resemblance toteslines*
the human large intestines, they require a particular
description. m
The ccecum is situated in the back part of the belly, c*Cum.
and is a very large canal, which is entered abruptly
by the ilium. The fore part of this canal projects for¬
ward two or three feet, into a sort of bag of the same
size of the colon •, but the back part terminates m
what is called a blind end. The caecum usually occu¬
pies the right side of the belly, and appears imme-
* Blaine's
Outlines.
107
Bowels,
- 1 .  ! tKncck n P ^.
is here more extensive than those of the human ..
The remainder of the alimentary canal is continued
from the lower orifice of the stomach, to the anus, or
end of the passage, forming a long canal of different di¬
mensions, called intestines. They are usually divided
into small and large. In some animals they hardly
merit this distinction, there being but little difference
in point of size : but in the horse, the proportion is very
different •, the small intestines being not much larger
than the human, but the large of an immense bulk.
This canal is connected through its whole extent to
membranous productions of the peritoneum, especially to
those called mesentery and mesocolon. The whole canal
varies in point of length in different subjects j but is
seldom less than 24 yards, and often more. The in¬
testines are contained within a prolongation of the peri¬
toneum, which arises in most instances from the mesen¬
tery : the two folds of this membrane separate and sur¬
round the intestines, forming their external coat. The
next coat is muscular, and formed of two layers of fibres,
a longitudinal and a circular *, the latter are in greater
proportion, and by the contraction of these the vermi¬
cular motion, called peristaltic, is performed, from the
longitudinal fibres slightly shortening them, and the
circular diminishing their size. Within this muscular
coat there is a quantity of cellular membrane rather
more dense than in some other parts •, and this used to
be regarded as a coat, and was called the nervous, but
is only a laver of cellular membrane. The third and
inner coat of the intestines is the villous, which is very
vascular and sensible. There are no considerable folds
of the inner tunic of the intestines, as in the human. In
this animal these are rendered unnecessary by the great
extending forwards to the right side, with its blind
end close to the diaphragm and liver. . This termi¬
nation is not furnished, as in some animals, with an
appendix vermiformis, but terminates by a simple
blind end. Through the peritoneal covering are seen
four muscular longitudinal bands, extending from the
extremity along the muscular coat, and dividing the
gut into four longitudinal portions. One or tv\o of
these are usually covered with fat, and are not so le-
gularly longitudinal as the others. The internal mem¬
brane is folded up between the longitudinal bands, and
by intersecting them forms numerous cavities called the
On the slightest inspection we see a great peculiarity
in the form of the caecum of the horse j and in a more
accurate view, are struck with the importance of the
Structure to this animal, and are led to consider the cae¬
cum as little less than a second stomach. This is in fact
the case-, for the food coming in a macerated mass from
the small intestines, is mixed in the caecum, with the
bile and pancreatic juice, and here undergoes a farther
change, to which the structure of the cascum is evidently
favourable, as it is fitted to retain the mass for a consi¬
derable time within it, and to circulate it through all its
parts. It has two blind ends, one forming its basis, and
near this enters the ilium 5 the other forming its point,
and extending up towards the diaphragm. From one
part of the base the colon commences by a very contract¬
ed portion, for the purpose of preventing the entrance
of the contents of the ilium, till they have passed
through the ctecum. In many animals the caecum is a
very inconsiderable part -, in some it has one or more
appendicles y in others it is almost entirely wanting^
112
Mob.
Part II. FARR
Anatomy and in all but the horse its use is obscure, and apparent-
of the" ly not very important; but in the horse it is certainly
Horse, i^tle Jess than a second stomach, for its whole structure
~ » proves, that it is purposely designed that all the food
taken in shall be poured into the base of this gut, by
the contraction of which it shall be forced towards the
apex, and either in its passage or return shall be de¬
tained in the cells to be in some way farther acted up¬
on, and to undergo some change necessary to the sys¬
tem. Having undergone this change, whatever it is,
it is forced into the colon.
The colon commences small from the side of the base
of the caecum *, and as the ilium cannot be said to enter
it together with the caecum, as in some animals, there is
in the horse no such part as the valve of the colon pro¬
perly so called. The ilium has, however, a sort of pro¬
trusion with its inner membrane, by which in some mea¬
sure it prevents the return of the contents of the cae¬
cum. As the colon passes, it is farther contracted,
and then enlarges into a very long and large canal,
which, after having made nearly the whole circumfer¬
ence of the belly, is again slightly contracted. It then
again enlarges, passes again round the belly, and is a
third time contracted, just where it ends in the rectum
or straight gut. The small intestines rest on the turns
of the colon and on the CEecum. The colon is furnish¬
ed with four ligamentous bands in its large portion, but
there are only two in the small portions j these form
longitudinal frasna, which are intersected again by in*
ternal folds, so as to form the cells of the colon. It is
connected and supported in its situation by that portion
of the mesentery termed mesocolon. This intestine is
very different in the horse to what it is in most other
animals in consequence of its variations in size, being in
most other instances of one general size ; it is likewise
this gut and the caecum that are the principal seat of the
inflammation arising from violent purging medicines,
lectam. The rectum is the continuation of the colon, and
passes backwards from the lumbar vertebrEe to the anus.
Its muscular coat is thicker than that of the other in¬
testines, and it is thrown internally into cavities by the
inner membrane, in some manner similar to the cells of
the colon, though less j were it not for this, the intestines
might be too constantly stimulated to expel its contents,
but by this means the feces are received and retained
till they are collected in a considerable quantity, when
they are expelled. The rectum is attached to the spine
and sacrum by the peritoneum, is here called mesoretf-
tum 5 but the true fold of peritoneum does not invest
its whole portion, but leaves it as it approaches the rec¬
tum, which is at this place only covered with the cel¬
lular part of it. The mesentery bands of the rectum arje
very strong, and terminate at the anus in a kind of li¬
gamentary expansion attached to the os cocajgis.
The anus is the termination of the rectum, and 4s
opened by the force of the peristaltic motion and the con¬
sent of the parts, and shut by the muscular band i*oufld
the extremity of the gut, called the sphincter. It is
likewise elevated and rbtracted by two pair of muscles.
Chap. IV. 0/ the Foot.
In our account of the anatomy of. the horse’s foot, it
will be necessary to describe only one foot, as those be¬
longing to both extremities are similar in structure.
1 E R Y. 443
t The bones which compose the foot of the horse are Anatomy
six in number, considering the foot as commencing at of the
the letlock joint. Of these six bones two are included Horst,
within the hoof, viz. the coffin-bone, and the navicular- '
bone ; and four are situated above the hoof, viz. the flonel
large pastern-bone, the small pastern-bone, and the two
sesamoid bones.
We shall begin from above, with the large pastern-
bone, as this contributes to form what is called the large
pastern joint. ,,.
The large pastern-bone, (i, fig. 13, 14, and 15.) is Large pa--
of an oblong cylindrical form, and, as is the case u ith tern-bones,
all such bones, is smaller in the middle than at either
extremity. It articulates above with the lower head of
the canon-bone, and below with the upper head of the
small pastern-bone. At its upper extremity there are
three depressions, one on each side, large and superficial
(a, c, fig. 13.) to receive the outer and inner convexi¬
ty of the lower head of the canon-bone, and one in the
middle, h, for receiving the middle narrow convexity of
the same bone. The fore part of this bone is slightly
rounded, and rough towards its upper extremity, as at
cl, d, for the firmer attachment of ligaments. Behind, at
its back part, it is flatter j and here there is a rough de¬
pression (C, fig. 14.) also lor the attachment of a liga¬
ment that is deep seated, and is fixed to the two sesa¬
moid bones. At the lower extremity the large pastern-
bone is convex on each side (D, E, fig. 14.) for enter¬
ing into two concavities of the small pastern-bone ; and
there is a depression (/, fig. 13.) for the attachment of
a tendon. At the lower extremity there is also a.rough-
ness on each side at ee, for the insertion of ligaments.
Both extremities are covered with very smooth plastic
gristle, which is kept constantly moist by the synovia
or joint oil. ,■ ' •
At the upper end of the large pastern-bone, towards Sesamoid
the back part, are placed the two sesamoid bones, A A bones.
(fig. 14.). ’Ihese are of an irregular wedge-like form,
and are covered with cartilage, articulating both with
the canon-bone, and on the back part they are very
smooth to admit of a tendon readily sliding over then:.
The upper edges of these bones on each side have a
rough irregular surface, into which is inserted a strong-
ligament that comes from the upper and back parts of
the canon-bone, is fastened separately to each of the
sesamoid bones, irom which it proceeds downwards and
obliquely forward to be inserted into the tendon of the
large extensor muscles, (see a a a, fig. 16.) a little be¬
low the large pastern-joint. These sesamoid bones are
of considerable use in the mechanism of the large
pastern-joint. “ In consequence of their forming the
back part of the large pastern-joint, and articulating
with the lower and posterior part of the canon, they
contribute very essentially, by always receding when¬
ever the foot comes in contact with the ground, to act
- as a spring to the animal, and to prevent concussion.
All the weight received by the upper head of the large
pastern-bone is conveyed to bones below; but a con- *
siderable portion of the burfen is received by the sesa* >
moid bones. While the animal is at rest, and also dur¬
ing motion, these bones sustain part of the weight; aqd
where the pastern-bones are long and oblique, the sesa- ^
moids often receive so much of the weight as to put the Qn
ligaments violently on the stretch, aild occasion lame- Horse's
ness*.” ’ .. Foo#, vol. ii.
3 K 2 The
444-
Anatomy
of tlie
Horse.
Small pas-
11$
Navicular-
bone.
FARR
’flte small pastern-bone (2, fig. I3j I4> is ab°l]t
half the length of the large one, and is as broad as it is
long. Besides the two concave depressions, (A, /«, fig.
13.) mentioned before, there is a ridge between them, 1,
that enters a correspondent depression, g', in the lower
tern-bone, head of the large pastern-bone. The small pastern-
hone has at the hack and upper part (F, hg. 14.) a
small projection, for the insertion of a long ligament,
that comes from the sesamoid bones. The lower arti¬
culating surface is more extensive than the upper, as it
is connected with the upper surface of two considerable
bones, viz. the navicular and coffin-bone. . It is of
great consequence to understand the mechanism of the
joints that are formed by this connection, as it is on
this part that the principal stress of the animal falls.
The union of the small pastern-bone with the navicular
and coffin-hones, forming what is called the coffm-jomt,
is one of the principal methods provided by nature to
prevent concussion. .
The navicular-bone (3, fig. 13* I4> I5v 13 connec^*
cd above with the back part of the small pastern-bone,
and the lower edge of this bone is attached by a laige
ligament to the back part of the. coffin-bone. The na¬
vicular-hone is slightly concave, to receive the back
part of the lower head of the small pastern-bone, i he
upper edo-e of the navicular-bone behind is rough (5-,
fW. 14.) and thick, for the attachment of the upper liga¬
ment-, and the lower edge of the navicular-bone receives
at the back part a strong flat ligament from the coffin-
bone, immediately above the insertion of the flexor ten¬
don. The lower surface of the nayicular-bone is cover¬
ed by cartilage, and has a small ridge in its centre, (/,
fia. 13.) to he received into a corresponding depression
in^the long flexor-tendon. This bone may be consider¬
ed as forming two distinct joints, one of which is com¬
posed by the connection of one part of the bone with
the tendon of the flexor-muscle, and the other is form¬
ed by the connection of another surface of the navicu-
lar-bone. . , , ,
The whole weight of the animal, supported by the
small pastern-bone, is thrown upon the coffin and navi¬
cular bones. Of this weight the coffin-bone receives
the greater share but the navicular-bone receives a
considerable portion of it, though this bone does not
contribute to prevent concussion so much as Mr Freeman
has endeavoured to prove. The navicular-bone, when
the hoof touches the ground, descends, a little, and thus
prevents that concussion which the horse’s body would
have received if this bone had been immoveably fixed 5
and when the hoof is again raised from the ground, the
elasticity of the parts below the navicular-bone lifts up
this bone into its former position, thus acting as a spring
in facilitating the motion of the animal. As .
weight supported by the navicular-bone of the hind
feet is less than that supported bythe same bone of the
fore feet, their descent in the former is less than in the
latter. The organs connected with the navicular-bone
of the hind feet are also less subject to disease.
The coffin-bone (4, fig. 13* I5-) is so named
from its being concealed, or as it were buried within the
hoof It is also sometimes called the foot-bone. On
its fore part it is rounded, having very nearly the shape
of the external hoof. Its upper surface is slightly hol¬
lowed 0,m,fig. IS-) to receive the lower end of the
small pastern-hone, with the fore part of which it arti-
130
Tip
Cuffin-lionr.
I E R Y. Piirtll.,
dilates, as it does behind with the fore edge of ihe na- Anatomy
vicular-bone. At the back part the coffin bone ends jjAhe
in two processes on each side, the upper of which , or!e*
are tipped with cartilage. At the upper part of the
front of the coffin-bone there is a small protuberance,
(u?, fiff. 13O extending upwards above the joint, and
serving for the insertion of the tendon of the mus¬
cles that extend the foot. Below this the coffin-bone
is extremely porous, for the passage of nerves and
blood-vessels 5 and towards the lower part in particular
there are about 13 boles, for the transmission 01 con¬
siderable arteries, which go to supply the sensible sole.
At the heels and quarters the coffin-bone, is still more
porous, and is supplied with a greater number of ai-
teries, but these are proportionally smaller. The low¬
er surface of the heels of this bone is also very porous,
where it unites with the sensible sole, but the rest of the
lower surface is generally smooth. There are heie two
hollow surfaces, which receive two corresponding
rounded parts of the sensible sole. They are unequal,
the foremost being the larger. Into the hollow on the
back part, the tendon of the flexor-muscle is inserted.
(A, fig. 16.). t —
There are seven ligaments belonging to the cofiin- Ligaments.!
joint, of which there are three pairs, and one single.
The first pair of ligaments take their origin from the
heels of the coffin-bone on each side, and pass obliquely
upwards as high as the middle, to which they are at¬
tached, and at which part ot the small pastern-bone
(B, fig. 16.) they are blended with the fibres ol the la¬
teral ligaments of the small pastern-joint. The second
pair of ligaments bn each side arise from the edge of
the coffin-bone, near the heels, and pass obliquely for¬
ward to be inserted into the middle of the small pastern-
bone (C, fig. 16.) near the attachment of the extensor-
tendon. The third pair take their origin from the
lateral edges of the anterior process of the coffin-bone,
and are inserted into the edges of the cartilages. Ih^
use of these ligaments is to unite the cartilages more
firmly to the coffin-bone. The extensor-tendon being
inserted into the upper edge ot the anterior process of
the coffin-bone, prevents the necessity of a ligament
at this part. The single ligament ot the coffin-bone is
connected with the posterior and interior concave sur¬
face of the coffin-bone, immediately above the insertion
of the flexor-tendon, and also with the lower edge ot
the navicular-bone. Besides this ligament there is ano¬
ther attached to the whole of the upper and back part
of the navicular-bone, by which means that bone is en¬
abled to support a greater share of the weight that rests
upon it. By means of these ligaments this important
joint is rendered very strong, while by the elasticity
of the cartilages, and the constant supply ot lubricating
fluid within the joint, all the motions of the animal are
rendered safe and easy.
The small pastern-joint is also well securea by means
of ligaments, and by the sheath of the flexor-tendon.
There are also ligaments proceeding from the sesamoid
bones, which enter the sheath of the flexor-tendon, and
are attached to the small pastern-joint a, a, fig. 16.).
“ The weight which the sesamoid bones, by means
of ligaments sustain, is very different in different horses;
and bears no proportion to the bulk and weight of the
animal. The pastern-joints of large horses destined tor
slow motion, are constructed very differently from those
-• 1 ^
Part II.
Anatomy of blood horses. Their pastern bones are short, and the
of the joints nearly straight j but thorough-bred horses of
IIorsc‘ . light weight have long and very oblique pastern joints ;
T and, as in proportion to the obliquity of the large
pastern, or fetlock joint, the canon conveys more of the
weight to the sesamoid bones, the ligaments that sup¬
port the se'samoids are necessarily put into motion, and
more on the stretch, as the weight presses down the
lower and back part of the canon on the sesamoid
bones. Short pastern joints are as much adapted to the
frame of heavy horses as longer joints are to that of
lighter horses. The ligaments that support the sesa-
moids above also contribute to assist the flexor muscles
and tendons in preserving when at rest, and in motion,
* Coleman ^]]e large pastern joint in its proper place*.”
Hone's Before we proceed in describing the structure of the
Foot, vol.ii. ^ be proper to shew how the hoof is formed,
m and how it is connected with the parts within.
Structure The hoof of the horse forms a sort of organized shoe,
i the hoot. vv[,;c1j [s adapted to the foot with the greatest nicety j
so that every part of the cavity is completely filled,
without the foot’s being subjected to any unequal pres¬
sure.
A correct knowledge of the natural form and struc¬
ture of this part of the horse’s foot, and of the deformi¬
ties produced in it by improper treatment, is of the ut¬
most importance ■, as on this must depend the most ad¬
vantageous method of shoeing, and the only rational
means of correcting the unnatural deviations. It will
be obvious, that in order to form a just idea of the ori¬
ginal shape of the hoof, we must examine it before any
shoe has been applied to it $ for, unless this shoe has
been so constructed and fitted to the foot, as to preserve
unaltered the original form of the hoof, this will be so
changed, that we cannot recognise from it what was
the original shape. That the methods of shoeing usual¬
ly employed are calculated rather to deform the hoof,
than to preserve its original figure, will appear pre¬
sently.
A vertical section of the hoof shows it to be nearly
conical j the broadest part of the cone being next the
ground. This inferior surface, in a hoof that has not
been shod, especially in the fore foot, appears nearly
circular ; or the diameter, from side to side, is nearly
equal to the diameter from toe to heel, (see fig. 17.).
The hoof is composed of a horny substance that is
entirely without sensation. It is divided into crust,
m sole, frog, and bars.
rust. The crust surrounds the foot on the fore part, and
on the sides, like a wall (A, A, fig. 17). It grows
obliquely downwards from the coronet, and becomes
broader as it approaches the ground. It is thicker at
the toe than at the quarter j and the outer quarter is
thicker than the inner. On the outside it is smooth and
rounded, but within hollow and laminated (B, B, fig.
15.) to unite with the coffin-bone. The crust is the
only part into which nails can with safety be driven in
123 shoeing.
onty sole. The horny sole (B B, fig. 17.) unites with the lower
part of the crust, and is situated below the coffin-bone ;
but between it and the coffin-bone, there is a vascular
substance, to be presently described, called the sensible
sole, from the blood-vessels of which the horny sole is
formed. On the outside next the ground, the horny sole
is hollow, but rounded within next the coffin-bone. The
445
horny sole protects the sensible sole from injury, and in Anatomy
the horse’s motions it embraces the ground, acting as a ot the
stop. When the laminated substances of the hoof length-, ^orse*
en, the horny sole descends, and thus assists in prevent¬
ing concussion.
I he bars, or binders (CC, fig. 17.) are two horny Bar*,
substances placed between the sole and the frog, and
forming at the heels a close solid union with the crust.
The small part of the bars called the toe, sometimes
reaches almost as far as the toe of the frog. Within
the frog, the bars are laminated like the inner part of
the crust, and are closely united to the horny sole. The
Lars on the outside keep the horse’s foot extended, and
within, they tend to prevent the separation of the sen¬
sible sole from the horny sole. In the natural state of
the hoof, there is a considerable cavity between the bars
and the frog on each side.
The frog (DD, fig. 17.) is that hard rounded pro-Frog.23
tuberance, which we observe in the middle of the lower
part of the hoof, pointed towards the toes, and expand¬
ed towards the heel like a wedge. In the middle of
this broad part, there is a fissure (E, fig. 17). The ex¬
ternal frog is united within the hoof to a narrow sub¬
stance of a similar shape, but of a more elastic structure,
and possessing sensation, and therefore called the sensible
frog. 'Ibis substance is connected above with the
navicular hone, towards the back part 3 and at the ex¬
tremity of the heels, it is united with cartilages on each
side. The toe of the sensible frog is united to the ccf-
fin-bone, but by far the greater part is behind this bone.
The back part of the frogs being united with elastic
and moveable substances, admit of considerable motion,
the frog rising when the hoof touches the ground, and
descending when the foot is raised. By the ascent of
the frog, the heels are prevented from contracting, and
the cartilages are expanded, so as to afford the horse a
considerable spring, whilst the form of this part fits it
for embracing the ground, and thus prevents the
horse from slipping. The convex form of the frog clear¬
ly shows that it was always intended to touch the ground,
and experience has fully proved, that, unless this con¬
tact takes place, the healthy state of this organ cannot
he preserved. It has been supposed that the frog is in¬
tended to defend the principal tendon or back sinew,5
but Mr Coleman has shown that this is a mistake. 1„6
The weight ot the horse is chiefly supported by the Weight of
crust, and not by the sole or frog ; for when these parts the horse
have been removed, or by being diseased, become soft,10t SUP*
and fungous, and thus incapable of resistance, it is found
that the crust is still competent to bear the whole of the ^
weight. If the sole and frog really supported the
weight, it is evident that when these parts are removed
or diseased, the foot would slip through the crust. ,
The union of the sensible frog with the horny frog, Importance
and the connection thus formed between the sides of of the.frog’s
the sensible frog and the lower cartilages, effectually receiT1,,&
prevents dislocation. When the horny frog touches the l,ressoie*
ground, both that and the sensible frog ascend 3 but
when by any means the horny frog is prevented from
pressing on the ground, its proper functions are suspend¬
ed. The cartilages partake of the motion of the frog ;
and, in proportion as this receives pressure, they recede
from each other, and allow the sensible frog to ascend
between them. But when the cartilages are rendered
immoveable by becoming bony, or by contraction of
the
FARKIERY.
446
Anatomy
of the
Horse.
123
Sensible
sole.
129
Coronary
ligament.
FARRIERY.
the foot, the sensible frog is much confined in its mo¬
tion. By this immobility of the cartilages, the horse
is deprived of a powerful spring. When the frog does
not press on the ground, and consequently the carti¬
lages are deprived of motion, the moisture of the crust
evaporates ; and hence the quarters and heels of the
hoof become contracted much more than the fore part
of the crust, and this contraction is increased by the
frog not being allowed to rise between the cartilages.
Thus, the natural circular shape of the hoof is destroy¬
ed by the frog not receiving pressure.
Fig. 18. represents the lower part of a horse’s hoof,
as it^is usually lengthened or contracted by improper
shoeing. _ . .
We have not yet described the sensible sole. ^ llus is
situated between the horny sole and the coffin-bone,
and is united to the lower cartilages immediately be¬
hind the latter (CC, fig. 15.). Its lower edge is firm¬
ly connected with the sensible laminse, at the lower
edge of the coffin-bone 5 but at the extremity of the
heels, the laminse are continued for about an inch,
for min o' what are called the sensible bars. The sensible
sole is well supplied with blood-vessels, but when these
are emptied, it appears of a ligamentous texture. From
the vessels of this part, the horny matter of the horny
sole and bars is formed and renewed.
The only other part of the foot that we shall describe,
is an important ligament, which surrounds the junction
of the coffin-bone with the hoof, and is called the co-
ronai'y ligament} (DD, fig. 16.). This ligament is at¬
tached at its upper part, to the anterior protuberance of
the coffin-bone, and to the lateral cartilages j and ex¬
tends a little above the coffin-joint, being united on its
outside to the skin. Below it is united to the sensible
laminae, at their origin. On its outside it is convert,
and is received into a correspondent hollow in the Crust,
called the coronary ring. It is ultimately inserted into
the heels of the sensible frog. The uses of this liga¬
ment are very important. By its union with the sen¬
sible laminae, lateral cartilages, sensible frog, and cof¬
fin-bone, it assists the action of all these parts, increasing
their strength and connection j and in particular, pre¬
serves the proper^situation of the cartilages, and pre¬
vents their being dislocated, to which they would other¬
wise be liable, by being separated by the rising of the
sensible frog between them, when the horny frog touches
the ground. .
We have thus described the structure and functions of
the foot and hoof, as far as appeared to us to be absolute¬
ly necessary for understanding the principlfes and prac¬
tice of shoeing. The names, insertions, and uses of the
muscles of the foot, have been already concisely given
in.the table of the muscles of the extremities (see page
437.). The blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents are
well described, and most beautifully figured in Mr
• ColematfV elegant work on the structure, economy,
Part II
and diseases of the foot of the horsey to which, and to Anatomyj
Mr Freeman’s work on the same subject, we refer such of the
of our readers as wish for a complete and accurate ac-, Iiors^
count of that curious and important piece of median- ^
ism, the foot of the horse.
We shall conclude this chapter with a summary reca¬
pitulation of the more important circumstances that
have been mentioned, as we shall immediately apply
them in describing the most approved method of shoe¬
ing 5 and they will be the better understood, and the
more easily remembered, by being brought together in
a comprehensive point ot view. It appears then, 130
“ That the natural form of the hoof of the fore feetRecapitiu
of horses, before any art has been employed, approaches tion.
to a circle } and,
“ That the internal cavity of the hoof, when cir¬
cular, is completely filled by the sensible parts of the
foot.
“ That the hoof is composed of horny insensible
fibres, that take the names of crust, sole, bars, and frog.
“ That the crust is united with the last bone of the
foot, by a number of laminated elastic substances.
“ That the uses of the lamina; are to support the
weight of the animal, and from their elasticity to pre¬
vent concussion.
“ That the horny sole is internally concave, inter¬
nally convex, and united by its edge with the inferior
part of the crust.
“ That the uses of the horny sole are to act as a
spring, by descending at the heels ; to preserve the sen¬
sible sole from pressure, and (with its concavity) to form
a convexity of the earth.
“ That the external bars are nothing more than a
continuation of the crust, forming angles at the heels.
“ That the internal bars are a continuation of the
laminse of the crust, attached to the horny sole at the
■ heels within the hoof; and that these insensible laminae
are intimately united with sensible laminated bars, con¬
nected with the sensible sole.
** That the use of the external bars, is to preserve
the heels expanded; and the use of the internal horny
bars, to prevent separation and dislocation of the horny
sole frbm the sensible sole.
« That the external frog is convex, and of an in¬
sensible horny elastic nature..
“That the internal sensible frog is of the same
form, very highly elastic, and united with two elastic
cartilages. k _ .
“ That the frogs are not made to protect the ten¬
don, as Mr St. Bel and other writers have sup¬
posed.
“ That the use of the frog is to prevent the horse ^
from slipping, by its convexity embracing the ground ;on^
and from the elasticity of the sensible and horny frogs
thev act as a spring to the animal, and keep expanded foot,rol
the heels*”
PAflT
FARRIERY.
Chap. I. Of Shoeing,
J31 THE principles anti practice of shoeing are usually
explained at the end of treatises on the veterinary art,
immediately after describing the usual surgical opera¬
tions. We think it better, however, to treat on the
subject of shoeing in this part of our article, immediate¬
ly after having described the anatomy of the horse’s
foot *, the necessity of understanding which has been
fully explained in the last chapter.
I32 It is very uncertain at what period mankind first be¬
gan to shoe their horses with iron ; but it is probable
that this practice commenced as soon as they were suf¬
ficiently civilized, to have such roads as were composed
of solid, hard materials, fitted for the purposes of con¬
stant traffic. In many countries where such kind of
roads are not required, as in the deserts of Arabia, and
in many eastern countries, we know that to this day the
horses are not shod ; and we have been assured, that
some years ago, when the roads in most of the United
Provinces of America were not so hard as they are at
present, horses were shod only on the fore-feet (d).
ANIMALS.
We shall first briefly describe the mode of shoeing
commonly practised by the smiths of this country, and
shall then give a short account of the most important
improvements that have been made in the art, from the
time of Lafosse to the present method employed at the
veterinary college. ^
In the common mode of shoeing, the bars are totally Common
cut away, and the frog is considerably pared down, bymeLl!0<1 of
means of a cutting instrument called a butteris. The sIloeinS'
reason assigned for cutting away the bars, or opening
the heels, as it is called, is, that the heels may not con¬
tract, and that the shoe may not press upon the sole,
and occasion corns. The hoof being thus prepared, the
shoe is to be applied. The common form of this shoe
is nearly elliptical, being broader at the fore part, and
growing narrower towards the heels, where it is thick¬
er than at the toe. It is convex on its outer surface
where it is to touch the ground, and concave on its in¬
ner part, which is applied next the hoof. It is fasten¬
ed to the hoof by means of eight nails, four in each
quarter $ and the heads of these nails are nearly cubi¬
cal, standing out a little beyond the shoe. This shoe
is commonly applied nearly red hot, in order, as we
suppose,
Part III.
Operations.
447
PART III. OF THE OPERATIONS USUALLY PERFORMED ON
DOMESTIC
Operations.
——y——»
(D) Attempts have been made to prove that the ancients understood the use of iron shoes, and passages have
been quoted both from Greek and Roman writers to support this assertion. But we think that the learned Beck¬
mann has fully demonstrated the fallacy of this opinion, and has shown, that although leathern shoes were some¬
times employed on the feet of horses and other beasts of burden, the use of iron horse-shoes was entirely unknown
both to the Greeks and Romans. Indeed, if such shoes were in use among them, the ancient authors who have
treated on horsemanship, husbandry, and tlie veterinary art, as Xenophon, Julius Pollux, Columella, and Vege-
tius, could not possibly have omitted to notice them. It cannot be supposed that these writers would have been
silent with respect to the shoeing of horses, when they treat so particularly of the breeding and rearing of these
animals, and prescribe remedies for the accidents and diseases to which they are subject.
Beckmann is of opinion that iron horse-shoes were used in Europe as early as the ninth century, for in the works
of the emperor Leo, who lived about that period, they are expressly mentioned by the name of <r^ngx.
The emperor also speaks of horse-shoe nails by the appellation of and mentions that a certain number of
pounds of iron should be given out from the imperial stores to make cnXtyxtx, and other horse furniture. The an¬
tiquity of horse-shoes is also confirmed by their being spoken of in the writings of Italian, French, and English
authors of the same century. “ When Boniface marquis of Tuscany, one of the richest princes of his time, went
to meet Beatrix, his bride, mother of the well-known Matilda, about the year 1038, his whole train were so mag¬
nificently decorated, that his horses were not shod with iron, but with silver. The nails were even of the same
metal; and when any of them dropped out, they belonged to those who found them. The marquis seems to have
imitated Nero ; but this anecdote may be only a fiction. It is related by a cotemporary writer, but unfortunate¬
ly, his account is in verse ; and the author, perhaps, sensible of his inability to make his subject sufficiently interest-
ing by poetical ornaments, availed himself of the licence claimed by poets to relate something singular and un¬
common. However tins may be, it is certain that the shoes of the horses must have been fastened on with nails,
otherwise the author could not have mentioned them.
“ Daniel the historian, seems to give us to understand, that in the ninth centuiy, horses were not shod always,
hut only in the time of frost, and on other particular occasions. The practice of shoeing appears to have been
introduced into England by William the Conqueror. WTe are informed that this sovereign gave the city of Nor- -
thampton as a fief, to a certain person, in consideration of iiis paying a stated sum yearly for the shoeing of horses }
and it is believed that Henry de Ferrers, or de Ferriers, who came over with William, and whose descendants
still bear in their arms six horse-shoes, received that surname, because he was entrusted with the inspection of ■
the farriers. We may here observe, that horse-shoes have been found with other riding furniture, in the graves
of some of the old Germans and Vandals in the northern countries ; but the antiquity of them cannot be ascer¬
tained.” Beckmann on Inventions, vol. ii.
4+8
Operations,
134
Defects of
the com¬
mon mode.
US
Lafosse’s
method.
136
Osmer’s
method.
137
Lord Pem¬
broke’s me¬
thod.
FARR
suppose, to adapt it better, and make it fit closer to the
hoof. ,
The consequences of this method of shoeing must be,
I. That the function of the bars, whatever it may be,
(and we have shewn that they are intended to prevent
contraction ot the feet), must be destioyed. 2. That
cutting away the frog, exposes this part to injury, and
is productive of many diseases. 3. That the heels of
the shoe being higher than the toe, will prevent the
frogs from embracing the ground, for which we have
shewn they were naturally intended. 4. That by
making the shoe concave at the quarters, and placing
the nails near the heels, the growth of the crust in these
parts is impeded, and thus the foot is contracted, and
its proper shape destroyed. 5. That by fastening the
shoe near the insensible frog at the heels, the proper
action of the frogs and sole, as aspring to assist the mo¬
tions of the animal, is destroyed. 6. That by putting
on the shoe hot, the moisture of the crusts is dried up,
and thus the contraction ol the foot is still further in¬
creased 5 and, 7. That by making the shoes rounded
next the ground, the sure footing of the horse is greatly
lessened, much to the danger of his rider.
The first modern writer who attempted to reform the
common -mode ot shoeing, appears to have been .La-
fosse. It is true that an excellent mode of shoeing was
recommended about 300 years ago by Csesar Fiaschi, an
Italian writer on horsemanship *, but his plan never came
into general use, and Lafosse appears to have all the
merit of the improvement, as it is more than probable
that he had never seen Fiaschi’s work. The shoe re¬
commended by Lafosse was what he called the holj-
moon-shoe, being nearly semicircular, and reaching little
further than to the middle of the loot •, the nails being
placed round the toe. Lafosse’s shoe was never very
generally employed in this country, even though the
improvement was rendered familiar by Bracken and
Bartlet, who, as we have said, translated Lafosse’s
treatise into English. It has been considered as useful
in some cases of diseased feet, and for strong feet which
have begun to contract, or appear likely to do so, pro¬
vided such horses are not employed on very hard, rough
roads; but it is by no means applicable to the majority
of our horses. Its principal disadvantages appear to he,
that the heels wear too fast, and that in running, horses
are apt to slip with it.
Mr William Osmer, whose work on shoeing we have
mentioned in N° 65. improved considerably on the shoe
of Lafosse. He forbade the frogs and bars to be cut
away, except when they were ragged. He, however,
remarks, that the feet of all horses should be pared ac¬
cording to their length •, the crust being made perfectly
smooth by paring or rasping. His shoe was everywhere
of an equal thickness, rathpr narrower behind than be¬
fore, of a fiat surface next the ground, and bevilled
away from about the middle of its breadth inwards,
leaving a fiat surface for the crust to rest on.
The next improver of shoes was Lord Pembroke,
though Mr Blaine most unaccountably places him after
Mr Clark. Lord Pembroke’s remarks on shoeing are
exceedingly ingenious. He observed that the weight
of shoes must, in a great measure, depend on the qua¬
lity and hardness of the iron. If the iron be very good
it will not bend, and in this case the shoes cannot pos¬
sibly he too light j care, however, must be taken, that
I E It Y. Part M
they be made of a thickness so as not to bend, for Oprratioi:
bending would tear out the nails, and ruin the hoof,
That part of the shoe which is next the horse’s heel,
must he narrower than anywhere else, that stones may
be thereby prevented from getting under it, and stick¬
ing there, which otherwise would he the case, because
the iron when it advances inwardly beyond the bearing
of the foot, makes a cavity, wherein stones being
lodged, would remain, and by pressing against the foot,
lame the horse. The part of the shoe which the horse
walks upon, should be quite flat, and the inside of it
likewise } and only just room enough should be left next
the foot, to put in a picker, (which ought to be used
every time the horse comes into the stable, and often on
marches), and also to prevent the shoe’s pressing upon
the sole. Three, or at most four nails of a side, hold
better than a greater number, and keep the hoof in a
far better state. He advises that the toe of the horse
he cut square and short, and that no nails be placed in
that part. Bv these means narrow heels are prevented,
and many good effects produced. His lordship advised
the hinder Yeet to be shod in the same manner as the
fore feet, except in hilly and slippery countries, where
the shoes on the hinder feet may be a little turned up
behind.
The utmost severity, (says Lord Pembroke), ought
to he inflicted on all those who clap shoes on hot. This
unpardonable laziness of farriers in making feet fit shoes,
instead of making shoes fitting feet, dries up the hoofs
and utterly destroys them. Frequent removals of shoes
are detrimental, and tear the foot, but sometimes they
are very necessary. This is an inconvenience which
half shoes are liable to (though excellent in several
other respects), for the end of the shoe being very short,
is apt to get soon into the foot, and consequently then
must be moved. ,
The shoe recommended by Mr Clark did not differ
very much from that of Osmer. He does not, how¬
ever recommend the hollowing of the surface of the
shoe next the foot. Mr Clark recommended that the
hoof and frog should not be pared or cut away without
necessity, and was much against raising the heels with
calkins •, to the use of which he preferred that of an ice
nail. He, however, admits, that sharp calkins may be _
necessary in hilly countries. vr /liodo
The shoe originally used at the veterinary college by^ J
the first professor, was very similar to that of Osmer col.
hot when Mr Coleman succeeded to the professoisliip,iege.
he adopted the half-moon shoe introduced by Lafosse.
This was, however, soon given up, as experience shew¬
ed that it was not adapted to the generality of horses in
this country. 'Within these few years, a method ot
shoeing has been introduced by Mr Coleman, which
appears in most instances preferable to any former me¬
thod. We shall therefore consider it pretty much at
large. . . ,
Mr Coleman has laid down two general principles,
by which the practice of shoeing for all horses, in every
country, must be invariably followed. “ So long as
nails and iron are employed to protect the hoof, the
crust is the part that should receive the nails, and the
pressure of the shoe ; and the sole of every horse em¬
ployed for every purpose, is a part that should not be
in contact with the shoe.” These are Mr Coleman’s
general rules, and to these it must be added, that the
6 frog
140
Part IIL , F A R E I E R Y.
Operations, frog should, in almost every case, be allowed to come
v—v—' in contact with the ground, where this is practicable
whenever the horse sets down his foot.
Two general circumstances are to be observed in
44p
shoeing ; the cutting of the hoof, and the application
of the shoe. Some parts of the hoof require to be re¬
moved, before tbe shoe can be applied; while others
must be carefully preserved. These circumstances are
at least of as much consequence as the form of the shoe,
but are not in general so fully attended to.
In Mr Coleman’s method of shoeing, he first recom¬
mends that a part of the horny sole between the whole
length of the bars and crust, be pared away with a
drawing knife, as the heels of the sole cannot receive
tiie pressure of tbe shoe, without corns being produced.
The sole must therefore be laid hollow, that it may
not come in contact with tbe shoe. This be considers
of the greatest consequence. Tbe heels of the shoe
must be made to rest on that part of the hoof where
the bars unite with the crust. See fig. 19. If the heels
have been previously lowered by means of the bntteris,
there may perhaps not be left sufficient sole to admit of
the application of the drawing knife, without penetra¬
ting to the sensible sole ; so that it is better, first to cut
the sole, as it may then be easily determined how far
the heels may be lowered, and the toe shortened, with
propriety. When the hoof is cut in this way, the sole
readily descends when the hoof touches the ground,
without being obstructed by the shoe ; and stones, or
other foreign bodies that have gotten between the shoe
and the hoof, are thus readily pushed out. It is found
by experience, that the sole never sufiers from stones
and gravel, when there is sufficient space left between
the bars and the crust. 1 he cavity between the sole
and shoe should also be left sufficiently wide after
the shoe is applied, to admit of the introduction of a
large horse picker, especially between the bars and
the crust. II the sole should be naturally concave, a
shoe that has a flat surface next the hoof will not touch
any part of the sole when applied to the crust; and
even should the sole be flat, or rounded in the middle
or towards the toe, yet the quarters and heels mav
generally be made sufficiently hollow by the drawing
knife, to avoid pressure on a flat shoe.
If it is found that a shoe with its upper surface fiat,
does not leave a space large enough to admit the picker
between it and the sole, it is necessary to make either
the sole or the shoe a little hollow. Sometimes the
sole appears ragged and in flakes, and of considerable
thickness. It is then proper to make the whole of the
sole hollow with the drawing knife, before attempting
to lower the heels or shorten the toe. When the sole
is made hollow, the shoe will rest only on the crust ;
hut if we cannot hollow the sole, we must, to prevent
pressure, make the upper surface of the shoe hollow.
As the hoof is always growing, and is preserved from
friction by the shoe, it is necessary to pare the toe of
the crust about once in every month. Tbe more vve
can remove from the toe of the crust, in hoofs that are
not well shaped, the sooner we shall be able to apply a
shoe of the proper form and thickness.
^a:1^ ,l I he bars and frog should never he removed.
“■ cut°'t0 ^jiere there are ragged and detached parts of the frog,
it is better that they should be cut with any small knife,
by the groom, than by the farrier; for if the latter is
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
m
141
once allowed to touch the frog, the sound parts areo^rat.ons"
generally destroyed. Where the frogs are not large —v~—■>
and projecting, and the heels are higher than the frogs,
then it is adviseable to lower the heels, which may be
done by a rasp, or the butteris ; for in every case we
are to endeavour to bring the frog in contact with the
ground. We should never lose sight of this principle,
that the frog must have pressure, or he diseased. If"
the frog does not touch the ground, it cannot perform
its use ; and no organ can be preserved in health, that
does not perform the functions for which it was made.*,, ,
Nevertheless where the frog has been disqualified
its functions for a considerable period, and becomes soft, Horse’s
it must be accustomed to pressure by degrees Foot, vol. i.
. Yhen. k necessary for the horse to work,* though 143
lus frog is soft and diseased, it must be gradually accus¬
tomed to pressure, by cutting down the hoof about one-
tenth of an inch at every fresh shoeing, that the frog
may become hard, and equally protuberant with the
heels. If the horse be not required to labour, much
advantage will he derived from allowing him to stand
in the stable without shoes. ,44
I he jeet of most horses have been deformed by had Shoe to be
management. It will therefore he necessary to use aadapted t#
particular shoe to each particular form of hoof. Any1*'61100*’
one form employed indiscriminately for all feet, can¬
not he alike successful for all. It is from not bavins
sufficiently attended to this simple fact, that the shoe
recommended by the veterinary college lias not been
more generally adopted. It is therefore necessary to
vary the length, breadth, and thickness of the shoe,
according to the form of the hoof to which it is to
he applied. If the heels or fore-feet are two inches
and a half or more in depth ; if the frog be sound
and prominent, and the roads
dry, the toe of the
hoof only requires to he shortened, and afterwards
covered by a short shoe, which may he made of the
usual thickness at the toe, hut must be thinner gra¬
dually towards the heel. The proportional thickness
of a shoe of this kind for a common saddle horse, as
lecommended by Mr Coleman, is three-eighths of an
inch at the toe, and one eighth at the heel. By means
of such a shoe the frog is completely brought in con¬
tact with the ground ; the heels are expanded ; and
corns, thrushes, and canker are prevented. The horse
may continue to wear such a shoe as long as the wea¬
ther is warm, and the ground dry.
Race-horses, who generally have the heels high, and
the crust thicker and stronger than heavy horses, may
generally wear short shoes, at least on the fore-feet.
But such as have weak legs, bent knees, long pasterns,
or low heels, must not wear such a shoe.
A long shoe is necessary in wet weather, and even in Changes to
summer, when the heels of the hoofs are low. In win- be ma4e
ter, when the heels are too high, they should be lower-gradaally'
ed by means of a rasp, rather than suffered to wear
down, by being exposed to the ground with a short
shoe ; for moisture is very destructive to the hoof; and
thus as great a part of it mav be removed as is neees-
sary. Besides, when a horse has been accustomed to
high-heeled shoes, if he was suddenly made to wear
those with thin heels, the frog might be bruised or in¬
flamed, and the muscles and tendons of the leg consi¬
derably strained. It is therefore necessary to bring the
heels of the shoe to the proper degree of thinness gra-
3 dually,
M5
146
450
Operation1!
FARR
147
I4S
149
Weight
©f shoes.
1S°
For a
coach-
horse.
151
A saddle
horse-
151
Coleman
ordinary
shoe.
153
. dually, observing that the beds or each succeeding
shoe be made somewhat thinner than those of the last.
In general, as much as possible of the horny part of the
hoof next the toe is to be removed, and as little iron
employed next the heels every time of shoeing, till the
feet be brought as nearly as may be to their natural
sn aoe.
In horses that have been accustomed to wear shoes
of an equal thickness all round, and where the frog is
healthy, we may in general apply a shoe, much thicker
at the toe than 'the heel, by paring down the toe, and
taking nothing from the heel j and if a horse appear to
sufl'er no inconvenience from a thin-heeled shoe, during
the first month after it is applied, it may be cont.nued
with safety, and will greatly improve the hoof. In
young horses, however, that have never been shod, amt
in horses just taken up from grass, the toe seldom ad¬
mits of being pared down, and a thin-heeled shoe can¬
not be applied at once.
In all cases where the frog does not embrace the
ground with a thin shoe, the heels must be lowered ;
and if the horse has been accustomed to wear high-
heeled shoes, both the shoe and the hoof must be gra¬
dually lowered, till the frog can safely and easily per¬
form its proper function. _
A few horses require to be shod in a manner cmler-
ent from that which we have described, but still de¬
pendant on the same principles. #
Different weights of shoes are required lor ditterent
horses. Mr Coleman lays down the following propor¬
tions, for horses of various descriptions.
A moderate-sized coach-horse will require a weig. t
of shoes and nails, from eighteen to twenty ounces ; an
inch wide, and half an inch thick at the toe, and three-
fourths of an inch wide, and one-sixth of an inch thick
at the heels. .
An ordinary saddle-horse will require only from 12
to 14 ounces ; and the shoe may be three-fourths of an
inch wide at the toe, and half an inch at the heel, and
three eighths of an inch thick on the outside ot the
toe, but only one-eighth at the inside of the toe, and at
the heel. ,r r, .
The shoe most recommended by Mr Coleman, is
concave on its upper surface, where the sole is flat or
convex, but it is flat on the rest of the upper surface ;
hut if the sole admits of being hollowed, the whole up¬
per surface may be flat. It is regularly concave on its
lower surface next the ground ; and it is fastened to the
crust by means of eight nail? placed round from the toe
backwards, so as to leave a part of the shoe about an
inch and a half from the heel. Hunting-horses usually
require an additional nail on each side, next the quar¬
ter. The nail-noles are made with a punch ot a wedge¬
like form, and to correspond to this the heads ol the
nails are made conical, so that as long as any part of the
head of the nail remains in the hole, the shoe cannot
easily come off. . „ . .
For hunters, and such horses as run in shatts, it is re¬
commended by Mr Coleman to turn up the outer heel }
but as in this way there is often some inequality of po¬
sition, the outer heel of the foot is to be lowered, while
the inner heel of the shoe is somewhat thickened. By
these means cutting is avoided. AT r .
In such horses as have weak low heek, Mr Cole¬
man recommends the use of the bar-shoe, as the bar af-
I E R Y. Part ‘H.
fords a support to the frogs, without wearing out tbe0pemioB;
heels. When the bar-shoe has been employed long • v 
enough to admit of the heels growing to the proper
size,°the ordinary thin-heeled shoe may be adopted.
The method recommended by Mr Coleman, as de- 154
scribed above, has been for some time followed with
considerable success by the board of ordnance, whose
horses, as well as those of the British cavalry in gene¬
ral, are now shod after this manner. I he method has,
however, met with considerable opposition, partly from
such as do not understand the principles on which it is
founded, and partly from its having been too hastily
adopted, in cases to which, as Mr Coleman bimseit al¬
lows, it is not generally applicable. , . .
Fig. 19. and 20. illustrate Mr Coleman’s method ot
^ Figfi 9. represents the hoof turned upwards, to shew
the manner in which the shoe is applied. It may be
seen from this figure that the web of the shoe is hollow >
that the heels at" a a are narrower than the other parts
of the shoe, and that the nails are placed all round from
the toe backwards. Fig. 20. shows that the bee s of
the shoe are much thinner than the point, and also shews
the manner in which the nails are rivetted or clinched
on the outside of the hoof round the toe and crust. 155
The only remaining method of shoeing that we shailMr More-
here mention, is that of the ingenious Mr Morecroft.«««*“
This gentleman has acquired much celebrity by his in¬
vention of casting shoes, by sinking them in dies, by
which means horses may be fitted with any shoes best
adapted to their hoofs. Mr Morecroft’s shoe diflers
from Osmer’s, in being concave within for more than
half its width. He condemns the use of calkins, on the
principle that the public roads are now much more so¬
lid than when calkins were in general use •, and, conse¬
quently, that instead of sinking them into the ground,
they rather tend to raise the heels above it, and thus the
frog is prevented from receiving the necessary pres¬
sure. Mr Morecroft, however, allows calkins to hea¬
vy draught-horses, for whom he recommends two on
each shoe ; but in lighter horses ot the same descrip¬
tion, one on the outside of each shoe. I he latter is
also recommended for hunters, but for other riding
horses he forbids the use of calkins. Ihe number of
nails in Mr Morecroft’s shoe is usually eight, but in
heavy draught horses they are not to be placed on the
sides of the shoe, hut all round at equal distance, leav¬
ing a space at the heels of about two inches or two
inches and a half. In frosty weather, Mr Morecroft
recommends nails with a lozenge head, or a double
countersink, terminating in an edge instead ot coming
to a point, which greater breadth of surface prevents
its being rubbed away so fast as a point. 1 he thick¬
ness in the middle gives it strength, and the regular
taper to the shank causes it to apply exactly to the side
of the hole in the shoe, by which it is equally support¬
ed, and prevented from bending or breaking. 156
Mr Coleman considering pressure as necessary to the Colein»n
healthy action of the frog, has contrived a method ofari
affording this pressure in those cases in which, from dis¬
eased feet, or bad management in shoeing, it cannot
naturally receive it j and where, if the heels were
lowered, in order to bring the frog in contact with the
ground, there would be danger of straining the tendons.
Mr Coleman’s patent artificial frogs are intended t0 Pro'
FARRIERY.
Part III.
Operations, duce pressure on the natural frogs, while the horses are
-1—v—' standing in the stable, and thus to give time for the
growth of the heels, and to avoid the evils that would
arise from lowering these too suddenly, or from allow¬
ing the frog to remain elevated above the ground. For
the particulars of this ingenious invention, we must re-
j.y fer to Mr Coleman’s pamphlet.
Shoes for Where oxen are worked in farming business like
o*en. horses, it is generally thought necessary to defend their
hoofs in a similar manner by means of iron shoes. The
form and manner of fitting these do not appear to be
universally the same in all places ; nor are we acquaint¬
ed with the methods usually practised. We know that
M. St Bel recommended the following methods; either
to shoe the ox with a flat plate of iron, having six or
seven nail holes on the outer edge, accompanied with a
projection of four or five inches of iron at the toe, which
passing the cleft of the foot, is bent over the hoof: or
with eight shoes, one under each nail; otherwise with
four, one under each internal nail ; or only two, one
under the external nail of each fore-foot.
Chap. II. Of Casting.
15S f
Casting. There are several tedious and painful operations
that we are sometimes obliged to perform, and which
it would be difficult or impossible to execute, were the
animal left at full liberty to resist us. It is, therefore,
necessary to render ourselves completely masters of him,
by throwing him down on the ground, and in a conve¬
nient situation, so as not to exgpse him or ourselves to
injury. This operation is called casting, and is usual¬
ly thus performed.
The first object is to prepare a thick bed of straw or
litter, not less than eight feet square, to prevent the
animal from being hurt in the fall. If the stable be suf¬
ficiently large to admit of the bed being made there, it
is to be preferred, as during the operation, to prepare
for which casting is necessary, the parts operated on
will suffer less from exposure to the air in the stable,
than without doors.
But, if there is not room in the stable, the bed must
be made in the stable-yard, or rather, if possible, in
some field or park adjoining.
The animal is now to be brought to one side of the
bed; a strong leather strap, with a buckle at one end,
and having an iron ring fixed to it, at a convenient dis¬
tance from the buckle, is to be fixed round the pastern
of each of the four legs, in such a way, that the rings
of the straps that are round the fore-feet shall he di¬
rected backwards, and those of the straps on the hind-
feet shall be opposite to these ; while the buckles point
outwards, to prevent hurting the animal. A pretty
strong cord, ten or twelve feet long, is to he fastened
to the ring of that strap that has been placed on the
fore-foot on that side of the animal which is farthest
from the bed : from this ring it is to pass through the
ring on the hind foot, on the same side, from which it
passes through the ring on the other hind-foot, then
through the ring on the other fore-foot, and lastly,
through that to which it was first fastened. The ani¬
mal being thus fettered, a number of men are to place
themselves beside him, so that he may be between them
and the bed, while others are to stand on the opposite
aide of the litter. Now, the men that are beside the
animal, laying hold of (he end of the rope, are to pull operations.
gradually with considerable force, so as to bring the
four feet of the animal as near as possible together.
When this is done, the men on the other side, standing
in a row, one at the head of the animal, another at his
chest, a third at his haunches, a fourth at his tail, &c.
pull the animal toward them and complete his fall.
It is necessary to observe that the men who pull the
rope, and those who receive the animal on the bed, must
not act at the same time; as in this case the shock
would be so great and sudden, as probably to occasion
some accident, either to the men or to the animal. It
is also proper to remark, that the animal must be cast
in such a manner, that the part to be operated on may
he fully in the view and reach of the operator.
When the animal is once on the bed, his head must
be held down by a man, and it will be proper to cover
his eyes. Another assistant must stand by the cord,
which, for greater security, should be fastened with a
knot at the first ring.
There are some little niceties to be observed in cast¬
ing an animal, according to the operation that is in¬
tended to be performed on him ; but of these we shall
speak, when we describe the operations themselves.
Chap. III. Of Bleeding.
Bleeding is distinguished into general and local. Bleeding.
General bleeding is performed for the purpose of taking
away a quantity of blood from the general mass, and
consists in opening some large vein, or some consider¬
able branch of an artery. The vein usually opened, in
horses and cattle, is the vein that runs along the neck,
and which is called the jugular vein. This vein may
be easily felt, as it is generally considerably raised
above the muscles.
The vein is usually opened by means of a fleam,
which is forced into the vein, by striking it with a small
wooden mallet, called by farriers a blood-stick. There
are many objections to this mode of bleeding. In the
first place, it is extremely clumsy ; and, if the vein
happens to roll, which is very commonly the case, a
large wound may be made in the skin, without drawing
blood. Again, these animals, especially horses, are
easily frightened by any sudden motion of the hand ;
and some persons have a way of shaking the blood-stick
before they give the stroke ; and, in doing this, they
often use more exertion than is necessary. The animal,
alarmed at these strange motions, tosses up his bead,
and thus renders the stroke uncertain.
Many prefer the ordinary lancet used by surgeons ;
and, in several cases, particularly of local bleeding, this
is the most convenient instrument. But in opening the
jugular vein, we do not consider it as much superior to
the common fleam. When this latter is employed, the
back of it should be made of considerable thickness, as,
when it is too narrow, as is commonly the case, when
the instrument is struck with the stick, it sinks into the
channel of the vein, which is often not opened, as the
prominent muscles of the neck receive the stroke. *
For most purposes of bleeding, we would recommend
the spring-fleam, as being easily applied, and much^^6® ^
more certain in its effect, using a
It is a common practice with grooms and farriers, gature
to tie a rope or other ligature about the neck of the about tbt
3 L 3 animal,
452 _ FARR
Oi'eratiotis. animal, previous to the bleeding in the jugular vein.
J—^   They do this from a supposition that the vein will thus
swell the more readily, and that it will be opened with
greater certainty. But this ligature is in most cases
unnecessary, and will at some times be highly dangerous.
Where exercise is not improper before bleeding, it
will be sufficient that the animal be gently trotted pre¬
vious to the operation, as thus the circulation will be
promoted, and the superficial veins will be sufficiently
filled with blood. Where general exercise is improper
or inadmissible, the filling of the vein may easily be pro¬
moted by briskly rubbing the neck for some time with
a wisp of straw or hay j and just before applying the
fleam, it will be proper to press with one finger upon
that part of the vein that is between the shoulder and
the place where the fleam is applied.
The danger of a ligature will appear both from rea¬
son and experience. When the ligature is fastened
round the neck, it produces a swelling of the vein
on each side •, and thus the circulation being in a great
measure impeded, and the return of much of the blood
from the head prevented, an accumulation of blood
takes place in the vessels of the brain. If the ligature
be continued round the neck, which must happen when,
by want of dexterity of the operator, or by the horse
being frightened, the vein has not been opened at the
first attempt, the stagnation of the blood in the head
goes on to an alarming degree, and the horse not un-
frequently falls down in an apoplectic fit. “ In such
cases, (says Mr Clark), I have observed the operator
greatly disconcerted, and desist from any further at¬
tempts to draw blood at that time, being prepossessed
with the idea that the horse was vicious and unruly,
although the very treatment the horse had just under¬
gone rendered bleeding at this time the more necessary,
in order to make a speedy revulsion from the vessels of
the head ; therefore a ligature or bandage ought never
to be used till such time aS the opening is made into
the vein, and even then it will not be necessary at all
times, if the horse can stand on his feet, as a moderate
pressure with the finger on the vein will make the blood
flow freely ; but if the horse is lying on the ground, a
ligature will be necessary.”
But further, the concussion or shock the horse re¬
ceives from his falling down, in the above situation,
which will always happen if the ligature is too long
continued, may cause a blood-vessel in the head to burst,
and death may be the consequence.
The place where the vein is to be opened is of some
. . consequence, as, when the opening is made too far from
Ivoreiml. the head, where the vein lies deep among the muscles,
‘ ’ both the vein is not so easily opened, and the wound is
not so readily healed. The most proper place for open¬
ing the jugular vein is about an inch below the joining
of the small branches that come from the lower jaw.
This is generally about a hand-breadth from the head,
hut it may be easily seen by the swelling of the vein
when pressure is made on its trunk.
Before opening the vein, it is usual to wet the hairs
that lie above it, and to stroke them in the direction
of the intended orifice. This is a good practice, as
the instrument thus passes through the skin moie readily,
not having to overcome the resistance of the hair. In
mentioning the direction of the orifice, it is worth while
to remark, that this should neither be longitudinal nor
I E R Y.
Part III.
directly across the vein, but rather oblique *, as the flow Operations.
of blood from an oblique orifice is most easily stopped. '    
When the vein is opened, it is highly proper in all^1^1^
casts to catch the blood in some convenient vessel. It tobe
is a very absurd practice, although it is commonly
adopted, to allow the blood to flow at random on the
ground or on a dunghill, by which means no precise
estimate can be made of the quantity of blood taken
away. This may either be so small, as to be of no ad¬
vantage 5 or it may be so considerable as to produce
fainting, before the operator thinks of stopping the ori¬
fice.
For the purpose of measuring the quantity of blood
taken away, Mr White recommends a graduated tin
vessel, capable of containing five quarts ; every pint
being marked on the inside of the vessel, so that the
quantity of blood that is taken off- may be exactly
known/ The blood should always be preserved, that
we may judge from its appearance ot the nature of the
disease, and whether it is proper, or not, to repeat the
operation. If the blood continues fluid for a consider¬
able time, it shows that there is an inflammatory state
of the body •, and if a jelly-like substance, of a whitish
or light buff colour, and rather firm consistence, ap¬
pears on the surface after the blood has cooled, and
especially if the surface is hollowed, we may be cer¬
tain that the animal’s complaint is ot an inflammatory
nature, that the bleeding has been proper, and must be
repeated, if the symptoms continue or increase*, but if
ift i
Place
where the
vein is to
the blood coagulates quickly, is uniformly of a dark
' * Whites
liver colour, loose, and easily broken, with a consider¬
able quantity of water upon its surface, it denotes de¬
bility, and shews that the disease arises from a weakness ^ ^
of the system*, that instead of bleeding, Ionic and cordial
medicines are to be employed, with every thing that Medic*.
may tend to restore the animal’s strength *. p l6-’
When a sufficient quantity of blood has been taken
away, it is for the most part necessary to secure the ori- 1
fiee, in order to prevent future accidental bleeding.
This is usually done by thrusting a common pin through
the lips of the wound, and twining about it a little
horse hair. As in this way the wound often rankles,
and becomes a sore difficult to heal, which we are
disposed to attribute to the brass pin employed, as often
as to any other cause j we would recommend a pin ot
silver, or at least of polished steel. The pin need not
pass through more than the skin, and in some cases when
the horse can conveniently be fastened to the rack alter
bleeding, the pin may be entirely dispensed with.
As it is often required to bleed on either side of the
neck, or on both sides, it is proper that the operator
should lie able to bleed with either hand. This is in¬
deed not quite so necessary in bleeding horses and cattle,
as in the human subject ; but it will be often found
very convenient in both.
In some cases, especially in inflammation of the brain,
where a sudden and copious loss of blood is required, |t ra['artei7.
becomes necessary to open the temporal artery. This
is easily effected, as the artery is situated very superficial¬
ly, about an inch and a half backwards from the upper
and outer corner of the eye.* It is most conveniently
opened with a lancet, and when a sufficient quantity of
blood has been drawn, the flood is in general very easily
stopped by making continued pressure upon the artery *,
or, if this should not succeed, and a dangerous effusion
White's
lutcria
(dka.
166
lutious.
art III. FARR
perations. of blood should be apprehended, this may be effectually
4 prevented by completely dividing the artery.
General bleeding is one of the most efficacious re¬
medies in most of the acute diseases to which horses
and cattle are subject. “ When a horse appears dull
and heavy, (says Mr White), and indifferent about his
food, by bleeding we often prevent a fever. If a horse
is bled at the commencement of a cold, the complaint
generally proves moderate, and of short continuance.
In all cases of internal inflammation, or symptomatic
fever, bleeding is the most essential remedy, provided
the operation be performed at an early period, and the
blood drawn in sufficient quantity. In such cases I
have often taken away five quarts, and repeated the
operation the following day, when it appeared neces¬
sary. By bleeding copiously at first, these formidable
diseases are crushed at once ; while by suffering them
to proceed, or become at all violent, which they will
do, unless this practice is adopted (or if only a small
quantity of blood is drawn) they generally prove fatal )
nor will bleeding then be of any service
Mr Clark very justly remarks, “ that although the
cases which may require bleeding are numerous, yet
there is one general caution to be observed, viz. never
to take away blood but when it it is absolutely neces¬
sary ; as it is a fluid that may be easily taken away,
but cannot be so easily replaced 5 besides that the prac¬
tice of bleeding frequently, or at stated times, is ex¬
ceedingly improper, as it disposes the body to become
lax, weak, and plethoric.
“ In bleeding, therefore, a due regard must always
be had to the constitution, age, strength, &c. of
horses, and the state or habit of body they are in at
the time.
“ It is commonly said that the taking away a little
blood from horses, even when they are in health, or
when they are in the least indisposed, will do no harm :
this in one sense may be allowed to be literally true ;
but why draw blood from them on every trifling oc¬
casion, unless there may be such symptoms attending
as may require it ? I have observed in many horses,
who have been very frequently blooded, and which
may be easily known, from the cicatrices or marks on
the neck veins, that their blood bad lost much of its
tenacity, together with a considerable portion of its
florid and red colour. Butchers who slaughter calves,
may find their account in bleeding them frequently, as
it renders their flesh white, by taking away the red
particles of the hlood. But in horses it is quite other-
wite ; as they are destined for hard labour and active
exercises, it impairs their constitutions, subjects them
to disease, and hastens a premature old age.
“ As the blood of horses, more especially those who
are constantly employed in hard labour, or in active
exercises, when drawn from a vein, appears of a dark¬
ish or deep red colour, even in the highest state of
health, it is commonly said to be bad blood, and more
so, when a thick yellow or buff-coloured crust forms on
the surface after it is cold j hence these appearances
are said to require repetition of bleeding j for it very
unluckily happens, that most of the diseases to which
i pitfcon horses are subject, are thought to proceed from some
mg- impurities or humours, as they are called, in the blood,
4'««*£» _u:_l • . . . 1 •. , Tr , 11 it 1 .1
I E R Y.
453
1
y ,         ~,   J ” “   7      7
J- which require to be drained off by bleeding, and other
evacuations
Topical bleeding is useful in several cases, as in in- Operations,
flammatory affections of the feet, which are often re- 1
lieved by opening the coronary veins, or the vein that ,67
encircles the coffin-bone j in inflammations of the eyes, ,0P‘l'al
in which blood may be often drawn, from the angular blet<lins:'
veins, with considerable success; and in affections of
the mouth, where it is sometimes useful to draw blood,
by scarilying the bars of the mouth, or even, in some
urgent cases, by opening the veins of the palate. To¬
pical bleeding is best performed with a lancet.
Almost the only method that is practised for bleed¬
ing sheep, or dogs, is to cut off a joint or two of the
tail j and this is certainly often productive of good con¬
sequences, as the flow of blood is sometimes pretty con¬
siderable. Unfortunately, however, we can seldom have
recourse to this mode of bleeding more than once or
twice, whereas cases often recur in which it is neces¬
sary to repeat the bleeding. It is also a cruel method,
and we see no reason why the veins in these animals
may not be opened like tiiose of horses and cattle. In
the sheep, indeed the thickness of the wool will com¬
monly prevent bleeding in the neck, but the temporal
artery and the veins of the foot may be opened without
difficulty j and in most dogs we may bleed in the ju¬
gular-vein with nearly as much ease as in the horse or
cow.
Chap. IV. Of making Rowe/s and Scions.
Bowels in horses and cattle are much the same as RoivdLp
issues in the human body. The operation consists in described,
opening the skin, so as to insert between it and the cel¬
lular membrane some foreign body, which is kept there,
in order to produce and keep up a suppuration, or run¬
ning of purulent matter. The operation is usually per¬
formed in the following manner. An incision is made
through the skin by means of a very sharp pair of scis-
sars, or, what appears better, a sharp knife. The finger
is then introduced below the skin, so as to separate it
from the flesh all around, as far as the finger will reach.
A piece of leather about the size of a crown-piece, and
of a circular form, with a hole cut in the middle, is
then inserted between the skin and the muscles, having
been first anointed with some stimulating ointment. A
small piece of tow orcaddice spread with the same oint¬
ment, is put over the hole in the centre of the leather;
the skin is laid down over all, and the part is covered
with a pledget, also covered with ointment, to keep out
the external air.
The leather is left in this situation for two or three
days, during which the parts adjoining the rowel swell,
and at the end of the time there appears a discharge of
a yellowish matter, which gradually becomes thicker
and whiter. In three days at farthest the part must be
examined, and the plug removed from the centre hole,
to allow the matter to flow out. The rowel is now
complete, and may be continued as long as shall be
found necessary. The action of the rowel is easily ex¬
plained ; the leather introduced excites a degree of in¬
flammation between the skin and the flesh, and no
means being taken to check this, it goes on, like most
other inflammations of fleshy parts, to suppuration.
Thus a discharge is produced from the part, which is
found to have considerable effect in checking inflam¬
mation of some more important organ near which the
rowel
j6<)
Situations
proper for
rowels,
170
When im¬
proper.
454 FARR
o»c,,u„„.. rowel has been inserteJ. Thus, in inflamtnnt,on nf the
—- iun„c after copious bleeding, a rowel in the chest, like
a blister in the human body, is found to have consider¬
able effect in checking the progress of the disease.
Rowels may be placed in most of the fleshy parts ot
the body; but they are most commonly inserted in the
belly, the breast, the inside of the thighs, the outside
of the shoulders, and the hips. They are sometimes
placed between the jaw- bones, below the tongue j but
this is very improper, as a good suppuration can seldom
be brought on in this place.
It is sometimes found necessary to make several
rowels at the same time-, but they should always be
placed, as nearly as possible, to the seat of the affec¬
tion which they are intended to relieve.
Besides dangerous inflammations, rowels are found
serviceable in large swellings of the hind legs, in ob¬
stinate cases of grease, and in strains ot the shoulder.
Though rowels are thus found extremely useful in
many cases, they are, like many other operations pei-
formed on brute animals, sometimes made where they are
unnecessary or improper. Where there is considerable
debility, the insertion of a rowel would be very injudi¬
cious, as it would not suppurate kindly, and as the dis¬
charge produced would tend still farther to increase
the debility. The discharge in these cases is usually
thin and ichorous; sometimes they are perfectly dry,
and not unfrequently a mortification is produced.
When a rowel is found to be attended with any ot
these effects, it must be immediately removed, and the
parts must be fomented with a Warm decoction ot the
chamomile-flowers, and some stimulating herbs j or
must be bathed with spirit of wine or oil of turpentine.
If gangrene should have come on, it will besides be ne¬
cessary to administer cordial and strengthening reme¬
dies. . .
Setons are inserted through an opening made in two
opposite parts of the skin, and the extraneous body in¬
troduced is a cord.
The opening is made by means of a sharp-pointed in¬
strument, with an eye at the other end for receiving the
cord. The sides of the instrument must be proportion¬
ed to the opening to be made, and the size ol the cold
to be inserted.
Setons are particularly useful for the purpose ot gra¬
dually draining off matter from abscesses or suppurating
tumours, that are either so deeply seated as not to be.
easily opened in any other way, or so large that the
sudden discharge of matter from them while opened by
the knife, would be attended with bad consequences.
They are best employed in large abscesses ol the back
withers, and the upper part of the neck behind the
ears. Setons are also attended with the advantage of
draining off the matter without exposing the inside of
the abscess to the air.
The method of inserting the seton for the purpose of
opening an abscess is this. When it is found that there
is a considerable accumulation ol matter, the needle,
furnished with a cord of the proper size, is to be intro¬
duced at the highest part of the tumour, and brought
out towards its lowest part, so that the matter may more
easily drain off. The cord, which must previously be
rubbed with stimulating ointment, is now to be cut
from the eye of the needle, and then fastened together
at both ends, to prevent its being pulled out $ but if
I E It Y. Part II
the cord should not admit of being tlius tied, a small Operation
button of wood may be fastened on each end. It is ' r—
better, however, if possible, to tie the ends together, as
every time the sore is dressed, the seton requires to be
drawn a little round. When the discharge appears to
be nearly stopped, except what evidently arises from the
presence of the cord, this may be gradually removed,
by drawing out a single thread of it at every dressing.
In introducing the needle, great care must be taken
to avoid large blood-vessels and nerves -, and where
there is a danger in encountering these, it is better to
pass the needle through a sheath. This may easily he
done, by first making a small opening with a lancet at
the upper part of the tumour j and through this intro¬
ducing the sheath, which is to be pushed down till it
reaches the part at which the needle is intended to
come out. The needle in this way will pass through
the sheath without danger of wounding any important
nerve or vessel.
i7t
Scions.
T7X
Their use
*73
Mode of in¬
troducing
them.
Chap. V. Of Firing.
This operation consists in applying to the skin, or Firing,
other parts ol the body, a metallic instrument heated
to a greater or lesser degree of redness. The instru¬
ment is called a cautery, and the operation was well
known among the ancient surgeons, by the name of the
actual cautery.
The instruments employed for firing are usually made
of iron, sometimes of copper j but iron is to be prefer-
ed. They are of various forms, according to the part
to which they are to be applied, and the purpose for
which the operation is to be performed. These will be
considered in describing the cases to which firing is ap¬
plicable. _ lV-
The operation is found of use on several occasions : Its uses.
1st, In order to oppose the progress of mortification.
With this view a cautery shaped like a knife, with a
blunt edge and a thick back, is to be employed. This
form will also answer for many other cases.. There
should be several instruments of the same kind, that
when one becomes too cool, another may be ready of
the-proper degree of heat. The heat of the iron in¬
tended for the present case should be that of a cherry-
red. In applying the iron, the parts adjoining to the
mortified place are to be passed over with the edge of
the instrument in successive parallel lines, so as the heat
may penetrate to the living parts, and thus produce
such a degree of healthy action as may enable them to
throw off the mortified slough. When the iron has
been applied for a sufficient time, which must be regu¬
lated by the nature of the part, and the extent of mor¬
tification, the wound is to be covered with a pledget
spread with some stimulating ointment.
2d, Firing is employed to brace the skin, and tn
strengthen the sinews. The instrument above described
is used on this occasion, but its heat must be somewhat
greater. The mode of applying it is to pass the edge
lightly and quickly over the skin, describing parallel
lines from one end of the part of the other. When one
iron has been used in this way, a fresh one is to be
taken, and made to retrace the lines first formed, be¬
ginning where the last iron left off; and this is to be
repeated as often as appears necessary, taking care not
to destroy the texture of the skin. It is recommended
irt III.
F A H R I E R Y.
Ping
used
ngland
rations, by some to apply the hot iron, so as to burn away the
hair, for some time previously to firing the skin as
much time is otherwise lost before the proper impression
can be made by the iron. After firing, a blister is some¬
times applied, as this is thought to increase the good
effect produced by the iron. When firing is employed
on the hind legs, or on any part where the operator
would he exposed to danger from the horse’s kicking,
it is necessary to confine the legs by means of fetters.
3d, Tiiis operation has been found useful in spaving,
ring-bones, old callous swellings of the back sinews,
and in wind-galls. For this purpose the irons are used
as already directed. It is the custom with some far¬
riers to apply a blister in these cases before firing, in
order to reduce the swelling 5 as they suppose that fir¬
ing employed without this precaution would tend to fix
the swelling, and render it incurable. There is pro¬
bably little foundation for such an idea.
4th, Firing is very frequently had recourse to by
way of a styptic in stopping or checking profuse bleed¬
ings, from accidental weunds, or surgical operations.
The iron employed with this view has generally a
rounded extremity, except in the operation of docking,
where au iron in the form of a ring is generally em¬
ployed.
5th, Another use of firing is in wounds of the joints,
or other circumscribed cavities, where it is employed
to promote a kindly circulation, and consequent granu¬
lation of healthy flesh. It has been employed in these
cases by Mr Coleman, with considerable success.
6th, Firing has been found one of the most effectual
remedies in those superficial ulcers that accompany
farcy or glanders in the horse ; and,
Lastly, the use of the hot iron has been found the
only certain means of preventing the dreadful effects
arising from the bite of a mad animal, when properly
applied after cutting out the bitten part.
455
n
is«r-
Chap. VI. Of Docking.
The honour of having introduced this most useful
and humane practice, belongs, we believe, solely to this
country. It appears that it was in use in England, so
long ago as the end of the eighth century ; for at a
council held there about that time {concilium Calchu-
tense, or council ol Calchute), there was a canon enact¬
ed, expressly forbidding this practice as indecent and
abominable.
It does not appear that this operation is performed
among the Arabians, or other eastern nations ; or at
least, if it be, it is not intended as an ornament to the
animal, but either from necessity when the tail is dis¬
eased, or by way of mark, to distinguish some particu¬
lar horse.
Docking has been practised in Germany for about
300 years; and probably much longer in France. It
was certainly unknown to the Italians at the latter end
of the fifteenth century; for we are told, that when the
army of the emperor Maximilian was in Italy in 1497,
the Italians were much surprised to see his cavalry
mounted on docked horses.
It is strange that prejudice and false taste should lead
mankind to deprive their horses of a part, which, to the
eye of reason and unsophisticated nature, must appear
not only an ornament to the animal, but as designed by
the Creator as a protection against flies, gnats, and In-Operation*,
numerable other winged enemies, which harass them in —v—
the summer months. It is true, indeed, that in Britain,
where the summer heats are in general not so lasting, or
so violent, as in the more southern countries of Europe,
these insects are not ahvays so troublesome as they are
found in those climates. But even here they are suf¬
ficiently so, to render the protection of the tail neces¬
sary ; and when our cavalry are unhappily sent to the
continent, the loss of the horses tails proves a very se¬
rious obstacle to the success of the troops. More than
one instance of this has occurred. At the battle of
Dettingen in 1743* great part of the British cavalry
were absolutely dismounted, from the death of the
horses, occasioned in a great measure by the torment
which they experienced from the bite of gad-flies, and
other insects ; and at the battle of Minden, in the seven
years war, the cavalry of the allies were thrown into so
much disorder by these petty enemies, that they had
nearly lost the battle. Lord Pembroke declares, that
he has seen the cavalry horses belonging to our army,
sweating, rushing against each other, refusing their food,
and absolutely devoured by flies for want of their tails
to brush them off’; while those of the horses of the fo¬
reign cavalry that had not been deprived of this neces¬
sary defence, were cool, tranquil, fed well, and were in
good condition. From the inconveniences which our
cavalry have suffered from the want of the horses tails,
it has been for some years the custom to employ long¬
tailed horses.
The principal reasons that have been assigned for
this absurd practice, are, that a long tail is extremely
inconvenient to both horse and rider, when travelling
through dirty roads and bushy forests; and that when
the tail is of its ordinary length, the animal cannot car¬
ry it in that fine, arched, cocked-tail direction, which
seems to form one of the chief beauties of the modern
racer.
We apprehend that few horses enjoy such an ample
length of tail as that of the redoubted Hudibras ; of
whose horse we read, that
“ His draggling tail hung in the dirt,
M Which on his rider he would flirt,
“ Still as his tender side he prickt
“ With arm’d heel, or with unarm’d kickt.”
As to the beauty of a cocked-tailed horse, we pro¬
fess ourselves not competent to judge; but with due de¬
ference to the gentlemen of the turf, and the respectable
fraternity of jockies, we should humbly conceive (we
speak with submission) that a horse with a long tail is a
much finer object than one that is perpetually perking
and wriggling his tail in the air, and exposing his bare
breech to the broad stare of open day. t „
Docking is usually performed on horses, by laying the Mode of
tail upon a block, and chopping off the part by means performing
of a cleaver or hatchet struck with a mallet. Perhaps ^ opera-
it would be rather less bungling to perform the opera-tlon*
tion by means of a knife, and it would not take up
much more time. When this is done, the hair must be
previously clipped away, that the knife may cut more
easily ; and previous to making the incision, the skin
should be drawn up forcibly towards the rump. The
incision may be made by beginning on one side, and
cutting round from below upwards, so as to perform the
whole
45^
F A. R R I E R Y.
Part 11
Operations wSiolc as nearly as possible at one stroke. When the
v—-'V-—' skin and muscles have been completely divided, the
part of the tail is to be cut off at the joining of two of
the bones as neatly as possible to the edges of the
wound, still keeping the skin drawn up. When the
part has been removed, the flesh is to be seared all
round with a hot iron, to stop the effusion of blood.
The iron employed in France for this purpose is formed
like a ring, so that it is easily applied to the flesh with¬
out injuring the bone. The wound must be covered
from the air, and the animal must live rather low to
prevent inflammation.
The practice of nicking, or cutting across the muscles
that draw down the tail, so that those which pull it up¬
wards may exert their full power, is still more inhuman
and absurd than that of docking *, and as we will con¬
tribute nothing towards extending this abominable,
practice, we shall omit the operation altogether.
vity of the ear, which seems designed by nature to pre- Operation!
vent harsh sounds from making too great an impression
upon the brain, and likewise to prevent the cold air,
rain, dust, flies, &c. from annoying the internal ear.
The means commonly used to remove this down, &c.
is by the scissars, the flame of a candle, or that of a
burning torch. Both the latter are cruel and barbar-
and cause a deal of pain to the animal, not only
Chap. VII. Of Cropping.
'T)
Cropping.
180
Aiwucdity
Taste and fashion have introduced another opera¬
tion, by which the ears of horses and dogs are changed
from their natural shape and size, to those which are
considered by their owners as more handsome or agree¬
able. The ears of the horse and dog are seldom of
such a shape or size, as to render them inconvenient to
the animals, or to unfit them for the purposes for which
nature has designed them. This may, however, some¬
times happen *, and there are some cases of wounds or
diseases that may render cropping necessary : but in per¬
forming this operation, it should always be kept in mind
that as no part of the animal is made in vain, no more
of the ears should be taken away than what is absolute¬
ly necessary. We not unfrequently see horses and dogs
cropped close to their head, a practice which is croel
and absurd, and which is always followed by more or
less deafness, and exposes the animals to much incon¬
venience from the weather. In those dogs that are em¬
ployed in rabbit warrens, or for similar purposes, where
they are required to enter burrows, cropping is attended
with the worst effects, as the ears of the dog are una¬
voidably exposed to the particles of sand and earth that
he brushes away in his passage through the burrow.
The operation of cropping scarcely requires descrip¬
tion. In the dog it is usually performed by means of a
pair of scissars, but these should be very sharp. In the
horse, more nicety is required ; and a particular instru¬
ment, called the cropping iron, is required, and a shape
of the size of which it is intended the ear shall be, is
applied to the ear, to mark the line of section. After
the ear is cut, the skin and muscles recede considerably
from the gristly part; but this seems of little conse¬
quence, and the wound heals in a few days without
any other attention, than confining the animal within
doors, and keeping him on a moderate, cooling diet.
Horses ears are sometimes trimmed, as the grooms call
it ; that is, they are deprived of the fine soft hair that
lines the inside of the cavity. This practice is equally
absurd with cropping, as will appear from the following
observations of Mr Clark.
“ The ears of horses, as of other animals, (says Mr
from the blisters that sometimes rise on the ears after
this manner of singing them, but likewise from the
means that are used to make horses stand with patience
to undergo the operation, that is a twitch on the nose j
and perhaps, if be is troublesome to the operator, one
put on the ear. It is to be observed, that horses are
very much guided or directed by the sense of hearing.
This is obvious in those that hear distinctly, from the
motion of their ears, and the direction they give them
to whatever quarter any sound comes from, the atten¬
tion they pay to what passes around them, or to what is
spoke to them. Many of them, particularly the finest
kind, as they only are liable to this kind of treatment,
have the sense of hearing considerably blunted, if not
rendered quite deaf from the above operation.
As this operation is generally first performed on
young horses at the time they are breaking, it is the
more hurtful ; as the uncommon sounds, as the rattling
of carriages, drums, &c. which are entirely new to
them, and to which they are then more exposed on the
roads or in streets, must make the greater impression
on the sense of hearing *, and perhaps it may be owing
to the above cause only that many horses are timorous
to pass carriages, and remain so ever afterwards.
Another disadvantage which attends this operation
upon the ears of horses, is, that they will not go on
cheerfully when travelling in opposition to the wind,
more especially if it rains j for as the wind and rain
get free access into the ears, they are continually shak¬
ing their heads and endeavouring to turn from it*, and
those who are of a more impatient temper, will wheel
suddenly round, in order to avoid what gives them so
much uneasiness. They are then said to be restive j
the whip and spurs are applied by way of chastisement
for a supposed fault only.
From what has been said, it will he obvious, from
the practice of taking away^ihe natural covering from
the inside of the ears, that the internal ear must be
exposed to be considerably injured, particularly from
cold, dust, &c. which blunts the sense of hearing, and
perhaps causes deafness *, for it is observed in those
horses who have been much used to this treatment, that
they lose that lively, active motion of the ears, and ap¬
pear dull and inattentive to what passes around them,
and even to the voice of their keeper*.
# Clark i
Prevents
Chap. VIII. Of Castration.
of trimmingare covered on the inside with a short down,
It is found of use to deprive the males of several ofcastratiw
the domestic animals, especially of horses and cattle, of
the means of propagation, either to render them more
mild and tractable, or, in the case of cattle, to promote
their fattening, and render their flesh less rank. It lias
been disputed whether the castration of the stallion is
productive of such advantages as are not counterbalan-
karses eats* jntermjxe^ with long hairs, which line the external ca- ced by the loss of strength and spirit, which the animals
sustain
i8?
i)ode of
slfatiitg
’art III. FARR
aerations, sustain by the operation. It is not our intention to dis-
> cuss this point, and we shall here only describe the usu¬
al modes of performing the operation.
The most prudent mode of castrating an adult or
grown horse, appears to be the following. Let him be
thrown on some convenient spot, on the one side, and
when down, let the oil’ hind leg be drawn towards the
neck, by which the scrotum will be fairly exposed.
Holding the scrotum firmly, make a cut at once though
it, not of too great length, but sufficient to admit the
testicle being pressed out j this being done, apply the
clams or a pair of nippers on the cord within an inch of
the testicle, and hold the clams sufficiently tight to stop
the flow of blood, but not to bruise the cord j the stone
may then be cut off with a scalpel, or it may be seared
off with a burning knife. If it is cut off with a scalpel,
immediately before the clams let go their hold, seau the
end of the cord. Some apply a little powdered resin
on it before searing, after which the clams may be
loosened. When this is finished, proceed to remove
the other in the same manner.
After both are removed, a pledgit of lint, wetted in
warmed spirits, may be introduced just within the edges
of each wound j but no salt should by any means be
introduced, as is the practice of some farriers j nor will
any kind of bandage be easily retained, and if any thing
of this kind is used, it should be very loosely applied,
*o as not to irritate.
When this operation is performed on a full grown
horse, if he is at all fat, he should be previously bled,
and kept rather low j and it will be prudent to choose
mild weather for the operation ; and the place likewise
he is put into after the operation, should be of a moder¬
ate temperature.
Sometimes there is a considerable degree of inflam¬
mation, and when this happens, it is by no means pro¬
per to trot the horse about as is commonly done, but to
bleed and purge, and apply a solution of sugar of lead
to the parts. It will also be of advantage to insert a
seton smeared with blistering ointment in the inside of
the thigh.
Some operators separate the epididymis from the tes¬
ticle and suffer it to remain, by which means they think
that a portion of the animal’s spirit is retained. A simi¬
lar custom is said to prevail in France ; but the French
operators object to it, on the idea that it produces fistu¬
lous sores in the part. The fact is, that when any por¬
tion of the testicle is suffered to remain, though it can¬
not secrete semen, yet it has some action going on with¬
in, by which it produces some influence both on the
mind and form; and as such, the future growth of the
animal may perhaps be slightly affected by it, and per¬
haps his temper to, but the addition to the latter may
probably not be a very favourable one *.
c Where the operation is to be performed, the best
Pt 'ormine t‘me *s Pr°hably when the foal is about three months
i old, though some prefer a much more advanced age, as
six, or even 12 months, and more in some cases. In
all animals there is, however, the least danger of in¬
flammation while they are young, in performing such
operations. Besides, it is better to cut colts before they
have any propensity to hanker after mares, and get bad
habits. When the foals are early, and the weather is
not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June
may be a good and proper season.
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
I E R Y.
457
’ IlrtlW
< tlinet,
Vii.
. i83
lie of
Some of the Yorkshire breeders, however, think that Optratiom.
they find advantage in deferring the operation till the ' .- ‘
horses are two years old, as they suppose they become
the stronger and handsomer for it. And where the ope¬
ration is performed at one year old, they find that the
foals have not recovered the check they sustained by
weaning before they experience another in this operation.
They experience no greater difference in their recovery
at two years old than one. The foals should be kept up
some time before the gelding is to be performed *. * Dickkon'i
The castrating of male lambs is performed at dif- Agritult.
ferent periods in different districts; but it seems the most™1’ H'
proper to be done in the first fortnight in the stronger
sort of lambs, and in those of the weaker kind from a
fortnight to three weeks, or a month old, according to
circumstances. Some, however, advise its being done
at a much later period. W7hen done early, there is,
however, the least danger of too much inflammation
coming on, if the lambs be in a healthy condition.
When performed while very young, on tender, delicate
lambs, mortification may sometimes be apt to come on
and destroy them f. ^
Chap. IX. Of Spaying.
Spaying is an operation performed on the females, Spajing.
chiefly on cattle and dogs, to prevent their producing
young. It consists in taking away the ovaries, or those
appendages to the womb in which are formed the rudi¬
ments of the young. It is supposed that it is attended
with considerable advantage, in cows or heifers, as it
greatly promotes their fattening. In bitches, it is gene¬
rally employed to prevent the unpleasant circumstances
that often occur in the time they are in heat.
Spaying is usually performed after the animal has
been newly impregnated, as at that time the ovaries are
larger than before impregnation, and are of course more
easily discovered. In performing the operation, a cut
is made through the integuments of the belly, between
the haunch-bone and the last ribs, and through this
opening the fingers are to be introduced. If the animal
has not been impregnated, a roundish hard substance
will be felt attached to the loins. This is to be drawn
out and cut off, and that on the other side is now to be
felt for, drawn out, and cut away. The ovaries, as has
been said, will be much more readily found, especially
the inmost one, when the animal is impregnated, as the
young within the horns of the womb afford a good di¬
rection to the finger. It is sometimes necessary, when
the animal is not in a state of impregnation, to make an
opening on each side of the belly, one for the extrac¬
tion of each ovary; but when this is found requisite,
it will be better to delay the second operation till the
animal is in some measure recovered from the first.
When the ovaries have been cut away, the openings
must be closed by means of a stitch through the inte¬
guments of the belly, and must fee carefully covered
with sticking plaster, to prevent the admission of the
external air.
Mr Daniel remarks, that this operation does not al-
ways succeed in bitches, unless done by a skilful person,
who can be relied upon. If it be ill done, although
the bitches can have no puppies, they will notwith¬
standing go to heat, which defeats the purpose. There
is a difference of opinion, whether a bitch should be
3 M spayed
458
FARR
Operations.spayed before or afier she has had a litter of whelps >
' v * Mr Daniel, however, has tried, and found both periods
to answer. The best time is 14 or 15 days alter she
has taken the dog, and when the puppies just begin to
be knotted within her. All the roots of the veins
should not be taken away j her strength and swiftness
will be injured bv so doing. They should be kept low
for several days before the operation is performed, and
fed on thin meat for some time after*.
* Daniel's
Rural
Sports.
i36
Delivery.
Chap. X. Of Delivery in Difficult Labours.
187
Directions
for deliver¬
ing cows in
eross posi¬
tions.
In general, Nature is all-sufficient for bringing forth
the voung of domestic animals, and man has little to do,
except to take care that the females be not in such a si¬
tuation as may expose themselves or their young to injury.
It is proper always to watch a mare, or a cow, that is
near the time of bringing forth j and to be at hand, to
afford assistance where necessary. Mares do not often
require assistance, as with them, difficult labour is un¬
common. Where this does occur, the directions we
are about to gve for the cow, will in general answer for
the mare. . , . -
Cows, particularly the short-horned species, often
need the assistance of the accoucheur. The natuial
presentation of the calf, is with its head and fore-feet,
the nose between the feet, and the back upwards.
Downing enumerates seven preternatural positions:
namely,° 1st, Reverse presentation, or tail first. 2d,
Fore-feet, no head appearing. 3d, Side-belly upwards,
head reversed over one shoulder, legs appealing. 4^’j
Fore-feet, with head under the brisket. 5th, Head
alone, or one fore-leg only with it. 6th, Head and
one leg, or head alone. 7th, Calf lying on its back, its
four legs folded nearly together, and close up to the
cow’s back-, the head appearing, or doubled back,
even with the ribs, on one side or other 5 one hind-leg,
perhaps, appearing. . , act
The following general rules are given by Mr Daw-
- rence.—Timely assistance before the cow is exhausted.
Extraction never to be attempted in an improper posi¬
tion. Supple the hand and arm with warm water and
fresh lard. Examination best made, the cow standing,
and in the interval of pains. In pulling at the feet, in¬
close the claws in the hand, that the horn may not
bruise the cow. Navel string bursting, and the usual
flux of blood, of no consequence. Instruments to be
used only in the last resort, and by experienced and
steady persons only. The proper hook is of hard iron,
four inches long, with a loop for the cord at the straight
In a natural position, if the cow should want help,
the position of the calf may be ascertained after the wa¬
ters have been seen. A cord ought to be in readiness,
to attach to the fore-legs of the calf, in order to assist
each natural exertion. The head to be kept clear ot
obstruction.
Preternatural position. N° 1. as aoove. No at¬
tempt to turn the calf (this position being favourable for
extraction), but use expedition, for fear it be suflocated.
Press the haunches back with the palm of the hand,
take hold of the bend of the hough of one leg, pull at
it, and reach the foot 5 both feet may thus be brought
forth. N° 2. Reduce the head to its proper situation,
between the fore-legs, either by hold of the nose, or the
3
I E R Y. Part 1111,1
face-bone. A long arm is needful, which must be kept Operation,
to the full extent in the body, that instant advantage v-—
may be taken of every throe, the fingers being proper¬
ly fixed. N0 3. Gently move the calf back, and bring
the head forth to the legs. N° 4. Push the calf back
to find the head; pull at the nose: this requires ad¬
dress, but it is useless to employ force, until the head be
in its proper place. N° 5* antl Push the calf back
against the shoulders and brisket; the feet will be found
folded under the belly; bring the feet forward, one at a
time, the hand being gently placed on the bend of the
knee. Should the head be too much swelled and
bruised, to be returned, it must be skinned and ampu¬
tated. Dissect in a straight line from the poll to the
nose, force the skin back over the first joint of the neck,
divide the head from the body, pushing the latter back
to obtain hold of the knees. The loose skin must be pre¬
viously wrapped over the ragged bone, and an assistant
should have fast hold, in order to guide it clear of the
haunch-bones of the cow ; should it hitch there, put
back instantly. N° 7. If one hind-leg appear, put it
back ; the calf cannot be brought forth with a hinder
and fore-leg together, and the difference between the
knee and hough will be immediately discovered. The
head being doubled back, must of course be reduced to
its proper place. The cow being strong and quiet, the
business may be effected with care and patience ; but
should the hook be positively necessary, hold must be
taken either in the sockets of the eyes, cavity of the
ears, or in the jaw. The case of dropsy in the calf will
be sufficiently apparent by its preternatural size ; use*Lamm
the knife carefully, should that be necessary, to pierce
the belly of the call *. . iSS
There is a very material obstruction which frequent-Tn preter.
ly happens to the calving of cows. It is called a born-natural
ing of the lye or calf-bed, when the passage of it is con-coatractioi
tracted into a very small circumference, insomuch, that® 6P81
at the full time of gestation, it will not admit so much ^
as the smallest hand, and grows so sinewy or horned, as
renders it utterly impossible lor the cow to calve with¬
out assistance, and many cattle have died under this
dreadful inconvenience, when it might have been easily
prevented ; but so little has been known hitherto of the
diseases peculiar to black cattle, that many thousands
have fallen victims to untimely death, that a simple
remedy or operation might have saved.
In the case before observed, it must take a consider¬
able length of time, before it is contracted, as it is often
found ; but no suspicion or dread can reasonably take
place, until near the time when the beast has arrived
at the end of nine months, her full time of bearing
young; when they generally make a regular prepara¬
tion, or falling of the parts of generation, for a lew
days or weeks before calving ; but in cases ot this
hornedness of the calf-bed, it is observed that they are
backward in making these necessary alterations, pre¬
paratory to the approaching change ; and when this is
noticed, more than usual observation ought to be taken,
for when they do not prepare in a regular manner, they
seldom have the efforts of nature in due course, for the
delivery of their burthen.—But when the beast is ob¬
served sick for calving, and has reached the end ot her
time, and any dread of this is apprehended, there is no
danger or impropriety in searching with the hand, m
order to be satisfied, whether that part is open, or
grown
Part IV.
Hygeio- grown up, as previously described j yet the greatest
lorry. care is necessary, that the inquiry be made with judge-
■—y i—' ment, and the hand that is introduced must be well la¬
thered with soap and water, or greased with tallow,
fresh butter or some such thing, that will not cause ir¬
ritation in the neck of the womb.
Now, if it be found in the state described in any de¬
gree, and a certainty of the beast being at its full time,
with the common sickness and symptoms for calving, no
time should be lost until the animal be relieved. The
difficulty greatly depends on knowing to what degree
it is grown up; it is sometimes so strait as not to admit
the end of a finger, but with some exertion, it may give
so much way as that a small knife may be introduced,
whose blade should not be above an inch and a half in
length, and very sharp, with a hollow on the back part
of the point, for the end of the fore-finger to guide the
knife when cutting, and to cover the point and edge,
when introduced, which must be covered as much as
possible with the hand. Its handle ought to be short,
and the fore-finger of the operator should always be
kept forward on the knife, to prevent any danger that
might arise from the edge of it. The horny circle is
! sometimes so hard and gristly, that it takes more exer¬
tion than may have been expected from the nature of
the place $ but as soon as it is cut through, the beast
will find a very material difference, and strive to void
her burden, if possible, when every exertion of art
459
ought to be used for her relief. Many people have suf- jiygew-
fered the beast, so disordered, tc die a miserable death logy,
before their eyes, without offering to render her any 1 *
assistance, and some have attempted to take the calf out
at the side of the animal, a practice commonly known
by the name of the Caesarean operation; but the other
method is to be preferred, when the obstruction is the
result of hornedness. But operations of this kind in
general fail, from neglecting the attempt until every
natural hope is gone, and the patient so much weaken¬
ed, as to die under the hands of the person who has un¬
dertaken the task. It is therefore recommended, that
no time be lost in ascertaining the cause of any delay in
calving, and that every exertion be used, while the ani¬
mal has strength to undergo the operation, and to second
the attempt. When the business is happily over, the
wounded parts within must be taken care of, by pro¬
viding one pint of rectified spirit of wine camphorated,
to anoint the wound, and any other parts which may
have been exposed to the air, bruised, or over distended.
This may be conveyed up the neck of the womb by a
syringe, sponge, or linen rag filled with it, and carried
thither by a small hand, well fomented with some of the
foregoing articles for that purpose. Let the beast be
kept moderately warm, and in a comfortable situation,
allowing her at all times a plentiful supply of good, dry,
and sweet litter. We have taken the above from Bow¬
lin’s Complete Cow-doctor.
PART IV. HYGEIOLOGY; OR, THE MEANS OP PRESERVING THE
HEALTH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
FARRIERY.
I$t>
190
biia-
■is,
BEFORE we enter on the consideration of the dis¬
eases, that affect domestic animals, whose medical treat¬
ment is to form the subject of the remaining part of this
article ; it will be proper to lay down some instructions
for the management of these animals in a state of health,
with a view to that most important object, the avoiding
of the causes of disease. The preservation of health
must ever be considered as one of the principal objects
of the medical practitioner, and has exercised the pens
of some of the most eminent physicians in all ages. But
the consideration of this subject is still more necessary
in the treatment of the inferior animals, than in that of
man. In the former the cure of disease is rendered
much more difficult and precarious, on account of the
obscurity in which the symptoms are often hid, and the
difficulty which we frequently experience in investigat¬
ing the causes of morbid affections.
The management of domestic animals in a state of
health, chiefly respects the habitations in which they
are placed, when taken from their native fields 5 their
food and drink 5 cleanliness, and exercise.
Chap. I. Of Stables, Cow-houses and Kennels.
In a state of nature, all the animals at present under
our consideration, are constantly exposed to the open
air, and only seek for shelter from the inclemencies of
the weather under woods and thickets. The young of
all these, animals when domesticated, except the dog,
are for a long time left in a similar state, till, fop the
convenience of their masters, it is found necessary to
place them in habitations. The structure of these, that
is of stables, cow-houses, and kennels, and the method
of treating the animals confined in them, is of the ut¬
most consequence $ as on these the animals health and
comfort must in a great measure depend.
1. Of Stables.
Stables should be built on a dry soil, that is some-sij0uid\e
what elevated ; or, at least, they must not be built in a built on a
hollow, or in the neighbourhood of boggy or marshydry and
land. The damp cold air, arising from moist, low situa-e^evatei^
tions, is extremely prejudicial to the health of all ani-place
mals, particularly horses, and, as we shall see hereafter,
to sheep. It renders them subject (0 colds, rheumatism,
and not unfrequentlv to fever. Stables built in these
situations are therefore always dangerous ; and more
particularly so, when the animals return to them after
having been heated by violent exercise or labpur.
Stables should be roomy in proportion to the number ^
of horses that it is proposed they should contain. Per-r0omy.
haps no stable should be made to hold more than five or
six horses, as many inconveniences arise from keeping
too many of these animals in the same apartment. Not
only is the air thereby much more vitiated, but the rest
and sleep, so necessary to repair the fatigues of the day,
are thus prevented or disturbed. Some horses will not
sleep, or even lie down, if not perfectly at their ease $
and hence, in large stables, that are made to contain a
dozen or more horses, as is often the case in livery sta-
- 3 M 2 bles,
*93
per,
FARR
bles, and such as are attached to large inns, the frequent
entrance of grooms, ostlers, and other persons with
lights, into the stable, and even the restless noise of
some of the horses, who are more watchful, or have
been less fatigued than others, must be a great distur¬
bance to these latter. Where necessity requires a long
range of stables, it is better to have them divided, by
thick partition walls, into separate apartments, each
made to contain not more than six horses. The addi¬
tional expence of this would be trifling, compared to
the greater ease and comfort of the animals.
It is usual in large stables, for the sake of keeping
more horses conveniently under the same roof, to make
them double headed, as it is termed $ that is, to have a
range of stalls along each wall, with a space between,
for persons to pass to and fro. Stables oi this kind are
very improper j the space between the two ranges is
often so narrow, that when the opposite stalls are oc¬
cupied at the same time, the horses can reach each other
with their hind feet, especially when standing, as they
Double sta-often do, at the full length of their halter. Hence, in
bte* impro- t|ie contests that often arise between quarrelsome or met¬
tlesome horses, very severe bruises, and even lameness,
are not unusually the consequences of the animals being
within each other’s reach. The danger that threatens
passengers in these narrow spaces is also not small £ we
have often trembled when obliged to pass between two
rows of horses, kicking and wincing under the curry¬
combs, where the intermediate space did not exceed
three or four feet. If double-headed stables must be
used, the space between the ranges of stalls should be at
least eight feet.
      The roof of stables should not be low j for, as the
be low. foul ancl vitiated air, generated by respiration and the
exhalations of animal bodies, naturally ascends to the
highest parts, the horses, who usually carry their heads
very high, are, when the ceiling of the stable is low,
fully exposed to the noxious influence of this vitiated
atmosphere. This is not the place to enlarge on the
vitiation that the air undergoes from the action of the
animals that are confined in it j this subject has been al¬
ready fully considered in the article Chemistry when
speaking of respiration ; and, from what has been there
delivered, the reader will see the necessity of pure air
to horses and other’ animals as well as man, and will be
able to judge of the propriety of the above maxim, and
some others which we shall presently lay down.
The walls of the stable should be of stone or brick,
and by no means of wood ; they should also be left
bare, or at least only covered with plaister. The tem¬
perature of the air, in buildings of stone or brick, is
much more equable than in those built of wood, they
are not so easily penetrated by the heat of summer or
the cold of winter, and they are also attended with
another important advantage, that they resist the spread¬
ing of fire.
The stalls in which the horses are to stand should be
divided from each other by strong wooden partitions,
that should rise sufficiently high to prevent the horse
from stepping over, but not so high as to impede the
free circulation of air, and admission of light from one
«ta!l to another. The breadth of each stall should he
such as will freely admit of the horse turning himself,
and stretching at his full length when he lies down j
hut they should not be so wide as to allow of bis kick-
194
Roof thould
l9S
Static.
I E R Y. Part IV,
ing against the partition. The floor of the stall should Hygei#.
have a gentle declivity, from the manger backwards. logy.
This allows the urine and water to run easily off j it-V'—^
also relieves the fore quarters of the horse, and adds
much to the grace of his appearance behind. Too
great a slope, however, must be avoided, as when the de¬
clivity is too rapid, all the weight of the horse is thrown
on his hind legs j and, as it is extremely uneasy for the
animal to remain long in this position, he is obliged to
press his body forward, which he cannot accomplish,
without keeping the bind legs always on the stretch j
the pastern-joint, from its situation, receives the whole
additional weight, and the ligament which connects it
is invariably strained in all horses which are kept in
this sort of stable for any length of time.
A slope of one inch in six feet will he sufficient to
answer every purpose.
This declivity should terminate in a hollow space a
few inches from the end of the stall, forming a sort of
gutter, extending the whole length of the stable, and
passing out through the wall at each end, where iron
bars should be placed, to admit of the water, &c. pas¬
sing out of the stable, which is the intention of this
gutter, but preventing the intrusion of rats, and other
noxious animals. _
The floor of stables is commonly paved with stone, fioot.
or hard bricks made for that purpose. This kind of
flooring has the advantage of being more durable than
any other*, but it is not without its inconveniences.
The stones or bricks become smooth by wearing, and,
when the stable is wet, the horse, especially if he be
very frisky, is apt to slip, and endanger straining or
otherwise injuring his limbs. Again, by the pawing,
or stamping, to which these animals are often subject,
the pavement may be loosened or broken. Tor these
reasons, it would perhaps be better that at least the
stalls should be floored with strong oaken planks well
seasoned, and laid across the stall, with their extremi¬
ties below the partitions, and having their joining edges
accurately adapted to each other. A flooring of this
kind has the advantage of being more elastic, and of
preserving a more equable temperature than pavement j
and it is”not liable to the inconveniences which we
have mentioned, as attending this latter. A wooden
flooring is indeed expensive, but this is more than
counterbalanced by the advantages to the horse. It is
of little consequence how the rest of the stable is cover¬
ed j some gentlemen floor their stables with a sort of
cement, which in course of time becomes as hard as
stone, and has the advantage of being perfectly smooth
and even. The gutter should of course be well paved.
The manger for receiving the horses corn should be Manger,
about a foot broad, and five or six inches deep. . The
manger is usually made of wood, and when this is the
case, the boards composing it should be so closely join¬
ed, that the corn cannot get through between them.
The front of the manger should rise about three feet,
or a little more from the ground $ should slope a little,
and should terminate above by a strong rounded border.
This, if the manger be made of wood, should be
covered with tin plate, or white iron, as horses are very
apt, when without food, or when allowed to remain
Jong in the stall, to bite the front of the manger, and
thus acquire a very bad habit, which farriers call erth-
biting. Some choose to make the manger of stone,
which
’art IV.
F A R R I E K Y.
Hygeio-
logy.
198
la«k.
199
able*
onld not
too
)se.
which has the advantage of wood in being more durable
J and cleanly, wood acquiring by use an unpleasant smell,
and being soon rotted by the moisture of the food,
which it often receives. The bottom of the manger
should slope a little forwards.
The manger is sometimes made to extend the whole
length of the stable, when it is in general divided into
several cavities, one for each horse. It is of little con¬
sequence whether it be one continued cavity, or
whether there be a separate manger for each stall j but
the manger should by no means be supported on legs,
so as to make it moveable, as is sometimes done ; as
this prevents the litter from being conveniently stowed
below the manger, and exposes the horse or the manger
to accidents. It should therefore be firmly fixed at the
back to the wall of the stable, and to each partition of
the stall. Sometimes a hollow is made at one end of
the manger, or at one end of each division of it, for
the purpose of holding water. When this is done,
there should be a hole in the bottom of this cavity
fitted with a plug, to draw off the water when the
horse has done drinking, or when the manger has been
washed.
In the middle of the front of the manger, in its thick
edge, there is usually fixed an iron ring, turning easily
in an eye bolt, for the purpose of passing through the
halter, by which the horse is fastened. Sometimes, in¬
stead of this ring, a hole is made through the border of
the manger for the halter to pass through ; but as the hal¬
ter does not slip backwards and forwards easily through
such a hole, and wears very fast by rubbing against the
wood, the iron ring is to be preferred. The horse
should always be fastened in such a way, as that the
halter shall slide backwards and forwards with every
motion of the horse’s head j and he should on no account
be tied by the halter, as this exposes him to accidents,
by twisting the halter about his neck or legs.
The rack should be placed at such a height above
the manger, as that the horse can easily reach it, to pull
out the hay 5 it should be very strong and firmlv fixed,
and should incline a little outwards from the wall of
the stable. The bars of which it is composed, should
not be above four or five inches asunder, that the hay
may not fall out and be wasted.
One circumstance particularly to be attended to in
the construction of stables is, to preserve a free circula¬
tion of air.
The generality of stables are by much too close and
warm $ not a chink is left for the free admission of air }
the door and windows (if there are any), are made so
close, as perfectly to exclude the air ; or, if this is not
the case, the crevices are frequently stopped with hay,
under the idea that the horses cannot be kept too warm.
This is a most absurd and mistaken notion ; and is con¬
tradicted both by reason and daily experience. When
we consider that horses in a state of nature, or even in
their usual pastures, are perpetually exposed to the open
air, and that, under these circumstances, they are more
vigorous and active than under the most attentive care
of their masters, we must be convinced of the improprie¬
ty of keeping them for hours together in the foul and
heated atmosphere of the ordinary close stables. Who¬
ever enters one of these stables when the door is first
opened in the morning, after it has been closely shut up
all night, will be able to judge from his own sensations,
461
whether such an atmosphere can be wholesome to the itygde-
animals that breathe it. Besides the great heat of the logy,
stable, which, if many horses have been shut up in it all-v—*—
night, is nearly intolerable, the air will be found highly
impure from the continued respiration of so many ani¬
mals, and the steams arising from the exhalations of
their bodies, which have probably sweated profusely
from having been so long confined in an atmosphere so
foul and heated. Add to this the impregnation of the
air by the effluvia arising from the litter, &c. j and it is
not easy to conceive a more unhealthy situation for an
animal, who, to perform the offices required of him
with activity and vigour, should be in the full possession
of all bis strength. Now it may easily be supposed,
that such an air as we have described, cannot be calcu«
lated to strengthen the body of the horses. On the
contrary, it must be in a high degree weakening and
relaxing. In this relaxed state, the horse is probably
taken out immediately into the open air, whatever may
be the season or weather, and made to enter on bis
daily task. The effect which such a sudden change must
have on the constitution of the strongest horse, need
not be described. The sudden action of the cold and
probably moist air on a body that has been exposed for
so many hours to the heated air of the stable, must be
productive of the worst consequences to the health and
vigour of the animal. Accordingly, fevers, colds,
rheumatism, asthma, and a number of other formidable
diseases, may be traced to this debilitating source.
We should think, that the analogy of nature would
have taught men to avoid such absurdities. We learn
from those authors who have written on the natural his¬
tory of the horse, that the Arabians, who live in tents,
and are extremely careful in the management of their
horses, allow them to stand all day, when not employ¬
ed, at the door of the tent $ and at night bring them
within the tent, where they lie down in the same apart¬
ment with their master and family, sheltered indeed
from the dews of the night, but freely exposed to the
circulation of air that must constantly prevail in these
temporary dwellings. 200
To avoid the inconveniencies arising from confined Mode of
air, the stable should he made high and roomy ; the ventila-
door and windows should not be made too close ; andtloa-
the stable should he provided with proper ventilators.
Perhaps a good method of preserving a free circulation
of air in the stable at all times, would be to carry up a
flue diagonally through the wall at each extremity,
terminating above in a sort of chimney j and below,
within the stable, in an opening sufficiently wide in
any part of the wall that is not immediately within the
stall. aor
The free admission of light into stables is nearly ofWindew**
as much consequence as that of air. It is a very errone¬
ous opinion which is maintained by some grooms and
stable-keepers, that horses feed best in the dark. These
animals naturally love the light, and are much more
cheerful and spirited in stables where this is freely ad¬
mitted, than in the dark and dismal hovels that we
sometimes find attached to inns and farm houses. There
is one had consequence that follows keeping horses in
a dark stable, which does not appear to he sufficiently
attended to. By being kept so long excluded fram the
light, the horses eyes become weak, and unable to sup¬
port the full glare of open day. The pupils being so
long
FARRIERY.
long habituated to an unusual degree of dilatation, do
not"readily contract when the animaWs brought out in¬
to the open air j hence his eyes being oftended with
the strong light, to which he is so little accustomed, are
perpetually winking and watering j the horse appears as
if half blind, and starts and stumbles at almost every step.
The stable should, therefore, be furnished with glaz-
d windows, in number proportioned to the siie of the
Hygcio.
ioa:y.
building. fn general, no stables should have fewer
than two windows j and they should be placed in such
a situation, as that the horses may not receive the rays
of light too directly on their eyes. . Where the stable
has only one range of stalls, this point can be easily ef¬
fected, and in such stables, the windows should always
be placed at the back of the horses. But in double
stables it is not easy to place the windows so as not to
incommode some of the horses, since, on whichever side
of the stable they are made, the horses on that side are
exposed to the full glare of the light} another argu¬
ment against double stables. The windows should by all
means be sashed-, and should be made to draw down from
the top, as well as to be thrown up from below. _ 1 hey
should not be made too small, and should be carried up
as near the ceiling of the stable, as is compatible with
the strength and symmetry of the building. Windows
constructed in this way not only add much to the ap¬
pearance of the stables and to the comfort ol the
horses ; but they afford one of the best means of pro-
motino- a free circulation of fresh air through the stable.
For by throwing one of them up, and drawing another
down, the ventilation becomes nearly as complete as
possible. . .
Nothing has astonished us more, when viewing the
handsome offices attached to some of the gentlemen s
houses in this country, than to see the deficiency of the
stables in the article of windows. When viewing them
from without, we have congratulated the animals con¬
fined in them on the comfort of light and air, which
they must enjoy from the fine sash-windows, which
we saw on each side of the stable door. How great has
been our astonishment on entering the building, to find
UCCli v/CiJL ciw *, *>*** »** O f* ^ 1 *
all gloomy and dark within and that the fine sash-win-
[20l]
Lotts above
the stable
improper.
caLI U lUV-im T —    /
dows which we thought to have seen at a distance, were
nothing but efforts of the painter to deceive our senses,
and to present an appearance of what certainly oug it
to have been a reality !
We must be permitted here to draw what we hope
will not be considered as an invidious comparison be¬
tween the Scotch and English method of lodging their
horses. In England we have rarely seen such miserable
hovels as, in many parts of Scotland, are used to sup¬
ply the place of stables. We have indeed in the for¬
mer country seen the stables sometimes very small, or
even consisting of a thatched building not very well de¬
fended from the weather; hut they are for the most
part tolerably well ventilated, and we believe scarcely
ever without windows.
It is a common practice to build stables of two sto-
the upper story forming a loft for the purpose of
Part IV
vacancy in that part of the flooring which is immediate¬
ly over the rack, for the purpose of more conveniently
supplying the horses with hay. This mode of building ^
stables has its convenience in an economical point ot
view, and these apartments in the upper story add much
to the showy appearance of the building } but there
are several material objections to this construction.
1. The hay and corn being kept immediately over
the stable, are constantly exposed to the foul and heat¬
ed air and putrid steams rising up from the stalls through
the rack, and are thus rendered liable to be heated and
mildewed ; whilst the dust rising from the shaking of
the hay into the rack is very prejudicial to the lungs of
the horses. On this account, it is much better, where
this can be conveniently done, to keep the hay and corn
in some place distinct from the stable, and bung
from time to time a sufficient quantity of hay nearly to
fill the rack, into which it might be put while the horse
is abroad. > p . .
2. Another serious objection to having loits ana
chambers above the stable, is that the building is thus
much more exposed to accidents from fire, owing to the
carelessness of the servants. And,
3. These apartments above the stable render the latter
much too close and warm.
Where, from convenience or fancy, a gentlenfan
chooses to build his stables in the manner which we
have just described, it will be advisable to have the floor¬
ing above the stable made as close as possible, and co¬
vered with thin bricks or stones for the purpose of check¬
ing the progress of fire and for preserving the hay and
corn as much as may be from the steams of the stable,
a partition wall may be raised from the extremity of the
flooring immediately over the rack all the way to the
roof of the loft, with a door opening over the rack in
each stall. The entrance to the hay loft or chambers
above the stable should be without, and by no means,
as is generally the case, by a trap door and ladder with¬
in the stable. If, as we frequently see in gentlemen’s
offices, the stables are built on each side of the coach¬
house, the entrance to the rooms above may be con¬
veniently made by a stair from the coach-house.
The building of which the stable forms a part, should
be as much asDpossible detached from other buildings,
so as to admit of a free circulation of air all around.
It is a vile practice, which is common on many farms stable
and in some inns, to have the dung-hill or middenshoaldk
close to the stable. This nuisance should be removed ^ ^
far as possible from the door and windows or the..,.
201
as iai cia       . . p ■
stable, as the heat and noisome vapours arising trom
the fermenting dung impregnate the air to a consider-
It is of great consequence that the stable be kept Necessitj|
sweeped and cleaned. It should therefore be regularly s 1
swept every morning, and every part of the litter that
is wet and dirty should be removed to the dunghill,
while what is clean and dry should be put up close be¬
low the manger, unless where the horse is lame, or has
any affection"of the feet or limbs, which renders it ne¬
cessary for him to stand upon soft litter. W here the
horse is perfectly healthy, no litter should be allowed
in the day time, much less should the stall be crammed
with litter, as is often done, and is suffered to remain
in this situation for many days, for the purpose ot in¬
creasing the quantity of manure. Nothing injures the
hill.
2C1
Ties, UK-  J   a - - „
keeping the horse’s hay and corn and in gentlemen s
stables, where the building is sufficiently large, it is
usual to have apartments on the upper story for the
grooms and other servants employed about the stables
to sleep in.
The apartment employed as a hay loft has usually a
prt IV. FARR
Hygcio- feet of horses more, or more frequently produces soft*
104
’talking
105
essiuii
ness of the hoof, canker, and greasy heels, than allow¬
ing them to stand night and day on hot fermenting
dung. It is also impossible for the horse to lie down
in comfort in such a hot-bed •, and if the poor animal
is obliged to recline himself for a time, he is soon com¬
pelled to rise again, and repeatedly making the same
attempt to rest, and finding it impracticable, he is for¬
ced at length to stand altogether, perhaps shifting his
legs from one part of the stall to another, to avoid the
heat of the dung.
Lord Pembroke is of opinion that after working,
and at night of course, as also in lamenesses and sick¬
nesses, it is good for horses to stand on litter; it also
promotes staling, &c. At other times it is a bad cus¬
tom ; the constant use of it heats and makes the feet
tender, and causes swelled legs. Moreover it renders
the animal delicate. Swelled legs may frequently be
reduced to their proper natux-al size by taking away
the litter only, which, in some stables, where ignorant
grooms and farriers govern, would be a great saving of
physic and bleeding, besides straw. “ I have seen,
(says he), by repeated experiments, legs swell and un¬
swell, by leaving litter, or taking it away, like mer¬
cury in a weather-glass.”
It is a very common practice to keep horses, while
in the stable, covered up with warm clothing. This
is in some cases necessary, especially when they are un¬
der a course of physic, or are otherwise so delicate, as
that they would be liable to injury from too much ex¬
posure to the air. But its indiscriminate use is highly
improper, as it tends to render the horse too delicate,
and exposes him to the danger of catching cold when¬
ever he goes out into the air. While a horse is in com¬
plete health, and stands idle, he requires very little, if
any covering, unless the stable be extremely cold, or ill
sheltered. When indeed he comes into the stable,
much heated by violent exercise or hard labour, it may
be proper to throw over him a single cloth, that he may
cool gradually. Some grooms think it necessary, be¬
sides enveloping the horse with body clothes, to gird
them fast round the belly with tight rollers 5 and this
is done with the view of taking up the horse’s belly, as
they term it. The practice is exceedingly absurd, for
these tight rollers impede the circulation in the super¬
ficial veins, produce difficult breathing, and if they be
applied, as is often the case, after eating, they greatly
obstruct digestion.
To finish the subject of stable economy, we have
only to make a few remarks on currying, or dressing
horses.
Friction employed on the horse’s skin is not only ne¬
cessary to keep him clean, and to promote the insensi¬
ble perspiration, by freeing the skin and hair from im¬
purities, but it is exceedingly useful when considered
as a kind of exercise. It promotes the free circulation
of the blood, which is much impeded by the horse
standing long idle in the stable 5 and it much improves
the appearance of the horse’s coat. Horses should
therefore be regularly dressed, at least twice a-day.
There are, however, some cases in which general
friction ought not to be employed; such are cases of
internal inflammation, especially of the bowels ; or
when there is a discharge of sharp ichorous matter from
any part, especially the legs and heels. In these cases
I E R Y. 463
the affected parts should not be rubbed, as it would Hv.r
*  a! • IT. • • r. .
tend to increase the pain and distress arising from the
inflammation.
2. Of Cow-houses, or Bi/res.
After what we have said on the construction of sta- C°w-house«
bles, we need not here enlarge on that of cow-housesor ^Ies*
or cattle byres, as these buildings, so far at least as re¬
spects their outsides, are constructed on similar prin¬
ciples. We shall take occasion, when treating on the
manner of feeding cattle, to describe a byre that ap¬
pears to us to afford a good model for buildings of this
kind.
It is of material importance in the wintering of young
stock, to keep them more warm, and sheltered from
wet, than is usually done, as by this means they thrive
faster, with a less consumption of food, than in the cen¬
tral y circumstances. Ibis may be effected, either by
tying them up in stalls, in houses for the purpose, or
by keeping them in good sheds in well inclosed yards.
. T|ie question of feeding the cattle tied up, or loose pr0prkty
in the yards, in winter, has not been yet decided, of tying
Each method has probably advantages. In the first, cattle’
the cattle thrive better than when left at liberty to run
about the yards. Mr Marshall found that in York¬
shire, cattle kept tied up, and regularly fed with straw
in a moderate proportion, did better than in the southern
parts of the island, where left loose in the midst of greater
plenty. Whether this etfect is to be ascribed to the
greater warmth, the resting better, or the being fed
more regularly, and eating with an appetite, he cannot
determine. Some experiments of Mr Young’s also
lead to the conclusion that cattle stock thrive better
when tied up. They likewise show that the practice
of tying up is the only one that can be had recourse to,
where straw is not in great plenty, and the quantity of
the stock very inadequate to its consumption.
In the latter method there is the advantage of a
large supply of manure, especially where the farmer has
the conveniency of litter. Where however the farmer
has convenience, the former method is probably in ge¬
neral the most beneficial. In either mode of manage¬
ment much attention is necessary to keeping the stock
       J
constantly supplied in an evenly proportioned manner,
flS in tins TK7£»\r tilfavA Will rrvianfr o /I tto *-1 f n nr a K/-vfk -A-SVlCUlt*
as in tins way there will be great advantage, both in, ..
the saving of food, and the condition of the animals *. '° J'g
The necessity of providing shelter for cattle in bad Ox-houses
weather, is now we believe pretty well understood by
every intelligent farmer 5 and experience has proved
that proper buildings erected for winter feeding are at¬
tended with considerable advantages. The erection for
this purpose at Hafod in Wales, the residence of Tho¬
mas Johnes, Esq. M. P. for the county of Cardigan,
and one of the most eminent improvers of the present
time, seems to be calculated upon a moderate scale.
The whole length of the building is fifty feet, the roof
shelving, its chief height being fourteen feet, the lower
extremities, one seven and a half, the other six feet.
A stone wall running up to the summit, parts the feed¬
ing-house from the other and smaller apartment, which
is a receptacle for dung. Width of the feeding-house,
nineteen feet within-side. Stalls each twelve feet long
by four feet two inches wide. Gangway three feet and
a half, at the heels and tails of the cattle, leading from
the doors, the first door being for the cattle, the other
for .
* Law¬
rence an
Cattle.
209
•Sleep, cots.
F A II K
for the attendants. Similar doors at the opposite ends
of the building. KunninEC water in troughs, with racks,
and mangers. The cattle lie on wooden platforms,
perforated for the passage of the urine. The urine
runs, and the dung is pushed through apertures in the
wall, each of which is two feet square, and one be¬
tween every two stalls. There are 12 wooden flaps or
windows to give light and air, to each stall. The
dung pit is about twelve feet wide, sunk some feet deep
in the earth, extending the whole length of the build¬
ing. The walls are built partly with stone, and m
part with wood, the roof with larch wood, as an expe¬
riment of its durability in that exposure.
Acco rding to Mr Lawrence, the round or quadrangu¬
lar form might perhaps, either of them, be more economi¬
cal as to space and materials for a building to contain a
considerable number. The oxen would most convenient¬
ly stand around with their tails toward the wall, contrary
to the usual practice, for the more easy throwing out
the dung from a gangway, through apertures purposely
made in the wall, into a pit, under cover, sunk around
the building. The area within would, of course, be
for feeding, and every necessary purpose of attendance.
A store-chamber above completes the building, the chiet
objection to the form of which, is the greater expence
attendant upon the reversed position of the cattle, which
perhaps is compensated by the great saving or labour,
in the more easily getting rid of the dung. Ihe gang¬
way will in course be sufficiently wide to admit the
beasts to and from their stalls •, the dung aperture in
the wall may be closed in cold weather
Of all domestic animals, sheep are the most exposed
to the inclemencies of the weather. This arises chiefly
from their numbers, which renders complete shelter
very difficult $ but even in the case of a small flock, the
prejudicesof manyfeeders have prevented their procuring
proper shelter for their sheep, under the idea that it would
render them too lazy to provide for themselves. 1 hese
prejudices, however, are gradually wearing away, and
few sheep-farms are at present unprovided with shelter,
either of trees or buildings. Mr T indlater, in his able
survey of Peebles, strongly recommends shelter for
sheep. “ It W'ould be (says this gentleman) for the in¬
terest of every proprietor of sheep-farms, to encourage
the farmer to rear shelter of trees, by allowing him the
weedings of the plantation, and becoming bound to
pay the farmer, at the rate of perhaps eight-pence or
ten-pence a piece, for every tree left standing at specified
distances, at the expiry of his lease •, such interest
communicated to the farmer, would give the most ef¬
fectual security for the protection of the trees, bhel-
ters are also procured by buildings, enclosing a square
open area in the middle, furnished with sheds on every
side. Stclls (that is circular spaces of area, propor¬
tioned to the size of the flock, enclosed by a five or six
feet wall of stone, or sod, without any roof) were the
primeval shelters invented by our forefathers. The cir¬
cular figure of the building causes the drifting wind in
snow storms to wheel round it, without rising over it,
and depositing the snow in the calm region within.
The sheep are fed, in winter storms, with such provi¬
sion as can be procured, under the trees, in the sheds,
and within the circles. Even where no feeding is ad¬
ministered, much advantage results to the animals, from
I E R Y. PartIV.
mere defence against the weather; and they are much
the more alert in searching for natural food, so soon as ,
the storm ceases. The mode of acting of the sheep
gives a pretty certain indication ot the weathei to bt
expected : Upon the near approach of a storm, those ac¬
customed to shelters are observed to make for their
shelters. Upon the near approach of thaw, their pre¬
sentiment leads them to be less industrious in digging
the snow for food, as if conscious that such labour was *
no longer necessary ter sSw.
According to Mordaunt, who wrote about the middle p
of last century, sheep pens and houses were then not
uncommon in Essex and Gloucestershire. He directs
the pens to he made at some convenient corner of a
pasture, or where several fields, commons, or pastures
meet, so as to be common to them all. They should
also be erected on a dry spot of ground, and stones laid
at the bottom to keep the sheep dry and clean, whilst
under examination. The pens to be divided into parti¬
tions to hold about forty sheep.
“ The sheep houses, for warmth in the winter season,
are made low, and a third part longer than broad, and
rather large, the sides lined with furze or boards, for
warmth; the bottom laid with large stone slabs, and
very level, that the urine run not away, but soak into
the litter. It would be proper to have the sunny side
well lined with moveable hurdles, that when the sun
shines it may be laid open to give the sheep a refresh¬
ment, by letting them into some close or croft, where¬
in the sheep-house stands : the house to be well cover¬
ed.” ^
3. Of Dog-kennels.
It is usually recommended to erect a particular
building, for the sole purpose of a kennel; and certain¬
ly where the proprietor’s fortune will admit of it, such
an appropriate building is to be preferred. A com¬
mon barn has, however, often been employed as a
kennel: and Mr Daniel says, that the excellence of
the hounds kept in such a building has been rivalled
by few that were lodged in the most sumptuous edi-
hC\Vhatever may be the form or original intention of
the building, cleanliness is absolutely necessary, both to
the nose of the hound and the preservation of his
health. The sense of smelling is so exquisite in a hound,
that every stench must be supposed injurious to it;
upon that faculty all our hopes depend, and nostrils
clogged with the effluvia of a dirty kennel, are ill
adapted to carry the scent over greasy fallows, or guide
one through the soil of deer, or over ground tainted by
sheep. Dogs are by nature cleanly ; where they lie,
if they can avoid it, they seldom dung. Air mid fresh
straw are essential to preserve them healthy. Ihey are
subject to the mange; nastiness very much contributes
to this, and although at the first appearance it may be
easily checked, the remedies that are used are in them¬
selves strong in their operation, and will do no good
to the hounds constitution. Let the cleanliness ot the
kennel, therefore, be carefully attended to ; a resort to
these remedies will then be unnecessary, and all injury
to hounds from this source will be prevented.
On the presumption that a kennel is to be erected,
its site is strongly pointed out by Somerville. ^
Part IV.
Hygeio- 4< Upon some little eminence erect
FARRIERY.
46
III
like of
ich-
ond’s
imie!.
lit
i.
113
“ And fronting to the ruddy dawn, its courts
On either hand wide opening to receive
“ Pe, sl|p,s all-cheering beams, when mild he shines
And gilds the mountain tops.”
work^’ °r m°re refresh:ng than warmi/l after hard iIy„ei0.
The kennel should have three doors ; two in front J
and one behind ; that in the back to have
But this selection of a high situation is incompatible
with a 1 mining brook ; and as these two advantages can¬
not be united, water is to be preferred, with the aspect
to the morning sun as much attended to as possible.
The number of its inmates must determine the size
of the kennel} and the architecture should be neat, with¬
out being uselessly expensive. The most magnificent
is the duke of Richmond’s at Goodwood, which cost
19,000!. and is sufficiently extensive for two packs of
hounds. The building comprises five kennels, two 36
by I5> three 30 by ij, and twro feeding rooms 20 by
15 feet, with stoves to warm the air, wdien too cold.
Ihe huntsman and whipper-in have each a parlour
kitchen, and sleeping-room.
The nearer to the house the kennel is placed the bet¬
ter. ’I here are reasons against its too close approach,
but they yield to others which forbid a great distance.
To mention one, derived indeed from a vulgar saying,
“ that the master’s eye makes the horse fat recollect
that the inspection of the kennel is even more needful
than that of the stable j for in both, cleanliness is no
less essential than food.
The kennel should be of sufficient dimensions at its
first building; room for two kennels should be under
the same roof; when there is but one it is seldom
sweet; and when washed out, the hounds, particularly
in winter, not only suffer during the time of cleaning,
but as long afterwards as it remains wet. The second
kennel affords opportunity for drafting the hounds in¬
tended to hunt the next morning. In a few days
they will be drafted with little trouble, will readily
answer to their names ; and with equal ease as a shep¬
herd numbers his sheep, you may count your hounds in¬
to the hunting kennel.
In a morning, upon the feeder’s first entering the
kennel, he should let the hounds into the outer court;
the door of the hunting kennel, when not occupied by
the drafted hounds for that day’s hunting, should be
opened in bad weather to shelter them ; the lodging-
room should then be thoroughly cleaned, the windows
and doors opened, the litter well shaken, and the ken¬
nel made sweet, before the hounds are again shut into
it. Every omission prejudicial to the hounds should be
immediately pointed out to the feeder, who must be
made to remedy it; and also observe that the great
court and the other kennels are equally obiects of his
attention.
The lodging-room should be bricked, and sloped on
both sides to the centre, where should be a gutter to
carry off the water, that when washed, the floor may
be equally dried : but flag-stones, or large square bricks
pammonds, are far preferable ; there are fewer
interstices, and consequently less filth or water can
there accumulate, and the surface is sooner dry. Let
the floor be kept in thorough repair, that no water may
remain in any cavity, until the mason can be had, when
at any time wanted; let the stagnant water be careful¬
ly stopped up; for nothing is more hurtful to bounds,
Vol. vm. Part II. 1
,     ►, I* *,v/ MCI V f 3, IclttlCC ^ ^ 5
window in it, with a wooden shutter, which is to be Do0^S•
kept always close, except in summer, when it should
be left open the whole of the day. This door has a two-
lokl utility, it serves to carry out the dirty straw, and
being opposite to the window, will admi't a thorough
air, when the lodging-room is cleaned, which will
much contribute to render it sweet and wholesome.
Ihe front doors will be useful in drying the room when
the hounds are out; and as one is to be shut and the
other hooked back, so as to allow a single dog to pass,
they are not liable to any objection. The large centre
window should have a folding shutter, which at night,
according to the weather, may be wholly or partially
closed ; and thus the warmth of the kennel may be re¬
gulated as is judged most salutary. The two great
edging rooms are exactly similar, and having a court
belonging to each, are distinct kennels situated at the
opposite ends of the building. In the centre of the
boiling-house and feeding-yard, a lesser kennel, either
for hounds that are drafted off, hounds that are sick
and lame, or for any other required purpose, is on each
side ; at the back of which, it being but half the depth
of the two larger kennels, are places for coals, &c. for
the use of the kennel. There is also a small building
in the rear for hot bitches.
The inner court floor should be bricked or flagged, Inn^cmirt
and sloped towards the centre like those of the lodging-
room ; and water brought in by a leaden pipe, should
run through the channel in the middle. In the centre
of each court is a well sufficiently large to dip a bucket
for the purpose of cleaning the kennel. To keep these
fiom wanting repair, they should be faced with stone,
and to that of the feeding-yard a wooden cover should
be. fixed. rihe benches, which must be open to let the
urine through, should have hinges and hooks in them
all, that they may fold up when the kennel is washed.
They should be made as low as possible, that when a
hound is tired, he may have no difficulty in jumping
up, and at no time be able to creep under them. Re¬
collect that if, owing to the smallness of the hound, as
^ ^fficult to make the benches
sufficiently low, it will be proper to nail a lodging pro¬
jecting downwards in the edge, or the benches may be
faced with boards at the bottom, to prevent hounds from
creeping under.
A large bricked court in front, having a grass court
adjoining, and a brook running through the middle of
it, completes the kennel. This court "should be plant¬
ed round, and also have some lime trees and some horse
chesnuts near the centre for shade. Some posts bound
round with straw, rubbed with galbanum, may be placed
so as to prevent the hounds from making water against
the trees. The brook may be used as a cold bath for
hounds lamed, in the stifle, in strains, or for other pur¬
poses for which the cold bath is required. A high pal¬
ing should inclose the whole, and which, to the height
of four feet, should be close, the remainder being open,
with an interval of two inches between the pales. At
the back of the kennel should be a thatched house,
fenced at the sides, to contain at least a load of straw,
3N
VO
466
Hygeio-
logy.
2«7
'*■ Daniel
Rural
Sports.
vol. i.
2 iS
Diet.
219
Food of
horse**
FARR
a p'll for receiving ihe dong, and a gallows for the
flesh If a piece of ground adjoining to the kennel can
conveniently be enclosed, for keeping such horses as
may be brought alive for the use of the hounds, it
would be of great service, as the disorders of condemn¬
ed horses are not always ascertained j and an opportu¬
nity may thus be offered of investigating them nature
and progress, which may prove advantageous in future
similar cases. The hounds may also be brought into
this field, to empty themselves after feeding j and the
draught for the next day’s hunt can be here made with
greater accuracy than when they are confined to the
^Stoves are used in some kennels*, but a good feeder,
and the mop properly applied, render them unnecessary.
Should ticks prove troublesome at any time, the walls ot
the kennel should be well washed 5 and if that should
fail to destroy the ticks, they must be white-washed
'V1 When the hunting season is over, one kennel will be
sufficient, and the other with the grass-yard adjoining to
it may be allowed to the young hounds. This separa¬
tion, which should continue till the season commences,
is necessary for preventing many accidents that might
otherwise happen at this time of the year. Should there
be conveniencies, it will be proper to keep the dogs se¬
parate from the bitches during the summer months.
When hounds are very riotous, the feeder may sleep m
a cot in an adjoining kennel ; if the dogs are well
chastised at the first quarrel, his voice will afterwards
s be sufficient to keep them quiet*.
Chap. II. Of Diet.
In preserving the health of domestic animals, much
will depend on the quantity and quality of their food,
and on the manner in which they are supplied with it.
This subject, therefore, requires some share of our at¬
tention. We have already, in the article Agricul¬
ture, treated pretty much at large on the different
kinds of food that are most proper for horses, sheep, and
cattle *, and have here little to add on that head. Our
principal object in this chapter will be, to consider the
best means of dispensing food to the different classes of
domestic animals, and to describe what are considered
the most beneficial methods of preparing the food in
those cases where its preparation appears to be neces-
^The natural food of the horse is the simple herbage
of the field, and on it alone he can be constantly kept
in a high state of health and vigour, so long as he shall
not be required to labour ; and whilst he is employe
in labour, grass in some form, either dried or green,
seems absolutely necessary for his maintenance m a
healthy state. Hay, straw, and corn of various kinds
have been, from the earliest time, the common food of
horses ; but in Britain, and indeed in France and Ger¬
many, during the later periods especially, they have
rejected all other species of horse corn, from a well-
grounded preference in favour of oats and beans ; the
latter for draught horses chiefly, or as substantial auxi¬
liaries to the oats, imparting as strong a nourishment as
the constitution of the horse will properly bear, and at
the same time of a cleansing nature *, and are, moreover,
I E R Y. . fart IV.
the best and cheapest in-door fattening for almost all Hygei®.
domestic animals. # . . logy*
The species of corn usually given to horses in many » —1
countries is barley, the bulky provender is straw, both
of which, in warm climates, are said to be nearly equal
in nutriment to our oats and hay. ith us, barley is
apt to scour horses, and make their urine red, especially
at its first being given. Wheat is often given to horses
of the great upon the continent. It is said when r'hilip
of Spain was in this country, his jennets were fed upon
wheat during the time of scarcity, and this gave great
umbrage to the people. , >.
There seems to exist no particular ditlerence ot qua¬
lity between the white and the black oats, they being
equal in weight and thinness of husk ; these criteria, and
their being short, are the best marks of their goodness.
It is equally well known that they should be some
months old when used, as new oats are apt to swell the
belly and produce gripes. 221
New beans are improper for horses, for the same rea- Beans,
son. The best remedy is to dry them in a kiln. Old
beans should be split, and given either with bran or
chaff; or the best way would be to break them in a
mill. Mr Lawrence fed cart-horses with beans for
nearly seven years, without experiencing any ill effect
from such food ; but the horses laboured very hard.
Beans contain more solid nourishment than oats, but of
a less salubrious nature. .
Grains constantly loosen a horse, and impoverish his
blood ; bran scours and weakens the entrails; both of
them are good occasional dietetic alteratives.
Carrots are said to purify and sweeten the blood, to CajroUi
amend the wind, and to replenish after the washings
occasioned by disease or inordinate labour. Mr Law¬
rence informs us that he has been accustomed to use
them for years in all forms, and to all descriptions of
horses. They are either given in spring or autumn to
high fed horses, as a change of diet, at the rate of one
feed per day, in lieu of a feed of corn, or as full subsist¬
ence to others. They ought to be washed clean, and,
if large, cut into flat and sizeable pieces. The quantity
of carrots for a feed is from half a peck to a peck. .
The usual periods of feeding with corn are m UnsTiraeof
country, morning, noon, and night. The quantities fceding,
each time either a quarter or half a peck, with or with¬
out about two handfuls of beans, according to the
horse’s state of body. Much greater care than is com¬
mon ought to be taken in sifting the oats clean from dust,
and the dung of mice. Water should be allowed with¬
out fail twice a day. There is an error not unfrequent
among stable people, who suppose water to be at best
but a kind of necessary evil to horses, and therefore
think it a point gained whenever they can find an op¬
portunity to abridge the quantity. But how well so¬
ever a horse may shift with little or no water while it}
the field, and while feeding on succulent meat, much
mischief may ensue from its being withheld *, and this
may produce costiveness, gripes, inflammation of the
bowels, perpetual longing, and a danger of drinking to
excess on every opportunity. . , , , 4
The well known use of hay is to dilate the body of Wy¬
the horse, to satisfy his appetite with bulk and quanti¬
ty as corn does with compact and solid nourishment.
British hay, the best in the world, contains great
J nourishment,
Law-
•ncc on
[ 'met,
>1. ii.
*25
Part IV. FARE
Hygeio- nourishment, and will keep a horse and even fatten him $
logy^ but he is unable to labour upon hay alone, and experi-
‘ ence has shewn that Bracken’s observation of the con¬
stant use of hay injuring the sight of horses, particular¬
ly if suddenly put on such food after good keeping, is
very just. Hard upland hay is the best for race and
coach horses ; and it should be of a fine greenish colour,
fragrant scent, and full of flower. It is said that horses
and cattle prefer such hay as has been sweated, or which
has undergone a partial fermentation : and it is even
thought that they grow much sooner fat on heated hay
than on such as has been gotten up dry and cool.
There can be no doubt that sweated hay contains a
considerable quantity of sugar, formed during its state
of fermentation ; this may render the hay more pala¬
table to the beasts, but we have some doubt whether it
be so wholesome as fresh well-coloured hay. Clover-hay,
and hay of artificial grasses, from its grossness, is appro¬
priated to cart-horses. Without attempting to ascertain
the precise quantity, it may be said that hay should be
given as often as a horse has a keen appetite for it j
but great care should be taken that so much be never
allowed at once, as that he shall leave it, and blow up¬
on it. At night a considerable quantity of hay is usual¬
ly left in the rack, and this is no doubt absolutely ne¬
cessary for horses who are hard worked during the day,
as night is their most leisure time for feeding 5 but it
admits of doubt whether horses who live in a state of
luxury, and are but little worked, should be indulged
in much hay at night *.
It will obviously occur to most people, that the quan¬
tity and quality of a horse’s food should be proportion¬
ed to his labour: that horses who are lightly worked,
will not in general require so much or so nourishing
food, as those who are constantly kept to hard labour.
It is evident that when horses stand idle, and are at the
same time high fed, they are exposed to many danger¬
ous diseases, as inflammation, staggers, arising from a too
full habit of body ; and these diseases will be more like¬
ly to come on when a horse that has been thus fed is
suddenly put to hard labour, or obliged to make any
unusual or violent exertion. But this must not be
carried too far. Horses should not, because they have
little work at the time, be entirely confined to grass, or
grass and hay, unless they are at pasture, and are never
worked. For while a horse stands in the stable, and is
liable to be called upon on any emergency, his diet
should be so regulated, as that he shall neither be so fat
and full of blood, as not to perform occasional work
without difficulty and danger, nor, on the other hand,
so poor and weak as to be incapable of supporting ex¬
ertion without injury to himself or rider. All horses
that are fed on grass and hay alone, are too weak to
perform a good day’s journey without stumbling. A
moderate quantity of corn or other hard food, should
therefore be allowed to such horses as stand constantly
in the stable, or who, while at pasture, are occasionally
worked.
2:5 Mr Clark observes, that throwing great quantities of
clean grain before horses at one time is very improper;
as they eat it too greedily, and swallow whole mouth¬
fuls of it almost dry. The moisture in the stomach, or
water drunk immediately after eating, causes the grain
to swell, and thus the stomach is greatly distended, and
loses its contracting power on the food. By the pressure
I E R Y.
467
of the full stomach on the intestines, the passage of the Hygeio-
food backwards is obstructed, and the confined air, logy,
arising from the indigested food, not having a ready v—»“l
passage backwards, and horses not possessing the power
of belching, the air becomes rarefied to a great degree,
the horse is seized with colic pains ; as these increase
he becomes convulsed, and in many cases the stomach
bursts. Out of a number of cases where the above was
discovered on dissecting the bodies, Mr Clark mentions
the two following.
“ A young draught-horse was fed in the morning
with too great a quantity of barley mixed with pease,
and had been allowed to drink water immediately
thereafter. He was yoked to a two-wheeled chaise, in
order to travel a few miles, and was observed about the
middle of the day to be very uneasy, frequently at¬
tempting to lie down. As soon as he was unyoked he
lay down and tumbled about, frequently lying on his
back, starting up suddenly and turning his head to¬
wards his belly. He continued thus in great agony
till towards next morning, when he died. Upon open¬
ing his body, the stomach was found burst, the barley
and pease mostly entire, only greatly swelled, and the
whole contents of the stomach spread through the ab¬
domen.
“ The other case was a horse who had been fed with
too great a quantity of oats and barley, and had been
allowed to drink water freely afterwards. He was
seized with griping pains, so that he frequently lay
down and tumbled, seemingly tortured with the most
acute pains. He died next day. Upon opening his
body, the stomach was found distended to a most enor¬
mous size, but was not burst. Its coats were so very
thin, from the great distention it had undergone, that
its cohesion was almost destroyed, and had more the ap¬
pearance of a coat of mucus or slime, than the stomach.
The oats and barley were for the most part entire as
they were swallowed, only greatly swelled from the
moisture they had imbibed.
“ From the cases now related, it will appear how ne¬
cessary it is not to allow horses to eat too great a quan¬
tity of clean grain at a time, but to give it in small
quantities, and repeated the more frequently. At the
same time, it will show the propriety of mixing with
it a little chopped straw, or hay, in order to make them
chew it the more thoroughly before they swallow it.
This process also prepares the food for being properly
digested, and not a single grain of it is lost*.” * Clark on
The method of feeding horses with bruised grain Prevention.
and oat straw is recommended by the earl of Pembroke,
in his excellent treatise on horses, as exceedingly proper.
“ Every grain (says he) goes to nourishment: none is Cot^traw
to be found in the dung 5 and three feeds of it go
further than four as commonly given which have not
been in the mill. But wheaten straw, and a little hay
sometimes mixed with it, is excellent food. To a quan¬
tity of corn, put the same quantity of straw. It obli¬
ges them to chew their meat, and is many other W’ays
of use +. . f Military
Mr Lawrence disapproves of the use of straw, a.s Equitation,
containing no nourishment. In this he probably goes
too far, as both horses and cattle are in straw-yards
often fed with little else. He prefers chalf, or cut
clover hay, to mix with the^corn, especially for cart¬
horses. Mr Lawrence, however, allows that cutting
3 N 2 up
468
F A R K I E R Y.
Part IV
Hygeio-
logy.
*18
Of grinding
torn for
hon.es.
2*9
Lawson’s
food for
horses and
tattle.
230
Food of
cat!k.
up unthrashed oats for food is a good practice, particu¬
larly when hay is scarce *, as thrashing and dressing of
the oats are thus saved, and it is an economical expen¬
diture of the oats, which are moreover very fresh, and
agreeable to the horse.
It has of late been recommended to bruise the corn
in a mill, before giving it to the horse, and it is certain¬
ly a good practice, as there is thus little danger of its
passing through the bowels undigested. It is usual
only to bruise the corn, but Mr Lawrence thinks that
it is better to grind them as fine as possible. Whole
corn, with whatever it may be mixed, will, much of it,
be swallowed in that state; a great deal only half masti¬
cated, which will elude the digestive powers of the ani¬
mal, and be ejected from his body crude and unbroken.
This is particularly the case with the brood-mares and
young stock, the bellies of which are full of slippery
grass ; such should ever have ground corn, and mashes
should always be made with it. Ground buck-wheat
agrees well enough with horses, but that species of corn
is the least substantial.
Mr Lawson, a merchant of London, has lately pub¬
lished an essay, on the use of Mixed and Compressed
Cattle Fodder, intended as food and fattening for
horses, oxen, sheep, and hogs. His plan is, to grind,
cut, mix, and compress, all the articles in present use,
as food for cattle, with some additional ones of his own
recommending ; and to keep the mass stowed in casks,
or other close stowage. He gives a detailed account
of all the instruments necessary in the process, the most
commodious methods according to his practice, and va¬
rious tables of expence and quantities.
With respect to the drink of horses, we have little
to remark. Their water should be as pure as possible,
as muddy and hard water is not only very unpleasant
to the horse, but probably lays the foundation of gra¬
velly complaints. It is a very absurd custom, which is
however very prevalent, to gallop the horse after water¬
ing, with the view, according to the groom’s idea, of
warming the water in his belly ; for if the horse has
drunk heartily, as he is very often improperly allowed
to do, any violent exertion immediately,after cannot
but occasion great uneasiness. It i$, however, a good
practice to ride the horse moderately before watering ;
but care should be taken, not to throw him into a per¬
spiration, as drinking cold water in this state is attend¬
ed with considerable danger.
The feeding of cattle is of considerable importance
to the farmer, and has of late been much improved.
Both the food and the manner of administering it must
be different according to the age of the cattle, the sea¬
son of the year, and the purposes for which the cattle
are fed.
It has been well observed in a late useful practical
work, that in the winter the yearlings should “ be fed
with hay and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes ;
and they should be thoroughly well fed, and be kept
perfectly clean by means of litter. At this age it is a
matter of great consequence to keep such young cattle
as well as possible ; for the contrary practice will ine¬
vitably stop their growth, which cannot be recovered
by the best summer food. If hay is not to be had,
good straw must be substituted ; but then the roots
should be given in greater plenty, and with more at¬
tention. To steers and horses two years old, the pro-
2
per food is hay, if cheap, or straw, with baits of tur- Hygeio-
nips, cabbages, &c*.” logy.
Mr Donaldson thinks the advantages of green win-'" y
ter food for live stock, so great, that there is no way in
which it can be applied with greater benefit than “ by^r# ^ J
giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the ’ '
first two or three winters.” Whenever straw is em¬
ployed as fodder for young stock, without the above
sorts of food, if it be not very good, or slightly mixed
with some grassy material, a little hay should always be
blended with it, in order that it may be preserved in
proper condition. It is also of consequence that the
animals be served with this sort of fodder, in a regular
manner, as where too much is given at a time, Mr Mar¬
shall has remarked, that they do not thrive so well.
The following observations of Sir John Sinclair me¬
rit every attention. ^
“ Some intelligent graziers recommend the follow-Sir John
ing mode of feeding and fattening cattle. Suppose there Siwclair’i
are four inclosures of from six to ten acres each, onere,*ar!^,,
of them should be kept quite free from stock till the
grass has got up ; and then the prime or falling cattle,
should be put into it, that they may get the best of the
food : the second best should then follow; and the
young store after all, making the whole feed over the
four inclosures in succession, as follows.
1st Inclosure.
2d ditto.
3d ditto.
4th ditto.
Free from stock, till ready for the best
cattle.
For the best cattle till sent to 1.
For the second best till sent to N° 2.
For the young cattle till sent to N° 3.
N° 4. is then kept free from stock till the grass gets
up, and it is ready for the prime cattle. The proper
size of inclosures has never yet been ascertained by ex¬
periment; probably from 10 to 30 acres is the best;
but the size should be various, as small ones are better
calculated for grass, and large ones for corn. Probably
the best plan to adopt is to feed cattle entirely in the
house, or soiling them as it is technically called. In
that case, small enclosures must be preferred, as the
shelter they afford is extremely favourable to the growth
of the herbage.
The larger a bullock is, he must take the more food 33a
to support him. It is desirable to change his food of¬
ten, and to give him frequently, but little at a time,
which makes him more eager to eat. After his kid¬
neys are covered with fat, he will take less meat every
week. It is better, therefore, to ascertain the quantity
he eats, by the week, than by the day.
Fatting cattle, to be sold immediately from the far- 133
mer’s house, and not sent to market, should be kept
moderately warm. If kept top hot it makes them per¬
spire, and their skins to itch : this vexes them, and they
rub themselves against any wall or post within their
reach, which is much against quick feeding. Currying
and combing them are useful practices ; and washing
them at least once a week, is of great service. Bleed¬
ing is now exploded as an old and unnecessary practice.
In some parts of the kingdom, the whole attention of
the farmer is dedicated to suckling, or, in other words,
to feeding calves, for supplying the market with veal.
In Essex, this plan is reckoned more profitable than
the dairy, and next to grazing. But the profit there
must depend much upon the immediate neighbourhood
irt IV.
FARRIERY:
lygeio- country, to so great and certain a market as
logy. London.
-v—' The particulars connected with this branch of rural
sex mode f coriomy> vvill; it is probable, be fully detailed, in the
rearing improved Agricultural Survey of Essex, in so fbr as re-
ss. gards that and the neighbouring districts. But as the
mode ol suckling, adopted in some parts of Scotland, is
extremely different, it may not be improper to give a
short account of it in this place. As soon as the calf
is dropped, it is put into a box made of coarse boards,
four feet and a half or five feet long, and four feet, or
four feet and a half high, and about two feet wide, ac¬
cording to the size of the calf. The boards are not put
so close but that a sufficient quantity of air is admitted ^
light is, however, carefully excluded j and the box has
a cover for that purpose. The box stands on four feet,
which, at one end, are four inches high, but at the
other, only two inches j and, as there are holes at the
bottom, all wetness is drained off. The bottom is also
covered with straw or hay, which is changed twice a-
week. For seven or eight days, milk is but cautiously
given, for unless a calf is fed moderately at first, it is
apt to take a loathing to its food. It should be bled in
about ten days j and afterwards, as much milk given it
fresh from the cow, either twice or thrice a-day, as it
will take. The bleeding should be repeated once a-
week ; and at all times when a calf loathes its milk, and
does not feed well, bleeding ought to be repeated.
These frequent bleedings prevent diseases from plethora,
to which calves are subject, even when not fed so high,
and still more so when they are. A large piece of chalk
should be hung up in the box, which the calf will lick
occasionally : this contributes nothing to the whiteness
of the veal ; but it amuses the animal, and corrects that
acidity in the stomach which might otherwise be en¬
gendered, and which certainly often takes place. A
cow calf is reckoned the best veal j if a bull calf is
suckled, he ought to be cut when about a week old,
otherwise the veal will neither be so good nor so white.
By this mode of treatment calves are kept clean, quiet,
warm, and dry $ the veal they furnish is excellent, and
they are soon ready for the market j and, on the whole,
it seems to be preferable to the practice of stupifying
them with spirits, or with laudanum, so common in
other places where a different system is pursued.
The supposed necessity of beginning to feed oxen at
an early age, is a great objection to their being gene¬
rally used, as they are hardly trained properly to work,
before it is thought necessary to fatten them, after
which they do very little work; but, in consequence of
the improved mode of fattening by oil-cake, &c. there
163°* no difficulty to fatten oxen, even at twelve years of
136 age> which is a material circumstance in their favourf.”
ftim- It is now very generally understood, that the more
feed- cleanly and comfortable cattle are kept, and the cleaner
^re’ and better the order in which their food is presented to
them, the better they will thrive, and consequently the
sooner they will fatten, and the heavier they will be.
With these views, and with the additional view of
saving a greater proportion of the dung and urine of
the cattle than is usually done, so as to increase the
quantity of manure as much as possible, a byre has been
constructed by Mr Hunter of Blackness in Forfarshire,
which has been found, on trial, completely to answer
the ends proposed. The byre consists of two apart¬
ments, an inner apartment or byre for feeding the
cattle, and an outer apartment or barn for containing
the turnips and fodder, v
At the proper season when the turnips are complete¬
ly ripened, and the turnip feeding commences, the tur¬
nips are gathered together on the field in large quanti¬
ties, and two or three men with coarse turnip knives
made from old scythes, cut off the whole of the roots,
carefully cleaning the turnips at the same time, from
any earth which may adhere to them. The turnips are
then carted to the turnip barn, the door of which is
wide enough to allow the carts to back in, and throw
them down. Here the men with their turnip knives
are again ready immediately to cut off the whole green
tops or shaws of the turnips, and these green tops are
immediately given to cows, young winterling cattle,
sheep, &c. who readily eat them when fresh. The tur¬
nips, now quite clean, are piled up in one end of the barn
like cannon balls, and will keep in excellent order for
months together. Should the winter storm set in, a
small quantity of clean dry straw laid over them, will
effectually preserve them from being injured by the
frost. The other end of the barn receives the straw
and litter for the use of the byre. The advantages pro¬
posed to be derived from this method of treating tire
turnips are, 1. The preservation of a great many of the
best turnips, which, if allowed to remain on the field
during winter, are unavoidably spoiled by the effects of
the weather, and the alternate operations of snow, rain,
and frost. 2. The green tops being cut off fresh and
good, are immediately consumed, in place of being en¬
tirely lost if allowed to remain on the field. 3. It
saves much labour and trouble, both to men and horses,
to lay in a stock of turnips at once, in place of going to
the field every day, whether good or bad, and when, as
the fields are necessarily wet and soft, the horses, carts,
and harness, are severely strained, and the fields poach¬
ed and cut up.
_ Lastly, By having a couple of months supply of tur¬
nips in the barn, you are never under the necessity of
using frosted turnips, which are often little better than
lumps of ice. And even if you should not incline, or
find it convenient, to lay in so large a stock of turnips
at once, still you can take the advantage of any good
fresh day, as it occurs, to add to your stock of turnips
in the barn.
At right angles to the turnip barn, stands the feed¬
ing byre, constructed as follow. At the distance of
about three feet and a half from the great side wall
of the byre, there are constructed on the ground, in a
straight line, ten troughs for feeding ten large cattle $
these are of hewn pavement on all sides, and at the bot¬
tom j and they are divided from each other by divisions
or bridges, likewise of hewn pavement. These troughs
are so constructed, that there is a small and gradual de¬
clivity from the first or innermost, to the last and outer¬
most one 5 and the bridges separating them, being made
with a small arch at the bottom, a pail or bucket of
water poured in at the uppermost, runs out at the un¬
dermost one, through a stone spout passing through the
wall, and a sweep with a broom, carries off the whole
remains of the turnips, &c. rendering the whole troughs
quite clean and sweet. The whole food of the cattle is
thus kept perfectly clean at all times.
In a line with the feeding troughs, and immediately
over
469
Hygeio-
logy.
47°
Hygeio-
logy.
FARBIERY.
Part
over them, runs a large Strong beam of wood, from one
end of the byre to the other, which is strengthened by
two strong upright supporters to the roof, placed at
equal distances from the ends of the byre, and the main
beam is again subdivided by the cattle stakes and chains,
so as to keep each of the ten oxen opposite to his own
feeding trough and stall.
The three and a half feet of space betwixt the feed¬
ing troughs and outer wall of the byre, lighted at the
farther end by a glazed window, is the cattle-feeder’s
walk, who passes along it in front of the cattle j and,
with a basket, deposits before each of the cattle the
turnips into the feeding trough of each.
To prevent any of the cattle from choking on small
turnips, or pieces of large ones, as they are very apt to
do, the chains at the stakes are contrived of such a
length, that no ox can raise his head too high when
eating; for in this way, it is observed, cattle are ge¬
nerally choked. However, in case it still should hap¬
pen, that an ox chokes on a turnip, the cattle-man, or
feeder, is provided with a ramrod, made of a piece of
strong stiff rope, with a small round polished wooden
head at the end of it; this he introduces into the mouth
of the ox, and so gently knocks the turnip down his
throat without either difficulty or danger to the ani¬
mal. That the cattle-feeder may be always at hand to
attend his cattle, a small apartment with a window in
it, in which his bed is placed, is constructed immediate¬
ly off the corner of the byre, so that he is ready, even
in the night-time, in case of any accident happening,
to give assistance.
At the distance of about six feet eight inches from
the feeding troughs, and parallel to them, is. the dung
groop and urine gutter, neatly and substantially built
with hewn stone. Here too, like the troughs, there is
a gradual declivity from the inner and upper to the out¬
er and lower end j so that the moment the urine passes
from the cattle, it runs to the lowest end of the gutter,
whence it is conveyed through the outer wall of the
byre in a large stone spout, and deposited in the urina-
rium outside of the wall. At this place is a large in¬
closed space, occupied as a compost dung-court. Here,
all sorts of stuff are collected for increasing the manure;
such as, fat earth, cleanings of roads, ditches, ponds,
&c. rotten vegetables, &c. j and the urine from the
byre being caused to run over all these collected toge¬
ther, which is done very easily by a couple of .wooden
spouts moved backwards and forwards to the urin.arium
at pleasure, renders the whole mass, in a short time., a
rich compost dunghill j and this is done by the urine
alone, which in general is totally lost. The dung of
the byre again is cleaned out several times each day, at
the two front doors of the byre opposite to the.groop,
and deposited in the dung-court; so that in this wray,
too, the byre is kept in as good order as any stable, and
the cattle as clean as horses. Along the edge of the
dung-court, a few low sheds are constructed, in which
voung beasts, sheep, or swine, &c. are kept j and these
consume the refuse and remains of the turnips from the
great feeding byre.
In the side wall of the byre, and opposite to the
heads of the cattle, there are constructed three vents,
or ventilators } these are placed at the distance of about
two feet four inches from the ground in the inside of
the byre, and come out immediately under the easing
of the slates on the outside. The inside openings of HygeioJ
these are about 13 inches in length, seven in breadth, logy,
and nine in depth in the wall 5 and they serve two good
purposes. 1. The breath of cattle being specifically
lighter than atmospheric air } the consequence is, that
in some byres, the cattle are kept in a constant heat and
sweat, because their breath and heat have no way to
escape ; whereas, by means of the ventilators, the air of
the byre is kept in proper circulation, which conduces
as much to the health of the cattle as to the preserva¬
tion of the walls and timber of the byre, by drying up
the moisture produced from the breath and sweat of*|ee^
the cattle, which is found to injure those parts of the^T.0^^
building *. > 237
The method of giving cows their food by the milk-London
farmers in the vicinity of the metropolis, where this busi-mode of
ness is carried on upon the most extensive scale, is thus^‘n2
stated in the valuable Agricultural Survey of that
district. “ During the night, the cows are confined in
stalls $ about three o’clock in the morning, each cow
has a half-bushel basket of grains ; when the milking is
finished, a bushel basket of turnips is given to each
cow j and very soon afterwards they have an allotment,
in the proportion of one buss to ten cows, of the most
grassy and soft meadow hay, which had been the most
early’mown, and cured of the greenest colour. These
several feedings are generally made before eight o’clock
in the morning, at which time the cows are turned into
the cow-yard. About twelve o’clock they are again
confined to their stalls, and served with the same quan¬
tity as they had in the morning. When the afternoon
milking, which continues till near three, is finished, the
cows are again served with the same quantity of tur¬
nips, and about an hour afterwards with the same distri¬
bution of hay, as before described. This mode of feed¬
ing generally continues during the turnip season, which
is from the month of September to the month of May.
During the other months of the year they are fed with
grains, cabbages, tares, and the other foregoing, pro¬
portion of second-cut meadow hay, and are continued
to be fed with the same regularity until they are turned
out to grass, when they continue in the field all night;
and even during this season they are frequently fed with
grains.”
As the grains employed in feeding cattle cannot al¬
ways be procured fresh as they are wanted, it becomes
a desirable object to preserve them for a length of time.
They are preserved in some places by putting them into
pits dug in the earth, into which they are trodden
down, and afterwards covered to a moderate depth
with dry earth. In this way being defended from the
action of the air, and thus prevented from fermenting,
they may be kept for a considerable time during the
months of summer, when brewing is not carrying on ;
they may also be kept by pressing them down into
casks placed upon stands, so as to elevate them a little
from the ground, and having their bottoms pierced
with holes, to carry off the superabundant moisture.
Food of Dogs. i33
A good feeder is very essential. He should be food of
young, active, industrious, and good tempered, for the dogs,
sake of the animals entrusted to his care, who, however
they may be treated by him, cannot complain. He
must strictly obev any orders that his master may give,
' both
»39
I :aati-
.
240
l vege-
11 meal.
itrt IV. FARR
lygeio- both with regard to tlie management and to the breed-
logy- < xng of the hounds, and he must not consider Himself as
 solely under the direction of the huntsman. This is a
necessary hint, as it has sometimes happened that a pack
of hounds apparently belonged entirely to the hunts¬
man, when the master had little more authority over
them than if he were a perfect stranger. /
On the exquisite sense of smelling, so peculiar to the
hound, our sport entirely depends $ care must therefore
be taken to preserve it, and the surest method of doing
so is, to observe the utmost cleanliness j to keep the ken¬
nel sweet, is a point that cannot be too much recom¬
mended, and which must on no account be neglected.
This must therefore be inculcated on the feeder, and
the proprietor should see that his orders in this respect
are carefully observed.
Oat meal is by far the heartiest and best food j for
ilefood. hounds will run more stoutly with that, than on any
other meal, or than even on oat meal mixed with any
other. In point of expence, as well as for the greater
benefit of the hounds, the most advantageous method is
to grow one’s own oats, and have them properly dried,
and broken at the mill into meal that is not too fine.
A sufficient quantity should be ground, to serve for 12
or 18 months consumption j the older the meal, so
much the better j but unless it is kept by one, there is
scarcely any mode of procuring it sufficiently old. It
should be kept in bins, in a dry granary, and the meal
should be trodden into the bins as closely as possible.
Should there be no granary near, sugar hogsheads will
answer the purpose, but the meal must be pressed into
them very firmly, and it must be kept dry. These hogs¬
heads should be placed upon stands, like beer stands, by
which means vermin will be prevented from getting at
the meal unobserved.
Barley meal is used in many kennels, being cheaper
than oat meal, but it is said to be much more heating
and less nourishing; or as the huntsmen express them¬
selves, there is less proof in it.
It is well known that the principal animal food giv¬
en to hounds, is the flesh of horses, which should be
boiled. The boiler employed for this purpose should be
made of cast iron, and its size should be in proportion to
the number of hounds in the kennel. The flesh must
be thoroughly boiled, and must then be taken out of
the broth with the strainer, and a proper quantity of
oat meal must be put into the broth. When this has
been boiled sufficiently, which will require from three
quarters of an hour to an hour, the fire may be with¬
drawn. As it cools, it thickens into a pretty firm jelly,
and for hunting hounds it cannot be too strong. Five
or six pecks of good oat meal will be sufficient to make
a boiler of broth that will furnish 30 couple of hounds
for two feeds sufficiently thick. Some are of opinion
that; oat meal and barley meal in equal quantities make
the best food for hounds. The oat meal is to be first
boiled for half an hour, the fire is then to be extinguish¬
ed, and the barley meal put into the copper, and both
milled together. The reason for not putting both kinds
of meal into the boiler at the same time is, that the
boiling which thickens the oat meal, makes the barley
meal thin. When barley meal alone is used, it should
not be put into the boiler at all, but should be
scalded with the hot liquor, and mixed up in a large
tub, capable of containing at least half a hogshead.
I E R Y.
471
n,4Z
Biey
ill
1 43
M e of
PI wing
thtfood.
Hygeiof
logy.
*44
245
We must however remark, that barley meal should
never be given by itself to hunting hounds during the
hunting season, as its heating quality renders them ex¬
ceedingly .thirsty ; and when out, they take every op¬
portunity to lap water.
Ihe meat should never be given to the dogs too hot,
and should be mixed up to as thick a consistence as may
be. The feeding troughs should be wide at the bot¬
tom, and have wooden covers, and they should not be
made too long ; five or six troughs that are easily moved,
are better than two or three that are unwieldy.
The boiling for the hounds, mixing of the meat, and
preparing it for them at proper hours, will of course be
taken care of by the huntsman. He must constantly
attend the feeding of the hounds, who should be
draughted according to the state they are in at the
time. Some hounds are better feeders than others, and
some require less meat than others ; a nice eye and
great attention are required to keep them all in equal
flesh. This is what constitutes the merit of the hunts¬
man, and shews him to be well qualified for his office ;
but few are sufficiently attentive to this. The hounds
are fed in a hurry, without examining them before they
begin. To ascertain properly the condition of a pack
of hounds requires no small circumspection.
The huntsman should call each hound by name, let- M°de
ting him in to his food as he is called ; this uses them !i^rn.‘n‘ster
to their name, and teaches them obedience. A hound1"®’
should always approach him who calls on him ; and if
he touches him with a stick, he should fellow wherever
he is led.
The thin and tender feeding hounds being first turn¬
ed out to the feeding room, will have the opportunity of
picking where they choose. Such hounds as are in low
condition, had better be drafted off into a separate
kennel. Thus selecting those that are poor, we proceed
to the feeding of the rest with less trouble and more
accuracy; but those that are drafted off, when more
flesh is mixed with the meat, must be let in to feed one
by one as they answer to their names ; or they may be
better fed than taught. Thus the hounds who want
flesh, will all have a share of it ; and if any of them be
much poorer than the rest, they should be fed again, as
such hounds cannot be fed too often. Unless peculiarly
good, a soft washy constitutioned hound will scarcely
ever be worth the attention that is given him ; and af¬
ter a hard day is frequently unserviceable for some time.
It must be recollected, however, that such hounds as are
tender, or lean feeders, cannot be fed too late, or with
too rich meat. Should any hounds appear to get too
fat, they must not be suffered to eat their fill, but the
rest may eat as much of the meat as they please.
Once a week, or fortnight at most, during the hunt¬
ing season, the hounds should have a pound of sulphur
given them in their meat; and when the season is over,
they should have half a pound of antimony added to the
sulphur, and well mixed with the meat. On these days,
the hounds should all be let in to feed together, and
such as require flesh, have it given to them afterwards.
Greens boiled in their meat once-a-week, is likewise
A horse killed and given to hounds whilst
246
proper.
warm, after a very hard day’s hunting, will make an
excellent meal, but they should not hunt again till three
days after it. The bones broken are good food for poor
hounds, as there ^s considerable nourishment in them.
Sheeps
47 2
Hygeio-
logy.
247
248
Exercise,
FARRIERY.
Sheeps trotters are also very sweet food, and in a scar¬
city of horse flesh, bullocks paunches may be employed
with advantage.
It is customary with some to shut up the hounds for
two hours after they have returned from hunting, be¬
fore they are fed, and the other hounds are shut up with
them to lick them clean ; but probably this practice
does more harm than good, as the idle hounds will dis¬
turb the tired dogs more by their licking, than this will
make amends for. Besides, hounds shut up on their
return from hunting, will not afterwards readily quit
their benches, as, if much fatigued, they will seek re¬
pose rather than food. It is therefore a better way when
the hunt is nearly over, to send forward a servant to see
the meat prepared, that the dogs may be fed immediate¬
ly on their return. If they have had a severe day, they
should be fed again afterwards. When hounds are fed
twice, they should be kept separate from the hounds that
were left at home, till after the second feeding, and it
will be still better if they are not put together till the
next morning. It is the best plan to feed the hounds
that have been out twice. Some hounds will feed bet¬
ter the second time than the first, and besides, the turn¬
ing them out from the lodging house refreshes them,
and allows them to stretch their limbs 5 and if the ken¬
nel is cleaned out, and the litter well shaken up, they
will afterwards settle themselves better an their benches.
It is at all times proper, after feeding, to turn out the
dogs into the grass court, as this contributes very much
to the cleanliness of the kennel.
Chap. III. Of Exercise.
Nature dictates the necessity of exercise to almost
every animal, and a greater or less proportion of it is
necessary to enable them to perform their functions with
health and activity. The proportion requisite for this
purpose is, however, not the same in all animals. Sheep
and cattle require but little exercise, much of which,
indeed, appears to be incompatible with the manner of
their eating; for, as they require a second mastication
of their food by rumination, a considerable time is ne¬
cessary for this process, which cannot be properly per¬
formed unless the animal be entirely at its ease. It is
found, however, that such of these animals as are kept
without exercise, or are wholly cooped up in houses,
for the purpose of fattening them more speedily, are
neither so healthy, nor afford such fine and wholesome
meat, as those which are permitted to rove at large in
their native pastures. It is to the horse and dog that
exercise seems the most essential. These animals re¬
quire the greatest proportion, and are most injured by
the want of it. The observations we are about to make
will chiefly apply to the horse.
Such horses as are constantly employed in active la¬
bour have, of course, sufficient exercise $ but it often
happens that those which are kept by gentlemen, for
their pleasure or convenience, are, when their labour
is not required, permitted to stand whole days in the
stable, without any other exercise than being ridden
perhaps twice a-day to a neighbouring pond. In cities
and large towns, even this exercise is often not permit¬
ted them. They are in the mean time plentifully fed
with rich hard food, and thus pampered, they are ren¬
dered liable to the attacks of many acute diseases j and
Part IV
when their exertions are required, they cannot perform Hygieo
their usual labour with their usual ease. It is therefore logy,
necessary that such horses as are not regularly worked y —■
should receive daily a moderate proportion of exercise,
and should be accustomed to such a degree of labour as
may counterbalance the effect of high feeding, and en¬
able them to undergo occasional exertion. A horse
who is kept in the state of regular labour, is said to be
in wind. The exercise of a horse that is not constant¬
ly worked should not, however, be excessive, or be car¬
ried beyond the commencement of fatigue, as this would
wear out the horse without necessity. It is an absurd
practice which some people pursue, to send out their
horses every day to be galloped and rattled along the
roads, or perhaps over the streets, for the purpose of
keeping them in wind. This is wrong, even where the
horse is in good health and sound condition; but when
it is practised with sinew-strained, or foundered horses,
as is not uncommon, it must be productive of consider¬
able mischief.
In general, two hours a-day will be sufficient for
the purpose of preserving the health of the horse, and
this may be taken at once or twice in the day, as may
be most convenient. If possible, the owner should
ride his own horse on these exercising jaunts, for the
groom will probably do the horse more injury than
benefit.
Some horses require more exercise than others. Gen¬
tlemen’s horses that are merely kept for light riding,
will do with but little j but hunters and racers require
a greater proportion, and should seldom have less than
three hours a-day. This, however, must depend in a
great measure on the quantity and quality of their food,
as the food and exercise must in general be proportion¬
ed to each other j but in all cases care must be taken
that the horse’s labour do not exceed his strength.
Young horses are not equal to much exertion, and
should therefore be exercised but lightly. Many horses
have been destroyed by the neglect of this precaution,
especially in the army, where it is not unusual to re¬
ceive horses as recruits of four or even three years of
age. These horses, when they reach the regiment, to
which they are probably brought from a considerable
distance, are in general weak and in low condition,
and are probably suffering from some acute disease,
brought en them by exposure to cold and wet during
their journey. They are of course very unfit for labour,
and require at least three or four weeks rest, before
they can with propriety be brought to go through their
exercises in the riding school. According to Mr
White, however, they are seldom allowed the half of
that time, but are brought too hastily into the school,
without reflecting that, as they are unaccustomed to
such exercises, or indeed at that early age to any kind
of work, it must become exceedingly fatiguing to them ;
and to young horses in a state of debility, especially if
they are not immediately attended to, when brought
sweating from the riding school, such labour must often
be followed by the worst consequences.
When a horse cannot be conveniently taken out to
the fields or roads, for the purpose of exercise, ex¬
pedients have been thought on to exercise them within
the stable, or in a yard adjoining. The stable can
answer for this purpose only when it is very large, and
he may then be made to trot backwards and forwards
Part V. FARR
Materia till he begins to sweat, with some advantage. We have
MeJlca~ , heard of the governor of a certain town, who fell on a
good expedient to exercise the horses gof a large body
of cavalry that had been received into the town, just be¬
fore the enemy laid siege to it. As there was no possi¬
bility of riding out the horses, he caused a number of
the troopers to stand about the horses, two or three at
each horse, and whip them so as to make them fly from
one side of the stall to the other, till both men and
horses were sufficiently heated. It is said that by this
means the horses were kept in a pretty good state of
health, whereas they would otherwise have been much
diseased.
When a horse comes in from work in a profuse per¬
spiration, he should not be suffered to stand to cool at
the stable door, but should rather be walked gently a-
bout if the weather will permit of it, or else be tied up
in his stall with a cloth thrown over him. If he is in a
violent sweat, it is a good practice to stroke off the
sweat with a sharp-edged stick, as is usually performed
on race horses immediately after running the course. If
he is much fatigued, it will also be not amiss to give
him a little strong beer, a small draught of which will
considerably refresh him. The French commonly give
wine in these cases; but their wine is very weak, and
is probably not so wholesome for horses as our ale.
It is very common with the drivers of coaches, and
many grooms, to throw cold water over the legs of
horses, when they come to the end of their journey,
sweating and fatigued. Some even ride them into the
water on these occasions, or throw it over a great part
of their body. This is a very dangerous practice, and
gives occasion to several diseases of the legs, joints, and
feet. It is more especially to be avoided when the
horse has been long sweating, as when in this state he is
too much weakened to bear the shock of the cold water
with impunity. When a horse is overheated without
much sweating or fatigue, the practice would probably
not be attended with danger, and bathing him with
cold water at that time would perhaps be even bene¬
ficial, especially if he were immediately rubbed dry,
and covered with a light cloth. But as it is difficult to
hit this nice point, this practice must be employed with
caution, and should never be trusted to the indiscrimi¬
nate prudence of a groom or coachman. The instances
of horses having been plunged into cold water when
overheated, without sustaining any injury, are easily
explained from the above remark.
M. Lafosse makes the following remarks on the ex-
I E R Y. 47
ercise of horses.. “ A horse on a journey may travel Materia
five hours at a time, if not hurried onwards; a manege Mediea,
horse one hour ; a cavalry horse may manoeuvre two ^ y——
hours j a coach horse, at a slow pace, six hours. But it
is pioper that saddle horses should not be overloaded,
and that the load of a horse in harness should be in
proportion to his strength, in order to perform those
proportions of labour, to establish which is a difficult
point; all depends on quickness. We will say general¬
ly, that a saddle horse, well formed, and muscular, may
t lus carry at a slow rate, two-thirds of his own weight,
and run in a chaise with double and one-half of his
weight. It is easy to see from this, that the load of a
saddle horse should be less if he is put on the trot, and
less still if he is made to gallop. The draught horse,
on the contrary, lightens his load by speed, which,
however, he cannot long continue without tiring, and
being out of breath.
The disorders which proceed from hard work are,
founder, fret, and most inflammatory diseases. There
are others that proceed from sudden transitions from
heat to cold, or, on the contrary, such as inflammation
of the lungs, colds, glanders, rheumatisms, and dropsy
of the breast. These are particularly frequent and dan¬
gerous to cavalry horses. They have existed at all times j
but the present system of manceuvres renders them much
more common than formerly j they are a species of en-
demial disorders, which alarm many regiments, and
make them dread the consequences. But there can be
no doubt they may be avoided in a great degree,
1. By taking no horse into a regiment under four
years old, and those only which are well formed.
2. By giving them forage of good quality.
3. By airing them in the stable, and
4. By avoiding to jmt them in a sweat, which is a
state contrary to nature. This forced perspiration dries
up and impoverishes the blood, spoils the finer fibres,
the vessels lose their reaction ; hence the stagnation of
the humours, which produce tumours and farcy. It
would be advisable then to avoid accidents after a re¬
petition of military exercises, by walking the horses
quick, and afterwards slowly, until they have regained
their natural warmth. By this means a repercussion
of the humours may be avoided. For the same reason,
a horse should neither be watered, fed, or dressed,
while sweating; on the contrary, if he must be put in¬
to the stable, take oft the saddle, rub him down with
straw, and cover him with a cloth
rinn's Poc-
ktt Manuel,
p. xr.
PART V. VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.
IN treating of the substances employed in the cure
of the diseases that aflect domestic animals, we shall
first describe the usual forms in which they are adminis¬
tered, with the most approved methods of exhibiting
each, in the various cases to which they are applicable.
^Ve shall then enumerate the remedies themselves, ar¬
ranged under certain heads or classes, as is usually done
by writers on the materia medica j for the sake of
bringing together under one view, those articles which
are suited to the same purposes. We shall not at pre-
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
sent, however, describe the articles made use of, as
most of them are employed in general medicine, and
a particular account will be given of them in the arti¬
cle Materia Medica. Our object here will be to
point out the doses required for the animals of whose
diseases we are about to treat ; and the particular cases
to which they are adapted. To each class we shall
subjoin a number of receipts to which we shall have oc¬
casion to refer, when we come to the treatment of the
diseases.
30
The.
474
Matp ia
Mt-dica.
2 50
Forms.
251
t'owders.
2-'a
Balls'
FARR
The most usual forms In which medicine is exhibited,
to horses and cattle, are those of powder, ball, drench,
clyster, ointment, poultice, and fomentation.
Powders.
There are not many substances which admit of be¬
ing administered in form of powders } for as it is
necessary to mix these with the food of the animal, they
must of course be composed of such articles as do not
impart to the food any very strong or disagreeable taste.
These substances chiefly given in the form of powders
are antimony, sulphur, nitre, and some of the aromatic
seeds, &c. They should be reduced to the finest
powder, and should be thoroughly mixed with the corn
or bran that is placed before the animal. Those
powders which do not readily dissolve in water, such as
antimony, sulphur, and the powder of seeds, should be
moistened before mixing with the food, as in this way
less of the medicine will be wasted. Emetic tartar,
and all articles that require to be given in a small de¬
terminate dose, cannot properly be administered in
this form. ^
In giving powders mixed with the food of horses,
much will depend on the delicacy of the animal’s taste,
and on the state of his stomach at the time. Some
horses will readily take their food mixed with medi¬
cinal powders, while others refuse every article ofl’ered
to them in this form. When this is the case, or when
the medicine thus administered appears to disagree with
the animal’s stomach, this mode of giving it must not
be repeated ; but the medicine must be administered
in some other form.
Powders are also sometimes used externally either
to sores and ulcers, or blown into the eyes.
Balls.
The form of ball or bolus is one of the most com¬
mon in which internal medicines are administered in
farriery. It is extremely convenient, as there are very
few articles that do not admit of being given when
mixed up into a ball j as they are, from the peculiar
conformation of the animal’s throat, more easily admi¬
nistered than any other form that can be given by
the mouth. Some articles, however, especially such as
easily evaporate at the usual temperature of the air, as
ether and volatile alkali, and such as speedily liquefy
or deliquesce by exposure to a moist atmosphere, are
not so properly given in the form of balls. Substances,
too, which require a very large dose, do not easily ad¬
mit of this form, and are best given in infusion, or mix¬
ed with water in the form of a drench.
It is best to prepare balls as they are required, or at
least not many days before they are needed, as by ex¬
posure to the air they become hard, and do not easily
dissolve in the stomach ; they may even pass through the
bowels nearly unchanged. But what is of still more
consequence, giving a hard ball may endanger the ani¬
mal’s life, by its sticking in his throat. Mr White says,
that he has known several instances of horses being de¬
stroyed in this way. Sometimes the horses jaws are so
narrow as not to admit of introducing the hand between
them. In this case, the ball may be fixed lightly on
the end of a stick or cane, moderately pointed ; or what
I E R Y. Party.,:
is still better, placed loosely in a kind of cup fixed on Materia
such a stick or cane j and thus thrust to the back of the Medici,
tiiroat.
The ball should be made not round, but nearly of ^’-'3
the shape of an egg, and rather less in size. The mode
of administering balls to horses requires some dexteri-ing balls. '
ty. To give a ball with ease, the operator should ex¬
tend his fingers so as to surround one end of k, while
the whole hand and the thumb opposite to the finger
that surround the ball must be contracted into as small
a space as possible, as the smaller the hand the greater
will be the ease with which the operation is performed,
both to the farrier and the horse. The animal’s mouth
is usually kept open by means of an instrument called a
balling iron, that is formed like a ring, with an opening
sufficiently large to admit the hand, and which is cover¬
ed with cloth, and placed between the horse’s jaws j
thus preventing him from shutting his mouth, or hurt¬
ing the operator with his teeth. When the ball is
held in this way, in the right hand, the tongue of the
animal is to be drawn out with the left hand towards
the left side, and the ball is to be adroitly placed be¬
yond the root of the tongue, and immediately on quit¬
ting the ball, the tongue is to be let go, and the horse
allowed to raise his head. The ball is now in such a
situation that it cannot be thrown back, and will be \
gradually swallowed. In holding the tongue it is pro¬
per to keep it pretty firmly against the lower jaw, as
this position greatly facilitates the operation. Balls
are usually wrapt up lightly in paper, to prevent their
disagreeable taste, but the paper should be very thin
and delicate, that it may easily give way when the ball a,
enters the stomach. Wafer paper, which is employed
for administering boluses in the human subject, would
be an improvement in farriery, which may be easily
adopted, as it is by no means expensive.
When the balls are composed of very hot or stimu¬
lating ingredients, it is proper to give the horse drink
before administering them. It is best to give the
drink first, as horses in particular will not readily
drink after receiving a ball. If the ball has been com¬
posed of any medicine that possesses a corrosive quali¬
ty, or is otherwise very irritating, as arsenic, corrosive
sublimate, blue vitriol, or the like, it is necessary to
give the animal, previous to the operation, a consider¬
able quantity of some mucilaginous drink, as of water-
gruel, or linseed tea.
When a ball is properly administered, it gives the
animal very little fatigue, and may be repeated much
more frequently than any other form of medicine. It
is therefore extremely convenient.
The ingredients composing a ball should be mixed
up with some sugary substance, as molasses, honey, or
extract of liquorice softened in water, rather than with
any gunimy or mucilaginous substance, as these latter
soon become hard by exposure to the air.
When a number ot balls of the same kind are mace
at once, great care should be taken in mixing the
ingredients in the most accurate manner, otherwise
a much greater quantity of the active part of the
medicine will be found in some of the balls than m
others. . ..
Though we have mentioned the use 01 the balling
iron, in administering balls to horses, some grooms and
farriers are very expert in giving the ball without this
in trument.
'art V.
Materia instrument, here this can be done, it is certainly
'Medica. preferable, as the use of the iron is very apt to alarm a
' horse.’
F A R B. I E K Y.
Drenches,
*54
lldrenches
*55
This form is chiefly suited to those remedies that are
eas-ily soluble in water, or which readily mix with that
fluid, and which have not any very disagreeable taste.
Pfence all mucilaginous substances, some resins, ami
many of the aromatics, may be given in this fortn. It
is proper, in compounding a" drench, that the substances
composing it be thoroughly mixed with each other.
It not unfrequently happens, that oils or balsams are
given by way of drench, without any pains having been
taken to combine them fully with the watery part of
the medicine j and when substances that would admit
of being finely powdered, are administered in this way,
the carelessness of grooms or farriers is too often such as
to give them in a very coarse state. In the former case
the oil or balsam swimming in the liquid hangs about
the mouth and throat of the animal, and by its unplea¬
sant taste renders him averse to the repetition of the
medicine; in the latter case, it is evident that the re¬
medy is not reduced to that state in which it is capable
of exerting its full effect.
'de of Drenches are usually administered by means of a
muster- l)0rn> which is that of an ox or cow, with the larger
end cut into the form of a spout. Sopietimes when a
horn is not at hand, a bottle is employed ; but. this is
very improper, as in the horse’s struggling, which of¬
ten happens in administering a drench, the neck of the
bottle may be broken, and occasion much mischief.
In giving sl drench by means of the horn, the ani¬
mal’s tongue is to be held down with the left hand, as
in giving a ball; and when his head is sufficiently
raised, the drench is to be poured cautiously into his
mouth. Every stable should be provided with a drench¬
ing horn.
In preparing drenches, farriers almost always make
use of ale or beer, as the menstruum or diluent; but
this is often very absurd, and can be proper only in the
preparation of cordial drenches. Those of a cooling
nature should be mixed, either with common water, or
with some mucilaginous infusion.
Drenches are seldom given with dexterity, and thus
a considerable quantityof themedicine isfrequentlyspilt.
This circumstance renders them often very inconveni¬
ent, particularly in cases where there is any swelling or
painful affection either of the mouth or throat. Under
such circumstances it is scarcely advisable to administer
medicine in the form of a drench ; as, independently
(of the resistance given by the horse, which will certain¬
ly waste much of the medicine, the forcing of a drench
down his throat, when it is in an inflamed or irritable
state, may be followed by very unpleasant consequences.
Mr Clark says that he has frequently observed a simple
solution of nitre in water, sweetened with honey or
molasses, when given in cases such as we have described,
to occasion violent coughing, trembling and panting,
insomuch that the poor animal was like to drop down,
merely from the acute pain he suffered, from a medicine
being administered to him in the form of a drench at
such a critical period.
Even the position in which the horse’s head is placed
to receive a drench may, in these cases, excite the most
violent pain, from the distention which the muscles of
the throat undergo, when the head and tongue are held
in so awkward a situation.
Ine great advantage of a drench is, that remedies
exhibited in this form produce their effect much more
speedily than when given in the form of a ball, which
may take a considerable time to be dissolved in the
juices of the stomach. Drenches are therefore particu¬
larly suited to urgent cases, in which it is necessary to
give immediate relief.
475
Materia
Medic a.
Clysters.
2
Ibis form is suited to a great variety of purposes, Of clysten
and is not administered so often as with propriety it
might he given. Not only purges, which are very
commonly administered in this way, but also every class
of remedies, may be exhibited in*the form of a clyster.
I be clyster should be composed of no substances that
are not either entirely soluble in water, or may be so
thoroughly mixed with any watery fluid, as to pass rea¬
dily through a slender tube.
1 lie instrument employed for administering a clyster
is, as in the human subject, a pipe and bladder, but
the bladcier should be that of an ox, and of the largest
size; to the extremity of which must be fitted a pewter
pipe about a foot long, and about half an inch in dia¬
meter, having the extremity which is to enter the gut
made completely smooth, that it may not injure the in¬
ternal coat of the bowel.
Previous to administering a clyster, it is often neces- Back-rlk-
sary to free the great gut from a quantity of hardened ing.
excrement which it may contain. This is best per¬
formed by means of the hand, and,the operation is call¬
ed raking, or back-raking. The hand is easily intro¬
duced, as the diameter of the great gut is in the horse
very large. Care must be taken before introducing the
band, to grease it well with oil or bogs lard, and to
have the nails cut perfectly close, for fear of injuring
the gut. This mode of extracting the hardened excre"
meat is frequently required, and will succeed when
medicine would probably only serve to increase the
animal’s distress.
Large syringes are frequently employed for the pur- *58
pose of administering clysters ; but such instruments
are exceedingly improper, as their tubes are very short,
and they are very difficult to manage, especially if the
animal should prove restless from pain, as frequently
happens in cases of colic ; where, as we shall see, cly¬
sters are very frequently required.
Clysters are peculiarly requisite in those cases where
medicine cannot be conveniently given by the mouth ;
as in locked jaw, or when there is any obstruction in
the throat, or wound of the tongue. In such circum¬
stances horses may frequently be kept alive for many
weeks, by the frequent exhibition of nourishing clysters.
Ointments.
159
Ointments are employed in farriery, merely as an ap-Ointments,
plication to sores, or in some cases of eruptions of the
skin. They cannot be employed as in the human
body, to introduce remedies into the system ; as on ac¬
count of the hair that covers the body of quadrupeds,
3 O 2 long-
6 F A R R I
Materia long-coruinueil friction in this way cannot easily be eni-
Medica. ployed.
Poultices.
Poultices. Poultices are frequently employed, either for the pur¬
pose of maintaining a long-continued heat and moisture
about a part in which we are desirous to produce sup¬
puration, or for correcting the unpleasant smell that
sometimes arises from foul ill-conditioned ulcers ; or,
lastly, they are applied to check inflammation. In the
first case they are always applied warm, and should he
renewed repeatedly, till the proper eflect is produced j
as if old poultices are suffered to remain long on a sup¬
purating part, they tend to check the suppuration in¬
stead of assisting it. In the two latter cases poultices
are usually applied cold.
Poultices should always he composed of such sub¬
stances, as admit of being reduced to a soft mass, either
by boiling or pounding, as otherwise they would Iret
and irritate the parts to which they are applied. This
must be particularly attended to in such poultices as
are laid over large open ulcers, or any part that is high¬
ly sensible.
Fomentations.
Fflmeuta- These are intended to relax and soften the parts to
lions. which they are applied, and in this circumstance they
nearly resemble the first kind of poultices, only that
fomentations are always in a liquid form, being compo¬
sed of some infusion or decoction of herbs. The mode
Of applying a fomentation is, by wetting a large flan¬
nel cloth in the warm liquor, wringing it slightly, and
then applying it as warm as can easily be borne over
the part to he fomented.
z6t In the following list of the articles of the veterinary
materia medica, we shall call the substances by those
names by which they are usually known to the common
people ; but we shall add by way of synonyms the
scientific names, as derived from the modern systems
of natural history and chemistry. In fixing the doses
of each article, we shall, unless particularly mentioned
to the contrary, only specify the dose proper for horses
and cattle but it would be proper for the reader to
keep in remembrance, that the dose for a sheep or a
dog will be about one-half or one-third of that for a
horse or cow.
In classing the remedies we shall adapt the arrange¬
ment given in a late compendium of the materia medi¬
ca. Most writers on the materia medica of horses,
have arranged their articles in alphabetical order. Mr
’White has done this, in his excellent veterinary mate¬
ria medica and pharmacopeia. Such an arrangement
does very well, if intended to answer the purpose of a
dictionary ; hut for practice, it is betier to have the
articles classed according to the sensible effects which
they appear to produce in the system *, as in this way
the practitioner has before him all those remedies that
are of the same nature, and may select from among
them such as he thinks will best suit the particular case
that he has in hand.
It may be necessary to observe, that the weight in¬
tended in this part is troy weight divided according to
the apothecaries, and the measure English wine mea¬
sure.
E R Y. Fart V.
Materia
i. Emetics. , -’VIc^lca- -
It will have appfeaved from our description of theEraell’c<
stomach of the horse, that this animal is in general in¬
capable of vomiting. Emetics, therefore, as calculated
for him, form no part of the veterinary materia medica.
We do not know that emetics are given either to sheep
or cattle, but to dogs they may be often given with ad¬
vantage. A few substances, however, will answer this
purpose, as in general a little grass, or a little mustard
mixed with warm water, will be sufficient to vomit a
dog. The following substances may be ranked in this
class for dogs.
a. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony.
Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and
Potash.
Dose from two to four grains.
h. Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with
Phosphate of Lime. James's Potvder.
Said to have been given with success in the dis¬
temper.
Dose from eight to ten grains, repeated every three
or four hours, according to the evacuation produced.
c. Mercury.
Turbith Mineral. Yellow Sulphate of Mer¬
cury.
Used also for the distemper, and in cases of recent
poisoning.
Dose about half a drachm. Also recommended in
canine madness.
Receipt. 264
I. Take of turbith mineral, five grains j
And emetic tartar, one grain.
Give in a little milk after bleeding.
2. Expectorants.
265
These are remedies that are calculated to produce or£Xp£Cier«
keep up a discharge of mucus from the lungs, or wind-ants,
pipe, and are thus suited to relieve coughs and thick¬
ness of wind or asthma.
17. Ammoniac. Gum Ammoniac. _
A gum-resin. Dose from three to five drachms, in
the form of a ball. Commonly combined with squill, or
some other powerful expectorant, preceded by a pur¬
ging medicine. Particularly suited to chronic coughs.
b. Asafoetida. Ferula Asafxtida. Lin.
A gum resin j dose about hall a drachm, in a ball.
c. Balsam of Peru. Myroxilon Peruiferum. Lin.
Dose from one to two drachms in combination in a
ball, assisted with other expectorants. In chronic
coughs.
7/. Balsam of Copaiva. Copaiferabalsamum. Lin.
Dose about an ounce, in the same form and cases as
the last.
e. Balsam of Sulphur.
Dose from half au ounce to an ounce.
f Barbadoes.
Isrt V. FARR
jateria f BarBADOES Tar, Petroleum Barbadense. Lin,
ediea. Employed sometimes in chronic cough; but not so
good as other expectorants.
g. Garlic. Allium sativum. Lin.
The cloves of the root beaten to a paste j dose from
one to two ounces ; made into a ball with liquorice
powder, or boiled in water into a drench. In similar
cases.
477
I E R Y.
c. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony. Materia
\'ery commonly given to horses for the purpose of Medica.
improving the fineness of their coat. Dose about an v——7-—~
ounce, in powder, mixed with the food.
d. Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and
Potash.
Dose from one to two drachms; in a ball or drench.
h. Squill. Scilla maritima. Lin.
Dried root powdered ; dose about a drachm, in a
ball, with other mild expectorants.
t. Storax. Styrax officinale. Lin.
Strained storax. Dose two drachms, in a ball. As
a substitute for balsam of Tolu, in obstinate coughs.
266 Receipts for Expectorants.
Il:aats. 2. Take of gum ammoniac, three drachms 5
Castile soap, two drachms ;
Powdered squill, a drachm.
Mix with honey or molasses into a ball.
3. Take of camphor, powdered squill, each a
drachm ;
Balsam of copaiva, half an ounce j
Aromatic powder, two drachms.
With honey, mix into a ball.
4. Take of balsam of sulphur, 4 ounces ;
Barbadoes tar, two ounces ;
Oil of aniseed, two drachms 5
Powdered liquorice root, enough to make a mass,
to be divided into balls, each weighing about
an ounce and a half, for a dose.
5. Take asafcetida, half an ounce 5
Powdered ginger, a drachm and a half j
Prepared ammonia, half a drachm j
Honey, &c. enough to make a ball.
l(j7 3. SUDORIFICS.
Siarifies. These are such medicines as are intended, either to
keep up or bring back the insensible perspiration, or to
excite profuse sweating. They are also called diapho¬
retics. See Materia Medica.
Few medicines are employed in farriery with a view
to excite sweat. In the dog, it is well known that
this effect can scarcely be produced by any means; and
in the horse it is found extremely difficult to produce
any sensible sudorific effect by means of medicine.
This may indeed be excited by violent exercise and
warm clothing ; but these are ill suited to the cases in
which sweating would be most desirable. The insen¬
sible perspiration may, however, be gently encouraged
by some powerful sweating medicines ; and in cattle
these may not unfrequently be given with advantage.
a. Ammonia.
Mindererus’s Spirit. Acetate of Ammonia.
Recommended by Mr White as a gentle diaphore¬
tic. Dose from eight to ten ounces in form of a drench.
In febrile complaints.
b. Camphor. Lauras Camphora. Lim
Dose from one to two drachms, in form of a ball.
In fevers.
Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with'
Phosphate of Lime.
Dose about two drachms.
e. Unwashed Calx or Oxide of Antimony.
Dose two or three drachms; in composition as below.
f Nitre. Nitrate of Potash.
Dose about one ounce in a ball, with one or two
drachms of camphor ; or alone in a drench.
/’•.Opium. Papaver sommferum. Lin.
Seldom given alone, though it might probably be
administered with great propriety, in doses of two
scruples to a drachm.
Receiptsfor Sudorifics.
6. Take of nitre, half an ounce ; Receipts.
Camphor, a drachm and a half;
Calomel, powdered opium, a scruple ;
Molasses, enough to make a ball. In fever.
7. Take of unwashed calx of antimony, two drachms ;
Camphor, a drachm ;
Opium, half a drachm ;
Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms 5
Honey enough to make a ball.
In fever. To be reiieated occasionally.
8. Take of emetic tartar, from one drachm to two ;
Compound powder of tragacanth, three drachms ;
Honey enough to make a ball.
9. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm and a half;
Ginger, two drachms ;
Camphor, half a drachm ;
Opium, a scruple ;
Oil of caraway, ten drops.
Molasses enough to make a ball.
For horses that are hide-bound, and have unhealthy
looking coats.
10. Take of antimonial powder, two drachms;
Caraway seeds, powdered, half an ounce ;
Ginger, a drachm;
Oil of aniseeds, twenty drops ;
Honey enough to make a ball.
11. Take of unwashed calx or oxide of antimony, two
drachms;
Prepared ammonia, ginger, of each a drachm;
Opium, half a drachm ;
Powdered aniseeds, half an ounce; - '
Molasses, enough to make a ball.
4. Diuretics.’ .
These are remedies that are intended to produce a Diuretics,
more than ordinary discharge of-urine.1 See Materia
Medica.
Diuretics
478
Materia
Medea.
farriery.
Part If
Diuretics are frequently given to horses, not only in
cases of dropsical swellings, especially of the legs, but
in grease, and in many eruptive diseases •, in running
thrushes, crack, or ulcers about the heels ; in baldness
of different parts of the body ; and in some cases where
there appears to be a difficulty in staling.
They are usually given in the form of balls, but
some of them by way of powder mixed with the food.
Before exhibiting diuretics, bleeding is sometimes re¬
quisite. These cases will be stated in their proper place.
It is also proper, during the use of diuretics, that the
animal should take regular exercise ; and occasional
drink should be given to promote their operation. The
use of them should not be continued too long, as they
are found to produce considerable weakness.
a. Balsam of Copaiva. See Expectorants.
This medicine, when given as directed under expec¬
torants, frequently acts/ as a diuretic.
h. Camphor. See Sudorifics.
Dose about two drachms, mixed with nitre in a ball.
Iu spasmodic difficulty of staling.
#. Nitre. Nitrate of Potash.
Dose about one ounce, in the form of powder, ball,
or drench. In fevers and strangury.
d. Potash. Snbcarbonate of Potash, or Vegetable
Alkali.
Dose a drachm or two.
e. Rosin.
Dose from two to four drachms repeated occasionally,
in the form of powder, with the food.
Rosin is a good diuretic in cases of swelled legs and
greasy heels, but is seldom given, except to cart-horses.
f. Soap. Castile Soap.
Dose from two to six drachms, in composition.
g. Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum. Lin.
Sometimes given by gropms for fining a horse’s coat.
h. Turpentine.
f a. Common turpentine.
4 b. Venice turpentine. Dose from half an ounce to
(. an ounce ; in the form of emulsion.
i. Oil or Spirit of Turpentine.
Dose from one ounce to two.
Receipts for Diuretics.
12. Take of Castile soap, powdered rosin, of each
three drachms ■,
Nitre, half an ounce $
Oil of juniper, a drachm.
First beat the soap and oil of juniper together, and
then add the other ingredients, to make a ball.
33. Take of nitre in powder, half an ounce $
Camphor, oil of juniper, of each one drachm ;
Castile soap, three drachms.
Rub the camphor and oil together, then add the soap
and nitre, and as much flour as is sufficient to
make it into a ball.
Take of rosin and nitre, each half an ounce.’
Mix into a powder, to be taken with the food.
Materia
5. Purges. Mediea,
These medicines are well known. They are gene- i-jo
rally considered of two kinds j laxatives, or such as I’urges.
gently move the bowels, and are intended merely to
empty them of excrement; and purges, or such as, be¬
sides this effect, are intended to stimulate the exhalent
vessels of the intestines, and produce a considerable dis¬
charge of liquid stools, (see Materia Medica). As
either order may in general be given so as to produce
either of these effects, according to the quantity in
which it is administered, we shall consider them to¬
gether.
Purgative medicines are given with considerable ad¬
vantage to ail the domestic animals, in many cases of
disease, which will be pointed out hereafter. They are
very commonly, however, given to horses, by grooms
and ordinary farriers, by way of alterative or preven¬
tive of disease ; or in order, as they think, the better
to prepare them for some unusual exertion. The reason
given for this practice is, that the horse is foul in the
body, or full of humours, and the purgatives are given
to expel this morbid accumulation of humours. ^
“ This sort of evacuation (says Dr Bracken, who is impropriety
one of the first that pointed out the absurdity of this of indiscri-
practice), seems very much to quadrate with the out-™11’81.1® .
ward senses, and makes the ignorant part of mankind, 11
whose heads are fuller of humours than their horses,
imagine that purging medicines carry off the offending
matter in most disorders ; never considering the general
use, which ought still to be kept in mind, viz. that in
proportion to any one evacuation being heightened or
increased, most or all of the natural evacuations are
proportionally diminished.”
It must be remembered that the intestines of the
horse are exceedingly long, and the large intestines are
so constructed as in many cases to retain the food or ex¬
crement for a very considerable time. Purgative medi¬
cines given to a horse are often retained for 24 or 30
hours ; and if these have been of an irritating quality,
it is evident, that the unnecessary exhibition of them
may often produce considerable mischief. Mr Blaine
says, that when horses die after the. exhibition of strong
purges, which according to him is not unfrequently the
case, he has always found the large intestines more or
less inflamed.
It is found that after giving a horse a strong purge,
he is often incapable of returning to his usual work for
many days ; it is even said for a month. Hence it will
easily appear how absurd is the practice of those who
physic their horses without necessity. Mr John Law¬
rence is, however, still an advocate for purging horses
now and then, and is of opinion that the mischief done
by purges is to be attributed to the coarseness of the
medicine, rather than to its purging effect. He de¬
clares, that after 30 years experience, he has never
known purging do harm, if the aloes employed was of
the finer sort.
Veterinary practitioners differ with respect to the
time of administering a purge. Mr Blaine recommends
it to be given in the morning, when the horse is to be
allowed to fast from 9 or 10 o’clock to 12 or 1. Then
a lock or two of hay, or about two handfuls, is to be
given him, and after this he is to have the ball, with a
horn*
»
t
i.rt V. FARR
later!a horn full of warm ale, or water-gruel, immediately af-
(diea. ter it. lie is then to fast for another hour, when he is
to be allowed the moderate use of hay. He should
have all his drink a little warm ; should be walked
about gently during the remainder of the day, and
should have a warm mash at night. Next day he is to
be again moderately exercised at intervals, till the purge
begins to operate ; but if the weather is severe, he must
be covered with body clothes, and care must be taken
not to have the stable too warm when he returns. Mr
Clark recommends a mash of bran to be given about
an hour before the ball, and says that in this way he
has always found the medicine to operate in a gentle
I 271 and easy manner.
Sftng ex- It ;s a common practice with many people to ride
{ise be- t]iejr horses very hard before giving them a purging
U impro- medicine, with the view, as they term it, to stir up the
~ humours, which being thus set afloat, will more easily
be carried off by the purge. To say no more with re¬
spect to the absurdity of the doctrine, we may remark
that the practice itself is highly dangerous, as a purge
administered after such violent exercise, will seldom fail
to produce inflammation in the bowels, fevers, or some
other disorder, which, though it may not at the time
prove fatal, may lay the foundation of blindness, in¬
curable lameness, or some other disorder that may ren¬
der the horse useless. Violent exercise, after admini¬
stering a purge, is equally to be avoided, as it may pro¬
duce sweating, and thus counteract the purgative ef¬
fect $ or, what is as had, it will tend to increase the
weakness that seldom fails to be brought on by pur¬
ging-
We have been the more particular in our observa¬
tions on purging horses, as it is a matter of considera¬
ble consequence, and as the effect of indiscriminate
purging in this animal is little understood.
I 73 a. Aloes. Aloe perfoliata. Lin.
{a. Socotorine aloes. Dose from five to nine drachms,
b. Barbadoes aloes. Dose from half an ounce to an
ounce.
Of these the latter is commonly employed for horses.
It is best given in form of a ball, mixed with soap, as
prescribed at present. In most cases where purges are
required.
b. Castor Oil. Ricinus communis. Lin.
Dose from a pound to a pound and a half. In fevers
and worms. Though Mr White says, he has given it
in the latter case without effect.
I E K Y.
Chiefly used to combine aloes and other purgatives
into a ball.
h. Mercury, or Quicksilver.
479
Materia
Mediea.
1. Calomel. Sub-muriate or mild muriate oj mer¬
cury.
Dose from one to two drachms, usually mixed with
other purgatives.
In liver complaints, obstinate cases of grease, chronic
inflammation of the eyes, and dropsical swellings of the
hind-legs.
k. Glauber’s Salt. Sulphate of Soda.
Dose about a pound. Best given in the form of a
clyster. In fevers, and inflammatory complaints.
/. Epsom Salt. Sulphate of Magnesia.
As the last.
Receipts forPurges.
14. Take of Socotorine aloes, five drachms.; Receipt*.
Castile soap, half an ounce ;
Oil of caraway, ten drops;
Molasses enough to make a ball.
A moderate dose for young or delicate horses.
15. Take of Socotorine aloes, an ounce 5
Castile soap, half an ounce ;
Calomel, a drachm and a half;
Oil of mint, twenty drops ;
Molasses enough to make a hall.
16. Take of Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce ;
Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms ;
Salt of tartar, a drachm and a half;
Syrup enough to make a ball.
This is given as a laxative by Mr White, who de¬
clares that he never saw any ill result from giving Bar¬
badoes aloes, though Mr Blaine and Mr Lawrence are
of opinion, that Socotorine aloes is always to be pre¬
ferred.
17. Take of water-gruel, a gallon ;
Glauber’s salt, half a pound ;
Oil of olives, or linseed oil, a pint.
To he given warm by way of clyster. In fevers and
inflammation of the bowels.
18. Take of powdered jalap, a drachm ;
Powdered ginger, half a drachm;
Syrup of buckthorn, enough to make a ball.
For dogs.
6. Errhines.
These remedies are suited to produce a considerable j^yne,.
discharge from the nostrils, and with this view are some¬
times prescribed to horses in cases of staggers or violent
headaches. They must, however, be given with can*-
tion, and not till after bleeding and other evacuating
means have been used. They are always administered
in the form of powder, which is blown up the nostrils,
usually through a quill.
c. Epsom Salt. See Sulphate of Magnesia.
d. Gamboge. Stalagmitis cambogioides. Lin.
Seldom employed in horses, though recommended by
Mr White as a useful medicine in worms.
Dose from two to three drachms, in a ball with Cas¬
tile soap.
e. Jalap. Coni'olvulus jalapa.
Dose in the dog twenty to thirty grains.
f Common Salt. Muriate of Soda.
Dose from four to six ounces in a drench, or in a
larger dose by way of clyster.
g. Soap.
a. Asarabacca. Asarufn Europceum. Lin.
The dried leaves in powder.
The snuff, usually sold by the name of cephalic
snuff, is chiefly composed of asarabacca mixed with some
aromatic
480
FARRIERY.
Fart 1
Materia aromatic herbs, and will answer the purpose of an
Modica. errhine pretty well.
b. Tobacco.
Common snuff.
In affections of the eyes.
7. SlALOGOGUES.
276 < t .
Sialo- These remedies are given with a view of increasing
gogues. the flow of saliva or slaver. They are seldom employ¬
ed in veterinary medicine, though it is probable that
salivation might be productive of good effects in the
locked jaw, so fatal to horses, and in the distemper in
dogs.
a. Ginger. Amomum •zingiber.
Sometimes tied about a horse’s bit by way of a mas¬
ticatory, as it is called.
b. Mercury.
Calomel is the only mercurial that can properly be
employed to excite salivation in the horse and dog; and
it will scarcely produce this effect, if given by the
mouth. It is best to rub the gums with it twice or
thrice a-day, till the proper effect is produced. See
Stimulants.
•8. Emollients.
Emollients, These are such remedies as are calculated either to
relax the body, or to abate acrimony. The former are
sometimes divided into diluents and relaxants j the lat¬
ter are usually called demulcents, although diluents are
also commonly given to obviate acrimony.
a. Barley. Hordeum distichon. Lin.
The use of barley as an article of food, has been al¬
ready noticed. A decoction of it forms a part of most
emollient drenches and clysters.
b. Chamomile. Anthemis mbilis. Lin.
The dried flower. In infusion or decoction by way
of fomentation.
c. Gum Arabic. Mimosa nilotica. Lin.
In powder. Dose two or three ounces or more, by
way of a drench.
d. Gum Dragant. Astragalus tragacantha.
In infusion, so as to form a mucilage. In inflamma¬
tory affections of the lungs, bowels, or bladder.
e. Hog’s Lard.
An ingredient in most ointments and liniments.
f. Linseed. Linum usitatissimum. Lin.
In infusion, by way of drench or clyster. In purging
or scouring.
i. Olive Oil.
A principal ingredient in ointments and liniments,
and also frequently given by wTay of drench or clyster.
Mateil
Medij
k. Starch.
Very serviceable byway of clyster dissolved in warm
water, either to obviate acrimony in inflammation of the
bowels, and scouring j or by way of nourishment, com¬
bined with a little opium, in cases where food cannot
be given by the mouth.
l. Warm Bath.
Seldom employed, on account of its inconvenience,
although it would be probably one of the best remedies
in spasmodic complaints.
Heceipts for Emollients.
27'
19. Take of linseed, four ounces •, Receipt i
Boiling water, three pints.
Infuse for some hours, and add to the strained liquor,
of nitre an ounce, honey sufficient to make a pa¬
latable drench. For two doses.
20. Take of marshmallow root sliced, four ounces j
Water three pints.
Boil together till the liquor be reduced to a quart,
and to the strained decoction add of
Powdered gum arabic, an ounce $
Linseed oil, two ounces ;
Honey sufficient to make it palatable. For two
doses.
The above decoction, before the other ingredients
are added, forms a good emollient fomentation.
21. Take of starch, two ounces ;
Water-gruel, two quarts j
Mix for a clyster.
To he given frequently in scouring or purging.
If they are not kept up for a sufficient time, two or
three drachms of laudanum must be added.
9. Cooling Bemedies.
279
These are called refrigerants by medical writers, and Cooling
it is supposed that they act by diminishing the tempe-remedies
rature of the body. See Materia Medica. They
are peculiarly suited to cases of fever and inflamma*
tion.
a. Nitre.
Frequently employed in fevers and inflammations,
except those of the kidneys, and in catarrh. Dose
about an ounce, dissolved in water-gruel, or some mu¬
cilaginous decoction, by way of a drench.
b. Sal Ammoniac. Muriate of Ammonia.
Externally, as a lotion, against inflammation.
g. Liquorice. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Lin.
The root in infusion, or powder.
Seldom employed except to render drenches more
palatable, or in powder to mix up balls.
h. Marshmallows. Althea officinalis. Lin.
The dried root in decoction, by way of drench or
clyster. In internal inflammations, or irritation from
strong purges.
c. Spirit of Salt. Muriatic Acid.
May be employed as a refrigerant in fevers, when
largely diluted with water or water-gruel.
d. Sugar of Lead. Acetate of Lead.
Employed externally, dissolved in soft water j byway
of lotion or embrocation, for strains or bruises j and in
the form of a poultice with oat-meal, to check inflam¬
mation.
e. Goulard’s
Part V.
FAKRIERY.
280
eceipts.
»Si
A’iujeaU
e. Goulard’s Extract, or Vegeto-mineral water.
Is merely another form of the same remedy.
f. Vinegar. Acetous acid.
Employed externally in similar cases.
g. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric acid.
Useful in similar cases with the muriatic acid, but re¬
quires to be largely diluted.
Receipts for Cooling Remedies.
22. Take of nitre, an ounce 5
Emetic tartar, two drachms.
Dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of water-gruel, for
a drench.
23. Take of sugar of lead, half an ounce 5
Vinegar, two ounces ;
Rain-water, a quart.
Dissolve for a lotion.
24. Take of sal ammoniac, an ounce ?
Vinegar, four ounces j
Spirit of wine, two ounces j
Soft water, half a pint.
Dissolve for a lotion.
Both these lotions are employed in external inflam¬
mation.
25. Take of cream of tartar, two drachms $
Nitre, an ounce $
Water-gruel, a quart.
For a drench in fevers.
26. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm $
Glauber’s salt, eight ounces j
Water-gruel, a quart.
In similar cases attended with costiveness.
To be repeated every six hours.
27. Take of extract of lead, half an ouqce $
Distilled vinegar,
Olive oil, of each two ounces.
Mix well together, into a liniment.
For sore backs.
28. Take of marshmallow ointment, half a pound j
Sugar of lead rubbed fine, an ounce.
Mix for an ointment.
10. Astringents.
Astringents are such medicines as are supposed to
produce a degree of rigidity in the muscular fibres,
and thus to increase its power of action, or to prevent
morbid discharges. Such as are intended to prevent
unusual discharges of blood are called styptics. For
the action of astringents, see Materia Medica.
a. Alum. Supersulphate of Alumina and Potash,
In powder, from half an ounce to an ounce, in the
form of drench or ball.
In purging, diabetes, &c. Externally by way of
lotion, or in a fine powder sprinkled on the^part. In
grease.
The root in powder, from half an ounce to an ounce j
or in a larger dose, in the form of decoction, for a
drench. '
A powerful astringent in cases of purging, and re¬
commended in hemorrhages.
c. Galls. Quercus cerris. Lin.
Nut galls.
In powder, infused in boiling water as an external
application.
d. Iron. Muriate of Iron.
A powerful astringent, though rarely employed in
veterinary practice. It may be given in cases of obsti¬
nate purging, or diabetes, in doses of a drachm or two,
by way of drench.
e. Japan Earth. Mimosa catechu.
Improperly called an earth, as it is a vegetable ex¬
tract. Given in powder, from two drachms to four, in
purging and diabetes.
f. Kino.
.An extract similar to the former, and adapted to si¬
milar purposes.
g. Logwood. Hcematoxylon Campechianum. Lin.
Extract of logwood. Dose from two to four drachms,
in a ball.
h. Oak Bark. Quercus robur. Lin.
In powder. Dose about two ounces, in the form of
a ball. Externally by way of decoction.
i. Pomegranate. Punica granatum. Lin.
The dried fruit in powder. Dose from half an ounce
to an ounce. Chiefly given in the scouring incident to
horned cattle.
k. Tormentil, Tormcntilla erecta. Lin.
The root in the form of decoction, by way of a
drench. An ounce or an ounce and a half in three
pints of water, boiled to a quart. In similar cases with
the last..
/. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric Acid.
Diluted Vitriolic Acid.
Used externally by way of lotion, in obstinate cases
of grease, and to foul ulcers. Not given to the horse
internally.
in. Zinc.
White Vitriol. Sulphate of Zinc.
Chiefly employed externally, in inflammations of the
eye, and as a lotion to foul ulcers, and to check inflam¬
mation. Seems to have little effect on the horse, but
may probably be given to cattle with some advantage
in cases of debility.
43l
Materia
Medica.
Receipts for Astringents,
''28*
Receipts,
29
b. Bistort. Polygonum historic.
Vol. VIII. Part II
Take of powdered oak-bark, an ounce j
Powdered ginger, two drachms $
Opium, a drachm;
Solution of glue, enough to make the mass into
a ball.
In profuse staling, with a drench of oak-bark decoc¬
tion after it.
3 P . v 30,
FARRIERY.
482
Materia
Medic*.
Strength¬
ening re¬
medies.
Part V.
30. Take of kino, two drachma j
Atom, half an otmce 5
Ginger, a drachm 3
Gas-tile soap, softened with water, two drachms 3
Powder of oak-bark, enough to make a ball.
In scouring or purging.
31. Take of white vitriol,
Sugar of lead, each one drachm 3
Soft water, half a pint.
Mix.
for eye-water, in inflammation of the eyes.
11. Strengthening Remedies.
These are commonly called tonics by medical wri¬
ters. Many of them are astringents, and have been
already enumerated.
a. Galangal. Maranta galanga. Lin.
The root in powder 3 dose about an ounce. In weak¬
ness of the stomach.
Receipts fir Tonics.
Materia
Medtea.
32. Take of powdered gentian, half an ounce 3
Ginger, two drachms 3
Honey or molasses, enough to make a ball.
Take of powdered horse chesnut bark, an, ounce
Myrrh, in powder,
Castile soap, each a drachm 3
Water, enough to make a ball.
294
Receipts,
34-
35-
36.
Take of powdered cassia buds, a drachm 3
Extract of gentian, a drachm and a half 3
Honey, enough to make a ball.
Take of powdered oak bark, an ounce 3
Aromatic powder, two drachms 3
Salt of tartar, a drachm 3
Molasses, enough to form a ball.
Take of salt of steel, two drachma 3
Infusion of quassia, (two drachms to a quart of
water) a quart 3
Dissolve for a drench.
12. Stimulants.
o . lS5
StunolaDli.
b. Gentian. Gentiana lutea. Lin.
The root in powder 3 dose from half an ounce to six
drachms.
Extract of Gentian. Dose, a drachm or two,
in a ball in composition. In indigestion and weakness
of the stomach.
c. Horse Chesnut. Esculus hippocastanum. Lin.
The bark in powder, or its decoction. Dose of the
powder about an ounce.
d. Iron.
Salt of Steel. Sulphate of Iron.
Dose about half an ounce. Generally in composi¬
tion. In similar cases.
e. Myrrh.
A gum resin. Dose in powder, from two to four
drachms, in a ball. In weakness of the stomach, and
general debility.
f. Oak Bark. Quercus robur. Lin.
Dose in powder about an ounce.
In general debility, succeeding to violent diseases.
g. Peruvian Bark. Cinchona officinalis. Lin.
Dose of the powder from one ounce to two. Seldom
employed in veterinary practice en account of its ex¬
pence. Said to be inferior to many other tonics in the
horse.
h. Quassia. Quassia excelsa. Lin.
The wood and the bark of the root. Dose in pow¬
der two or three drachms, in a ball, or infused in water
by way of a drench.
1. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.
Recommended as a powerful tonic, but requires cau¬
tion in its use. Dose about half a drachm, gradually
increased according to its effects. A considerable quan¬
tity of drink should be given, either before or after it.
la cases of debility that resist other tonics.
These are such remedies as are suited to increase the
action, either of the whole circulating system, or of some
particular part or organ. They are at present usually
divided into diffusible and permanent, the former being
such as produce a considerable stimulating eflect, which
is soon followed by a degree of quietness or torpor, pro¬
portioned to the quantity that had been administered 3
as wine, alcohol, ether, and probably opium 3 the
other sort being such as produce no very considerable
effect, unless repeatedly exhibited for some considerable
time.
Most of the stimulants are called cordials or aroma¬
tics ; and under this class, we rank those medicines
which have been called carminatives, or which are cal¬
culated to expel wind from the stomach or bowels,
epispastics or blistering substances 3 and under this class
we may also reckon most of those remedies that are call¬
ed alteratives, or such as are supposed to produce some
change in the constitution or habit of body. The stimu¬
lating remedies employed in farriery, as in human me¬
dicine, are very numerous.
a. Ammonia, or Volatile Alkali. Prepared Ammonia.
Carbonate of Ammonia.
Dose from half a drachm to two drachms, in a ball
newly prepared. In the latter stages of fever, attend¬
ed with great debility.
 Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. Water of
Carbonate of Ammonia.
Chiefly used externally.
Caustic Volatile Alkali. Water of Anmonia.
Used externally mixed with oil into a liniment, in
cases of strains, bruises, and swellings of the back
sinews.
c. Aniseseed. Pimpinella anisum. Lin.
The seed in powder. Dose about an ounce, in a
ball.
Essential oil of aniseseed.
Dose from half a drachm to a drachm, in the same
form. In flatulence and indigestion.
d. Bauam
FARR
d. Balsam or Copaiva. See Expectorants.
In flatulent colic or gripes.
e. Barbadoes Tar.
Externally mixed with oil of turpentine or sweet oil
into an embrocation. In strains and bruises.
f. Cantharides, or Spanish fly. Lytta vesicatoria.
Tincture of cantharides. Externally by w-ay of em¬
brocation in similar cases.
Blisters are well known to be those remedies that ir¬
ritate the skin to which they are applied, so as to raise
the scarf-skin into a bladder containing a watery fluid,
which is the serous part of the blood. By abstracting
this from the general mass of circulation, they produce
an evacuation, proportioned to their extent, from the
part to which they are applied, and are thus extremely
useful in producing a determination of blood from some
neighbouring and more important part.
Blisters are of considerable use in veterinary practice.
According to Mr White they are very efficacious in dis¬
persing callous swellings, the effects of strains, bruises,
&c. Their beneficial effects are very great in removing
the inflammation of such parts as are remote from the
surface. In inflammations of the internal parts of the
foot, they generally give relief when applied to the
pastern, especially if the auxiliary remedies are not ne¬
glected, such as rasping the hoof, paring the sole, soak¬
ing the horny part of the foot in warm water, or by the
application of a poultice to it, and administering a
purging medicine. For curbs, wind-galls, spavins, &c.
no remedy is more efficacious than blistering. It is also
productive of salutary effects in inflammation of the in¬
ternal organs. For instance, when the lungs are in¬
flamed, the determination of blood to the diseased part
is lessened by extensive blistering of the sides, and
considerable relief is afforded in this way.
By the unskilful treatment of broken knees, a callous
swelling is often left in the part, for the removal of
which it is always necessary to have recourse to blister¬
ing. If blisters are freed from all caustic ingredients,
and properly made, no injury to the hair will result
from their application ; and if one should fail of pro¬
ducing the desired effect, the practice may be followed
without danger till that object is attained.
g. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.
Employed externally to foul ulcers, either in solu¬
tion, or by touching their edges with a crystal of it 5 to
produce healthy granulations. Also in some inflamma¬
tions of the eye by way of lotion.
h. Burgundy Pitch.
Asan ingredient in stimulating ointments and plasters.
*. Capsicum, or Cayenne Pepper, Cap. annuum.
Lin.
The dried pod in water.
Dose about a drachm, in a ball, with milder stimu¬
lants. In flatulence and indigestion.
k. Caraway. Carum carui. Lin.
The seeds and their essential oil.
Dose of the oil from half a drachm to a drachm, in
a ball, as prescribed presently. In weakness of the
stomach, flatulence, and indigestion.
art V.
Materia
Medica.
I E R Y.
/. Cassia. Lauras cassia. Lin.
The bark and flowering buds in powder.
Dose, from one to three drachms. Used as an ingre¬
dient in many cordial medicines. Chiefly for affections
of the stomach.
m. Cloves. Eugenium caryophyllata. Lin.
The flowering buds.
n. Oil of Cloves.
Dose, 20 or 30 drops. In gripes and sickness of the
stomach.
0. Cummin. Cuminum cyminum. Lin.
The seeds and their essential oil.
In a dose of from half a drachm to a drachm, in simi¬
lar cases.
p. Oil of Cummin.
Dose, from half a drachm to a drachm. In flatulent
colic.
q. Fennel. Anethum fceniculum. Lin.
The seeds in powder.
Dose, an ounce or two.
r. Ginger. Amomum •zingiber. Lin.
The root in powder. One of the most useful stimu¬
lants, and preferable to most others in veterinary prac¬
tice.
Dose, a drachm or two. In weakness of the stomach,
indigestion, and flatulent colic.
s. Grains of Paradise. Amomum grana paradtsi.
Lin.
The seeds. Chiefly employed as a stimulant for cat¬
tle, as a cordial.
Dose from three to six drachms.
t. White Hellebore. Veratrum album. Lin.
The root in powder. Chiefly used externally in
blisters, and for diseases of the skin. Formerly employ¬
ed as a purge for horses, but now deservedly exploded,
as by far too violent.
u. Horse Radish. Cochlearia armoracia. Lin.
The fresh root in infusion or distilled water. In fla¬
tulence and indigestion.
v. Mercury.
Calomel. Dose, from 15 grains to half a drachm. In
farcy, glanders, &c.
Wherever calomel or other mercurial preparations
are given, the animals should be kept warm, should
drink their water a little warmed, and should take re¬
gular exercise in dry weather.
w. Corrosive Sublimate. Muriate of Mercury.
Employed internally in solution, in doses of about
15 grains, gradually increased. In farcy and glanders.
Externally by way of lotion, to foul ulcers and eruptions
of the skin.
No preparation of mercury seems to produce so great
a degree of weakness in the horse as this. Its effects
must therefore be carefully watched $ and besides the
regulations laid down above, the horse must be kept
on a more nourishing diet than usual.
x. Red Precipitate. Nitrated Oxide of Mercury.
Externally to ulcers, either sprinkled on their surface,
3 P 2 or
483
M«t4»ria
Medita.
484
Materia
Medica.
F A R R I E B Y,
or mixed Into an ointment; In winch latter form it is 42. Take of oil of turpentine,
very useful in chronic inflammation of the eyes. Oil of olives, each two ounces,
J . XTo Mix for a liniment.
y. Nitrate of Mercury. See Receipts, JN 49. Fol. straing and bruiSeg.
PartV, :
Materia
Medica.
25. Mint. Mentha saliva. Lin.
The essential oil.
Dose, about a drachm. In weakness of the stomach,
&c.
a a. Mustard^ Sinapi nigrum. Lin.
The seed in powder.
Externally mixed with tvater into a paste, or sinapism,
in cases of internal inflammation.
h b. Peppermint. Mentha Piperita. Lin.
The essential oil.
Dose, about half a drachm. In similar cases with
mint.
c c. PEPPERi Piper nigrum. Lin.
Dose, from half an ounce to an ounce, in powder.
In flatulent colic.
d d. Spirits. Whisky, Gin, or Brandy.
Dose, from a gill to half a pint. To cattle in the
flatulence proceeding from eating too much green
food.
43. Take of verdigrise finely powdered, an ounce ;
Venice turpentine, half an ounce ;
Olive oil, an ounce.
Melt the turpentine and oil together, and when
nearly cold, add the verdigrise.
For foul ulcers.
44. Take of hog’s lard, four ounces ;
Bees wax, an ounce ;
Venice turpentine, three ounces ;
Bed precipitate finely ground, two ounces.
Melt the three first together, and when nearly
cold, sprinkle in the powder.
This is Mr White’s receipt for the digestive ointment,
commonly employed by farriers for dressing rowels and
ulcers.
45. Take of camphor, an ounce ;
Oil of turpentine, two ounces j
Rectified spirit, four ounces.
Dissolve. For old strains.
e e. Salt. Muriate of Soda.
Given with good effect to sheep in the rot.
/ /• Tar*
Commonly given by country farmers to
hoven from clover.
cattle when
285
Receipts.
g g. Turpentine.
Oil of Turpentine.
Dose, an ounce or two. In flatulent colic. Exter¬
nally by way of embrocation. In cases of indurated
swellings, strains, and bruises; and lor cattle after the
bite of the gad-fly.
Receipts for Stimulants.
Cordial Balls.
jy. Take of caraway seeds powdered, six drachms ;
Powdered ginger, two drachms ;
Oil of cloves, 15 drops ;
Treacle enough to make a ball.
38. Take of powdered aniseseeds, half an ounce ;
Turmeric, an ounce ;
Powdered cassia, two drachms ;
Treacle enough to form the ball.
Stimulating Lotions.
46. Take of blue vitriol, an ounce ;
Water, four ounces ;
Vitriolic acid, 10 drops.
Mix.
For similar cases, and for the mange.
47. Take of blue vitriol, half a drachm ;
Water, half a pint.
Dissolve for a lotion.
In inflammation of the eyes.
48. Take of tincture of opium, two ounces ;
Water, six ounces.
Mix for an eye water.
In similar cases.
49. Take of aquafortis, two ounces ;
Quicksilver, one ounce.
Dissolve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the
fumes. ,
This forms a nitrate of quicksilver, and when diluted
with a proper quantity of water, is one of the best ap¬
plications for the foot-rot in sheep.
39. Take of caraway seeds, and grains of paradise, each
in powder, three drachms ;
Ginger, a drachm ;
Oil of mint, 30 drops ;
Honey enough to form the ball.
Stimulating Ointments and Liniments,
40. Take of yellow basil icon, half a pound ;
Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces.
Mix well together.
For foul ulcers.
41. Take of hog’s lard, four ounces; ,
Oil of turpentine, an ounce.
Melt together on a slow fire*
In similar cases.
12. Antispasmodics. *s7
J Aatispas-
These are such remedies as are calculated to remove
spasmodic affections ot the muscles, or convulsive affec¬
tions, and are therefore frequently employed in cases of
locked jaw, epilepsy, &c. Few remedies of this class
are used in veterinary practice. Such as are more pe¬
culiarly of this nature are mentioned below. They<
generally consist of stimulants or of anodyne remedies,
a. Camphor.
Dose, about two drachms, in a ball combined with
opium and stimulants. In locked jaw.
b. Ether. Sulphuric Ether.
One of the most powerful antispasmodics.
Dose?
art V.
F A B ft
ifateria Dose, about an ounce, mixed with a pint of water.
!Udica. This should be given as expeditiously as possible, other-
wise much of the ether will evaporate. In obstinate
cases of flatulent colic.
Ai.ynes.
The latter quantity gene-
c. Opium.
Dose a drachm or two.
rally in clysters.
Tincture of Opium.
Dose, from half an ounce to an ounce, repeated oc¬
casionally. In most spasmodic complaints.
Oil of Turpentine.
Dose, about two ounces. In flatulent colic.
iSS
J leipts.
5°*
Receipts.
Take of camphor, a drachm j
Essence of peppermint, two drachms.
Grind together, and add
Of water, a pint;
Ether, half an ounce.
Mix.
To be given immediately.
In violent cramp of the stomach.
51-
Take of tincture of opium, an ounce j
Oil of juniper, two drachms $
Dulcified spirit of nitre, a drachm j
Water a pint.
Mix.
52.
Take of tincture of opium, two ounces ;
Cold water-gruel, a quart.
For a clyster.
To be repeated frequently.-
In locked jaw;
14. Anodynes
Are those remedies which are given for the purpose
of procuring sleep, or alleviating pain. They are com¬
monly called narcotics, and many of them are by most
medical writers denominated sedatives*
a. Fox-Glove. Digitalis purpurea. Lin.
Leaves in powder.
Dose, half a drachm, increased gradually according
to its effect. In violent internal inflammations and
swelling of the legs.
h. Hemlock. Conium maculatum. Lin.
Leaves in powder.
Dose, about a drachm, gradually increased.
Extract of Hemlock.
Dose, about a drachm.
In obstinate coughs attended with irritability.
c. Henbane. Hyoscyamus niger. Lin.
The leaves in powder, or the seeds.
Dose, about a drachm.
Extract of Henbane.
Dose, about a drachm.
A solution of this extract has been found useful, ap¬
plied to the eye, in chronic inflammation.
d. Hop. Humulus lupulm. Lin.
The dried cones in powder.
I E R Y.
Dose, a drachm or two, in a ball.
I be hop has been shewn to be a powerful narcotic,
and has succeeded in producing sleep in some cases
where opium has failed. It has not yet been introdu¬
ced into veterinary practice ; but we think it deserves
a trial, as being much cheaper than opium.
e. Opium.
Dose, about a drachm by the mouth, and two drachms
in a clyster.
f Poppy. Papaver somniferum. Lin.
The dried heads boiled in water, by way of fomen¬
tation.
485
Materia
Medica.
Receipts.
290
Receipts.
53-
Take of opium, a drachm j
Powdered aniseseeds, half an ounce j
Castile soap, two drachms ;
Molasses, enough to make a ball.
54-
55-
56.
57-
Take of camphor, a drachm and a half $
Opium, a drachm j
Ginger, two drachms ;
Honey, enough to form the ball. ,
Take of tincture of opium, two drachms 5
Decoction of poppy heads, a quart.
Mix for a clyster. .
Take of extract of hemlock, two drachms ;
Peppermint water, half a pint $
Ether, half an ounce.
Dissolve the extract in the water, and add the
ether at the moment of exhibition.
For a drench.
In putrid fever, or gangrene.
Take of bruised poppy heads, four ounces ;
Hemlock leaves green, a large handful.
Boil gently in a gallon of water for about an hour,
and strain the decoction.
In wounds and bruises attended with considerable ir¬
ritability.
15. Worm Medicines. Wonfime-
There are few cases in which worm medicines are^IC*neS*
given in veterinary practice. In the horse they are sel¬
dom required, and do not often prove effectual. In the
dog, indeed, they have been applied more frequently,
and may be used with more probability of success. The
remedies of this class are generally of two kinds, either
such as are violent purgatives, and in this way expel
the worms by the violence of their operation 5 or, they
are such as act mechanically on these animals, irritat¬
ing and tearing their tender bodies, and thus forcing
them to relinquish their situation.
a. Castor Oil.
Dose, about half a pound.
b. Gamboge.
Dose, two or three drachms in a ball. .
c. Mercury. Calomel.
Dose for a horse, two or three drachms ; for a dog,
about half a drachm, in a ball with purgatives.
d. Salt. .
Dose3
486
Malms
Me4ica.
FARR
Dose, from four to six ounces, in a drench, or double
the quantity by way of clyster.
Said to have proved frequently successful in expelling
worms, when followed by a brisk purgative.
e. Sal Indus.
A salt lately procured from the East Indies, said to
be successful in expelling bots from horses j but Mr
White thinks that other worms have been mistaken for
bots, in the cases where it has been successful.
Dose, about four or five ounces in a drench.
f. Tin. Powder of Tin.
Dose, about an ounce, mixed with honey.
This promises to be one of the most effectual medi¬
cines in cases of tape-worm, that are so common to
dogs.
I E R Y. ' Part V
Given internally in powder, to correct the bad smell
in violent purging $ and when powdered fine, may be IMedw,.
sprinkled on large stinking sores, with the same inten- ‘
tion.
e. Lime.
Lime-water. Dose about a quart, in acidity of the
stomach.
f. Chalk.
Carbonate of Lime.
Dose, an ounce or two.
In violent purging attended with acidity.
g. Silver.
Lunar Caustic. Nitrate of Silver.
Employed to eat down proud flesh, or destroy horny
excrescences.
Receipts.
*95
Chemical
remedies.
Receipts.
58. Take of calomel, jalap, each half a drachm j
Honey enough to make a ball.
For dogs. »
59. Take of tin powder,
Quicksilver, of each two drachms.
Grind together till they be thoroughly mixed j then
add enough of sugar to form a powder, to be made
up into a ball with castile soap, softened with water.
60. Take of sal Indus, four ounces ;
Alum, half an ounce ;
Water, a pint.
Dissolve for a drench. For the bots in horses.
♦
16. Chemical Remedies.
Many remedies are given internally, or applied ex¬
ternally, which seem to act merely chemically, either
by combining with an acid or alkali, and thus neutra¬
lizing it, by checking putrefaction, or correcting the
ill smell that is produced by it j or, in external appli¬
cations, by destroying or corroding the parts to which
they are applied. This class will therefore compre¬
hend,
1. All those medicines that have been called antacids
or absorbents, which are given to correct acidity in the
stomach and bowels.
2. Antalkalines, or those acid substances that are
given more rarely to correct alkalescence.
3. Antiseptics, or those that are supposed capable of
obviating putrefaction.
4. Caustics or escharotics, which are intended to cor¬
rode the skin, or to take down fungous or proud flesh
in ulcers.
a. Alum.
Burnt Alum.
Sometimes applied to ulcers, to wear down proud
flesh.
b. Ammonia.
Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. Water of Ammonia,
Dose, a drachm or two, in a drench, for acidity in
the stomach and bowels.
c. Antimony.
Butter of Antimony. Muriate of Antimony.
Sometimes applied to foul ulcers. A violent caustic.
a. Charcoal.
h. Spirit of Salt. Dose about two drachms,
mixed with a quart of water by way of drench.
1. Vinegar.
Given internally as an antiseptic, diluted with an
equal quantity of water, or used externally to wash foul
ulcers.
k. Vitriolic Acid.
Dose, a drachm or two, as under spirit of salt.
/. Yeast or Barm.
Employed to make fermenting poultices in cases of
stinking ulcers.
Receipts. Rewipti.
61. Take of prepared chalk, an ounce;
Powdered ginger, two drachms ;
Honey enough to make a ball.
In purging attended with griping.
62. Take of purified soda in powder,
Powdered gentian root, each two drachms ;
Powdered cassia, a drachm ;
Treacle enough to form a ball.
In indigestion, with acidity of the stomach ansi
bowels.
63. Take of charcoal in powder.
Powdered oak bark, each an ounce ;
Treacle enough to make a ball.
In violent purging, producing very fetid stools.
64. Take of oat meal,
Powdered charcoal, of each four ounces ;
Thin yeast, a sufficient quantity to make a poul¬
tice.
To be applied to foul ulcers.
65. Take of aquafortis, an ounce,
Filings of copper, half an ounce.
Dissolve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the
fumes. ,
For a caustic, in cancer of the foot. It may oe
made into an ointment for the same purpose, by mixing
with hogs lard.
66. Take of fresh burnt quicklime powdered,
Soft soap, of each equal parts.
Mix at the time of using. ..
A mild caustic, useful in destroying parts of the ski®
where necessary. * r Ite
art V.
Materia 67. Take of corrosive sublimate, half a drachm ;
ifedrc* A t- e^.r«r#r. *■— 
farriery.
487
'?S
..ceilrtnc
1 rerae-
<**
Ardent spirits, two ounces.
Dissolve for a lotion.
Useful as an application to the callous edges of ulcers.
17. Miscellaneous Remedies.
a. Eggs. The Yolk.
Sometimes employed among the common farriers as
a remedy for broken wind, but appear to be useful only
for the purpose of combining oily substances with water.
b. Elecampane. Enula helenium. Ein.*
The root in powder. In the form of ointment for
the itch or mange.
c. Glass.
Powdered glass is sometimes blown into the eyes of
horses, to remove specks on the cornea.
d. Lead.
White Lead. White Oxide of Lead.
Sometimes used by way of ointment in some diseases
of the skin.
fe. Diachylon Plaster. Litharge Plaster.
Employed in making charges or strengthening plas¬
ters.
f. Bays. Laurus nobilis. Lin.
Oil of Bay.
Sometimes used in ointments for the mange.
g. St AYES acre. Delphinium staphisagria. Lin.
The seeds in powder. Employed to destroy vermin,
being sprinkled on the skin.
h. Zinc.
White flowers of Zinc. White Oxide of Zinc.
In ointment, to sores and ulcers.
Calamine. Impure Carbonate of Zinc.
Employed to make the common brown cerate.
Receipts.
68. Take of sulphur vivum finely powdered,
Powdered elecampane root, each two ounces ;
Hogs lard, enough to form an ointment.
For the mange.
69. Take of sulphur vivum powdered, four ounces j
Salt butter, six ounces ;
Train oil,
Oil of turpentine, each one ounce.
Mix well together into an ointment.
These two ointments are useful applications in the
mange.
70. Take of hogs lard, four ounces j
Tar, two ounces.
Melt together into an ointment.
Employed to anoint the backs of sheep or cattle,
when bitten by the gad-fly.
71. Take of Burgundy pitch, four ounces ;
Barbadoes tar, six ounces j
Bees wax, two ounces $
Red lead, four ounces.
Melt the pitch, tar, and wax together, and when the
mixture is nearly cold, stir in the red lead, and
continue stirring till it is firm.
This is Mr White’s receipt for making charges, or
strengthening plasters.
In cases of wind-galls and old strains.
2
Before concluding this parf, it will be proper to make Materia
a few observations, on the custom that prevails so much Mtdica.
among grooms and farriers, of administering medicine'"'
to horses, by way of preservatives of health, or prevent-. 29?.
ives of disease. It is very common among these gentle-of^ving*'**
men to bleed or physic a horse at least twice a-year, vix. medicines
in the spring and fall, though he be in never suchto horses
good health, or good condition; to give him sulphurinu.f*>s'
and antimony now and then to keep his coat fine ; and*^7-
to administer a cordial ball, or a dose of diapente oc¬
casionally to improve his appetite. If he is to undergo
any unusual exertion, as riding or bunting, it is judged
necessary by these sagacious practitioners to prepare him
for the work, by bleeding, purging, and sweating be¬
low a load of body clothes in a close, hot stable. In
pursuing this custom, they indeed only imitate what they
practise on themselves on similar occasions. As they
deem it necessary to have themselves bled every spring
and fall, or once a quarter, to take physic once a-month,
and to sweat themselves to make them ride or run more
lightly in a jockey match, they naturally conclude
that their horses should be treated in the same manner,
and should undergo the same preparation.
If an animal is in a perfect state of health, nothing
more is required to render him capable of performing
the functions for which he is intended. It is only when
there appears some derangement of the system, or when
the state of the body is such as to threaten the attack of
some dangerous disease, that it is necessary to call in
the assistance of medicine. We shall soon have occa¬
sion to mention cases of this kind, and to shew how the
threatened danger is to be avoided. It must be re¬
membered that those substances that are called medi¬
cine, are such as produce some effect on the body, that
is in general either unnatural, or is greater than what
commonly takes place in a state of perfect health. If
then we give medicines to an animal in this healthy
state, we either excite the organs to some unusual exer¬
tion, or we check those exertions that are natural and
healthy ; and in either case, we must do harm. Besides
the custom of giving medicines when they are unneces¬
sary, renders them less efficacious when they are abso¬
lutely required, to ward off or obviate any disease. It
is found that most remedies, when employed habitually,
require to be increased in quantity in order to produce
the same effect, and if continued too long they
sometimes cease to produce their effect at all. W’rth
respect to some remedies, it is found that their habitual
use is attended with dangerous consequences. Frequent
bleeding tends to produce fatness, and a plethoric state
of the body; the frequent use of cordials and astrin¬
gents stimulates the circulation too much, and produces
such a rigidity of the fibres, as lays the foundation of
apoplexy, palsy, and other dangerous disorders. It is
well known too, that when the action of the stomach is
too much excited by the habitual use of stimulants,
it in time loses its tone, and becomes incapable of
healthy digestion, unless roused by a greater quan¬
tity of its accustomed stimulus. It is therefore ob¬
vious that when an animal is in perfect health, all
that is required to keep him so, is the proper regula¬
tion of diet, exercise, cleanliness, and other circumstan¬
ces that have been mentioned in the fourth part of
this article.
We cannot better illustrate the absurdity of the usual Case.
methods
488
Diseases methods of preparing horses for a race, than by the fol-
v—' lowing case, which fell under the observation of Mr
Clark of Edinburgh. “ Two military gentlemen bet¬
ted their horses to run against each other on the sands
of Leith for a considerable sum, and this was to take
place three weeks after the bet. The horses were to
be ridden by their own grooms. Captain R’s was a
poney about 13^ hands, Captain M’s was a gelding
about 15 hands high. Both grooms were bred at
Newmarket, and were keen advocates for bleeding
and purging, though both the horses had beeil kept on
dry food, and in the best order, and the interval of time
for such treatment was very short. This bleeding and
purging was in order to prepare them the better for
running. Captain M’s horse was bled once, and pur-
1 ged twice. Captain R’s was bled once and purged
once. Both were sweated in the stable with a great
load of clothes ; and their stables, though separate, were
kept uncommonly hot, and closely shut up day and
night, though it was in the midst of summer. _ From
this treatment the horses soon lost their appetite, and
in the course of eight or ten days their strength was so
Part V'J
much exhausted, that they Were scarcely able to go Diieasej
through their usual exercise on the sands. In this skua-
tion Captain It. considered his bet as lost, and expect¬
ed nothing less than the loss of his poney, on which he
set a high value. Luckily, however, the groom, who
was rather corpulent, had put himself under a course of
physic, to bring himself down to the proper weight,
and was unable to proceed in his plan of purging and
sweating the horse. The poney was therefore provid¬
ed with another groom, and was put under the care of
Mr Clark, who, seeing the absurdity of the plan which
had hitherto been observed, ordered his clothing to be
reduced to a single rug, and the stable windows to be
thrown open, to admit the fresh air. The poney soon
recovered his appetite 5 and his activity, strength and
spirits were in a great measure restored. Captain M’s
horse in the meantime was continued under the debi¬
litating regimen. When the race came to be decided,
though at starting the odds were considerably in favour
of Captain M’s horse, yet his opponent won the race
with considerable ease.
FARRIERY.
PART VI. OF THE DISEASES INCIDENT TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
*99 In treating of the diseases of domestic animals, we
shall class them in two great divisions: in the first of
which we shall consider most of those morbid affections
which are usually called local and symptomatic, or in
general those simple affections of the several functions,
that are most easily understood, and require the least
complicated mode of treatment. In the second of these
divisions we shall treat of the more complicated diseases,
or those in which the whole system is more or less af¬
fected, and of which the treatment is more difficult,
300 and in general more precarious.
CUssifiea- When an animal is diseased, he is affected with some
or other of the following symptoms.
tion of
symptoms
301
Of sensa¬
tion.
I. Of Sensation.
He labours under too acute sensibility; or,
He is affected with pain or itching.
His sensibility is unusually diminished.
His sense of smelling is more or less impaired.
He hears with difficulty, or not at all.
His vision is more or less impaired.
He is unusually watchful.
His sleep is disturbed ; or,
He is unusually heavy and drowsy.
302
Of motion.
4. Of Absorption.
He is unusually fat; or,
unusually lean.
He is affected with some watery swelling.
3. Of Circulation.
His circulation is too rapid j or,
It is too slow ; or,
It is irregular.
He has some effusion of blood.
6. Of Respiration.
His breathing is hurried ; or,
It is difficult.
He is affected with cough ;
with sneezing,
hickup.
His breath is hot $ or,
It is cold.
His skin is unusually hot) or.
It is unusually cold.
334
Of absorp¬
tion.
395
Of circuls-
tion.
305
Of respira¬
tion.
2. Of Motion.
He is either affected with irregular, involuntary mo¬
tions or spasms j or,
His moving powers are impaired,
Digeii,.. 3. Of Digestion.
His digestive organs perform their functions too quickly.
His digestion is impaired j or,
He does not digest at all.
He is affected with sickness,
with flatulence, or witid in the stomach
and bowels.
7. Of Secretion and Excretion.
397
Of secre¬
tion and
His secretions and excretions are either unusually co- excretion,
pious.
He stales profusely.
He has a purging ; or,
His skin is unusually moist. _ ....
The secretions and excretions are morbidly diminish¬
ed.
He stales with difficulty, or not at all.
He is costive.
His skin is unusually dry.
UJ
B
’art VI.
Diseases.
308
8. Of Generation.
genera- jj;s venereal appetite is excessive j or,
It is morbidly impaired.
He is impotent.
When a practitioner comes to examine one of these
animals whose health is deranged, he will naturally in¬
quire into all or most of the above particulars, and they
will in general apply to all the four animals of which
we are treating. There are some other questions
which peculiarly relate to horses, and which it more
309 especially becomes a farrier to ask ; as,
nqniries Whether his flanks work.
made V^ether ears are c°hl> or are in constant motion,
a farrier. w*iat manner he walks.
Whether he looks earnestly at his sides.
Whether his eyes appear drowsy.
In what manner he carries his head.
Whether he kicks his belly.
Whether he appears desirous to lie down, but afraid to
do so.
Whether he sometimes lies down on one side, and then
immediately turns to the other.
Whether he lies down and flies up again repeatedly.
Whether he leans upon the manger.
Whether be stands off from the manger.
Whether he paws his litter.
Whether his nose runs.
Whether or not he passes much wind.
It will also frequently be of consequence to ascertain
the following particulars.
Whether the horse is usually in a poor condition.
How did the disorder begin P
How long it has continued.
How long it is since he ate or drank.
Has he ever had the disorder before ?
If he has, What was usually given him on these occa¬
sions ?
FARRIERY. 489
to give hopes of a speedy or perfect cure, it will next Diseases.
be proper for the practitioner to consider what is the ' 1- ^
speediest, safest, and cheapest method of treatment. In
particular, he ought to consider whether any immediate
remedy be necessary, in order to check the violence
of the distemper j more especially whether any imme¬
diate evacuation is required, as bleeding, purffinEf,
blisters, rowels, &c.
He must also be particular in examining whether the
disease be of a contagious or infectious nature, that the
aflected animals may be kept in a separate place from
those which have not been attacked.
As the general nature and theory of disease will be
considered at large under the medical department of
this work, we have only in this article to detail the
symptoms as they occur in the domestic animals j to
po.nt out the causes and seat of the disease, as far as
they have been ascertained by observation and dissec¬
tion ; and to lay down the most approved methods of
treatment adapted to these animals. Observations with
respect to the theory of diseases would here be out of
place, and we shall seldom hazard them, except in some
of those specific complaints which appear to attack sole¬
ly the animals ol which we are treating.
It may not be improper to remark, that diseases, like Clatsifica-
the objects of natural history, have been arranged in lion of tha
two methods. One of these is the natural method, in diseases,
which they are classed according to their seat or causes.
1 he causes of diseases are the foundation of Hr Har-
win’s system. In the first section of this part we shall
attempt to class the morbid symptoms according to
their seat, or the functions which they attack. The
other method of arrangement, or the artificial method, is
that in which diseases are arranged according to some
obvious and remarkable symptoms. This is best calcu¬
lated for the purpose of recognizing the disease when
seen, and is the method employed by some nosologists.
The diseases in the second section of this part will be
arranged in this way.
Does the disorder come on at any particular times ?
Has he been observed to pass any worms P
How long has he been bought, and what price was paid
for him.
Was he bought of a horse-dealer, or of a private per¬
son ?
Of a friend, or at the public market ?
310 Having ascertained the necessary particulars, it is
proper to consider whether the disease is of such a na¬
ture as has in general been easily removed ; or whether
the expence and time of cure will be sufficiently com¬
pensated by the value of the horse 3 for it must be re¬
marked, that in general a horse or other domestic ani¬
mal is worth no more than the price he would fetch at
the public market. Unless, therefore, the animal is a
favourite, or has some particular good quality which
greatly enhances bis value, it may happen that the ex¬
pence and trouble of cure may amount to more than the
animal is worth. In such a case it would be both pru¬
dence and mercy to kill him, unless we wish to attempt
his cure for the sake of experience. These observations
of course equally apply to cases that are generally deem¬
ed incurable.
Having found that the disease is of such a nature as
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
SECT. I.
Chap. I. Of Morbid Affections of Sensation.
Most animals are occasionally subject to a morbid Morbid
increase of sensibility, either of the whole nervous sys- sensibility,
tern, or of some particular organ. This morbid sensi¬
bility is generally called by medical writers, irritabi¬
lity; but this name is improper, as it implies an affec¬
tion of the muscular parts 3 whereas the symptom we
are now considering is an affection of the nervous sys¬
tem.
Some horses naturally possess a morbid degree of
sensibility, which appears by their starting on the sudden
approach of any object, by tbe peculiar tenderness of
their skin that makes them wince and tremble under
the currycomb, and by tbe extreme sensibility that
they evince at the least touch of the whip or spur. Such
horses are in general very active and spirited 3 but they
require a cautious and prudent rider, who must rather
endeavour to soothe and encourage them, than use any
harsh or violent means.
This increased sensibility is not easily removed by art,
3 Q but
493
FARRIERY.
Diseases.
3T4
Restless,
ness or
anxiety.
3IS.
Depression
of spirit.
316
Fatigue.
bat generally decreases as ibe horse grows older. ^ It
is best counteracted by living in a large well-aired
stable, by being kept on hard coarse food, and by lying
with as little litter below him, as is sufficient to prevent
him from injuring himself against the pavement of the
stable. In dressing him, the currycomb should not be
too sharp, and should not be employed too freely.
When excessive sensibility arises from a delicacy and
weakness of habit, strengthening medicines will be of
use, and cordials may occasionally be employed.
There is a symptom nearly allied to this, which some¬
times appears. The animal affected gathers himself to¬
gether, and brings his four legs as close as possible be¬
low him, and creeps as it were all on a heap. This
symptom often attends nervous diseases, and severe af¬
fections of the bowels. It is generally considered as a
sign of great danger, and is not unfrequently the fore¬
runner of mortification.
At the commencement of several acute diseases, es¬
pecially those of the brain, animals betray an unusual
sensibility to the effects of light and sound. When
this happens, the place where they are kept should be
darkened, and they should be as little as possible di¬
sturbed with noise.
There is a peculiar restlessness and anxiety with which
animals are sometimes affected. This is not unfrequent-
]y their only complaint, or at least we cannot perceive
that they are affected with any obvious or well-marked
disease, but it is most commonly a symptom attending
violent disorders, especially of the inflammatory kind ;
and generally preceding the fatal termination of dan¬
gerous chronic diseases. Animals thus affected are con¬
tinually moving about, and often lie down ; if they are
at liberty, they seek out the most sequestered and
gloomy parts of the pasture, and frequently change
their place: if they are tied up, they appear to listen,
tp, or observe, every thing that passes round them
they are restlessly attentive to the various objects near
them ; but although their eyes appear fixed, and wide
open, they do not stedfastly regard any object j they
are perpetually turning from side to side, and if they
feel pain in any part, they often turn their heads
mournfully towards it, sometimes groaning or panting.
If this state has continued long, the animals become
still more restless, are perpetually shifting about, scrap--
ing with their feet, or pawing the litter \ their ears be¬
come cold, and their hairs bristle up.
These latter symptoms are considered as denoting
oreat danger, especially when the animal looks sted¬
fastly at his sides, or stares with his eyes without ap¬
pearing to take particular notice of any object.
When anxiety appears to he the only symptom, with¬
out any signs of inflammation or convulsive affection
it is generally a mark of nervous weakness, and re¬
quires cordial and strengthening remedies, nourishing
diet, and gentle exercise without labour : but if it is a>
symptom of some violent disease it can only be remo¬
ved by the general treatment of that disease ; and i«'
this view, will come to be considered hereafter.
Animals are sometimes, affected with dejection or
loss of spirit. This is not unfrequently the attendant
of fatigue brought on by excessive labour or unusual
exertion-, and is therefore most commonly seen in horses..
It appears by the animal’s leaning his head on the
manger, standing still in the same place, and appearing
Part VI,
to move with pain or difficulty. His limbs are stift, Diseases.
his skin hard and dry, his eyes look sad, he has no appe- ' v—
tite for meat; if he lies down, he remains immoveable,
or if obliged to rise, immediately falls again when left
to himself.
In general, if the fatigue produced be not extreme¬
ly great, it gradually goes oft with rest and quiet, espe¬
cially if it has been found practicable to employ the
means that are presently to be recommended *, but if
the exertion to which the animal was exposed, has been
too great for its strength, the consequent depression may
prove highly dangerous, or even fatal. In this state
his urine is crude and watery, and, if a male horse, he
seems scarcely to have the power of drawing lor the
purpose of making water j and his excrements are dry
and scanty. If taken out in this condition, he moves
with pain and difficulty, trots slow, or lifts his feet very
little above the ground, carries his head very low and
his ears depressed over his forehead; he often stumbles,
and not unfrequently falls on his knees, and appears
very little sensible of the whip or spur. If a horse in
this state has any sox-es or ulcers about him, they become
bard, or flabby, assume a dull appearance, and the
matter proceeding from them becomes thick and viscid.
Rowels very frequently dry up ; and it he is afiected
with any eruption of the skin, this commonly disap¬
pears.
To prevent the bad consequences that are likely to
follow the state which we have now described, it is pro¬
per, as soon as we find a horse much fatigued, to spread
a bed of litter for him to rest on : and as soon as pos¬
sible give him a cordial ball, or drench. The strength
of this must not, however, be in proportion to the de¬
gree of fatigue or depression, as experience has shown,
that when a powerful cordial is given in a state of ex¬
cessive weakness, it proves too much for the animal, and
frequently excites fevers or inflammation. The horse’s
limbs should be bathed with warm water, and then rub¬
bed throughly dry. After this he should be left to his
repose, and if it be not too late at night, he may in a
few hours have a warm bran mash. When a little re¬
covered, he must be gently rubbed all over, but especi¬
ally his limbs, without currying ; he should be put upon
a nourishing diet, and exercised but little. These
means, varied according to circumstances, will in gene¬
ral bring the horse round, unless the symptoms are ex¬
tremely violent; when they will commonly terminate
in fever, or in some chronic disease, especially dropsy.
The train of symptoms which we have been describ¬
ing, are most commonly the effect of fatigue ; but they
may arise from other causes. They are more or less
the attendants of decay, and they are generally the
forerunners of fever or inflammation of the brain. 317
Sometimes these animals are affected with a great de- InseruiW"
gree of insensibility or torpor ; they are heavy and hst'
less ; lie much ; are not easily disturbed ; are inattentive'
to the objects around them ; seem to be insensible to
pain, and move heavily and unwillingly. These symp¬
toms require particular attention, as in most cases they
denote some dangerous affection of the brain, and are
very commonly followed by apoplexy or staggers; or
by epilepsy ; or they are the attendants (especially in
sheep) of water in the head. Wherever they are ob¬
served to take place in an animal that has been full fed,
with little exercise, especially if he appear fat and full
oi
diseases,
3lS
iddincsj,
turn*
ik.
’art VI. FARR
of blood, and the pulse be found full and strong, the
* eyes red or heavy, there is danger of apoplexy j and the
animal should immediately be bled and purged, be
gradually put on a lower diet, and use gradually more
exercise. These changes must be made by degrees, be¬
cause too sudden changes may produce the very effects
against which we are guarding.
A great degree of torpor and insensibility is often
produced by excessive cold, or by being kept long in an
impure atmosphere. Where they have taken place from
cither of these causes to a dangerous degree, the appli¬
cation of heat must not be too sndden, as it will tend to
extinguish the small remaining spark of life, and pro¬
duce apoplexy, or mortification, where any external
part has suffered from cold.
The head may be affected with dizziness, or giddiness,
commonly called turn-sick, from various causes. It may
arise from great weakness, or it may be the consequence
of plethora, or fullness of blood. In the latter case, it
is a pretty sure mark of approaching apoplexy or stag¬
gers 5 and the animal must immediately be bled, and
put on a lower diet, with gentle exercise. In sheep,
dizziness is a common symptom of sturdy, or water in
the head, a complaint which will be considered hereaf¬
ter. It will be evident that when this affection appears
in animals that are lean, meagre, and in low condition,
it shows the necessity of a more full and nourishing
diet.
The only morbid affection of the external senses,
that we shall here consider is blindness, a defect which
is of most consequence in the horse, though it may oc¬
cur in all the domestic animals.
The eyes of a horse, when perfectly sound, have the
cornea or outer covering, and the humours that are seen
through it, perfectly clear and transparent; there should
be no specks, or dragons as they are called, in either;
no greenness or glassy appearance of the pupil, and this
should readily contract when suddenly exposed to a
clear light. Buffon observes, that in a sound eye, two
or three soot-coloured §pots appear through the cornea
above the pupil.
When a horse has a defect in his vision, without be¬
ing perfectly blind, he appears dull, fearful and restive,
starts at suddenly approaching any object, carries his
head high, or to one side j moves his ears alternately,
or turns one forwards, while the other is turned back¬
wards, and usually hangs back on his bridle or halter,
and lifts his legs up very high.
Partial blindness is a symptom of several diseases in
the horse : it usually attends great weakness, especially
when this has been brought on by hard work and low
feeding j it is a common attendant on locked jaw, and
generally precedes the staggers. It of course is one of
the effects of old age.
When proceeding from debility, it generally goes off
'in proportion as the strength is restored by rest and pro¬
per nourishment; when it is a symptom of other diseases,
it goes off when they are removed. The blindness of
old age is incurable, and in the horse we believe no
method has yet been discovered of relieving the defect
by art.
It is generally allowed, that it is better to have a
horse totally, than partially blind ; as when quite blind,
he is not liable to start, or be shy 5 and when sure foot-
I E R Y.
4.91
3 '9
ndness.
3*o
! irks of a
s ad eye.
( 3*»
1 tial
tl’.dness,
ed, well shod, and managed by a careful rider, there is Diseases,
little danger of his stumbling or falling. <—
Total blindness either proceeds from a defect in the 322_
optic nerve, by which this is rendered incapable of re_ Totalblind
ceiving the impression of light, or from an opacity orr eSS‘
muddiness in the cornea or humours, by which the
transmission of light through them is obstructed. 323
The first species of blindness, or that depending on a Glass eyes,
defect in the optic nerve, is generally called by farriers
glass etjes, and by medical writers, it is termed amauro¬
sis, or gutta serena.
It is known by the peculiar glassy appearance of the
eye, which seems perfectly clear, so that an ordinary ob¬
server would not suppose that there was any defect in
the horse’s eye. On examining the eye however more
attentively, it will be found that the pupil is consider¬
ably dilated, and preserves the same size in every change
of light ; not contracting, as usual, when the light to
which it is exposed becomes stronger. There is also a
greenish appearance of the eye in this disease.
The causes of glass eyes are not well ascertained. It
has followed a blow on the head, or inflammatory af¬
fections of the brain or its membranes j but it has come
on sometimes imperceptibly, and where these diseases,
or any other evident cause has not appeared.
This disease in the horse has hitherto proved incurable. 324
The most common cause of blindness in the horse, is Cataract,
an opacity of the lens, or crystalline humour of the eye.
This disease is known by the name of cataract, and is
sometimes called by farriers, moon blindness, or a horse
that has a cataract is said to be moon-eyed.
It is in general easily discovered that a horse labours
under a cataract, as, when the disease is confirmed, an
obscurity or muddiness may be seen in the centre of the
pupil, occupying more or less of the opening, according
as the cataract is more or less extended. The opaque
spot is generally of a dull white or yellowish colour.
Sometimes the crystalline humour is so fixed to the iris,
or that moveable coloured part in the middle of the
eye, as to obstruct its motion, and then the pupil re¬
tains the same size in every light; or if the adhesion is
partial, the pupil of the eye assumes a regular shape.
It must be observed, that in this disease, the iris is not
always so immoveable as in glass eyes; though when
the cataract is fully formed, the pupil is generally en¬
larged, and contracts very little on the approach of a
strong light. Sometimes the lens comes through the
pupil altogether, and floats in the watery humour, in
the fore part of the eye.
The cataract in horses is said to be always a conse¬
quence of inflammation in the eye, which will be con¬
sidered in the second section of this part.
The only method that appears likely to remove the
cataract, is an operation by which the opaque lens may
be thrust down below the pupil, or entirely extracted
from the eye; but neither couching nor extraction can
be recommended in the horse, as the removal of the
lens would still be attended with a defect of vision that
would render the animal of less use, than if he were to¬
tally blind. j.
Another cause of blindness, and also a consequence Opacity of
of inflammation, is opacity of the cornea. There may the cornea,
be either a diffuse whiteness or muddiness in the cornea,
that is more or less extensive ; or, there may be specks
3 Q 2 (XT
492
Diseases.
FARRIERY.
Part VI.
32$
Warts.
or ivarts growing on the outside of this coat, so as to ob¬
struct the passage of the rays of light. Sometimes the
opacity of the cornea is only slight, producing partial
blindness j but frequently it is universal, and then the
horse cannot see at all. * This universal opacity of the
cornea is sometimes, though improperly, colled cataract.
It sometimes disappears for a time, and the eye seems
nearly as clear as ever > but it generally returns in no
long time.
General opacity diffused through the substance of the
cornea, does not readily yield to remedies. Attempts
have been made, by scarifying the vessels on the white
of the eye, or by stimulating applications to the cornea,
to rouse into action the absorbent vessels of the eye, and
thus remove the opacity : but these attempts seem to
have been attended with little success. Specks or warts
on the cornea, if they are not too large, may generally
be removed by the knife, or by repeatedly blowing into
the eye a powder composed of powdered glass and white
vitriol. But, if these specks are attended with any ge¬
neral opacity of the cornea, little benefit is to be ex¬
pected from these operations.
As the skin is so intimately connected with sensation,
we shall here consider some of the more simple affections
of that organ, that are not generally attended with fe¬
ver. It is not uncommon for excrescences or warts to
grow on the skins of domestic animals, particularly on
horses and oxen. Sometimes they are hard and firm ^
at others they are soft and sprouting : in some their root
is smaller than their head ; in others the base is the lar¬
gest part. The sprouting kind of warts are called by
the farriers anger-berries, ambury or ambery, and are
not uncommon among oxen. As these are largest at
the base, they can, like all of that description, be re¬
moved only by touching them daily with some caustic,
as lunar caustic, or butter of antimony. Where the
wart has a small root, it may be best removed by tying
a strong waxed thread round the root, tightening it now
and then as it gets loose till the wart drops off. It is
in general not proper to remove warts by the knife, un¬
less they are of such a firm consistence as not to bleed
on being cut, and to admit of the application of caustic
after cutting.
There sometimes appears on the skin of the horse, a
and sallen- scurfy eruption at the bending of the knee, or the bend-
‘ier8‘ ing of the hock. The eruption generally appears in
both places at once, and is called by farriers, the Mal-
lenclers and Sallenders; a term which they have bor¬
rowed from the French. When considered separately,
the eruption of the knee is called the mallenders, and
that of the hock the sallenders.
These eruptions may generally be traced to want of
cleanliness, and are, in most cases, easily removed, by
washing the parts with soap and water, and applying an
ointment, composed of mercurial ointment and camphor j
or either of the ointments marked N° 41. andN® 70. in
the receipts.
When a horse’s skin is hard, dry, and unusually tight
about the body, the animal is said to be hide-bound.
This tightness about the skin is usually the effect of hard
work and improper food ; and commonly attends linger¬
ing diseases, in which the fat is gradually wasted or ab¬
sorbed. It must therefore be considered rather as a
symptom of disease than as a disease itself; but, as is the
ease with most remarkable symptoms, it has often been
2
.1*7
Mallenders
328
Hide¬
bound.
regarded as a primary disease j to remove which, by oiseaics,
sweating and relaxing remedies, is the principal object
of the practitioner.
The proper remedies for this affection, when it is not
a symptom of some lingering disorder, are nourishing
diet, with plenty of green food, particular attention to
cleanliness, by frequent dressing, and the occasional
use of boiled barley and warm mashes. 3:3
Horses that have a lean, unthrifty-like appearance, Surfeit,
with their coats looking rough and rusty, are said by
the grooms to labour under a surfeit. Whence has
arisen the application of this strange term to an appear¬
ance that seems so opposite to what is generally under¬
stood by a surfeit, we are not aware } but an affection of
the skin, under the name of surfeit, is thus described by
Mr Lawrence: “ Its confirmed state is attended with
eruptions, and sometimes with swellings of the legs and
joints, and in the latter case is usually to be looked up¬
on, as the termination of some chronic disease, or a con¬
sequence of the improper use of mercurial physic. Sur¬
feits are styled dry or wet; in the former, the skin is
covered with a thick dry scurf, with scabs, and small
hard tumours like vrarbles j in the latter, a sharp briny
ichor issues from the poll, neck, withers, quarters, and
hinder legs, in the bend of the hock, causing great stiff¬
ness and inflammation ; this is probably analogous with
scurvy in the human body, and will often attend cart¬
horses, with foul and unwholesome blood, at stated pe¬
riods. The too free use of beans will produce the wet
surfeit.
“ The cure of surfeits depends almost entirely upon
internal alteratives, with a very small attention to exter¬
nal applications. As to the latter, perhaps, frequent
cleansing, with a good strong lather of soap, is generally
sufficient, but where the eruptions are hard and fixed,
and the scabs do not peel off, I know of nothing bet¬
ter than to rub them frequently with the strong mer- * JUw.
curial unction, keeping the horse well clothed, and g\\-renceon
ing warm water in the interim. The warm bath if theHor,e*t
v , . * vol. 11.
animal is strong . . ^
One of the most common diseases of the skin among ftfange ia
domestic animals, is what is commonly called the mangefow*.
in horses, cattle and dogs, and the scab or itch in sheep.
Its symptoms differ but little in the different species of
animals, and we do not remember to have seen the dis¬
order well described by any writer. The following de¬
scription of the mange in horses by Mr Feron, is per¬
haps among the best that have been published. “ The
mange is a contagious chronical disorder which mani¬
fests itself on the skin, on which sensible eminences of
a roundish figure rise up j these being scratched, a fluid
ooz.es out, of a hot and .corroding quality, that excori¬
ates the sound skin wherever it runs, in a little time
forming a dry, scaly, crusty eruption, which in its pro¬
gress spreads over the whole surface of the body: and
the skin becomes unequally thick, thin, hard, and soft.
If the disorder has been neglected, or ill-treated, the
animal falls off from his food, grows lean, and the legs
swell: in this state the patient lias frequent fits of shiver¬
ing and trembling, and a slight fever arises,, terminat-
ing in farcy or the glanders, by which he is easily
stroyed -f.” _ 331
A disease similar to this, if not of the same kind, af-intau!*-
fects cattle, especially such as are ill-fed, and not kept
clean. It is commonly called, by herdsmen, the scab
S3*
Imieep.
* ndin-
leifSur-
*
, 133
In rs.
irt VI. FARE
or scurf; and is thus described in a popular treatise on
• cow-doctoring.
Skin stiff, and sits fast to every part of the carcase,
as if too small for the body. It makes its first appear¬
ance about the head and jaws of the animal, with a
scurfy, pale, and dry texture ; and the beast begins to
scratch against every thing that comes in its way : it
then shews itself along the back, and behind the
shoulders 5 and if timely aid be not procured, the ani¬
mal will tear its skin till it bleeds violently, which
ought to be prevented, if possible, as the scabs which
are the consequence of bleeding, much retard the effi¬
cacy of the ointment, and the loss of time confirms the
disorder.
This disease is incident to sheep in some particular
pastures, situations, and seasons, more than to others.
The predisposing cause seems to be a relaxed habit of
body, produced by poverty or leanness, though some
sheep are subject to it that are fat and otherwise in
good condition. The disease seldom seems to originate
with such sheep, but to be conveyed to them by infec¬
tion *.
Dogs are exceedingly subject to the mange, and rea¬
dily catch it from each other. The appearance of the
disease in dogs, is familiar to every one, as there are
few more common and disgusting sights than a mangy
dog. A dog in this state is very unfit for any active
exertion, as the affection of the skin renders him stiff
and sore even in his limbs. A friend of ours had a
greyhound, that, when he was clean, was one of the
swiftest runners in the country, and had gained the
prize in many a coursing match. This dog caught the
mange, and while in this situation was several times
sent in pursuit of a hare $ but now, puss generally es¬
caped him.
This disease has sometimes been attributed to ani-
nialculae, such as are found in the symptoms of the itch
upon the human skin j and analogy seems to be in fa¬
vour of this idea. It is, however, evidently connected
| 4 with poor living, and want of cleanliness,
be aent. the treatment of the mange, we are to rely chief¬
ly on the use of external applications, such as ointments,
composed of sulphur, of some preparation of mercury,
or hellebore roots. The receipts marked N* 68. and
69. are well adapted to the cure of this disease. Some¬
times internal remedies, such as sulphur and gentle lax¬
atives, are required j and the greatest attention must be
paid to cleanliness, diet, and exercise. It may be ne¬
cessary in some cases, especially where the animals that
have caught the disease, are very full of blood, to bleed
and give cooling physic previous to the application of
ointment; and in all cases the skin should be thorough¬
ly washed with soap and water, both before and after
anointing. The animals should always be confined till
they are quite free from the disease.
Mr Feron, who considers the mange in horses as a
general affection of the system, and not merely a local
disease of the skin, strongly recommends the use of blis¬
ters, which he has seen act as a specific. “ The local
treatment, and the only one to be depended upon (says
this gentleman), consists in a judicious application of
blisters, used after the following manner j viz. if the
whole body is affected, the one half must be blistered
one day, and the other in three days after. This must
be done at different times, in order to prevent the can-
I E R Y.
tharides from operating too violently upon the kidneys incase*.
and bladder j but if this happens, let the animal be bled,
and clysters frequently injected. But the best way to
avoid this, is to leave off all kinds of internal medicines,
during the action of the blisters. When they begin to
operate, the skin must be fomented with warm water
three times a-day, in order to wash out a quantity of
yellow matter, discharged by the action of the blisters,
and to encourage the growth of new hair.” We do not
pretend to dispute the efficacy of Mr Feron’s blistering
practice in removing the mange, but we doubt whether
the blistering one half of the body with cantharides
may not be productive of more serious consequences
than the disease which it is intended to remove. At
any rate, the expence of the method, and the torment
which it must occasion to the poor animal, must great¬
ly prevent the general application of the remedy.
In Mr Findlater’s Survey, quoted above, are the fol¬
lowing judicious observations on the treatment of sheep
labouring under the scab.
“ Sheep that are regularly tarred, or smeai’ed, are
seldom infected with this disease. If the disease be.
partial, perhaps the best remedy would be to clip the
affected parts as bare as possible, and rub them occa¬
sionally with the common smearing ointment, to which
may be added a little Venice turpentine. They should
also be washed, once or twice a week, with black soap
and water. But if this prove ineffectual, or if the dis¬
ease has gone to a great extremity, the animal should
first be washed as clean as possible, in a pond, or rill of
water, to purge away all the accumulated virus, or in*
feeling matter, from the wool. A little black soap may
be of great use in washing. Then the whole body may
be smeared with juice of tobacco; and after the animal
becomes dry, may be rubbed with butter mixed with
powdered brimstone; or brimstone mixed with the
smearing ointment would answer better. A little of
the sulphur may meanwhile be thrown down its throat.
If this treatment, being twice or thrice repeated, after
an interval of several days, should prove ineffectual, re¬
course must be had to the mercurial ointment, compo¬
sed of three ounces of hogs lard, well rubbed in a mor*
tar, with half a drachm of finely powdered corrosive
sublimate ; or the same proportion of corrosive sub¬
limate, well mixed with three ounces of the common
smearing ointment, will answer equally well. The ani¬
mal being smeared with this ointment, will soon be ef¬
fectually cured. Meanwhile the diseased animal should
be invigorated or put upon substantial food.”
In a note Mr Findlater mentions an observation of
Mr Loch’s of Radian, that the matter discharged in
the scab mixing with the wool, and drying, forms a hard
impenetrable crust, which he has observed of half an
inch in thickness ; that it is vain to think of curing it
by any external application, till this is removed ; and
that you might as w^ell attempt to cure a man of the
itch, by rubbing butter and brimstone upon his coat,
instead of his naked skin ; that the scurf thus formed,
must be removed by soaking and washing it with
warm lime-water and soap, and scraping it clean to the
quick with a blunt knife. It may then be successfully
cured by the ointment; or, what is more cleanly and
more easily prepared, by means of a lotion made by
dissolving half a drachm of corrosive sublimate in a quart
(chopin) bottle of whiskey and water. Mr Loch has
always^
494
FARRIERY.
Diseases.
. 335
Dice and
fleas.
33*
Fly.
337
Ticks,
* Find-
later's
Survey
always found this lotion effectual, after two or three
' applications.
It has been proposed by a correspondent of the Far-
imer’s Magazine, to inoculate sheep for the scab, in or¬
der to render it milder. Even should inoculation have
this effect, which is by no means certain, it does not
appear necessary, in a disease that is so easily cured.
Besides the several applications that we have men¬
tioned, a variety of ointments and lotions are recom¬
mended by writers on dogs. Mr Beckford advises that
as soon as a mangy spot appears on a hound, it should
be well rubbed with a liniment composed of a pint
(mutchkin) of train oil, half a pint of oil of turpen¬
tine, a quarter of a pound of powdered ginger, and
half an ounce of gunpowder. It is also recommended
that the dog should have a purging ball now and then,
and should be kept from flesh meat. There is a variety
of the mange in dogs, called the red mange, which it
is said is best cured by mercurial ointments.
Most of the domestic animals, especially when young,
are troubled with lice. Calves are sometimes lousy, if
they have been hard kept during winter, by being
turned out in severe weather, fed on poor diet, and not
kept clean. The best means of destroying these ver¬
min is by rubbing their hide with an ointment compo¬
sed of staves-acre, or cayenne pepper, mixed up with
hogs lard.
Young whelps are very subject to lice; but they may
be easily removed by washing with a lotion formed by
steeping a pound ol tobacco in three English pints of
small beer, or by rubbing the skin well with train-oil.
Fleas are best destroyed by washing the dogs fre-
•quently with soft soap and water. _ _ \
Sheep are often infected with vermin of various kinds,
which harass the animals exceedingly ; and not only
do much mischief to the wool, but even eat into the
animal’s skin.
The sheep fly abounds most in the southern parts of
the island, and is chiefly troublesome to lambs. The
most effectual means of protecting the lambs irom the
insect appears to be to smear the fleece with any kind
of rancid oil.
Another species of insect that infest sheep is com¬
monly called tick, or kedd, the hippobosca ovina of na¬
turalists.
The smearing ointment generally prevents, or kills
this insect. But if this should not happen, or if the
sheep are not smeared, insects of every kind may be ef¬
fectually killed, by slightly rubbing the parts affected
with mercurial ointment, composed of three ounces of
hogs lard, rubbed up with half a drachm of finely pow¬
dered corrosive sublimate. lo this may be added, a
little of the spirit of turpentine. Coal oil is powertully
destructive to insects of every kind ; but whether it may
not prove injurious to the health or fleece of the sheep,
has not yet been ascertained by experiment. A decoc¬
tion or distillation from the gall-plant, which abounds
in many mosses and muirs, is known to be very fatal to
insects of every kind ; and a sheep may be safely wash¬
ed with this juice. The juice of tobacco is also much
recommended as a poison for those insects which infest
sheep.
The last species of insects are chiefly hurtful to sheep
of a year old, or more *.
Among the insects which prove most troublesome to Di,eHseM
horses, sheep, and cattle, are those of the genus Oes-
trus, some species of which are generally known by the
name of gad-fly. The best account of these insects and
their effects, that we have seen, is that of Mr Bracey
Clark, published in the third volume of the Linnaean
Transactions, from which the following account is
chiefly taken.
Mr Clark describes five species of Oestrus, viz. Oe.
bovis, Oe. equt. Oe. hcemorrhoidahs, Oe. vetennus,d.xiA
Oe. ovis.
We shall at present describe the effects only of the
first and last species.
The Oe. bovis, as its name imports, chiefly attacks Gad-fly, n
cattle, through the skins of which it pierces, in order Oestrus
to deposit its eggs. The pain which it inflicts in de-^ov*s‘
positing its eggs appears to be much more severe than
what is excited by any of the other species. W hen
one of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is easily
known by the extreme terror and agitation that seizes
the whole herd. The unfortunate object of attack runs
bellowing from among his fellows, to some distant
part of the pasture, or to the nearest water, holding
his tail, from the severity of the pain, extended straight
from the body, in a line with his back, with a tremu¬
lous motion, and stretching out his head and neck to
the utmost. The rest of the herd, infected with the like
fear, though not attacked, fly also to the water, or dis¬
perse to different parts of the pasture. “ Such is the
dread and apprehension of the cattle for this fly, says
Mr Clark, that I have seen one of them meet the herd
when almost driven home, and turn them back, re¬
gardless of the stones, sticks, and noise of their drivers;
nor could they be stopped till they reached their accus¬
tomed retreat in the water.”
When one of these flies happens to attack oxen that
are yoked in the plough, there is often considerable
danger, as the animals become quite ungovernable, and
will often run directly forwards with the plough,
through hedges, or whatever opposes their career.
Heifers, steers, and the younger cattle, are in gene¬
ral most frequently attacked by this fly, the strongest
and most healthy beasts seem constantly to be preferred
by it, and this circumstance is said to be a criterion of
goodness held in much esteem by the dealers in cat¬
tle. Tanners also have remarked, that their best and
strongest hides have generally the greatest number of
holes in them.
The larvae of this species, as of most of those we
are to mention, are generally termed bots, but this
name is most frequently applied to the larvae of the Oe.
equi. . .
The complaint produced by the puncture of this in¬
sect in the skins of cattle, is called puckeridge, and is
not unfrequently attributed to the bite of the goat¬
sucker. For the destruction of the larvse thus depo¬
sited, it has been recommended to insert a red hot wire
into each of the holes made in the skin ; but this is a
formidable remedy, and will probably do as much harm
to the skin as the bots themselves. A more rational
practice that is sometimes in use, is to press the parts,
and rub them well with a little oil of turpentine, or
some other stimulating application, or a little oil of tur¬
pentine may be injected into each hole.
r lliC
3
9
iris.
t VI. FARR
flieSt The larvx of the Off. bovis are commonly known to
r-—' the country people by the names of wormi/s, or ivor-
muls, or warbles.
During the summer, sheep are often observed to ga¬
ther together in clusters, endeavouring carefully to
guard their heads. Mr Blaine says that this is to pro¬
tect themselves against the attacks of this insect, which
attempts to lay its eggs on the inner margin of the nose,
which when it has effected, these eggs become larvae,
and creep up into the frontal and maxillary sinuses.
It is not easy to discover the manner in which this
insect deposits its eggs, owing to its obscure colour and
rapid motions, and to the great agitation into which
the sheep are thrown by its attack ; but the subsequent
motion of the sheep, and the manner in which they at
1 E R Y* 495
The skin of all animals, especially on the most Diseases,
delicate parts of it, is subject to excoriation or chafing. L— ‘
This is of most consequence in the backs of horses fret- 341
ted with the saddle, and the udders of cows by rub-^XC0l*a~
tempt to defend themselves against their enemy, leave
no room to doubt, that the eggs are deposited on the
inner margin of the nostrils.
The moment the fly touches this part of the sheep,
they shake their heads, and strike the ground violently
with their fore feet, at the same time holding their
nose close to the earth; they run away, looking about
them on every side, to see whether the fly pursues: they
also smell to the grass, as they go, lest one should be
lying in wait for them. As they cannot, like horses,
take refuge in the water, they have recourse to a rut,
or dry dusty road, or gravel-pits, where they crowd to¬
gether during the heat of the day, with their noses held
close to the ground, which renders it difficult for the
fly conveniently to get at the nostril.
Observations on these flies are best made in warm
weather, and during the heat of the day, when by
driving the sheep from their retreats to the grass, the
attack of the fly, and the emotions of the sheep, are
easily observed.
The nostril from repeated attacks, and the conse¬
quent rubbing against the ground, becomes highly in¬
flamed and sore, which occasions their touch to be so
much dreaded by the sheep.
It is said that this fly also deposits its eggs in the
skin of the sheep, but we are not certain how far this
has been proved by experience ; although there is no
doubt that there are sometimes found in the sheep’s
skin, maggots that must have been produced from eggs
deposited by some insect. They prove extremely
troublesome to the animal, eating into the skin, and
producing ulcers. If not discovered in time they may
even destroy the life of the sheep. The remedy is to
clip the infected parts bare, wash them well with black
soap and water, and apply the smearing ointment. If
this does not succeed, recourse must be had to the me¬
thod recommended in N° 337.
When sheep have lain about for a long time in wet
and marshy pastures, or have been kept in woods or
copses in a starving condition, their fleeces become so
completely soaked with water, that the wool rots
off from the skin. This is what is called the pelt-rot.
If sheep be suffered to continue long in this condition,
they become heavy and low-spirited, and will sooner or
later be destroyed. If, however, they be attended to
m proper time, they may be saved by driving them to
a good straw-yard, pulling off their ragged and rotten
wool, and rubbing on a good coat of tar, grease, and
turpentine. Care must also be taken, to provide them
with plenty of good wholesome nourishment.
vtiwi Luc aduuic, rtim ine uouers or cows oy rub-  
bing against their thighs, when they are cat-hammed, cbaps See
and go close behind. Both the udder and thighs *
of the cow are sometimes quite raw, and ulcerated.
The best remedy in these cases, is to wash the parts
well with warm soap and water, and afterwards bathe
them frequently with a mixture of Goulard, and cam¬
phorated spirits.
The teats of cows are sometimes chapped, which is
commonly owing to want of cleanliness in the milkers.
W hen this happens, the treatment recommended above
for chapping may be followed, or, if this does not succeed,
t t’PMt'C I'll *1 n rk • t *■>■4-1% ... I. .. 4- * _ .11 1
the teats may be anointed with what is called unguen-
tum nutritum. If the teats are very painful, the cracks
may first be bathed with a little laudanum, and after¬
wards filled up with fine powdered prepared chalk.
There are many other diseases that affect the skin
of these animals } but some of them are so trifling as
not to require particular notice, and others being inti¬
mately connected with some general derangement of
the system, fall more properly to be considered in the
next section of this part.
Chap. II. Morbid Affections of Motion.
The function of motion may be morbidly affected in 342
various ways, but all these tend more or less to impede
or disturb the natural motions of the animal.
Ihe muscles are often affected with irregular mo¬
tions, producing violent involuntary contractions, called
convulsions or spasms. These are often symptoms of
some dangerous derangement of the brain or nervous
system, as locked-jaw, epilepsy, canine madness, &c.
Convulsions of this nature, being intimately dependent
on the primary disease, can only be removed by such
means, as are calculated to carry off the disease, of*
which they are symptoms. Irregular action of the
muscles commonly attends great debility, whether it be
brought on by hard work and low diet, or by disease.
In either case, it is commonly a very dangerous symp¬
tom. We cannot properly consider the treatment of
convulsion here ; but it will be considered in the next
section, when we come to treat of convulsive or spas¬
modic diseases.
Hie affection that we are chiefly called to consider Of lame-
in this chapter is lameness, a very comprehensive term,nCM*
as it includes almost all the local affections of the ex¬
tremities. Lameness is a complaint that is exceedingly
common among horses and dogs, especially the form¬
er j in whom it more particularly demands attention,
as it so materially affects the value of the animal. A
knowledge of the nature of lameness, and the method
of treating it, can only be acquired by an investigation ,
of the cause by which it is producer!.
The causes of lameness are extremely numerous and:
various. We shall endeavour to class them, so as to
render our inquiry as little tedious and difficult, as may.
be.
1st, Lameness may be produced by a stiffness of some Stiffneis,
parts of the muscles, tendons, or ligaments, arising
either from excessive labour, from bruises, w'ounds, or
some diseased affection of the joints.
It
496 F A B R
Diseases. »3 we^ known, that when the muscles of an animal
—V—are exerted for any unusual length of time, or in a
more than ordinai’y degree, they become fatigued, and
cannot for some time perform the functions with their
accustomed ease. In general, after proper rest, and
careful treatment, the stiffness gradually goes off; and
in a day or two the animal is able to exert himself as
usual; but if care has not been taken to rub him well
down, and provide him with a well littered bed, and
especially if he has been exposed to cold while sweat¬
ing and fatigued, this stiffness may continue for many
davs, or may even degenerate into permanent lameness.
Animals that have acquired this permanent stiffness of
their limbs, always move with considerable difficulty,
when first taken out; but in general when they have been ^
long in exercise, and are become warm, the stillness
and lameness in a great measure disappear, but they
commonly return again when the exertion is over.
Where the stiffness has not continued long, it may
in general be easily removed by frequent friction of the
limbs, first with a wisp of hay and the brush, and after¬
wards with some warm liniment or embrocation,
- such as has been described among the stimulant re¬
ceipts.
If it does not yield to this treatment, recourse may
be had to warm fomentations, and gentle exercise must
be persisted in. If the lameness should still continue,
it will probably be occasioned by a strain of some liga-
ment, or an injury done to some part of the limb.
Bruises. Any of the muscular parts may be bruised by falls
or blows ; and if the bruise takes place on the limbs,
or in their neighbourhood, lameness may be the conse¬
quence. A bruise is almost always followed by a swell¬
ing of the bruised part, occasioned by the rupture of
small vessels, that pour out their fluids into the cellu¬
lar membrane. If the bruise is slight, the swelling
will soon subside; but if the injury has been consider¬
able, and much blood has been poured out, inflamma¬
tion and consequent suppuration will take place, and
the part will become an abscess. If the injury has been
still greater, and the texture of the parts has been de¬
stroyed, mortification will probably come on, and if
the bruise be extensive, will be attended with consider¬
able danger.
The treatment of bruises will be different according
to the degree of the injury produced. In slight cases
the object will be to promote the absorption of the ef¬
fused blood ; and this will be best answered by bathing
the part with warm vinegar and water, or camphorated
spirit. If there is considerable inflammation, and it is
not judged proper to encourage a suppuratiou, the parts
must be frequently bathed with a solution of sugar of
lead, with a little vinegar: or, where the part admits of
a bandage, it will be better to form a cold poultice of
oatmeal mixed up with such a solution, and kept con¬
stantly applied to the part and frequently moistened
with the solution to prevent its becoming hard and dry.
If a suppuration should appear unavoidable, it will be
proper to encourage it by a frequent application of
warm poultices renewed as often as they become cool,
or, where these cannot be applied, by repeatedly foment¬
ing the part with flannel wrung out of warm water.
When the suppuration is complete, the swelling must
be opened with a lancet, or by means of a seton; and
the sore must be treated as we shall presently describe
I E R Y. Part VI! f
with respect to ulcers. If mortification takes place, Diseases
the part must be frequently fomented with the fomen- —»
tation directed in N° 57. of the receipts; and the ani¬
mal’s strength must be supported by nourishing food,
and the occasional use of cordial and strengthening
remedies. If the mortified part be very extensive, it
may be necessary to make incisions towards the edges
with a knife, to promote the separation of the slough ;
or firing may be employed, as directed for this purpose
in N° 175.
It sometimes happens that after the inflammation
which attended a bruise has subsided, a permanent hard
tumour is left, that prevents the free motion of the
muscles of the part. This may arise either from a
thickening of some ligament, or the cellular texture, or
it may proceed from an excrescence formed on the
bone, in consequence of the bruise. The treatment in
such cases will be presently described, when we come
to consider splents, ring-bones, and other tumours that
commonly produce lameness.
Horses are very liable to receive severe bruises in the Tread or
back part of the foot, either from the tread of another overreach,
horse, as often happens in the army, by a horse in the
rear-rank treading on the heels of one in the front-
rank; or, by a horse overreaching his hind foot, and
thus bruising the heels of the fore foot. From the
manner in which this accident is produced, it has re¬
ceived the names tread, and overreach. Sometimes
the bruise is so slight as to be productive of no farther ill
consequence than a temporary lameness; but if the
tread has been very violent, the edges of the part trod¬
den on may be so much bruised as to produce consider¬
able inflammations, or even a mortification. In ordi¬
nary cases it is sufficient to wash the part carefully with
warm water, to clear it of dirt and gravel, then apply
a pledget dipped in spirits, and bind up the foot, so as
to exclude the external air; when the bruise, if slight,
will probably soon heal. But in some cases matter is
formed, which makes its way downwards towards the
sole, forming what is called a quitlor. Quitter may
also take place from a puncture in the foot, by a nail
or other pointed body, the effects and treatment of
which will be presently described. ^
In a newly-formed quittor, it is of consequence to as-Quittor.
certain, whether it has been produced by a prick or a
tread. In the former case the matter usually makes
its way upwards from the punctured part towards the
coronet; and here the practice generally followed by
farriers is, to sear the upper orifice with a hot iron,
which answers no other purpose than to confine the
matter within the wound, where it must produce ex¬
tensive ulceration and destruction of important parts of
the foot. In the latter case, where quittor is produced
by a tread, and when the sinus formed is very superfi¬
cial, the use of the cautery may be very proper; and
if it can be so applied as to inflame the whole extent
of the wound, it may entirely carry off the disease.
According to Mr Blaine, there are two general methods
of curing quittor; one by removing a part of the hoof,
cutting away the diseased parts, or suffering them to
slough off or exfoliate. The other, to apply caustic to
the diseased surfaces, introducing it within the sinuses,
thus destroying the ulcerated parts, and allowing the
healthy parts to throw them off. The latter is called
by farriers coreing out a quittoi', or as they suppose that
the
»rt VI. FARR
diseases, the core or slough that comes away formed a part
1 ■ ■ ■ of the complaint. Mr Blaine objects to removing the
hoof, as it would take up a considerable time before
new horn can be formed; and it is probable that in the
new hoof there will be a false quarter, which will ren¬
der the horse unsound, besides that, during the forma¬
tion of the new hoof, fresh sinuses may be produced.
In the method of cure by caustic, he thinks that the
disease may be completely removed in three or four
Weeks, whereas the other method may require as many
months. The mode of applying the caustic is, to
examine carefully the extent and direction of the
sinuses, and then to fill them up with powdered blue
vitriol, verdigrise, or corrosive sublimate. Mr Blaine
has found that a paste made of corrosive sublimate,
mixed up with flour and butter, forms a very good
caustic for this purpose. Some of it is to be introduced
by means of a probe, to which a piece of sponge is
fastened, which must be carefully introduced in every
direction, so as to touch all the diseased parts, after
which the whole foot is to be bound up *, but the band¬
age must not be applied too tightly. In two or three
days the dressings are to be renewed, and this is to be
repeated at intervals till the sloughs come away, when
a healthy action of the parts will take place, and the
cure soon be completed. Another method of introdu¬
cing caustic, by which the sinuses may be completely
filled, is to mix up the caustic with hogs lard, and roll
the mass into small pellets within gauze-paper, which
may be easily introduced into the cavities.
Many farriers have fallen into a mistake with respect
to the nature and treatment of that has been the
ruin of many horses. They suppose, that during the
progress of this disease, a bone is formed which they call
a (juittoi' bone ,* and they think it necessary to remove
this bone, before a cure can be completed. This er¬
ror seems to have arisen from an opinion of Lafosse,
who conceived that the derangement which accompani¬
ed this disease originated in the cartilages being affect¬
ed j which he affirmed were capable of being thus dis¬
eased, but incapable either of exfoliating like bone, or
sloughing like ligament; and therefore that to promote
a cure, the whole of the lateral cartilage on the affect¬
ed side must be removed. But his first premises were
erroneous, for cartilages are vascular, as we know by
their being tinged with bile, and by their being at times
absorbed j this is particularly the case with the lateral
cartilages, which in almost all old horses are partly
absorbed. As they are vascular, they must be capable of
living action; though it is slow, and hence, where dis¬
ease exists, they will exfoliate like other parts. This
practice of Lafosse has in this country been for some
time tried among many of the more intelligent farriers,
and was still further propagated by the late Professor
St Bel. Many horses have been ruined by this in¬
judicious practice; for the future elasticity of the foot,
which is in a great measure dependent on these carti¬
lages, must be lost; besides the necessary removal of the
hoof to get at the cartilage, a false quarter almost al¬
ways remains *.
Wounds are frequently inflicted in the soft parts of
horses and dogs, and these are more common in the legs,
feet, and joints, than in any other parts. The treat¬
ment of wounds must depend in a great measure on the
part where they are inflicted, and the form of the in-
Vot. VIII. Part II. f
497
Diseases.
1
wine's
ro!,i,,
I s
WoMs.
I E R Y.
strument that produced them. A clean cut made in
the muscular parts is easily healed, by applying slips of
sticking plaster as soon as possible, so as to keep the
edges of the wound close together; or where plaster
cannot readily be applied, by taking a stitch or two
through the edges of the wound, and tying the strings
gently together. When the edges are found to adhere,
the strings must be cut away, and the holes which they
made will soon fill up. If any considerable blood¬
vessel has been wounded, it will be proper to secure it,
. Possible, by means of ligature, rather than by apply¬
ing any styptic substance. All wounds should be made
as clean as possible, before any attempt is made to heal
them. Sometimes the wound is so situated that it will
not admit of being sewed up; but in these cases we
may m general pass silver or steel pins from the edges,
at about an inch distance from each other, and twist a
thread crosswise from one to the other, so as to form
what is called the twisted-suture. In all cases where
sutures are used, it will be proper to apply a sticking
plastei over the edges of the wound. If the wound
should not heal by these means, a formation of matter
will take place, and then the sore is to be treated as
a common ulcer, taking care that its edges be always
kept as near together as may be, by sticking plaster
or a bandage.
K the wound is very large, it may excite consider¬
able inflammation and fever. In these cases, if the
animal is plethoric,, it will be proper to bleed him, or
at any rate to administer cooling remedies. If, on the
other hand, there has been much loss of blood, or if
the wound shews no disposition to heal, and the matter
formed is thin and ichorous, an opposite plan of treat¬
ment will be required. The animal must be supported
by nourishing food, and strengthening remedies.
The.most troublesome wounds are those of the feet
and joints, as they are in general very difficult to be
healed.
Wounds in the feet are not uncommonly produced Wounds of
by the horse treading on sharp stones, broken glass, the feet,
sharp bones or .nails. These are generally punctured
wounds, and will be considered presently. Sometimes
a deep wound is made on the coronet, by a sharp part
of the heel of the shoe on the opposite foot, or any
other substance penetrating downwards between the
coffin-bone and the hoof, or between the lateral carti¬
lages of the coffin-bone and the joint. Wounds of this
kind are attended with much danger, from the difficulty
of evacuating the matter, that may be formed, or of
producing that healthy action in the parts that is ne- >
cessary to make them heal. In such cases Mr Feron
recommends the application of a blister, extending from
the fetlock to the foot, so as to produce external irrita¬
tion, which may relieve the internal parts. In the
mean time the foot is to be kept in a vessel of warm
water all day, and a large warm poultice of bran and
water is to be applied round it at night. The inten¬
tion of this practice is to prevent suppuration, but if
this snould nevertheless, take place, and if matter
should be formed between the hoof and the sensible la¬
the suppuration is to be encouraged, and we
are to endeavour to prevent the formation of sinuses,
by rasping the hoof very thin, just below the seat of the
wound, so that we may be able to make an orifice for
the evacuation of the matter downwards. Mr Feron
3 ^ advises
498
Diseases.
'35°
Wounds of
tiie joints.
35i
Mr Cole¬
man’s me¬
thod of
treating
wounds of
the joints.
FARR
advises to delay this opening as long as possible, and
when it is performed, to take care that the laminae be
properly pressed after the operation, to prevent coming
out through the hoof, and forming an incurable sand-
crack, or false-quarter. The bathing the foot in warm
water, and the application of the bran poultice, must be
continued till the foot is perfectly healed. If proud
flesh should appear through the opening that has been
made in the hoof, it is to be pared away with a sharp
knife, then fired, and covered with a small pledget
spread with soft ointment, on which is sprinkled a little
powdered blue vitriol. It is evident that, during the
cure, the horse must he kept perfectly at rest j and it
is recommended to administer diuretics, and now and
then a gentle dose of physic, to keep the bowels mode¬
rately open.
Wounds in the joints are commonly attended with
very serious consequences, as it frequently happens
that the capsular ligament is divided, and in this case
the synovia or joint-oil constantly exuding through the
opening, prevents the disposition to heal. A wound
in the joints is common among horses in the army, and
such as are employed in hunting j and a horse that has
received such a wound in general becomes peifectly
useless, from the improper method of treating these
wounds that has in general prevailed among farriers.
By their treatment, either an incurable sinus is produ¬
ced, or a secretion of bony matter takes place within
the joint, forming what is called an anchylosis or stiff-
joint. The method generally practised by ordinary
farriers is, to inject within the joint a mixture of tui-
pentine and oil of vitriol, a solution of corrosive sub¬
limate and lime water, or some other corrosive sub¬
stance. The more rational of them content themselves
with an injection of tincture of myrrh. All these sub¬
stances produce such a high degree of inflammation
within the joint, as not unfrequently to destroy the ani¬
mal.
Of late, a much more rational mode of treatment
has been adopted by Mr Coleman, and is described in
the first number of the Veterinary Transactions.
The following is the method recommended by Mr
Coleman for treating wounds of the joints and capsules.
“ Where a joint, a mucous capsule, or the sheath of
a tendon is opened, the first application necessary is the
actual cautery. The instrument most proper for the
operation should be made of iron, two feet in length,
rounded at the extremity about the siz.e of a small but¬
ton, with a wooden handle. The temperature of the
iron should be moderately red. If it be black, the
heat will not be sufficient to produce a proper discharge
of lymph, to close up the wound ; and if it is white, it
will destroy too much of the surrounding parts, and per¬
haps do mischief to the ligament. Although the opera¬
tion in itself is very simple, yet some knowledge of the
structure and economy of the parts, for the purpose of
applying the cautery with the best possible effect, is ne¬
cessary. The object in view is to produce a glutinous
substance to close up the cavity, and before the slough
is removed, for granulations below to supply the place
of the lymph ; but if the ligament itself be destroyed
by the cautery, it must, like other dead parts, separate
from the living and come away, and then the joint will
still be opened. It is, therefore, of importance not to
destroy the ligament of joints with the hot iron, but
2
I E R Y. Part VI.
confine its application to the external soft parts. In Diseases,
these cases, it is generally proper to cauterize the whole -y——/
external surface of the wound 5 and if the discharge is
not immediately stopped, the iron has probably not
been applied sufficiently deep, or too cold, to produce
a proper discharge of lymph. Where a cure is possible
to be effected, the actual cautery will frequently close
the cavity and stop the discharge. Sometimes, however,
in the course of one, two, or three days, the discharge
appears again by the sides of the lymph, and then the
same operation should be repeated. In some instances
Mr Coleman has had occasion to apply the hot iron five
or six times, and nevertheless succeeded ultimately, with¬
out the least lameness. The same treatment is likewise
to be recommended for penetrating wounds into the
chest and abdomen. The lips of the wound should be
cauterized, and, if requisite, repeated in the same man¬
ner as is recommended for wounds of other cavities.
When the cavities of veins become inflamed, some little
variation is necessary in the treatment, as accidents of
that nature are frequently attended with consequences
different from the opening of other cavities, and require
a trifling alteration in the treatment. Wfien a hemor¬
rhage takes place, it may be very generally stopt by the
application of the cautery *, but if this fails, and the
parts are too much swelled to admit of a pin, there is
no other remedy than to take up the vein by a ligature
above the diseased parts; and there may be instances
in which it may be advisable to tie up the vein below.
In general, however, the actual cautery will prevent
the necessity of a ligature ; and if it fails, tying up the
vein will succeed only in those cases where the vein
above is free from disease. In general, the vein is thick¬
ened and inflamed, and if a ligature be applied on a
vessel in a state of inflammation, the disease will be form¬
ed, and the vein inflamed above. In a case that occurred
to Mr Goodwin, veterinary surgeon at Oxford, where
the jugular vein was tied, an abscess took place over
the occipital hone, commonly termed the poll evil.
That disease, however, most probably did not originate
in consequence of the tube being obliterated, for in most
successful cases of inflamed veins, the sides of the vein
unite and destroy the cavity. After the orifice of the
inflamed vein, from the application of the actual cau¬
tery, is closed, a considerable degree of swelling fre¬
quently remains, and this may he removed by a blister.
When abscesses form in the adjacent parts, they should
be treated in the same manner as common abscesses.”
A puncture of some part of the lower surface of the Pun^rtil
foot is a frequent occurrence. It may arise from thewoandts
prick of a nail in shoeing, from a nail picked up in
travelling; or from glass, flint, or any other sharp body.
Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their effects,
to the parts punctured, and not entirely to the depth of
the wound. A puncture of the frog penetrating even
to the fleshy frog, is not usually so serious as that which
penetrates the sole ; hence a wound any wljere at the
hinder part may penetrate deeper with impunity than
towards the centre, and likewise in the front, though
considerable inflammation usually follows from this last.
When the capsular ligament is wounded in these cases,
the consequence may be very serious, as a stiff joint is
commonly produced. When it is found that the cap¬
sular ligament has been wounded, the external opening
most he enlarged, and a hot iron must be applied to
■'art VI. FARR
disease*, the surface of the skin that covers the wounded part of
-nr—' the ligament, in order to heal up the internal opening.
Considerable irritation commonly attends a punctured
wound of the tendon, or its sheath ; and it ia best re¬
moved by enlarging the wound that is made through
the horny part, and keeping the feet for some time in
warm water. When matter appears in either of these
cases, it must be let out, and the wound must be healed
in the usual manner.
The most usual case of punctures is that which arises
from a nail in shoeing taking a wrong direction, when
instead of penetrating the outer surface of the crust, it
turns inwards, and thus wounds the sensible laminse.
This is known to the smith at the time by a peculiar
feel in the stroke he gives, and by flinching 5 when,
if the nail is immediately removed, and has not pene¬
trated far, the wound heals by the first intention 5 but
if it is suffered to remain, it produces inflammation and
suppuration. As soon as this is discovered, a depend¬
ing orifice should be made for the matter, by making
an opening in the line of the hole at which the nail
entered. It is always prudent, when a nail has pene¬
trated, and lameness follows without matter appearing,
to remove the shoe, and enlarging the opening, to apply
a pledget of tow dipped in spirits of wine, which will
frequently prevent any future effects: but whenever
matter has formed, it is indispensably necessary j for
otherwise the matter will proceed upwards, and coming
out at an opening on the coronet, it will form a quittor.
When by this treatment the matter has gained a de¬
pending situation, and the inflammation has subsided,
the part may be dressed with any mild ointment; but
if the matter should increase in quantity, it will be pro¬
per to pour a solution of white vitriol within to promote
a stoppage of the discharge, and of the extension of the
ulcerative process. In every puncture, when the heat
and inflammation appear considerable, bleeding at the
toe is a prudent measure, as it unloads the vessels.
Dogs are frequently wounded with thorns in their
feet or knees, and the thorn may be so deeply lodged,
that it cannot easily be extracted. When the foot is
wounded with a thorn, the best application is a plaster
of black pitch, which is said to have succeeded when
every thing else has failed. If there is much inflamma¬
tion, it will be proper to apply a poultice over the
plaster. When a dog is wounded in the knee, if there
is reason to suppose that a thorn is left in the wound,
the same applications will be proper: and when the thorn
comes away, if there is still an oozing of fluid from the
orifice, a red-hot iron must be applied, as in the wounds
of the joints in horses. If no thorn is left in the wound,
a little digestive ointment rubbed upon the part, and a
subsequent application of a poultice made with Goulard
and crumbs of bread, with proper rest, will probably
soon effect a cure.
Lameness is not unfrequently produced by a stiffjoint,
or what the surgeons call anchylosis. This is generally
the effect of an injury done to the articulating surfaces
of the bones that compose the joint, causing the forma¬
tion of new bony matter, which gets between the bones,
and unites them together. A stiff joint may perhaps
be sometimes prevented by the timely use of blisters
and firing •, but when completely formed, the lameness
is incurable.
I E R Y.
499
2. The second head of causes that produce lameness Di*
will comprehend strains, fractures, and luxations. ' v 
Strains may take place in any of the muscular parts
or ligaments, but they most commonly happen in the lr‘Uris’
fleshy part of the shoulder, or in some of the ligaments
of the feet. ^
A strain in the muscles of the shoulder, has been ge-Shoulder
nerally called a shoulder-slip, under the idea that the sllP-
shoulder-bone has been disjointed, or the blade-bone
pushed out of its place $ but the structure of the parts
shews that the former of these accidents can scarcely
happen, on account of the great strength of the cap¬
sular and other ligaments that surround the shoulder
joint j and a dislocation of the blade-bone is, by the
extent and strength of the muscles that unite it with the
ribs, nearly impossible, unless by such a force as is suf¬
ficient to destroy the texture of the muscles, and tear the
limb from the body. A strain of these muscles and of
the ligament that surround the shoulder joint, is, how¬
ever, by no means an unfrequent occurrence, but affec¬
tions of other parts are often mistaken for a shoulder
strain, as we shall see presently. A strain in the shoul¬
der, when first received, is generally attended with
considerable inflammation and swelling of the part,
which are usually sufficient to distinguish it from other
affections. When the strain has continued long, and
the inflammation has subsided, the distinction is not so
easy.
In cases of recent shoulder strains, it will be proper
to draw blood from the plate vein, and if the inflam¬
mation is extensive, to administer a purge, and keep the
animal rather low, to keep down the inflammation as
much as possible j and it will be proper to bathe the
parts frequently, with some astringent lotion, or with a
warm fomentation, as directed under bruises. A rowel
may also be placed in the chest, or a seton in the inside
of the fore-leg. Complete rest is necessary; and to ren¬
der this the more perfect, the horse should be fitted with
a patten shoe, and should have a bed of litter con¬
stantly below him. When the inflammation has sub¬
sided, gentle friction, and the occasional use of astringent
lotions, will in general soon restore the use of the limb ;
and as soon as the horse can bear it, moderate exercise
may be employed.
Injuries done to the ligaments and tendons, are also injuries of
usually called strains; but if we understand by this the liga-
term, an extension of the strained part, the appellation ments and
is improper, since the tendons appear to be entirely tent*olxs*
without elasticity, and the ligaments nearly so. These
parts cannot, therefore, be properly strained, though
by unusual exertion, their texture may be so far injur¬
ed as to produce stiffness, inflammation, and swelling,
but will have the same effect in causing lameness, as a
strain^
Injuries of this kind are more dangerous than mere
muscular strains, their treatment is more difficult, and
the cure more tedious. The treatment usually adopted
by ordinary farriers, is to apply the same astringent and
stimulating lotions, as in strains; but here they com¬
monly do harm, as they generally produce a greater
secretion of coagulable lymph, which still more ob¬
structs the motion of the part, and renders the lameness
permanent.
One of the worst cases of these injuries, is whatfar-
3 R 2
ners
5oo
Diseases.
Clap of
strain in
the back
sinews.
* Feron's
Farriery,
p. 104.
FARRIERY.
riers commonly call a clap or strain in the back sinews.
When a horse trips or stumbles, and makes an unusual
effort to save himself from falling, or when the heels
are lowered in shoeing too suddenly, or too much at
once, so as to throw too great a weight upon them,
there often happens such a sudden or violent contraction
of the llexor muscles as may produce a partial lacera¬
tion, or even rupture of the flexor tendon, or its sheath.
This injury is attended with considerable inflammation,
and the consequent lameness is of the worst kind. A
great stiffness and swelling is produced, and there is
commonly an effusion of fluid, which is at first serous,
and may again be taken up by the absorbent vessels *,
but if improper applications are employed, coagulable
lymph may be poured out, so as to obstruct the motion
of the part, and produce that swelling, or permanent
enlargement, that we sometimes see in the neighbour¬
hood of the tendon, after what is called a strain of the
back sinews.
When a horse is strained in the back sinews, he puts
forward his leg and foot in a loose, faint, and faultering
manner. Mr Lawrence gives the following directions
for ascertaining whether or not a horse is injured in the
back sinews. To try how far the horse has been injured,
let him be walked about for half an hour, when the
swelling of his legs will in all probability subside. If
you then observe the tenth achilhs, or main sinew, dis¬
tinct from the shank j if, on pressing it with the finger
towards the bone, you find it firm and tense j if you
discover by the feel, no soft spongy sinews between the
shank and the tendon, no extraordinary pulsation, but
that all is well braced and wiry, you may conclude the
swellings not dangerous. A person of experience, with
a nice discriminating finger, will scarce ever fail to de¬
tect lameness in the back sinews.
Mr Feron is of opinion that the injury which we have
described is not done to the flexor tendon, but to the
ligaments of the neighbouring joints. He says, that
“ on the dissection of a strain supposed to be in the back
sinews, we discover no affection in the substance of this
part, which on the contrary appears perfectly sound.
But on examining the ligaments of the fetlock, coro¬
net, and foot, we find them to be the seat of the disease ;
we find also, that if the accident has been violent, and
of long duration, the whole vascular system of the leg
is found affected, but never, or very seldom, the back
sinews ; it is in this violent state that we observe some¬
times one or two swellings along the tendons. It is al¬
so on this account that the pain is so great, and so hard
to be cured, in consequence of the considerable irrita¬
tion which takes place in the surrounding parts. So
the increase of thickness of the leg, is nothing more
than the effect of the disease j but not the disease itself,
as farriers, grooms, &c. suppose it to be. Nevertheless,
we said before that the back sinews or tendons were
void of feeling in a state of health and incapable of ex¬
tension It may be very true that this injury is not
commonly seated in the tendon } but we ettnnot agree
with Mr Feron, that this part is never the seat of it,
especially as he himself allows that a rupture of the ten¬
don may take place, of which he has seen different in¬
stances. It is not difficult to conceive that the same
exertion which when in a great degree is capable of
rupturing the tendon, may in a smaller degree produce
a partial laceration or a strain in the back sinews,-
Part VI
A horse labouring under this injury, even after the Diseasea
inflammation has subsided, is extremely weak and stiff in v—» y—»
the joints of the foot; but when he has been for some
time at work, the lameness in some measure goes off.
This has led some persons to suppose that astrained horse
may be worked sound j but this is a very erroneous
opinion, and the practice of continuing to work a horse
that has been newly strained, under the idea of re¬
moving the stiffness, is equally cruel and injudicious.
The treatment of strains or injuries of the ligaments
or tendons must be such as will most effectually prevent
inflammation, and promote the absorption of the effused
fluid. Local bleeding from the veins of the part, and
warm fomentations frequently repeated, seem to be the
most advisable j and a bandage should be always ap¬
plied where the nature of the parts will admit of it, and
should be continued till thelamenessisremoved. Various
stimulating applications have been recommended in these
cases, as soon as the inflammation has subsided, suchasoil
of turpentine, camphorated spirit, verjuice, &c. hut these
must not he employed while any considerable inflamma¬
tion remains. It is somewhat remarkable that Mr Fe¬
ron recommends astringent and stimulating applications
in the text of his work, and says there that they may
be employed with safety j but, in a note at the foot of
the page, he speaks of having inserted those astringent
prescriptions for the purpose of satisfying the different
opinions, but that he is fully convinced, by a long ex¬
perience, that warm fomentations and warm poultices
of bran and Avater, are infinitely preferable in strains
or contusions, to these expensive prescriptions, and are
always to be tried first.
It will be proper to elevate the heels of the horse’s
shoe by calkins, and Mr Blaine recommends that the
heels of the hoof be encouraged to grow, or that a thick-
heeled shoe be used. If there still remains much swel¬
ling, firing will prove one of the most effectual remedies,
as it will both promote the absorption of the effused fluid,
and will produce such a degree of constriction of the
skin as will answer the purpose of a permanent bandage.
In such cases the cautery must be applied, so as to make
perpendicular lines on the skin. ^ 1
Dogs are very subject to strains $ and where these are Strains of |
slight, a mixture of spirit of wine and oil of turpentine, stifle it
or strong Goulard, applied before a fire, is the most^03s'
useful remedy. Sometimes from blows or other acci¬
dents, such as slipping their hind-legs, or getting them
entangled in the bars of a gate, hounds are lamed in
their stifle, as it is called. In general the above appli¬
cations and long rest will remove the lameness; but when
a considerable quantity of coagulable lymph has been
effused, it is not easily re-absorbed, and the lameness con¬
tinues. When this happens, some huntsmen recommend
the operation of cutting for the stifle, and Mr Daniel
speaks of a huntsman who used to perform this operation
very dexterously in the following manner. The bone
is laid hare by a transverse cut, and upon it is found a
substance, like a stiff jelly, which is the cause of the
lameness, and is in fact the coagulable lymph that has
been effused. This jelly is taken away, and a wire is
run through the ball of the hind foot on the contrary
side, and twisted in such a manner as to keep that leg
from touching the ground, so that the hound may be
compelled to use the stifled leg. In this way the dogs
were always cured. The same huntsman recommended
that
FARR
krt VI.
iiseases. that when a dog had been entangled m a gate or stile,
t—Y—he should, as soon as released, be taken by the hind-
feet, and twisted round five or six times, turning with
him; and it is said that this prevented any ill conse¬
quence from the bruises that he received in the stifle,
while endeavouring to disengage himself.
1 jyi® Some of the ligaments or tendons of the extremities
are now and then ruptured. This is not a common case,
but it may happen, either to the suspensory ligament,
or the back sinew.
Suture of _ A rupture of the suspensory ligament is found most
tltsnspen- likely to happen to young horses while breaking, and
«u liga- to cavalry horses while under training. The accident
" '• is generally called breaking down, as, when it happens
the horse appears unable to support himself. The fet¬
lock is brought almost to the ground, and the limb is evi¬
dently exceedingly weak ; but the horse can bend his
foot when he raises it. This circumstance distinguishes
a rupture of the suspensory ligament from that of the
flexor tendon or hack sinew ; as, in the latter case, the
power of the flexor muscle being destroyed, the horse is
unable to bend the foot.
It appears from the observations of Mr Coleman, and
some experiments that have been made by Mr Feron,
that the flexor tendon has little or no effect in giving
support to the heels ; but that this office is almost en¬
tirely performed by the supensory ligament. Hence,
when this is ruptured, the horse loses one of his prin¬
cipal stays, and the foot is of course unable to support
its usual weight, whence the horse breaks down.
A perfect cure of this accident can seldom be ex¬
pected ; and the only way to relieve the animal will be
to obviate the inflammation as much as possible, and to
elevate the limb, ami especially to raise the heels, in
order to relax the injured parts. An intermediate sub¬
stance will in time be produced between the two parts
of the broken ligament, that will enable the horse to
walk and perform some of his functions, but be can
never afterwards be depended on for the road or the
field.
When it is ascertained that the back sinew has been
ruptured, which is discovered by the inability of the
horse to bend bis foot backwards, it is generally recom¬
mended to kill the horse, as a cui'e is by most deemed
impracticable. Mr Blaine recommends to bend the
limb from the ancle downwards, and to keep it in that
situation by throwing the animal, when be thinks that a
perfect cure might be made. There would, however,
be considerable difficulty in keeping the limb in such a
confined situation for so long a time as would be neces¬
sary to unite the ruptured tendon ; and after all, there
is the greatest probability that a very slight exertion
would produce a fresh rupture.
Fractures of the bones may take place in any part of
these animals, but they are most common in the feet of
horses and the legs of dogs.
The navicular, coffin, and small pastern bones of a
horse are not unfrequently fractured, and Mr Feron
speaks of a small pastern bone being broken into seven
pieces. It is not surprising that these bones should be
broken, when we consider the immense weight that is
generally sustained by them, and the great exertions
which a horse sometimes makes to recover a false
step.
These bones, when broken, will be united by a cal*
ire of
noli
Fra
I E R Y. 50!
lus, provided that the limb be kept in such a situation Diseases.
as to prevent motion ; but this can rarely be effected,  v^.n.<
even in cases where the bones of the foot are fractured,
still less in these cases where a fracture of the larger
hones has taken place. •
One ol the most common fractures of the bones in a Fractures
horse is that of the ridge of the ilium, or haunch-bone.0* l*)e
Ibis bone, from the projecting angle formed by its|ja“^c^*
ridge, is peculiarly exposed to injury; and when the 0ne*
ridge is unusually prominent, as sometimes happens, or-
when the horse is more than commonly lean, the pro¬
bability of fracturing this bone is still further in¬
creased.
Fractures of the haunch-bone may be occasioned by
falls, by blows, which are often given by brutal ostlers
and carters, with the but end of a large whip, or per¬
haps a broomstick, and they are very commonly produ¬
ced by striking the haunch violently against a post, or
the edge of a wall, when the horse turns too sharplv
round a corner, or passes swiftly through a narrow gate¬
way.
It may he ascertained that such an accident has taken
place, by the pain the horse feels in the part, and where
the fracture is considerable, by the cracking of the
parts of the broken bone against each other, but still
more certainly by an evident cavity of the haunch,
from the depression of the ridge. The muscles of the
belly in the upper part of the flank will appear sunk in,
especially when the horse lies down, and will form a
sort of hollow between the haunch and the ribs. The
horse, when he attempts to move, will be as lame as if
one of the bones of the leg were broken, owing to the-
extreme pain that motion excites in the muscles, that
beside being severely bruised, have lost one of their
principal attachments.
When an accident of this kind has happened, it is-*
necessary to keep the animal perfectly at rest, as no¬
thing but repose can produce a reunion of the fractured’
bone. The parts may he gently rubbed with some sti¬
mulating liniment, as in other cases of bruises, anti
some recommend the application of a charge, or strength¬
ening plaster. It sometimes happens, where only a.
small part of the bone has been broken off, the horse
completely recovers his former activity ; but more com¬
monly such a deformity is produced by the ridge of one
haunch remaining lower than that of the other, and by
the callus that forms between the end of the divided
bone, as to render the horse more or less permanently
lame.
When the legs of a dog are broken, it is easy by
means of splints, to keep the limb in such a situation as-
to effect a union of the broken hone ; and we have not
unfrequently met with cases of this kind, where a com¬
plete cure has been effected in the course of a few
weeks.
The ribs of a horse are sometimes broken, either by
falls, or from the brutality of their keepers, as by strik¬
ing them with the heavy handle of a whip or cudgel.
If the end of the fractured rib does not penetrate into
the chest, so as to wound the lungs, a cure may in ge¬
neral be readily effected, by fastening a bandage round
the body over the seat of the fractured rib, and keeping ■
the horse at rest and on a low diet.
Luxations or dislocations of bones are exceedingly j ux3a^0#s
uncommon in the horse, owing to the great strength of *
the
502 F A R, II
Diseases, the ligaments that surround the joints. These may,
1 v"—however, sometimes happen, and we are by no means
of Mr Blaine’s opinion, that the immense strength of
the muscles in a horse would prove any obstacle to the
complete reduction of such a luxation. If, indeed, we
endeavour to reduce the luxation by pulling and haul¬
ing at the luxated limb, in order to overcome the power
of the muscles, and thus produce a counter extension,
which is still, we believe, the method generally employ¬
ed by surgeons to set a dislocated limb in the human
body, we shall most certainly be disappointed. But if,
instead of this vain attempt, we place the limb in such
a situation as that the power of those muscles which are
the antagonists of the muscles that keep the limb in its
dislocated place, may be fairly exerted, there will pro¬
bably be little difficulty in replacing the bone in its
socket, as the very strength of the muscles will assist
us in the operation.
364 3. Lameness is very commonly the effect of tumours
of the mucous bags or capsules, or of excrescences
formed on the bones of the legs and feet, or on the
hoof.
In most of the joints there are appendages or mem¬
branous bags, called bursce mucosee, or mucous bags,
that are filled with a mucous fluid secreted into their
cavities, for the purpose of assisting the motions of the
muscles and tendons near the joint. It often happens
that these mucous capsules are enlarged either from
hard work, which is a very common cause of their en¬
largement, or from some injury done to the neighbour¬
ing parts. When the enlargement is but small, it is of
little consequence, but when the bags become unusual¬
ly distended, their size impedes the motion of the joints.
These tumours have received different names among
grooms and farriers, according to the place where they
355 are seated.
Wind-galls. When the mucous bags that are situated near the
pasterns become enlarged, the tumours are called wind-
galls.
Bog-spavin. When the enlargement takes place in the mucous
1 bags on the inner side of the hock, the disease is called
367
Tkorougb-
pin.
365
Capulet.
bog-spavin.
When the tumours are seated in the upper and back
part of the hock, between the gemelli muscle and the
tendons of the great flexor muscle of the foot, the af¬
fection is called thorough-pin.
When the swelling is situated at that part where the
tendon of the gemelli muscles is inserted into the point
of the hock, it is called capulet or capped hock.
Of all the various swellings, the wind-galls are the
most likely to produce lameness, and next to them the
bog-spavin. The capulet and thorough-pin are seldom
, of much consequence.
Treatment. In t,ie treatment of wind-galls and similar tumours,
the object is to remove the unusual swelling, and to
prevent its return. The swelling can be removed only
by evacuating the contents of the tumour, or by promot¬
ing its absorption. The former was recommended by
Dr Bracken, and appears tqjiave been successful in a
few cases. The tumour is opened with a sharp knife ;
and when the fluid has been evacuated, an escharotic
substance composed of burnt alum, white vitriol, and red
precipitate, is applied to the wound, to produce such a
degree of inflammation as may contract its cavity. Pro¬
bably bring would have a better effect. Mr Coleman
I E R Y. Part V :
and the eUves of the veterinary college, are much a- Disease' I1
verse to this operation, and certainly where it can be *
avoided it is not desirable. Absorption of the accumu¬
lated fluid may often be produced by the application of
blisters, and other stimulating applications ; but this is
most certainly effected by producing pressure on the tu¬
mour, by means of a bandage applied round the part,
with a bolster or compress immediately over the swell¬
ing. When the unusual enlargement has been reduced,
its return is best prevented by firing the skin, so as to
produce a considerable degree of constriction.
Horses are subject to various excrescences on thesplenti.
bones, or exostoses, as they are called, which, when they
form near the joints, or below the tendons of the mus¬
cles, generally produce lameness. These excrescences
have received various names, according to their situation.
When they are formed about some part of the knee or
canon bone, they are generally called splents, though
farriers often call the excrescences at the knee osseletes ;
and when there are two small bony enlargements near
each other, they are called fu%es. The excrescences
at the knee are not very common, and when they oc¬
cur, are generally the effect of a wound 5 but splents
about the canon bone are very common, especially a-
mong young horses, owing to the blood-vessels in them
being larger in proportion to the absorbents than in old
horses 5 and hence the deposition of bony matter may, ]
in certain cases of injury, be greater than what the ab¬
sorbents are able to take up again. These excrescences
are easily produced in young horses, by any blow or
other injury that is capable of producing considerable
inflammation 5 as striking part of the canon bone which
is the usual seat of splents in what is called the speedy
cut, or by producing unusual pressure on one side more
than on the other. Although a splent may not be in
the neighbourhood of any material tendon, it may still
produce lameness by the pain which it excites j but
when it interferes with a tendon, or some important
ligament, lameness must in general be the conse¬
quence. 371
When an excrescence appears on any of the bones Bonrspi
that enter into the formation of the hough, it is called T‘n*
a bone-spavin. It is most frequently found on the up¬
per and inner part of the small metacarpal bone, or on
some of the wedge-like bones on the inside of the hock.
In the former situation it is often produced in conse¬
quence of the outer heel having been raised by calkins ;
and in what are called cat, cow', or sickle hammed
horses, it is often brought on by their natural de¬
formity, though in these latter cases the excrescence
is most commonly formed on the inside of the hock. ^
An excrescence situated on the back part of the(;u,b.
hock towards its point, is called a curb. This is some¬
times formed on the bone, but it is frequently only an
unusual hardness and swelling of some of the liga-
ments. ;
When an exostosis forms on the lesser pastern bone,
producing a hard swelling round the coronet, it is called
a ring-bone. A deposition of bone over the lateral car¬
tilages is sometimes also called by the same name. ^
The treatment of all these excrescences is much the Tieatuu1
same, and our object must be, either to excite the ab¬
sorbent vessels to increased action, so as to remove the
bony excrescence, or to take this away by means of an
operation. The former of these is not likely to be suc¬
cessful,
rt VI. FARR
eases cessful, except in the early sta^e of the complaint, when
y—' the bony matter is not completely hardened. If the
excrescence be discovered in time, blisters are to be ap¬
plied over the part, and repeated frequently, and strong
mercurial ointment, or an ointment composed of corro¬
sive sublimate and blistering ointment, is to be applied
over the part, and gentle friction should be frequently
employed on those parts of the limb that are above and
below the swelling. By these means the excrescences
may sometimes be removed ; but when they have become
too hard, these stimulatine applications will scarcely ex¬
cite the absorbents to sufficient action. The only me¬
thod to which we can then have recourse is an operation
long ago practised by the old farriers, apparently with
considerable success. The bony excrescence is laid
bare, by making an incision through the integuments,
and then the excrescence is cut off by means of a sharp
chissel struck by a mallet. After this the skin is to be
laid down over the part, and we are to endeavour to
heal the wound as soon as possible, by sticking plaster
and a proper bandage. Firing is much employed by
the French for the removal of ring-bones and other ex¬
crescences. Mr Lawrence recommends that in firing a
ring-bone, the instrument employed should be thinner
than usual, and that the lines described should not be
more than one-fourth of an inch distant from each other,
5 being crossed obliquely like a chain,
k Sometimes an inflammation takes place on the lower
part of the hoof, between the sensible and horny soles,
or between the outer crust and the binders, producing
a slight effusion of blood, and leaving a considerable
tenderness in the part. When the hoof is examined
after being perfectly cleaned, there is commonly seen a
discoloured spot, sometimes red, but more usually blue,
or blackish, like what is seen below one’s nail, when
the finger is jammed. This affection is commonly cal¬
led by farriers a eorrc, (in Scotland, we believe it is
called a slone-eress'), though it is by no means similar to
a corn in the human foot. Horny excrescences which
might properly be called corns, are sometimes however
produced on the horse’s hoof; and of this nature, we
suppose, were the corns on the feet of Caesar's horse.
This complaint is always owing to an improper pres¬
sure on the horny sole, by which the sensible sole is
squeezed between it and the coffin-bone. Hence a
quantity of blood is effused from the vessels of the sen¬
sible sole, which, if it remains for any length of time,
produces an unusual tenderness in that part of the hoof.
Corns are generally produced by shoes that are too hol¬
low next the hoof, so as to allow a stone to get be¬
tween the shoe and the sole, and thus press upon the
latter ; or it may be produced by the shoe being made
too short or too narrow, and thus indenting itself upon
the sole between the binders and the crust.
The best manner of treating a corn appears to be, to
remove that part of the sole which is immediately be¬
low the seat of the affection with a drawing knife, tak¬
ing care to cut farther than the seat of the effused
blood ; then to insert a pledgit dipped in tincture of
myrrh, into the opening. No pressure must be applied
upon the part, and a piece of the shoe opposite the
corn should be cut out, to prevent pressure from taking
place. The horse must be allowed to stand quiet, on a
level surface, and must not be worked till the horny part
1 E R V,
of the sole that has been cut away shall be renewed ; Diseases
and even then it would be proper to turn him to grass 1 
for some time, without shoes, or with very small tips of
iron at the toes.
4- Lameness may be produced by many injuries of -37^
the feet, brought on by hard work, bad shoeing, or
other ill treatment.
When horses are ridden hard on pavement, or hard
iiy roads, especially if the frog has been pared down,
or even the crust cut away too much in shoeing, the
battering produced on the hoof frequently brings on
an inflammation of the sensible part within. This may
happen also to cart horses made to draw heavy loads,
under similar circumstances.
When the horse’s hoof is not very delicate or tender, GroggLesi.
this battering sometimes only produces a stiffness, or
swelling of the legs, and contraction of the sinews.
Ihis state is commonly called grogg/Tzew, or a horse
that has his feet thus battered, is said to be groggy.
If inflammation is excited within the hoof, a most Foandtr.
painful species of lameness is produced commonly called
founder, or the horse thus lamed is said to be foundered.
The complaint is also called foot-founder, to distinguish
it from a disease which we shall describe hereafter,
and to which farriers sometimes give the name of body-
founder. This inflammation may take place in any of
the feet, or in all; but it is most commonly produced
in the fore-feet: and as, from the pain which the horse
experiences, he endeavours to throw as much as possible
of his weight, upon his hind-feet, and appears unable
to support himself on his fore-feet, he is said to be down
beffe: . m
This complaint most commonly takes place in horses; Symptoms,
but it may take place in cattle or sheep, brought on by
hard driving, on hard stony roads, when sent to fairs,
or markets. In these animals, however, the complaint
seldom proceeds to such a height as in horses ; and it is
in them more easily relieved.
The symptoms of founder are thus described by Mr
Feron. “ Foundered horses have a general stiffness of
the fore-hand, attended with a considerable acute pain
of the joints, ligaments, and muscles, connected with it.
The pain which the animal suffers on moving the joints,
obliges him to keep the flexor muscles in a constant re¬
laxed state, which position ultimately produces an entire
debility and stiffness of every joint which composes the
fore extremity of the animal. If the horse has been
neglected, or the disease so rapid in its progress that it
cannot be removed, the symptoms will increase so rapid¬
ly, that in a very little time we may observe the cuticu-
lar veins become turgid and varicose, similar to the lym¬
phatic enlargement in farcy. In this state, exercise
considerably increases the pain and violence of the
symptoms, the animal falls off his food, his health be¬
comes very much impaired, and a general decay of the
whole limbs, particularly observable in the extensor
muscles of the fore-arm, soon renders the animal useless* P
for activity _ Fairiery,
When the complaint affects the fore-feet, the p. 120.
horse throws his hind-feet as far forward as possible,
which leads those who do not understand the nature of
the complaint to suppose that the horse is affected with
a weakness in his loins. When it is seated in the hind-
feet the horse throws his body forward, in order to re¬
lieve
5°4 ....
Diseases, lieve the hind-feet of their weight. In this case the
* horse is supposed to labour under an affection of the
chest, which has been called chest founder.
The complaint usually comes on very rapidly, and
sometimes appears a few hours after hard riding, or af¬
ter the application of other causes, that will immediate¬
ly be mentioned.
It may be easily known that a horse is foundered, as
he can scarcely walk on first coming out of the stable,
and evidently labours under great pain. Like many
other affections that produce lameness, the horse appears
to be relieved by exercise, but this relief is only tempo¬
rary j and exercise only tends to increase the disease.
Mr Feron says, that, on dissecting the feet of found¬
ered horses, he has frequently found the membranes ol
the joints thicker than in their natural state, and some¬
times a disposition to anchylosis, or stiff joint j which
So in some of the joints was evidently observed.
Cauiesl The founder is very commonly produced by batter¬
ing the hoofs on hard ground. It may be brought on
by any causes that are capable of exciting inflammation
in the internal sensible parts of the foot. It is fre¬
quently produced by washing the legs of a horse, while
sweating 5 and according to Mr Feron, this is so evi¬
dent, that if we observe the horses belonging to public
coaches, in whom this practice is very common, we
shall see that sixteen out of twenty labour under the
torture of this disease. Founder may also proceed from
allowing the horse, while sweating and fatigued, to
3$! stand long in a cold, damp air.
Treatment. In the treatment of founder, the great object is to
remove the inflammation, which is best done by bleed¬
ing in the. veins of the foot, and the application of
blisters about the joints. The shoe of the affected foot
must be removed, and the toe of the crust may then be
parted to the quick, in order to produce a discharge of
blood from the vessels of the affected part. It will be
proper to pare the whole of the crust as thin as possible,
especially at the heels and quarters, in order to allow
the frog to come in contact with the ground. Blisters
are now to be applied round the fetlock, down to the
foot. Mr Feron recommends immersing the feet in
warm water 14 hours after blistering, keeping them there
all day, and applying a large warm poultice of bran and
water at night. Mr Blaine, on the other hand, advises
the use of cold astringent lotions, as Goulard or sal am¬
moniac in vinegar. Sometimes the pain in the feet is
so violent, that the horse can scarcely bear to support
himself upon them, and indeed if he could remain quiet,
it would be better to let him lie down. But if he
proves restless, he may be partly supported by means of
a sheet drawn round him, with its corners pulled up to
the ceiling of the stable by pulleys, so as to let the
horse’s feet just touch the ground.
The horse must be kept rather low, and if the inflam¬
mation is very great, or if there is any fever, it will be
proper to administer cooling remedies, such as the
drenches marked 22 and 25 in the receipts. The
belly must be kept moderately open, and all exercise
must be avoided.
Sometimes after the inflammation has subsided, the
lameness still continues. This may be owing to the
formation of horny matter between the sensible and
horny sole. Mr Blaine recommends that this be re¬
moved by cutting away the horny solej but we much
Part V' I
doubt whether this operation would be attended with Disease !
the desired effect.
Founder, properly so called, can take place only in 3S2
those animals that have horny hoofs $ but a similar af-|
fection not unfrequently occurs in the feet of hounds,
after a long and fatiguing chase. It consists in an in¬
flamed state of the feet, produced by long running,
especially over hard or stony ground. When the dogs
come home, their feet are hurt and swelled, inflamed,
and sometimes cracked orchopt. The dog evidently feels
considerable pain, and if he lies down for a little, he can
scarcely be made to rise again. Dogs in this state are
said to be stubbed in the feet, and are often so much
lamed, that they cannot be taken out again for some
days.
When the inflammation is but slight, it requires but
little attention, as the dog will himself allay the swell¬
ing and pain by constant licking. W hen, however,
the feet have been much bruised, the cracks pour out a
bloody or purulent matter, and the case requires greater
attention. The feet should be first bathed with warm
water, and great care taken that no dirt or gravel be
suffered to remain between the claws or in the cracks.
After bathing, the feet may be rubbed with some di¬
gestive ointment, and a cold poultice composed of
crumbs of bread well moistened with vinegar and wa¬
ter, should be tied round the affected foot. 3g.
The hoof of the horse frequently becomes lengthen- Coatractei
ed, and contracted at the heels and quarters. This un- feet,
natural shape is commonly the eftect of bad shoeing, by
which the frog is deprived of the necessary pressure on
the ground, and thus the heels are prevented from ex¬
panding, while the nails that are fixed in the quarters
contribute to prevent expansion there, and thus the
hoof is unnaturally lengthened at the toe. This con¬
traction is considerably increased by the heat of ordi¬
nary stables, and by the evaporation that takes place
from the hoof while the horse stands within doors, on
account of the vacancy left below the frog, while the
heels are elevated above the ground. Contraction of
the hoof causes lameness, by producing an unnatural de¬
gree of pressure on the sensible parts within, especially
on the sensible frog, which is not unfrequently inflamed
in these cases.
The remedy for this defect is, to bring the frog gra¬
dually to press upon the ground, by lowering the heels;
but as, in the very sensible state to which the feet are
commonly brought by contraction, it might be dan¬
gerous to apply pressure to the frog at once, it is ad¬
visable to lower the heels gradually, in the manner di¬
rected in N° 146. If the frog is much diseased, as some¬
times happens, a bar shoe should be employed, by
which means slight pressure may be made by fixing an
iron plate from the heels of the shoe towards the toe.
The best means of producing pressure in these cases
would probably be to employ Mr Coleman’s artificial
frog. The upper part of the hoof should be rasped
thin, especially at the quarters, as these parts of the
hoof will then be more easily expanded by the motion
of the lateral cartilages. The lower part of the hoof
should also be kept moist, especially the frog*-
Mr Blaine remarks, that dark chesnut horses are
more subject to contracted feet than others, and he re¬
lates a case of a mare belonging to himself, who had all
her feet contracted. These he endeavoured to expand
by
FARRIERY.
■art VI.
diseases
jH
' nuiu|j
I ash.
ua! :r
by means of jointed shoes, furnished with a sliding bar,
which was kept in its situation by means of pegs, so
that in this way the heels of the shoe might be gra¬
dually widened, by moving the cross bar farther on to¬
wards the toe. Ibis method is very ingenious, but
Mr Blaine acknowledges that it did not fully answer
his purpose.
When the heels have been gradually lowered so far,
that the frog can bear the proper pressure, the horse
should continue to>ear a thin-heeled shoe 5 but if he is
not required to be worked, it would be better to send
him out to grass without shoes, where the pasture is not
too dry.
It often happens in cases of contracted feet, and in
some other cases, when the frog does not receive the
due degree of pressure, that a running takes place from
the cleft of the horny frog, occasioned by a degree of
inflammation which is followed by a secretion of puru¬
lent matter. This complaint is commonly called a
running thrush. While it extends no farther than the
horny frog, it is seldom attended with any serious con¬
sequences j but if it be neglected, the matter extends
through the horny to the sensible frog and sensible sole,
and produces canker or quittor.
Some horses have naturally a running from the cleft
of the frog j and so long as this is slight, and the parts
are kept clean, it is of little consequence. We know
there are some persons who conceive a slight running
thrush, as rather beneficial to a horse, and do not esteem
it as a mark of unsoundness; but we cannot agree with
these gentlemen in either particular, as, though the
complaint does not in itself absolutely render a horse
lame, so long as his feet are properly amended to, it
will, if neglected, degenerate into a foul ulcer, the mat¬
ter of which may easily penetrate into the internal
parts of the foot. A running thrush is very commonly
the consequence of bad grooming, and suffering dirt
and gravel to lodge in the cleft of the frog; and it is
still more frequently produced in the common method
of shoeing, by cutting and paring away the frog.
In the treatment of a running thrush, the principal
objects are, to remove the cause that first produced it,
and to stop the discharge of purulent matter. The lat¬
ter is easily effected by applying to the part some sti¬
mulating liniment. Mr Blaine recommends for this
purpose a composition of two ounces of tar, with six
drachms of vitriolic acid, which is to he applied hot
every day, hy pouring it into the cleft of the frog from
a spoon. The discharge, though easily stopped in this
way, will soon return, unless the proper degree of pres¬
sure be given to the frog; and this is to be brought
about by proper attention to shoeing the horse with
thin heeled shoes, taking care that the heels be lowered
gradually, and slight artificial pressure be made on the
frog, till it is become sufficiently healthy to bear the
natural pressure of the ground.
When the matter of a running thrush insinuates itself
upwards to the sensible part of the foot, it forms what
is called canker, in which there is a considerable in¬
flammation, producing a luxuriant unhealthy fungus,
springing up from all the diseased surface that is ex¬
posed, and producing a great degree of tenderness, and
what may be called a rottenness of the hoof. If this
disease continues for any considerable time, it attacks
the whole substance of the foot, extending to the ten-
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
farriery.
dons, ligament, and bones, till at last the foot may i)iiCa„,
absolutely drop off with disease. Mr Coleman considers v — ■■ y—».
canker as generally the effect of too much moisture ap¬
plied to the foot or hoof.
lo check the progress of a canker, the whole of the
excrescence that appears on the external part of the
hoof, is to be cut away close to the surface from which
it springs, and such parts of the horny sole as appear to
be detached from the sensible sole, should be removed,
to prevent the matter from lodging in the internal parts.
When the diseased part is fairly exposed to view, it is to
be washed with a solution of some metallic caustic, such
as nitrate of mercury, N0 49. of the receipts, or a so¬
lution of lunar caustic, in the proportion of a drachm
to two ounces of soft water. This is best applied by
moistening a pledget of lint or two, and confining this
upon the cankered surface, by applying a regular pres¬
sure by means of cross bars of iron introduced beneath
the shoe.^ A continuance of these applications, while
the frog is gradually exposed to pressure, will in gene¬
ral soon stop the progress of the disease, and when this
is removed, the horny parts of the hoof that had been
cut away, will be gradually removed ; and bv shoeing
the horse properly afterwards, the disease will be pre¬
vented from returning.
Cattle and sheep are subject to a disease very similar
to canker in the horse, producing a discharge of fetid
matter from between the claws of the hoof, or some¬
times from only one claw.
This affection in cattle Is commonly called the fouls,
or the cattle are said to be foul in thefoot. Managers
of cattle commonly divide this disease into two kinds,
the soft, and the horny, which are said to require dif¬
ferent modes of treatment. In the softfouls, a running
of very offensive matter takes place from the heels, or
between the claws ol the hoof; and the animal appears
exceedingly lame. The treatment in this case, consists
in cutting away all the soft and spongy parts, and then
applying a caustic liquid, such as will presently be de¬
scribed, for the foot-rot in sheep. The parts are then
to be covered with a pledget spread with mild oint¬
ment, or, what is very common among farmers, a piece
of fat bacon may be wrapt round the part, tied on the
foot, and suffered to remain for two or three days. In
the mean time the animal should stand very clean, and
be allowed to rest as much as possible.
1 he horny fouls seem to be very analogous to corns
in horses. The animal is very lame, and, on examining
the foot, the hoof feels very hot, and, when hard pressed,
the beast evidently feels much pain. There will com¬
monly be found some part of the horn penetrating into
the softer parts of the foot, either at the heel, or be¬
tween the hoofs. In the treatment it is necessary to cut
away these parts of the horn, as well as any part under
which there appears much inflammation. For this pur¬
pose, it will probably be necessary to cast the animal,
but care should be taken that he he thrown on a soft
place. After the hoof has been pared away, a rag
moistened with vinegar and water should be tied on,
and the animal must he sent to grass in a soft smooth
pasture. If the inflammation and pain are very great,
it may be necessary to bleed from the veins of the foot.
In sheep it is called the foot-rot, and -is generally pro- 387
duced by their being kept on a wet soil. It is remark- foot-rot ia
able that salt marshes do not produce it. According?^eep*
r* -
3
5c6
FARR
Piieascs.
38S
Puramiced
feet.
389
Sand-
cracks.
to Mr Lawrence, frequent travelling to and from the
fold, or by suckling ewes from the hot dung.of a sheep-
house, will occasion it. Some are of opinion, that it
originates from the same cause which occasions chil¬
blains in the human feet} and this opinion is maintain¬
ed in the essay on the diseases of sheep, affixed to Mr
Findlater’s Survey of Peebles, where it is stated, that
the remote cause of the disease is weakness, and the im¬
mediate cause cold and wet, as standing in cold wea¬
ther upon wet pastures, with the feet constantly soaked
in water. Dr Wilkinson of Enfield considers moisture
as the predisposing cause, and has found the disease to
be produced from the sheep continuing in long grass
during a mild winter. The same cause generally, al¬
though perhaps gradually, operates upon the whole flock,
and then it has been supposed that the disease is conta¬
gious. The late Lord Somerville had a piece of pas¬
ture which always produced the foot-rot on any sheep
that were put into it ; but the disease was entirely pre¬
vented or rooted out by a careful selection ot the sheep
in order, by paring the hoofs of those that began to be
affected, and by the use of caustics not too corrosive.
These appeared to be the most proper means of stopping
the complaint, and the best caustic application is said to
be the nitrate of mercury. It is evident, that during the
application, the hoofs of the sheep should be kept as
clean as possible. Whether its greater or less prevalence
depends on the less or greater attention paid to the
sheep, is not perhaps fully ascertained. It is, however,
certain that the sheep of some districts are entirely free
from it. We are informed, that in Tvveeddale the
complaint is scarcely known. #
There is a disease in the horse’s foot, in which the
coffin bone is forced backwards, and made to press un¬
naturally upon the heels, by which its edges being sub-
iected to unusual pressure, become partly absorbed.
Hence this bone, losing its support, becomes pressed in
its concave part, where inflammation is produced, and.
bony matter is thrown out, rendering the lower part of
the coffin-bone convex instead of concave, and the sole is
rendered unusually thin. This disease is called pw/WTTM.cecf
feet, and may be brought on in three ways j from im¬
proper shoeing, from inflammation, as in case of found¬
ers, and from a natural defect in the foot itself. It is
said to be very common in wet soils. It is very common¬
ly produced by applying the shoe red hot to the horse’s
foot. Its immediate cause appears to be an inflamma¬
tion of the sensible laminae, by which a quantity of coa¬
gulated lymph or of bony matter is thrown out, that
forces back the coffin bone in the manner above de¬
scribed. When the disease is completely formed, it
does not appear capable of being radically cured, but
only admits of palliation. Mr Blaine recommends, that
the growth of the sole should be encouraged by every
means, but the foot should not be kept improperly moist.
The best means would be, the turning the horse out
without shoes in dry pasture. No part of the heels or
sole should be removed in this case, as the parts are al¬
ready too slight. A shoe should be formed, if possible,
that presents a hollow surface to the foot, and a.plain
one to the ground. This may be done, by making it
of rather an increased thickness, which will admit of
its being hollowed within, and bevilled from the outer
to the inner edge of the web.
Sometimes perpendicular fissures or cracks are seen in
I E R Y. Part VI.
the hoof, extending between the fibres in a parallel di- Diiea»e«.
rection from above downwards. These are called sand- —y—
cracks, and generally take place near the quarter, more
frequently on the outer than the inner side, and oftener
in the fore than the hind foot. These cracks sometimes
come on suddenly, and then generally denote a contrac¬
tion of the hoof. They are also said to have arisen from
a wound in the vessel or part of the coronary ligament,
bringing on a secretion of horny matter, which gets be¬
tween the fibres of the hoof, and causes them to separate.
The means of preventing the crack from extending,
are to thin the hoof where the crack has taken place as
much as possible, and to make a transverse section a little
way across at the upper part. If the crack should still
continue to gape, it must be carefully covered, and the
hoof bound round, so as to close it as much as may be,
and the portion of the crust that rests on the shoe should
be chambered away a little, by which means thefdivided
parts will be more likely to come together.
When a wound has been inflicted on the coronet, False quar-
the coronary ligament commonly becomes injured, andtei.
its vascular part does not secrete so much bony matter
as usual. Hence there is a space left between the old
horny matter of the hoof, and the new that is formed
from other parts ; and this produces what is commonly
called a false quarter. A false quarter may also be
produced, in consequence of a quittor extending upwards
through the coronet. As the sensible laminae within
the hoof are liable to be pressed in this vacant space
between the horny edges, thus causing violent pain, the
false quarter is attended with a lameness of the worst
kind; for as this interference of the lamina sometimes
takes place suddenly, while the animal is in motion, the
pain makes him shrink, and he not unfrequently comes
down.
The only way of remedying this defect is, to excite
such an action in the coronary ligament as may dispose
it to throw out new horny matter, and thus fill up the
vacant space. This is best effected by removing the
surrounding horn, and applying blisters to the coronet,
while the part of the hoof that is opposed to the shoe
should be hollowed away as much as possible, to admit
of the separated parts approaching each other. . 39'
When a horse in motion, especially in trotting, brings Lu 1 g’
one foot so near another as to interfere, and thereby
graze or wound one of the feet, he is said to cut. Some¬
times the feet of a horse are in this way severely wound¬
ed, and temporary lameness is produced. In cutting,
the horse may either wound the heels of the fore feet,
with the toe, or side of the hind shoe, which is the most
common case j or he may wound the fore part of the
hind-foot, just above the hoof, by striking it against the
heel of the fore shoe ; or, lastly, he may bring two of
the feet so closely together, as to wound the inner side
of either.
Cutting may arise from a bad habit, or from a natural
deformity of the feet, but it is very commonly the con¬
sequence of bad shoeing. When horses cut from turning
out their toes, which is by much the most common
cause, they are observed to have the inner quarter of
the hoof lower than the outer, and the fetlock
joints are thus nearer each other than those of horses
which have their limbs straight. These facts led far¬
riers to a conclusion, that if the inner quarters were
raised to a level with the outer, and especially if made
Elaine's
htKnes,
'. ii.
392
art VI. FAR R
Diseases, even higher, the fetlock joints would be thrown further
» apart, so that tire foot would pass the supporting leg
without striking: Accordingly, it has been usual to
make the inner quarter of the shoe higher than the out¬
er, and this has been the common practice for a long
time. Mr Morecroft, by making trial of a shoe, of a
• shape the reverse of what we have described, namely,
having the outer quarter thick, and the inner thin, com¬
pletely prevented cutting in the horse, on whom those
shoes were tried, and the utility of the improvement has
been confirmed by succeeding trials. According to Mr
Blaine, the principle on which this is supposed to act
is, that when a horse is at rest, he supports his weight
equally on both feet j but having his inner quarter
much raised, in the common mode of attempting to re¬
medy the defect of cutting, when one foot is elevated
he must be supported obliquely on the other, and hence
have a tendency to fall outwards j to prevent which he
brings the moving foot nearer the supporting one, by
which he strikes it. Considering it in this point of view,
it is not difficult to account for our author’s mode of
reasoning on his method, which, by elevating the outer
instead of the inner side of the supporting foot, must ne¬
cessarily give it a disposition to lean inwards, and fall
to the inside, which will throw the moving further from
-the supporting foot. But, ingenious as this mode of
reasoning may be, it is to be feared, that by thus throw¬
ing an increase of weight on the inner side, we shall
sometimes be in danger of producing evils, tljat will
counterbalance the prevention of cutting *.
Lameness may be produced by any one of the causes
that we have mentioned, but it may happen that a com¬
bination of two or more of these causes takes place at
the same time in different parts of the same limb: thus
the foot may be pricked with a nail, and a strain may
take place nearly at the same time, in the sinews of the
leg, or the ligaments of the joints 3 for the pain excited
by the nail first makes the horse trip or stumble, and
then, by his making a sudden exertion to save himself,
or ease the pained foot, a strain of the ligaments or si¬
news frequently takes place. A similar complication is
often produced in a horse that is affected with spavin,
or other bony excrescences, as his exertion to save the
limb that feels painful from the rubbing of the muscles
or tendons against the spavin, may produce a severe
Strain in the muscles of the shoulder.
As the causes of lameness are so various, and the real
seat of it frequently very obscure, a practitioner should
be extremely cautious how he gives a decisive opinion
with respect to either, be-fore he has well examined the
parts where lameness may take place, and enquired into
every circumstance that may assist him in forming his
opinion. For want of such precaution, and from a su¬
perficial examination of the part that is supposed to be
the seat of the affection, egregious blunders and dan¬
gerous mistakes are not unfrequently committed, and
applications have been made to parts that are really
sound, when it is afterwards discovered, to the confu¬
sion of the practitioner, that the real cause of the lame¬
ness was in a different place. Nothing is more common
than for ordinary farriers to apply their liniments and
embrocations to the shoulder, when in fact the affection
that causes the lameness is seated in the feet.
As, perhaps, in nine cases out of ten, the foot is the
part that has received the injury, this should first be
1 E B IT. 5o7
examined with the strictest attention, the hoof should Di8eaieg>
be made perfectly clean, especially in its under surface,  y-- ^
to see whether there be any crack or fissure, any disco¬
loration, any particular heat, &c. The pastern and all
round the coronet should be also carefully inspected ;
and, if nothing is found, the examination should be re¬
peated next day, or even a third time. The foot is
more particularly to be suspected of being the seat of the
complaint, when the lameness makes its appearance
soon after the horse has been shod, or has had his shoes
fastened ; as the foot may be lamed by a nail in shoeing,
though the point of the nail has not penetrated to the
quick.. The nail may be so thick, or may pass so near
the quick, as to press in a small part of the hoof upon
the soft parts, thus producing exquisite pain, and per¬
haps inflammation. It is therefore proper also to re¬
move the shoe from the foot of the affected limb, and if
the cause of lameness is not very evident, to wait a
few days to see whether the removal of the shoe has
produced any alteration for the belter.
No certain rule can be laid down forjudging of the
seat of lameness from the motion of the affected limb,
though this is considered by some as one of the surest
marks. The deranged motion in one part of the limb
very commonly arises from sympathy with another part
that is the real seat of the affection.
We have now, we believe, mentioned all the import-suin^hait.
ant cases of lameness, except the string-halt, or click 1 ^ ‘ '
spavin. This is an affection of the hind quarters, pro¬
ducing a sudden jerking of the legs upwards, when the
horse attempts to move. It appears to be a nervous
affection, and seems to be somewhat analogous to the
chorea, or St Vitus's dance, in children. We do not
know that this affection has ever been cured, but it is
said that it may be palliated by allowing the horse to
run much at large, and letting him remain untied in a
large stable. Mr Lawrence recommends that, after tt
hard day’s work, both hind legs be immersed in a warm
bath up to the hocks, and kept there as long as the
water continues warm, when they are to be rubbed per¬
fectly dry, and the same bath and rubbing repeated in
the morning. He also advises anointing the back,
sinews, and about the hocks, with strong camphorated
ointment.
We have occasionally, in this and the preceding Ulecrs?
chapters, spoken of abscesses and ulcers, and their treat¬
ment 3 and we can add little here on that subject, as it
will be fully treated of in tbe article Surgery ; and
the instructions to be there laid down will apply nearly
as properly to the inferior animals as to man. We may
just remark, that foul ulcers, and such as do not heal
kindly, are perhaps more common in some of the infe¬
rior animals than in man ; and hence they require in
the former applicat ions of a more stimulating nature, to
excite a proper degree of healthy action in the ulcerated
part. There are a few particular ulcers which call for
consideration in this article, and we cannot, perhaps,
treat of them in any part of the treatise more properly
than under the morbid affections of motion.
There sometimes takes place an inflammation, and Poifevil,
consequent suppuration in the mucous capsules, at the
articulation of the head with the first vertebra of the
neck, near the insertion of the cervical ligament. This
affection is commonly called the poll-evil. It is almost
3 S 2 always
508 FARR
Diseases, always the consequence of an injury done to the back of
the head, by a horse’s hanging back in his collar, by
striking his head against the rack or manger; and is very
frequently produced by a blow given on the head by
brutal coachmen or carters. An ulcer in this part is
often very difficult to heal, and when it extends beyond
the skin, the matter sometimes insinuates itself below
the ligament of the neck, and on each side of it, and it
not unfrequently produces a caries or rottenness of the
vertebrae. The cure of the poll evil is most easily ef¬
fected when the inflammation is first discovered, before a
suppuration takes place as, when once matter is formed,
it commonly produces sinuses in the loose cellular sub¬
stance about that part of the head, and these are not
easily healed. When, therefore, we have reason to
suppose that inflammation has begun in the skin of this
part of the neck, every means must be employed to pre¬
vent its progress towards suppuration. A blister should
be immediately applied over the part, and when this has
done its duty, a solution of sal ammoniac in vinegar, or
vinegar and water, should be applied by means of a
cloth kept constantly wet. If a suppuration appears
inevitable, it must be encouraged by fomenting the part
frequently with warm water, or by the repeated appli¬
cation of warm poultices j and when the swelling ap¬
pears sufficiently ripe, it must be opened, which is best
done by introducing a seton from the highest to the
most depending part of the tumour, as directed in N°
173. The cord of the seton must he examined every
day, wiped dry, and rubbed with a little digestive oint¬
ment, and the sore should be carefully excluded from
the air.
If the suppuration has proceeded any length, before
it is discovered, there will probably be a number of
sinuses, or pipes, as they are called, with matter lodging
in each. If it can he easily effected, it would be proper
to lay these open, and make them communicate with
each other, or, if their direction can be ascertained, a
seton may be passed through each. When a proper
opening has been made for the matter, and care taken
that none of it lodges, the sore will soon heal, by the
application of the proper stimulating ointments.
It is sometimes necessary to employ the knife in this
case j but when this is done, the greatest care should be
taken not to wound the ligament, or, as the farriers call
it, the Ji.r fax of the neck. The best method of avoid¬
ing this is, to have the animal’s head fastened very high
to the rack, by which the ligament will be more slack,
and the finger can be easily introduced below it, so as
to be a guide to the knife.
We mentioned in N° 341. the chafing of the back
with the saddle. There is another injury of a similar
kind, that is often suffered by the withers, from the
saddle being allowed to press on them too long. This
pressure and rubbing sometimes produces an inflamma¬
tory swelling, which, if it be not soon discussed, goes on
to suppuration, and produces a sore which farriers call
fistulous withers, or a fistula in the withers. This is
also a very troublesome ulcer, as the matter sometimes
penetrates below the shoulder, and makes its way down
the bones of the fore leg j or, by insinuating itself among
the vertebrae of the back, renders them carious. The
treatment in this case is much the same as in the last j
the inflammation should be discussed as soon as possible,
and if matter, forms, it should be evacuated by means
396
Fistulous
withers.
I E R Y. Part VI.
of setons. It is frequently required to pass a seton Diseafes
through the tumour on each side of the withers, in order —y—
to produce a proper inclination of the orifice, to carry
off the matter. When sinuses form, they must be open¬
ed, as in the case of poll-evil. ^
There is sometimes a species of ill-disposed ulcers in Canker of
the external part of the ears of dogs, very difficult tolilecafia
heal. It is generally called canker. These, when they^°“s'
heal, leave hardened edges, which frequently break out
again in the course of a few months. The best appli¬
cation in this case is lunar caustic applied to the edges,
to encourage them to slough off j but if this should not
be found sufficient, the best remedy will be to sear off
the diseased parts with a red-hot knife, or they may be
cut by a simple incision.
Chap. III. Morbid Affections of Digestion.
i
x (ill
In order that the food may be well digested, when 398
received into the stomach, it is necessary that it undergo
the previous operation of chewing j unless it be of such
a nature, as to be easily soluble in the gastric juice,
without this previous preparation. The latter is the
case only with dogs, whose food consisting almost en¬
tirely of animal matter, requires little or no chewing.
But the food of horses, sheep, and cattle in general, re¬
quires to be well chewed, either when first swallowed,
or in sheep and cattle by subsequent rumination. ^
The mouth in these animals is sometimes so swelled, Sore mouil
or otherwise affected with sores or cracks, that it is with
difficulty the animals can chew their food. Sometimes
there are bloody chinks or chops in the palate, occasion¬
ed by thistles or other px-ickly plants, which are mixed
with the hay, or grow up among the grass. These
should be washed on their first appearance with salt and
vinegar, applied by means of a rag tied to a stick. If
neglected, these chops frequently become inflamed and
ulcerated. If pimples arise, they must be opened when
they begin to suppurate, by means of a pointed cautery.
There are sometimes found within-side the lip of cart
horses and other ordinary cattle, soft tumours, or pus¬
tules with black heads, which are calledg-zgg-s, bladders,
or flips in the mouth. They do not always occasion
much inconvenience, but sometimes they grow to a large
size, so as to grow troublesome, and prevent chewing.
When this is the case, they must be removed, either by
fastening a thread about their roots, as directed in the
treatment of warts, where they are of such a form as
to admit of a ligature j or by the knife, applying after¬
wards the hot iron or cautery. In performing this ope¬
ration, care must be taken to draw the tongue to one
side, so that it may not be wounded. After removing
these excrescences with the knife and cautery, the mouth
may be washed with a solution of white vitriol or alum.
Excrescences of a similar kind, called barbs or paps',
sometimes grow below the tongue, and must be removed
where practicable by means of a ligature, as it is danger¬
ous to employ the knife. When these excrescences
are neglected, there sometimes arise in the mouth.little
ulcers with white specks, very similar to the aphthous
crusts that form in the human mouth. It is recom¬
mended by some writers to use the cautery on these
occasions j but probably a detergent lotion, such as we
have just recommended,, will answer the purpose of re¬
moving them.
The
lift VI.
101
Uins:.
The mouth or tongue of horses is sometimes wound-
ed with the bit or curb. When this happens, a lotion
made with alum dissolved in water, and sweetened with
. lloney» m*y ,je employed ; and the bit should not be
used again till the mouth is healed.
Many veterinary writers have described the disease
in the horse’s mouth called the lampas, which is stated
to be an inflammation and swelling of the first bar of
the mouth in a young horse, so as to prevent his
chewing. ^ We believe that Lafosse and Dr Bracken
were the first to deny the existence of such a complaint,
which is now generally discredited among most of our
modern wiiters. We have no doubt that such a swelling
may take place ; but it can scarcely be attended with
the ill consequences commonly attributed to it, or re¬
quire such vigorous treatment as is usually recommended.
It may happen, that any of these animals shall have
a difficulty ot swallowing, from various causes; either
from an unusual narrowness in the gullet, or from the
morsel attempted to be swallowed being too large.
The latter very frequently happens to cattle who are
fed upon turnips or potatoes 5 and the choking thus
produced sometimes proves very dangerous, as, if the
obstruction is not speedily removed, the animal will die
for want of breath. The method commonly employed
among country farmers for unchoking cattle, as they
term it, is to thrust down the throat a large stiff rope,
ravelled at the end, and well greased. This often suc¬
ceeds, but it is a clumsy method $ and if the rope, by
having been long used, or becoming dry, should lose its
stiffness, it will be bent in endeavouring to force down
the obstruction ; or, if the ravelled end be not pretty
large, or the obstructing morsel of an irregular shape,
the rope may pass between the side of the gullet and
the obstruction, without this being removed. Several
intelligent farmers have therefore laid aside the use of
the rope, and have contrived an instrument similar to
the probang employed by surgeons. An instrument
of this kind has been already mentioned, in the descrip¬
tion of Mr Hunter’s feeding byre in N° 236. An ac¬
count of one that appears to us to be more useful and
ingenious, has been communicated to us by the reverend
Charles Findlater, minister of Newlands in Tweeddale.
It is the contrivance of Mr Charles Alexander, a far¬
mer in Mr Findlater’s neighbourhood, and has long been
employed by him for the purpose of relieving choked
cattle. The following is Mr Alexander’s construction
of his instrument, as politely described to us by Mr
Findlater.
Take three small canes, of the thickness of the little
s pro-finger, or thereabouts, of the length of 5* feet, that
lBi' they may reach down the throat, and into the stomach
of the largest ox. These canes are to be bound toge¬
ther by strong smooth twine rolled tightly about them
(the circles of the twine touching each other), from top
to bottom. Bees wax is then to be rubbed along the
twine, to fill up any inequalities, and the whole rod is
to be well oiled before it is used. There is a round
knob at each end, the larger 2? inches in diameter for
larger cattle ; the other less for lesser cattle. These
knobs are formed of the twine rolled hard, and when
formed may be strengthened in their position, by being
sewed by means of a shoemaker’s awl or brog, and a
wax bristled thread, such as they employ. The thread
knobs are made tapering up the canes from their broad
farriery.
5cp
T "5
If l£K
extremity $ but it must be remarked that the surface of Diseases
this extremity is not rounded like a clue, but hollowed -1
into the form of a cup. dhe intention of this hollowed
lorm is, to make certain ol catching hold of the ob¬
structing body ; as, if the knob was round, it might
pass by it. After the knobs are formed, they are co¬
vered vvith soft leather, which by its flexibility will
adapt itself to the hollow end of the knob as soon as it
reaches an obstacle. The knobs must be securely fixed
to the canes, for if they fall oft, they leave an indigest-
ible substance in the stomach. Such is Mr Alexander’s
probang, the only improvements on which that we
would advise are, to make the knobs of sponge, firmly
fastened to the canes, by passing twice through holes
bored in them, and adding at each end two or three
bights of twine, for the purpose of catching hold of
any obstacle, thus making the instrument almost exactly
like a surgeon’s probang. \Ve think the sponge prefer¬
able to the twine, as it will not be so liable to injure
the animal’s throat by its hardness, will adapt itself more
readily to the form of the obstacle, and may be more
firmly fixed to the canes.
. cattle are put into a field of young clover, or Over fted-
rich grass, especially if they have previously been kept iag or fog-
on poor or dry fodder, they are apt to eat voraciously sickness,
of their new icpast, and the young succulent food, when’
received into the stomach, soon ferments, and produces
such a quantity of air, as to swell the stomach to a vio¬
lent and dangerous degree. Cattle thus affected are
said to be over-fed^ hove, or blown / or the affection of
the stomach thus produced, is called over-feeding, or
sometimes If not speedily relieved, the
animal s stomach not unfrequently bursts, from the ina¬
bility to evacuate the accumulated air j for there seems,
in these cases, to be a constriction of the gullet, so
that the air cannot escape upwards, while the number
of stomachs, and the spasmodic contraction produced by
the unusual distention, prevents its passage by the anus.
The necessity of speedily relieving the animal, promp¬
ted the employment of what must at first have been
considered as a very desperate remedy ; namely, stabbing
the animal. An opening is made with a sharp pen¬
knife into the paunch, in the thin part between the last
rib and the huckle-bone y and through this the air ra¬
pidly escapes. Sometimes the barrel of a quill is in¬
serted into the wound, to prevent its closing before all
the air that is produced during the fermentation of the
food, has escaped.
Stabbing the animal, is a remedy that should not be
had recourse to, but on the most urgent necessity $ as
the wound can seldom be made with such nicety as not
to wound some important organ, especially some large
blood-vessel. Indeed frequently the distention of the
stomach, and consequently of the skin and muscles of
the belly is so great, that the moment the knife is in¬
troduced, a dreadful rent takes place, producing such a
wound as may be attended with fatal consequences.
Happily this operation is not often necessary, as it is
found that the administration of some internal stimulat¬
ing medieine will check the fermentation of the green
fodder, and promote the absorption of the extricated
air, Many farmers have for some time given tar with
this intention, administering an egg shell full to each
beast j of late, however, the use of ardent spirits has
been introduced, and. it is found that a pint or mutchkin
of;
flexible
tube.
510 1* A R R
Diseases, of whisky or gin, mixed with an equal quantity of wa-
i - ter, is the most efficacious remedy. Laudanum has
also been recommended, but probably it is not superior
to common spirits (d).
It has been the practice with some farmers, to intro¬
duce on these occasions, the common rope employed in
cases of choking, into the stomach, and move it up and
down, so as to produce a gradual evacuation of the air;
but we should suppose that the evacuation produced in
4oS this way must be extremely slow.
Dr Monro’s Dr Monro senior, professor of anatomy in the uni¬
versity of Edinburgh, some years ago contrived an elas¬
tic tube, that might be introduced down the throat into
the stomach of the animal, and thus speedily and eflec-
tually evacuate the air. A description of this instru¬
ment, and the manner of employing it, appeared in an
Edinburgh newspaper, we believe, with the doctor’s au¬
thority. It has since been published in a popular trea¬
tise on the diseases of black cattle, entitled “ Rowlin’s
Complete Cow-Doctor,” from which we have-taken it.
The doctor begins by observing, that the swelling of
the belly is owing to the distention of the stomachs by
fixed air, disengaged from the succulent grass in conse¬
quence of fermentation, the discharge ol which by the
mouth seems to be prevented by a spasmodic conti action
pf the upper orifice of the stomach. He concludes
that the cattle may with certainty be saved, if the air
be drawn ofl' in due time, without injuring the stomach
and bowels ; and he affirms that this may be done with
great ease by passing a flexible tube down the gullet
into the stomach.
The tube is to be composed of iron wire, as large as
a common stocking wire, or about one-sixteenth part of
an inch diameter, twisted round a smooth iron rod, three
eighths of an inch diameter, in order to give it a cylin¬
drical form; and after taking it off the rod, it is to be
covered with smooth leather.
To the end of the tube, which is intended to be pas¬
sed into the stomach, a brass pipe, two inches long, of
the same size as the tube, and pierced with a number of
large holes, is to be firmly connected.
To prevent the tube from bending too much, ■within
the mouth or gullet, in time of passing it down into
the stomach, an iron wire, one eighth of an inch dia¬
meter, and of the same length as the tube, is put within
it, which is to be withdrawn, when the tube has entered
the stomach.
He has found that the space from the fore teeth of
the under jaw, to the bottom of the first stomach of a
large ox, measures about six feet, and he has passed such
a tube, five feet and nine inches long into the gullet and
stomach of a living ox. TLhe tube ought therefore to
be six feet long, that we may be sure of its answering
in the largest oxen.
After the tube is passed into the stomach, it may be
allowed to remain for any length of time; as when it
is pressed to one side of the throat, it does not intercept
the breathing of the animal. The greatest part of the
elastic and condensed fixed air, will be readily dischar¬
ged through the tube j and if it be thought necessary.
I E R Y.
Part V; ft:
' i*1
the remainder of it, or fine superfluous drink, may be Disease! }i«
sucked out, by a bellows fixed to the upper end of the 1 y-..
tube, with a couple of valves, one at its muzzle, and
the other at the side of it, so disposed as to allow the
air to pass in the direction from the stomach upwards.
By means of such a tube, the air is not only more
certainly discharged than by stabbing the animal j but
the dangers avoided which the stabbing occasions, not
so much by the irritation which the wound creates, as
that the air, and the other contents of the stomach, get¬
ting into the cavity of the belly, between the contain¬
ing parts of the bowels, excite such a degree of in¬
flammation as frequently proves fatal to the animal.
This tube may be also useful for the purpose of intro¬
ducing stimulant medicines in the stomach, when the
contraction at the upper orifice would prevent their be-
ing given without some such contrivance.
An instrument of this kind is sold in London, at
Macdougal’s N° 15, Great Wind-Mill Street. It
should be made of various sizes, for sheep as well as
cattle. According to Mr Blaine, Mr Eages of Graffham
farm, near Guildford, has simplified this mode of relief
much, by the invention of an instrument, for which he
was rewarded by the Society for the Encouragement
of Arts, with fifty guineas. This is simply a cane of
considerable diameter, and six feet in length for oxen }
to which is affixed a knob of wood, at the end to be in¬
troduced into the stomach. That for sheep is consi¬
derably smaller, and three feet long. This instrument,
for its simplicity, is much to be preferred, as it is found
to occasion the evacuation of the air as effectually as
the other. In cases of emergency, and in a judicious
hand, the flexible part of a common cart whip might
answer the end.
Flatulence may be produced in horses, by eating
greedily of rich food, to which they have been unaccus¬
tomed, or after having fasted long } especially if they
drink much water immediately after. A horse in this
state should not be taken out to work, as, from the di¬
stention of the stomach, there is danger of injuring the
horse’s wind, or even in some cases of bursting the sto¬
mach. If the distention has not proceeded to a great
length, and if the horse is not costive, gentle friction
on the belly, and administering a ball made of some of
the cordial seeds, will generally procure relief; but if
the complaint proceeds to a great height, and there is
griping pain, attended with costiveness, it becomes a
case of flatulent colic j the descriptions and treatment
of which will be considered in the next section
406
When this flatulence comes to a great height,
forms the disease that is commonly called acute indiges-d,Ses !0
tion. It very commonly arises from the horse eating
voraciously, after having been kept without food for
many hours j especially if the food then given him be
of a flatulent kind, such as grains or draff, young sweet
grass, clover, or the like. The horse’s stomach being
naturally small, is easily distended by an unusual quantity
of food, or by the air disengaged from such as easily runs
into fermentation. Hence arise swelling and tightness
of the stomach, and acute pain. The horse discontinues
eating*
(d) The use of spirits in these cases was, we believe, first introdneed by Dr Whytt of Edinburgh, who was in
the habit of administering a pint (mutchkin) of gin on these occasions. . _
it VI.
5 7
Pc :H.
17 lid's
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Ois ie-
ini.
eating, holds out his head, and appears exceedingly
distressed j he looks anxiously and mournfully at his
side, stamps with his feet, and breaks out into cold
sweats. It he is not soon relieved, the head becomes
affected, and there appear evident marks of pressure on
the brain. Symptoms very similar to those of staggers
follow, and the horse commonly dies apoplectic, or the
stomach bursts.
As this affection is so dangerous, immediate relief is
necessary. Stimulant medicines, such as are called car¬
minatives, as oil of aniseseeds, essence of pepermint,
or oil of turpentine, should be immediately administer¬
ed ; and if there appears much determination of blood
to the head, which may be known by a swelling and
heaviness of the eyes, and the violent throbbing of the
arteries of the temples, it will be necessary to draw
blood pretty largely by opening one of these arteries.
Jf the horse is bound in the belly, he must be raked,
and have a strong purgative clyster with some aromatic
substance in it, as aniseseeds, or caraway seeds.
All these animals may occasionally swallow poison,
and the treatment in these cases must depend in a great
measure on the nature of the poisonous substance, where
this can be ascertained. It is seldom that a horse, cow,
or sheep is poisoned ; but in the dog, this may frequently
happen, either from accidents, or design. Dogs often
pick up nux vomica, (which is the poison mostly used
by warreners), and which usually causes convulsive fits,
and soon kills. Apply immediately the following reme¬
dy. As much common salt as can be got down ; hold
the head upwards, and force open the mouth, and by
fixing a stick across, prevent its shutting, whilst the
throat is filled with salt j a sufficient quantity to purge
and vomit will soon dissolve, and be swallowed ; the
stomach once cleared by a free passage obtained by a
stool, warm broth should frequently be given to prevent
the faintness which might otherwise prove fatal. Two
table spoonfuls of castor oil, added to the salt, would
very much accelerate its action downwards *.
Arsenic is frequently given to dogs by design, or it
may be picked up by them in places where it has been
laid for rats. If the accident is discovered soon, the
dog may sometimes he recovered by giving him a
vomit of white vitriol, and drenching him well with
sweet oil and milk; and when most of the poison ap¬
pears to have been thrown up, the rest may probably be
rendered harmless by repeated doses of liver of sul¬
phur.
If a horse is poisoned, the danger is very great, as
from his inability to vomit, the stomach cannot be clear¬
ed of the poison. But fortunately this accident scarcely
ever happens ; as arsenic, the most common poisonous
substance, will produce little effect on the horse, unless
given in a very large dose.
The stomach and bowels of all these animals may be
infested by worms, but these are most common in the
horse and dog.
The worms that most commonly infest the horse are
what are commonly called the hots. They are not pro¬
perly worms, but are the larvae of several species of the
Oestrus or Gadjlij mentioned in N® 337.
.The horse is attacked by 2 or 3 species of Oestrus, but
more especially by the Oe. equi, which deposits its eggs
in such a manner as that they shall be received into the
animal’s stomach, where they form the hots.
FARRIERY. ^,
I he method pursued by the parent fly, in order to Diseases.
lay its eggs in the most favourable situation for being
received into the stomach of the horse, is extremely cu¬
rious. It is thus related by Mr Bracey Clark, who ap¬
pears to have witnessed the process.
“ V\ hen the female has been impregnated, and the
eggs are sufficiently matured, she seeks among the horses
a subject for her purpose, and approaching it on the
wing, she holds her body nearly upright in the air, and
her tail, which is lengthened for the purpose, carried in¬
wards and upwards. In this way she approaches the
part where she designs to deposit the egg, and suspend¬
ing herself for a few seconds before it, suddenly darts
upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair, by
means of a glutinous liquor secreted with it. She then
leaves the horse at a small distance, and prepares a se¬
cond egg, and poising herself before the part, deposits it
ip the same way. The liquor dries, and the egg be¬
comes firmly glued to the hair. This is repeated by va¬
rious flies, till four or.five hundred eggs are sometimes
deposited on one horse. The skin of the horse is al¬
ways thrown into a tremulous motion on the touch of
this insect, arising from the very great irritability of the
skin and muscles at that season of the year, occasioned
by the continual teasing of the flies. The inside of
the knee is the part on which these flies seem to prefer
depositing their eggs, and next to this the side, and back
part of the shoulder. It is curious that these parts are
what are most exposed to be licked by the animal. In
licking, the eggs adhere to the animal’s tongue, and are
carried into the stomach with the saliva.
I he hots attach themselves to every part of the
horse’s stomach, but are usually more numerous about its
farther orifice, and are sometimes, though less frequently,
found: in the bowels. 1 heir number varies consider¬
ably ; sometimes there are not above half a dozen ; at
otbersAhey exceed 100. They most usually hang in
clusters, fixed by the small end to the inner membrane
of the, stomach, to which they adhere by means of two
small hooks.
“ Jhe body of the larva is composed of eleven seg¬
ments, all of which, except the two last, are surrounded
with a double row of thorny bristles, directed towards the
truncated end, and are of a reddish colour, except the
points, which are black. I hese larvce evidently receive
their food at the small end by a longitudinal aperture
which is situated between the two hooks or tentacula.
The lips of this aperture appear somewhat hard, horny,
and irregular.
“ Their food is probably the chyle, which being near¬
ly pure aliment, may go wholly to the composition of
their bodies without any excrementitious residue, though
on dissection the intestine is found to contain a yellow
or greenish matter, which is derived from the colour of
their food, and shews that the chyle as they receive it is
not perfectly pure.
“The slowness of their growth and the purity of their
food must occasion what they receive in a given time
to he proportionally small j from which probably arises
the extreme difficulty there is found in destroying them
by any medicine or poison thrown into the stomach.
After opium had been administered to a horse labouring
under a case of locked jaw for a week, in doses of one
ounce every day, on the death of the animal I have
found the hots iu the stomach perfectly alive. Tobacco
has
* Linn.
Trans, vot
iii. p 298.
FARR
has been employed in much larger quantities in the same
complaint, and has been also longer continued, without
destroying them. They are also but rarely affected by
the drastic purgatives, which bring away in abundance
the Tenise and Ascarides
Mr Clark does not apprehend they are so very inju¬
rious to the horses as is generally conceived. When
removed from the stomach a deep impression remains
where they adhered, but whether they ever irritate it so
as to bring on a fatal spasm of the stomach itself, or of
the pylorus, or, by collecting round this passage, pre¬
vent the food from entering the intestine, has never
been investigated with sufficient accuracy. The ig¬
norant surprise of farriers on opening the stomach after
death, and being presented with so singular an appear¬
ance as the bots, has without doubt very often occasion¬
ed the death to be attributed to these, though it is cer¬
tain but few horses on our commons can escape them.
Instances have occurred of violent inflammation ex¬
cited in the stomach by the bots. An example of this
is related by Mr James Clark. He was once desired
by a farrier in the neighbourhood who was indisposed,
to visit a horse that had been a patient of his for some
days, and report the situation he was in. When Mr
Clark entered the stable, the servant was giving the
horse a drink, which he was afterwards informed was
composed of an infusion of linseed, in which was dis¬
solved one ounce of nitre, with honey to sweeten it;
and in the last hornful was poured, from a small phial,
about half an ounce, or more, of spirits of hartshorn.
The horse seemed very uneasy after the drink, he was
soon seized with a violent trembling and shaking, a pro¬
fuse sweat broke out over all his body, and run down
his sides, as if water had been poured on him j at the
same time his legs and ears were quite cold ; he lay
down seemingly in great agony; he was soon alter con¬
vulsed all over*, and died in about half an hour from the
time the drink was swallowed. Mr Clark obtained
leave to take out his stomach where he was, on condi¬
tion he should sew up the skin afterwards, in order to
prevent any bad smell in the stable, till he could be
carried off. On inspecting the stomach, the coats of it
were found greatly inflamed, and a mortification had
taken place on one side, where it appeared of a darker
colour, and here there was a small hole, through which
a lead probe passed into the cavity of the stomach from
the outside ; the coats of the stomach were considerably
thickened, and of a darkish red colour resembling the
liver ", at the same time the stomach was considerably
distended and full of food : on turning it inside out, an
incredible number of bots were found sticking all round
the sides and lower part of it, so that it appeared en¬
tirely covered with them, sticking as closely to one an¬
other as bees in a honey-comb; and so firmly were the
heads of these vermin fixed in the coats of the stomach,
that endeavouring to pull some of them off when alive,
they broke in two, and their heads remained sticking
in the coats of the stomach.
The great irritation produced by such a number of
these worms sticking in the coats of the stomach had no
doubt occasioned at first an inflammation there, and
*ts continuance ti”s was tending to a mortification,
4"ro before the drench was given, aud would have occasion-
Oe. K*- ed the horse’s death t.
mon-hoi- Another species of Oestrus, viz. the hcemorrhoidulis,
daiis 2
I E R Y. , Part V
also produces eggs, which when received into the sto- Diseas.
mach of the horse become bots. This insect has been
termed hcetnorrhoidalis from the appearance of the bots
when coming out of the anus of the horse, when they
are very like the swelling produced by the piles or hoe-
morrhoids. It was supposed by Linnseus and some
other naturalists, that this and the last species introdu¬
ced their eggs into the bowels of the horse, by entering
the rectum, mire per anum intrans j but this opinion is
now fully refuted.
The part chosen by this insect for this purpose, is the
lips of the horse, which is very distressing to the animal
from the excessive titillation it occasions j for he im¬
mediately after rubs his mouth against the ground, his
fore-legs, or sometimes against a tree j or if two are
standing together, they often rub themselves against each
other. At the sight of this fly, the horse appears much
agitated, and moves his head backward and forwards
in the air, to baulk its touch, and prevent its darting on
the lips j but the fly, watching for a favourable oppor¬
tunity, continues to repeat the operation from time to
time ; till at length finding this mode of defence insuf¬
ficient, the enraged animal endeavours to avoid it, by
galloping away to a distant part of the field. If it still
continues to follow and tease him, his last resource is
in the water, where the Oestrus is never observed to
follow him.
. The teasing of other flies will sometimes occasion a
motion of the head similar to this ; but it should not
be mistaken for it, as it is never in any degree so vio¬
lent, as during the attack of the Oestrus.
At other times the Oestrus gets between the fore legs
of the horse while he is grazing, and thus makes its
attack on the lower lip*, the titillation occasions the
horse to stamp violently with his fore feet against the
ground, and often strike with his foot, as aiming a blow
at the fly. They also sometimes hide themselves in the
grass j and as the horse stoops to graze, they dart on
the mouth, or lips, and are always observed to poise
themselves a few seconds in the air, while the egg is
preparing on the point of the abdomcJi.
When several of these flies are confined in a close
place, they have a particularly strong fusty smell; and
I have observed both sheep, and horses, when teased
by them, to look into the grass, and smell to it very
anxiously ", and if they by these means discover the fly,
they immediately turn aside, and hasten to a distant
part of the field.
The eggs of this species appear of a darker colour
than the former, and we are unacquainted with the cir¬
cumstances attending their passage to the stomach.
The larva; of the Oestrus htemorrhoidalis, as well as
the former species, appear to have been termed among
the Romans, cossus, which seems to have been a general
expression for any kind of soft imperfect animal, and
have been very analogous, and as extensively applied
the word gi'ub is at present in the English language *. 411
The presence of bots in the horse’s stomach andSympta®
bowels, is not always easily ascertained, as it is ceitainofb(,ts'
that great numbers have been found in the stomach after
death, without appearing to have produced any unusual
symptoms in the animal while alive. When, however,
they have collected in any great numbers, or when the
animal’s stomach is peculiarly irritable, they are attend¬
ed with the following symptoms. The horse has a dis¬
position
11
L'brict.
(tirt VI.
* i.seases. position to rub his tail frequently, without any apparent
..^T—' humour or eruption that should make it itchy ; he eats
heartily, and is yet always lean and out of condition.
His coat is rough and staring, such as we have describ¬
ed it to be in what is called a. surfeit. There is also a
sickly paleness of the mouth and tongue, attended with
an unwholesome cadaverous smell. The horse appears
tucked up in his Hanks, which often heave ^ he turns
his head now and then, and strikes his belly with his
hind feet. These latter symptoms indeed, as they only
indicate griping pains, and often occur in ordinary co¬
lic, are not to be relied on, unless accompanied with
the former. In cases of worms, it is said that the dung
is yellowish, like melted sulphur, or is otherwise dis¬
coloured and very offensive. The surest mark, how¬
ever, of the presence of bots is their being voided by
4i,j the anus, where they are sometimes found sticking,
lljatraent. As the bots are extremely tenacious of life, it is very
difficult to expel them, and where they do not occasion
any considerable irritation or other bad symptoms, it
will be better to let them alone till they come away
spontaneously. But when it is judged necessary to at¬
tempt their expulsion, this may be done by administer¬
ing the sal Indus, as directed in N° 60. of the receipts,
and after it a strong dose of calomel and aloes.
We have said the bots are not properly worms j but
there are several species of worms that are very fre¬
quent in dogs, and are now and then found in the horse.
These are the lumbrict, or long round worms; the
ascarides, or thread worms; and the tceniee, or tape¬
worms.
The long round worms are seldom met with in these
animals; but when they occur in the horse, they pro¬
duce much uneasiness, and sometimes occasion colic and
inflammation of the bowels. It is very difficult to ex¬
pel these worms, as the only remedies by which this
could be properly attempted, such as powdered tin and
strong purgatives, cannot with propriety be often given
to a horse, as, from the structure of his stomach, the
former might produce considerable injury, and the lat¬
ter are extremely debilitating.
Ascarides are now and then found in the great guts
of the horse, and sometimes prove troublesome, but
are seldom or never dangerous. They are best remov¬
ed by clysters of lime-water, followed by purgative
clysters.
The tape-worm is seldom found but in dogs, where
they are sometimes the cause of fatal diseases, especially
to puppies. The symptoms of worms in dogs are, an
itchiness of the nose and at the anus, both of which they
are perpetually rubbing against every thing j swelling
and hardness of the belly, leanness, running at the eyes
and nose, and frequent purging of a slimy or stringy
matter. There is also a peculiar staring appearance of
the hair, which points the wrong way.
Mr Blaine says that the bowels of dogs are so irri¬
table, that they will seldom bear strong physic, and
that he knows of nothing that will certainly destroy
the worms in their intestines. He has tried with vari¬
able success, tin, quicksilver, pewter, calomel, and sa-
vme, with other substances, but none of them appeared
sufficiently certain to demand his confidence. When
the worms are early detected, he thinks that purging
doses of the compound powder of scammony with calo¬
mel, prove the most efficacious means. Mr Daniel re-
Vol, VIII. Part II. f
. !;5
As ides.
farriery. 5,3
commends aloes, hartshorn, the juice of wormwood, Diseases,
with some flower of brimstone, mixed together into a Xl 11 * -J
ball, about the size of a hazel nut, which is to be wrap¬
ped up in butter, and given three or four times a-week,
letting the dog fast for a few hours each time, which,
he says, will destroy the worms. He also says that
they may be destroyed by giving the dog as much fine-
y powdered white glass as will lie on a sixpence, for
three successive mornings, mixed up with butter j and
if the worms are not voided in that time, the dose of
the glass is to be increased, and it is to be repeated for
three other mornings, by which time it will scarcely
fail of producing the desired effect.
I here is a sort of concretion often met with in the Corcretions
stomachs of cattle, and sometimes in that of horses,*11 l^e 8t0“
which is partly composed of a chalky substance, andmach-
partly, or sometimes almost entirely, of hair evidently
arising from the animals licking off their hair and swal¬
lowing it with their saliva. The mass thus received
into the stomach, being wholly indigestible, collects
there, and forms these globular concretions which some¬
times grow to such a size as to prove fatal.
Hie growth of these concretions is thought to be en¬
couraged by the long use of dry hard food, without the
animal’s being allowed to feed from time to time on
fresh green herbage. It is even thought that the time¬
ly use of fresh grass may prove the means of dissolving
these concretions. Van Swieten, in his commentaries
on Boerhaave, when speaking of chalky matters found
in the liver and other organs, remarks, that sometimes
there are concretions of the like sort found in this or¬
gan, but of a more friable texture, and of a whiter ap¬
peal ance, like gypsum or plaster of Paris. Such incrus¬
tations were often observed by Glisson in the pori bili-
arii, and its larger branches dispersed through the livers
of oxen that had been fed in stalls with hay and straw
during the winter season and without exercise. But
then these concretions are very friable, and they after¬
wards dissolve again, and pass out of the body when the
cattle come to feed upon the fresh grass of the mea¬
dows j for in oxen that are slain in the spring or sum¬
mer, they are very rarely to be found.
“ In dissecting horses (says Mr Clark) I have fre¬
quently met with chalky concretions in their livers and
in the lungs, especially in those that have been fed long
on dry food, and likewise round balls in their stomachs,
sometimes of an oval shape. The latter seem for the
most part to be composed of the dust they lick from
their own bodies mixed with the hair. Whether the
fresh grass dissolves them is not so certain ; but that it
causes these concretions to pass through the intestines,
I have had a full demonstration. In May 1786,3 horse
that had been long fed on dry food w'as turned out to
grass j in about eight or ten days afterwards, he was
seized with violent griping pains, which lasted for about
24 hours, when he died. As the horse was very fat,
the man who had the charge of him wanted to make
something of his grease. In searching for it, he observ¬
ed a large space of the intestines of a very black colour;
and on feeling it, found something hard and weighty
within them. He immediately cut it open with his
knife, and took out a large oval hard ball, which mea¬
sured four inches in length, and three inches and a
half in breadth, and which I have now in my posses¬
sion. That this concretion was originally formed in the
3 T stomach,
514
FARRIERY.
Diseases, stomach, there can be no doubt, as they frequently upon
*  -y—•— dissection have been found there, and nothing hut its
great bulk had hindered it from passing through the
* Clark on intestines
Prevention, The best means of obviating these concretions, is to
p. 60. allow the animal to feed occasionally on fiesh green
fodder 5 and, according to what has been said, this may
sometimes remove them after they are formed.
Doss of ap- Horses and other domestic animals sometimes labour
petite. under a loss of appetite. Animals may eat less than
usual, or they may refuse to eat at all, either fiom a
want of that sensation in the stomach, which we call
hunger, or from a dislike that the animal takes at the
food that is set before him. Want of appetite is a
symptom of several diseases, particularly of fevers and
internal inflammations. When this happens, it would
he absurd to force food on the animal’s stomach, as it
'could not be digested, and would only aggravate the
violence of the disease.
Want of appetite very often attends very great fa¬
tigue. It is also very frequently the effect of an im¬
proper use of cordial and strengthening medicines. It
may, however, be the effect of weakness of the stomach,
not brought on by those means. In such a case, cor¬
dials and tonics are very proper, and their use should
be accompanied with gentle exercise.
This loss of appetite in the horse, is commonly called
cJ’vonic indigestion, and is usually accompanied with a
roughness and staring of the coat, the skin having the
appearance which we have described in N° 32^’ ull{fei’
hide-bound.
An affection of a similar kind takes place in cattle,
in whom it is called loss of the end, from their not chew¬
ing the cud as usual. It is known by the animal’s
mourning, having no inclination to eat, or dropping his
food, without swallowing it. _ It frequently arises from
the stomach being loaded with hard food that is diffi¬
cult of digestion, "such as acorns, or coarse dry straw.
It may also arise from a weakness of the stomach, which
is not uncommon in hot weather, and may be brought
on bv confinement and want of fresh air. I. he treat¬
ment is much the same as in horses.
Horses are subject to an affection of the stomach, in
which they sometimes eat voraciously, or greedily swal¬
low substances that are indigestible. Horses labouring
under this complaint are called foul feeders, as they eat
clay, mortar, dirt, foul litter, or even the dung of other
animals.
This is properly a symptom of indigestion, and seems
to be owing to a peculiar acrimony of the gastric juice,
and in most cases there is evidently an acid upon the
stomach. The best remedies are bitters, and other
strengthening medicines, combined with salt of tartar,
or some other antacid. The receipts marked 61. and
62. are well adapted to these cases. These remedies
should be assisted by pure air and regular exercise ; and
where costiveness is present, it should be obviated by
the use of warm laxatives. Care should also be taken
to keep the stable clean, and to have a quantity of
clean straw below the manger, that the horse may not
be tempted to eat other substances that are more in¬
jurious.
A surfeit is sometimes occasioned by hounds eating
putrid flesh, or that of horses that have died, or been
killed, when violently affected with the farcy. Arising
417
Foul feed¬
ing.
418
Surfeil in
dog:s.
Part VI.
from the former cause, the fatality which attended the Disease»,
hounds of Mr Finch in Kent, is a curious instance. -y—■
In drawing the covers, the hounds met with the car¬
case of a diseased bullock, with which they gorged
themselves \ the contamination was immediate through
the pack ; they were generally seized with staggering
convulsive fits, operating to so violent a degree, that
eight couple of hounds died in the field in- less than two
hours, and it was supposed the whole pack would have
fallen victims, but for timely application of oil and
other medicines. Mr Daniel, from feeding with the
flesh of horses sent from a post stable, in which the far¬
cy and the glanders had spread their ravages, had an
opportunity of speaking to the latter j the hounds broke
out all over in blotches, discharging a watery humour,
similar to those occasioned by the farcy j they caused
great stiffness, and were extremely painful. This ino¬
culation took place, notwithstanding most of the horses
were sent alive to the kennel, and were properly slaugh¬
tered, and none of the flesh was given raw to the
hounds. Physic, and taking them frequently to the
salt water, and well rubbing the sores by hand with it,
at length recovered them. For checking a common
surfeit, ox-gall and train-oil, equal quantities; the af- * Daniil
fected parts to be well rubbed, and some physic taken”"™
inwardly will quickly restore them *. .
There are two diseases that aftect the bowels, which R,uptuit.
we cannot consider more properly than at the end of
this chapter. These are rupture and falling of thefun¬
dament. These may take place in any of the domestic
animals, but they are more common in horses, as they
are most frequently the effect of great exertion. Bur-
stenness, or rupture, commonly proceeds from strains in
labour, kicks on the belly, high and difficult leaps, es¬
pecially when heavy laden. It may be produced by
the gorging of oxen, by being staked, and by various
other accidents. Gibson says that he has known it pro¬
duced by too deep an incision being made in inserting
a rowel.
The bowel may be ruptured either at the navel, or
through the rings at the back part of the belly into the
scrotum or cod. The tumour, when not too large, will
return on being pressed, as if it were merely flatulent,
and the rupture or chasm may be felt. It is easy to
conceive that such a defect is incurable, excepting pos¬
sibly in a very slight case, and a very young subject;
the intention must be to palliate, to render the animal
as useful as possible, and as comfortable to itself. In a
recent case, bleed, and give emollient and oily clysters,
boiled barley, malt mashes, nitrated water. Foment
twice a day with camphorated spirits, and vinegar
warm ; and poultice with oatmeal, oil, and vinegar. 420
Falling of the fundament is sometimes occasioned by Falling©
a long-continued looseness, and is most likely to be pro-the fimd£
dneed in such animals as are of a weak and delicatenient'j
constitution, but is frequently brought on by hard rid¬
ing or hard driving. Mr Lawrence says that he has fre¬
quently seen it in hard-driven pigs. According to Soley-
sel, it is in horses sometimes the consequence of docking.
\Vhen this complaint is first seen, it may in general
be easily cured. The gut should be returned as soon
as possible, by pushing it up with the ends of two or
three fingers wrapt round with a piece of soft linen rag
gently greased ; but before returning the gut it should
be bathed with some astringent lotion, as a solution
of
Part VI. FARR
Diseases, of alum or white vitriol, or port wine and water ; and
' y —a little of either of these should be frequently injected.
If the gut should become inflamed, it must be anointed
with some cooling liniment, such as receipt N° 28.
Care must be taken to keep the animal’s bowels open,
by frequent bran mashes. If the complaint continues
obstinate, nothing will effectually remove it, but cutting
off a part of the protruded gut. This may be done
with a common surgeon’s knife, called a scalpel, but
it is sometimes performed with a sharp red-hot cau¬
tery. The wound commonly soon heals, but the ani¬
mal should not be worked for some time after j but
should be allowed a long run at grass, or in a straw
vard.
411
4U
leanness,
413
welled
£«•
Chap. IV. Morbid Affections of Absorption.
The absorbent vessels of the human body have been
described in the article Anatomy j and the structure
of these vessels, in the animals now under our consider¬
ation, is sufficiently similar to render a particular de¬
scription of them here unnecessary. The function 0?
absorption, and the derangements produced in it by dis¬
ease, will be explained under those medical articles that
have for their object physiology and pathology. It will
he sufficient for us, in this place, to remark, that many
of the disorders of the animal frame, are greatly influ¬
enced by the state of the absorbent system ; and that
some complaints seem chiefly to depend on the loss of
the proper balance between the function of absorption,
and that of circulation. Sometimes the absorbent ves-,
sels are too active, while the circulating system is pro¬
portionally languid j at others the absorbent system is
languid, while that of the circulation is either unusually
active, or continues in its natural state. The former
seems to be the cause of leanness, costiveness, and some
Other morbid affections *, to the latter may be referred
the several species of dropsy. We shall here only con¬
sider two of these affections, leanness, and swelled legs,
as most of our readers will expect costiveness treated of
as a morbid affection of excretion, and most of the spe¬
cies of dropsy must be considered as general affections
of the system $ and therefore to be explained in the
next section.
An unnatural degree of leanness may take place from
ipany causes ; as, 1st, From the want of a proper sup¬
ply of food, whether from this being dispensed too spar¬
ingly in proportion to the labour of the animal, or from
its not being sufficiently nourishing. Hence we see
that such horses and dogs as are hard worked and ill
fed, are extremely lean.
2d, In stallions leanness is often the effect of being
suffered to cover too often, or too long at one season. 0
3d, It isacommon attendant on several acute diseases,
as fevers, some inflammations, especially dysentery, or
what has been commonly called molten grease.
4th, Leanness is a common attendant on old age
This symptom requires little attention, as it is seldom
dangerous, except when it comes on very rapidly, and
« attended with great weakness, and manifest signs of
decay, in stallions that are too hard worked. It com¬
monly soon disappears after the cause that produced it,
or the complaint, of which it is a symptom, is removed.
A swelling of the legs is very common to horses that
1 E R Y. 515
are suffered to stand long in the stable, without being Disea.-es.
worked, or in some other cases that will presently be 1 ,— e
mentioned. There is a swelling of the legs that is the
consequence of hard work, strains, or other causes that
excite inflammation j but what we aie now considering
is a dropsical swelling, consisting in an accumulation of
watery fluid below the skin, similar to the swelled legs
of old people, and chlorotic girls. It may affect all the
legs, but it is more commonly confined to the hinder ex¬
tremities. The swelling generally takes place above the
pastern and fetlocks j but if it continues long, it extends
further up the legs, and the skin sometimes cracks, and
there oozes out a watery fluid, or sometimes a purulent
or greasy matter. In this last case it has degenerated
into grease, which will be considered hereafter.
Swelled legs frequently take place in horses that are
newly brought into the stable, or a straw yard", especi*
ally if they are not regularly worked, and their legs re¬
gularly rubbed down, at least twice-a-day. It is more
certainly produced, if the horse should be suffered to
stand long on hot litter. It is also not uncommonly
the effect of wading through snow or cold water, espe¬
cially when the legs are heated. It evidently depends
on a decreased action of the absorbent vessels and veins
of the legs.
It may in general be prevented by regular exercise,
and frequent rubbing 1 but if it should occur in a horse
that is too full of blood, it may be necessary to bleed
and physic. If the swelling should continue obstinate,
k will be proper to apply a blister to the part, or to
rub the legs frequently with some stimulating liniment,
and if the complaint is of long standing, it may be pro¬
per to insert a rowel in each leg j and the dispersion of
the swelling may be assisted by rolling hay bands around
the legs, by way of bandage. One of the most effectual
means of preventing a return, will be firing, making
perpendicular lines with the cautery from the fetlock to
the coronet. Regular exercise and friction must be per¬
sisted in; and if the complaint is accompanied with
general weakness of the system, a nourishing diet, and
strengthening remedies must be added.
Chap. V. Morbid Affections of Circulation.
Ihe pulse in the inferior animals has been veryp ,
little attended to by veterinary practitioners ; indeed the.variou*1
common farriers and cattle doctors scarcely know wbe-.aniinals.
ther their patients have a pulse, or where it may be.
most readily felt.
The strength and frequency of the pulse, in jts natural
state, differs very much in the several species of the do¬
mestic animals. It is in general stronger according to
the size of the animal j but its frequency diminishes in
the same proportion, it being quicker in the smaller than
in the larger animals, even of the same species. We
cannot undertake to state exactly the average frequency
of the pulse, in the several animals, and the accounts
given by different authors vary considerably. Mr Clark
says that the pulse of a horse in health, and no way
terrified or alarmed, is from 36 to 40 beats in a minute.
According to Mr Blame, it ranges from 45 to 55, being
generally from 45 to 5° 1° large horses, and from 50
55 *n smaller horses. Dr Hales found that the pulse
of an ox in health did not exceed 38 beats in a minute.
3T2 “ Mr
5,6 FARR
Diseases. Mr Blaine, in liia first volume, states the medium pulse
v—' of a doo- at 80 or 90 •, but in his second volume, p. 149,
he sayst that a dog has usually from 90 to loo or 110
contractions in a minute, so that we may probably take
the average at from 90 to 100. Perhaps the pulse ot a
425 sheep is slower by about TO beats than that ot a dog.
Feeling the The pulse in the interior animals may be most con-
Pulsc' veniently felt in the temporal arteries, which, as we have
said in N° 164. are situated a little backwards above
the outer angle of the eye. It may be felt also at the
corner of the lower jaw, on each side of the fetlock
joint, on the jnside of the hock, and at the heart.
As much is to be learned from the pulse, respecting
the nature of many diseases, and the degree of danger
which they indicate ; we earnestly recommend to our
practical readers, that they take every opportunity of
examining the pulse of these animals, when in a state of
disease. We cannot here enter with propriety into ari
explanation of the morbid varieties of the pulse, as it
would be only to repeat what is given in the pathologi¬
cal part of our work, to which we refer our veterinary
readers) as the observations there delivered can be
easily applied to the particular cases of horses, cattle,
sheep, and dogs, by keeping in view the natural state
of the pulse, in each species, as above laid down.
436 There are two general states ot the system, that may
take place in all animals, and which are chiefly di¬
stinguished by the state of the circulation, as ascertain¬
ed by the pulse. These are plethora, or fulness ol ha¬
bit) and debility, weakness, or inanition. The former
is always attended with a fulness, and sometimes a
hardness of the pulse ; while in the latter, the pulse is
weak and small, easily compressed or stopt by the hu¬
ger, and is sometimes slower, but oftener much more
frequent than natural.
Plethora. When an animal has been kept for some time on a
full nourishing diet, while he is at the same time con¬
fined within doors, and deprived of that regular exer¬
cise, which is necessary to carry off superfluities, he be¬
comes fat, corpulent, and full of blood, or what we call
plethoric. In this state the veins below the skin, from
their being greatly distended with blood, are very pi 0-
minent, excepting in those parts where they are bedded
in fat) the pulse is, as we have said, full, and commonly
strong, but in some cases it feels oppressed, as if the
qnantity of blood were too much lor the cavity of the
artery. The pulse in these cases is frequently slower
than natural. The animal becomes dull and sluggish,
averse to motion, and il he is obliged to exert himself,
evidently does so with difficulty, pants, and labouis,
and becomes soon fatigued.
This plethoric state is extremely common in horses
and dogs that are pampered with high living, and little
or no work. A horse in this state, though he may look
well, is far from being in good condition, and is by
no means fit for active labour. In fact, it such a horse
is put to hard work, before he is properly prepared for
it, there is the greatest probability that he will be com¬
pletely ruined. Instances occur every day of full fed
idle horses knocking up, or even dying on the road,
and a long list of violent diseases is the consequence of
this plethoric state of body. It lays the foundation of
Woken wind, inflammation of the lungs, phrensy, and
above all of staggers,.or apoplexy. Ib is no uncommon
thing to see a fat well-looking horse, fall down in con-
3
I E R Y. Fart VI,
vulsions, while drawing a heavy load, owing to the de- Diseases.
termination of blood to the head, from so great an ex-  ^ *
ertion, while the vessels are too much distended. Most
lap dogs and others who are parlour guests, commonly
die of apoplexy. A lady of our acquaintance had a
fine fat lapdog, who seldom quitted the cushion that
formed his bed, beside his mistress’s chair, where he
was fed with the nicest bits from the dinner table.
Jack had been unusually heavy for a day or two, and
one morning was found lying dead on his cushion ;
though he had the night before eaten 2. hearty supper.
To prevent the ill consequences that must arise from
this plethoric state, these animals should be regularly
exercised, and not suffered to eat too much. Where
the plethora has already taken place, and where no dan¬
gerous symptoms threaten the attack of some violent
disorder, the best method of bringing the animal into
good condition, is to lower his diet gradually, and as
gradually increase his exercise or labour; but where
the symptoms are such, as indicate approaching apo¬
plexy, or some other dangerous disorders, it will be ne¬
cessary immediately to bleed and purge, and to take
care that the animal be not put to any violent exertion,
till he be brought into good condition.
We must here remark, that frequent bleeding with a
view to obviate plethora, is extremely improper, as it
tends to produce the very state against which it is em-
ployed. Bleeding, therefore, ought not to be had re¬
course to, except in cases of imminent danger.
There is a complaint that sometimes appears among jiawkes, ci
cattle, when they are suddenly put on high feeding, hock«.
after having been long accustomed to a poor and spar-
ffig diet. It is called by the graziers, Hawkes or
Hocks, and is probably of an inflammatory nature ; but
as it seems to depend entirely on a sudden distention of
the blood vessels, and is speedily relieved by removing
this distention, it may properly be considered in this
^ The complaint is said to begin with an uneasiness and
swelling about the eyes, and about the glandular parts
of the throat, which extends itself gradually over the
whole body, to the legs and joints ; and in cows to the
barren and udder. The animal appears languid, dull,
and heavy, and seems unwilling to stir from the place
where he is ; and when the disease has made some pro¬
cess, he will not lie down till he is relieved. Ihe legs
become cold and numb, and as the swelling advances
towards the hind parts, a copious secretion of saliva com¬
monly takes place from the mouth, attended olten wi h
a swelling about the tongue. The disease is extremely
rapid in its attack and progress, and if it be not spee¬
dily attended to, it will terminate in staggers, or some
violent inflammatory disease. . .
The cure of this affection seems to depend entirely
on bleeding, which should be performed as soon as
possible, taking away a quart or two ol blood at brst,
and repeating the operation some hours after, it the
swelling is not diminished. It is recommended to rub
the whole body well, both before and after bleeding,
and if the mouth is much affected, it will be relieved
by washing it frequently with salt and water. It there
is any considerable heat, it may be proper to give a
drench with nitre every four hours. 429
Inanition is a state of body directly the- opposite otInMnt.on.
what we have described; and is produced by very dil-
ierent
[Part VT.
Diseases, ferent causes ; from starvation,, hard work, loss of blood,
'k—-y—or violent or long-continued diseases.
An animal in this state is lank and lean ; his pulse is
small and weak, his eyes hollow, his skin dry and hide¬
bound, his excrements small in quantity, hard, dry, and
discoloured, his urine thick and turbid j he takes every
opportunity of grazing by the road side, pulling at the
hedges, or eating whatever comes in his way *, he be¬
comes mangy } and if this state of debility continues
long, he falls into what is called an atrophy, which com¬
monly proves fatal.
The above description is chiefly applicable to those
animals, who either from accident or neglect, are half
starved. The state of inanition produced from this
cause, is frequently seen in horses belonging to the lower
class $ and it is no uncommon thing to see dogs that
have been turned out of doors, perishing in the streets
in this condition. Sheep are also often found in a state
of inanition at the end of a hard winter, after having
been left for months to shift for themselves among the
enow.
On opening the bodies of such as have died of hunger,
we find the stomach and bowels much contracted, and
sometimes in the former there will be a small quantity
of food, scarcely masticated and indigested : Sometimes
both stomach and bowels contain balls of earth or other
indigestible matters ; the large intestines are exceeding¬
ly diminished in size, and commonly contain a quantity
of dry, hardened excrement ; the caul and other mem¬
branes that surround the intestines are much shrunk, and
for the most part appear Completely divested of fat; the
heart and large blood-vessels are flabby, and filled w'ith
a thin watery blood.
Though inanition is most frequently the effect of starv¬
ing, it not unfrequently follows great loss of blood, or
profuse discharges from the bladder and intestines. It
also not uncommonly attends an obstruction in the gul¬
let ; in which case the animal can take little or nothing
by the mouth, and the nourishment which he can re¬
ceive by clysters is little more than sufficient to support
his existence.
Inanition from the last cause is the most hopeless ; for
when it arises from starving, loss of blood, or profuse
discharges, the animal may, in most cases, be brought
back to good condition, by nourishing diet and strength¬
ening remedies, with proper attention to pure air, gen¬
tle exercise when he is able to bear it, and proper shel¬
ter from the inclemencies of the weather,
bounds of ^ *s not uncommon, either from injudiciousness or
iteries. want of skill in bleeding, or from accident, for an artery
to be wounded. If the wound be large, or the artery
of any considerable size, so much blood may be poured
out as to destroy the animal in a short time j but, if the
artery be wounded by a small puncture, such as may be
made by the point of a lancet passing through a
vein, blood is gradually eflused, and insinuates itself in
the cellular membrane below the skin. In this way a
swelling is formed with an evident pulsation like the
beat of an artery ; and, as this enlarges, the skin be¬
comes discoloured and distended, so as sometimes to burst
and occasion death by a sudden loss of blood. The
swelling produced by the blood effused from a wounded
artery has been commonly called a false aneurism^ to
distinguish it from what we are immediately to mention*
517
The artery that is most liable to be wounded in bleed- Diseases,
ing is the external carotid, which runs below the jugular v’1 "*
vein, or sometimes a little to one side of it. This acci¬
dent will, however, seldom happen, except when a liga¬
ture is used $ but when this is employed, the jugular vein
is pressed so closely on the artery, that the point of the
fleam or lancet may easily penetrate through the vein
into the artery. M. Hazard alleges, that in this way
even the wind-pipe may be wounded, together with the
artery, and that the animal may be choked by the efj
fusion of the blood from the latter into the former.
When an accident of this kind has taken places
whether from bleeding, from wounds, or from the ero¬
sion of an artery by the acrid matter of a foul ulcerj.
it is necessary to take speedy means for preventing the
ill consequences that may ensue; for, though the wound¬
ed artery be not very large, such an effusion of blood
may take place from it, as may greatly weaken the
animal, if it should not prove fatal. If the artery is
very small, the bleeding is easily stopped, either by
applying such a degree of pressure, as may be sufficient
to obliterate the cavity of the wounded vessel, or, what
is often more convenient, by completely dividing it;
after which the divided ends will contract so much as
to prevent the further effusion of blood. If the wound¬
ed artery be large, it can be secured with certainty only
by means of ligature. For this purpose, pressure must
be made on the artery, between the wounded part and
the heart, while an incision is made through the skin
and muscles down to ihe place where the artery has
been wounded, so that this may easily be discovered.
Then a pretty strong thread, doubled and waxed, is to be
passed round the artery by meansofa crooked needle, with
a blunt point, and is then to be tied fast about an inch
above the wounded part. A similar ligature is to be fixed
upon the artery at about the same distance, on the other
side of the orifice, and the artery is to be cut across between
the two ligatures. Thus, the further effusion of blood <
is completely prevented, and the wound may be healed
in the usual manner. The part that was supplied with
blood by the wounded artery, will, if the vessel was
pretty large, be colder and less sensible than usual, but
it will in general be sufficiently supported by the small *
branches of other arteries that join with the wounded
vessels beyond the ligatures ; and these branches will
gradually become so distended as to supply the place of
the divided artery, and restore' the part to its proper
functions.
It sometimes happens, that part of an artery ^■'AncDmin,
comes unusually dilated, forming what is called a true
aneurism. This dilatation may take place in any of the
arteries, but it is most common in the aorta or great
artery within the body, and in the external carotid and
popliteal arteries without; An aneurism of the external '
carotid is often seen in dogs, and sometimes in horses,
especially such as are accustomed to draw heavy weights.
An aneurism of an external artery is easily distinguished,
by a considerable pulsation, which may be felt much
more superficially than the ordinary beat of the artery,
and is sometimes so remarkable, that it can be distinctly
seen by the alternate heaving and sinking of the skiu
below which the swelling is situated. An aneurism of
the aorta is not so easily distinguished in the inferior
animals. The diagnostic marks by which it may be
known ,
FARRIERY;
S'8
Diseases.
43 J
Wounds of
433
Varix or
blood-
spavin.
FARR
known In the human body, will be given in the article
Surgery.
Those aneurisms are attended with considerable dan¬
ger, and those of internal arteries commonly soon prove
fatal. Aneurisms of external arteries are attended with
a wasting of the bones over which they lie, owing to the
increased absorption of bony matter produced by the
pulsation of the dilated artery 5 and these swellings com¬
monly burst in no long time, especially if the animal be
exposed to any great labour or exertion.
The treatment of these aneurisms is exactly similar to
that of a wounded artery described above. It consists
in securing the dilated artery, either by pressure on the
sides of the aneurism next the heart, or by means of
two ligatures, one on each side of the tumour.
An effusion of blood into the cellular substance may
take place from a vein, the orifice of which has not
been properly closed after bleeding j or it may happen
from the orifice in the vein not exactly corresponding
to that in the skin, so that the skin gets over the orifice
in the vein, and prevents the blood from flowing out.
In this latter case there is said to be a thrombus of the
vein. _ . .
When such an effusion of blood is observed, it is
necessary to dilate the orifice in the skin, and to take
away the clotted effused blood from below it. If the
vein does not appear likely to bleed again, it will be
unnecessary to pin it up j but if blood should still
flow from it, it will be necessary to secure it by a
pin. This, however, should not be suffered to remain
too long, as it may produce inflammation and ulceration
of the vein. Sometimes it is so long before the effusion
of blood is observed, that the swelling is become consi¬
derable, and is attended with inflammation, or even sup¬
puration. Where inflammation is present, but has not
proceeded to suppuration, this latter may in general be
prevented by keeping the part moist (after taking out
the effused blood), with a solution of sugar of lead in
vinegar and water. If matter is already formed, the
swelling must be poulticed, or frequently fomented with
warm liquors 5 and when the matter is let out, the sore
must be treated as a common ulcer.
Sometimes the inside of a vein that has been opened
in bleeding inflames, suppurates, and becomes a fistulous
sore ; and if this be neglected, the matter may extend
to some important organ, as to the head, when the ju¬
gular vein has been opened, and produce death. When
the vein is not very large, or the ulcerated part of it is
inconsiderable, it may commonly be healed by means of
the actual cautery, or firing, as described in N0 351. 3
hut if the wound is very large, or the ulceration very
extensive, it may be proper to secure the vein by means
of ligatures applied on each side of the ulcerated part.
When the enlargement of any part of a vein takes
place, without the vein having been wounded, the swel¬
ling is called by medical writers varix, or the vein is
said to be varicose. This swelling seldom takes place
in any of the domestic animals, except the horse, in
whom sometimes the superficial vein that passes over the
inside of the hock sometimes becomes varicose, and
forms what farriers call a blood-spavin. The enlarge¬
ment of this particular vein is always accompanied by
bog-spavin, or an enlargement of the mucous capsules in
the same part of the hock, and the former seems to be a
consequence of the latter, being produced by the com-
I E R Y. Fart Vl
pression of the vein, by the swelling of the mucous cap- Diwastn
sule below it, whence an obstruction of the blood, and » —
a consequent dilatation of the coats of the vein.
When the enlargement of the vein is not considerable,
it requires no particular attention 3 but if it should in¬
crease so far as to be troublesome, methods must be
taken for its removal. This rnay be effected, either by
producing such a pressure on the vein as shall stop the
circulation of the blood in it, or by tying up the vein
with a ligature. In applying pressure, such a bandage
should be adopted as may surround the whole hock,
while the greatest pressure is made on the dilated vein.
Mr Blaine recommends for this purpose a bandage in¬
cluding several of those elastic tubes, ladies glove braces
or tops are made of, which would occasion permanent
pressure, and yet permit motion. But, should it still be
found to resist this, its rtmoval must be attempted. For
this purpose, an opening should be made above the en¬
largement, and then including the vein within a liga¬
ture, and an opening below likewise, including the vein
also at that part; the enlarged part may then be punc*
tured, to let out the distended blood, and the remainder
suffered to slough away*. *Blam
5 J 4 Outlinet.
vol. ii.
Chap. VI. Morbid Affections of Respiration.
In many complaints, especially fevers and inflamma- ^
tions of the internal organs, the breathing becomes hur¬
ried, and inspiration and expiration, but especially the
former, are performed more quickly than in the healthy
state of the body. This hurried respiration, in the infe¬
rior animals, is known by the rapid heaving of their
flanks 3 and when it is attended with considerable heat
and dryness of the skin, it denotes considerable danger.
Any particular consideration of this symptom, will,
however, be more proper, when we come to treat of the
particular cases in which it occurs.
The principal affections of breathing which we shall
here notice, are those in which respiration is rendered
difficult, without being attended with fever or inflam¬
mation. Horses are more liable than other domestic
animals to difficulty of breathing, and one particular
modification of it, broken wind, is peculiar to this ani¬
mal. 435
There sometimes takes place within the nostrils aSnoK^ot
gathering of thick clotted matter, which, when it comeskmTei‘
to any considerable height, very much obstructs respira¬
tion, and produces a snivelling noise when the air passes
through the nostrils. This affection is called the snores,
or snivels, and is almost peculiar to cattle. It is some¬
times mistaken for a disorder of the throat, where it is
imagined there is some obstruction 3 but when this
rattling noise is found to attend the breathing of cattle,
it may generally be discovered whether or not it be the
disease in question, by a careful inspection of the nostrils.
The swelling thus produced in the nostrils generally
goes on to suppuration, and when it breaks the animal
is relieved. The object of our treatment must therefore
be to hasten the suppuration by the application of warm
stimulating fomentations or liniments. A very com¬
mon application in these cases is the oil of bays injected
up into the nostrils 3 but perhaps the steam of warm
water would answer every good purpose, and might be
easily applied, by putting a warm bran mash into a
canvass bag, and tying it to the animal’s head 3 and this
may
FARRIERY.
Part VI.
Diseases. may be repeated till the impoathume breaks. The ani-
v——v —■ ■' nial should in the mean time be kept in a well-sheltered
^5 house, and should be fed on nourishing diet.
iChronie Cough is almost a constant attendant on colds, con-
sumptions, inflammation of the lungs, and other pulmo¬
nary complaints ; and when it occurs as a symptom of
these diseases, no particular attention is to be paid to it,
as our principal object is the primary affection. It fre¬
quency happens, however, that after the inflammatory
affection is removed, an obstinate cough remains j and
if this is attended with no considerable difficulty of
breathmg, and if the horse eats well, and appears
thriving, the cough alone requires our attention. This
kind of chronic cough is generally more considerable
in the mornings and evenings, and after eating, and is
generally increased by any violent exertion.
Chronic coughs, though generally a consequence of
previous inflammation, may arise from a peculiar irrita¬
ble state of the top of the wind-pipe ; and if this be
the case, the use of some narcotic substance, as opium
or hemlock, may be proper. A very obstinate cough is
often the consequence of preceding inflammation, and is
attended with a peculiar noise, as if the aperture through
which the air came was diminished. This kind of noise
is called roaring, and it is found on dissection that the
wind-pipe is contracted by a quantity of coagulable
lymph, that has been effused during the inflammation.
Mr Blaine has seen a preparation where the diameter of
the wind-pipe was reduced to one-third of its original
dimensions, and it has often struck him as not improbable
that the grasping the wind-pipe hard, as is sometimes
done to try the wind, may bring on inflammation, and
occasioq this affection.
These chronic coughs, especially the roarer, scarcely
admit of a complete cure ; but they may in general be
mitigated, by keeping the animal warm, and by avoid¬
ing violent exertion. The food should be such as is
easy of digestion, and does not ptoduce much distention
of the stomach. Tar is much recommended in these
cases, especially for the cough, oy hoose, that sometimes
occurs in cows. An ounce of tar, with the same quan¬
tity of vinegar of squills, and a little oil of aniseed, is to
be given every morning, in a quart or chopin of warm
437 a^e*
Broken One of the most common defects in a horse’s breath-
’ind, ing is that which is called broken wind ; the nature of
which complaint has been of late much elucidated
by Mr Coleman. According to Mr Lawrence, broken
wind is discovered by the quick and irregular heaving
of the flanks, and a more than ordinary dilatation of the
nostrils; sometimes also, by a consumptive appearance of
the body. But the usual method of trying the soundness
of a horse’s wind, is to cough him; which is performed by
pressing the upper part of the wind-pipe with the finger
and thumb. The strong, clear, and full tone of the cough,
prove his wind to be sound; if, on the contrary, the note
he short, whistling, and husky, the horse is asthmatic
and unsound. Horses labouring under the worst stage
of this disease, are styled, in the language of the reposi¬
tory, roarers; from' the noise they make in work, of
very little of which they are capable. Broken-winded
mares are generally barren, although we have heard of
one which bred a whole team of horses after she became
so. In confirmed broken wind there is sometimes ob¬
served a palpitation of the chest, with constant contrac-
2;
tion and dilatation, and now and then a considerable Dincawes
cavity or depression may be perceived. * -
The old writers had many strange opinions with
respect to the nature of this complaint. Gibson attri¬
buted it to art enlargement of the contents of the chest,
and Hr Lower thought it proceeded from a rupture of
the phrenic nerve. A friend of Bartlet supposed the
disease to proceed from a morbid or obstructed state of
the glands and membranes of the head and throat, the
enlargement ol which prevented a free passage to the
wind. According to Mr Osmer certain glands, which
are placed upon the air-pipe, at its entrance into the
lungs, are become enlarged, and thereby the diameter of
the tube is lessened ; hence the received air cannot so
readily make its escape, nor respiration be performed,
with such facility as before ; from which quantity of
contained air the lobes of the lungs are always enlar¬
ged, as may be seen by examining the dead carcases of
broken-winded horses.
It is now satisfactorily ascertained, thatthe immediate
cause of broken-wind is a rupture of some of the air-cells
of the lungs. The cause that most commonly produces
such a rupture is over distention of the stomach, attend¬
ed vvith hard and violent exertion. The horse being an
animal that is always eating, will, when hungry, eat very
voraciously, if he has an opportunity, and soon fills his
stomach; and if, in this state, he is exercised violently,
the circulation and respiration will beincreased, but the
lungs cannot expand sufficiently, because the diaphragm
cannot descend from the pressure of the stomach. In
this case, the circulation being hurried, the lungs do
not undergo the necessary change, in consequence of
their now being compressed. The animal then, en¬
deavouring to take in more air, either actually occasions
the cell to .be ruptured, or something else to give way.
If the cells are ruptured, the air escapes from them into
the cellular membrane of the lungs, and there acts as
foreign matter, or, at least, it cannot then produce the
necessary change on the blood, when thus diffused; in
consequence, difficulty of breathing arises from two
causes: ist, From the blood passing through the lungs
before it has undergone its necessary alteration ; and,
2dly, from the rupture of the air-vessels. The respira¬
tion is rendered slow, as is seen by the flanks being long
in rising up, because there is no direct communication
with the bronchia, as in the healthy state of the lungs ;
inspiration is, however, in a third of the time of expira¬
tion, which is seen by the sudden descent of the flank.
The lungs, from containing more air, are specifically
fighter than in the healthy state.
This local disease does not admit of a permanent cure,
at least no medicine has yet had any such effect; but a
temporary relief may be obtained, as we shall see here¬
after. But we must not omit to mention here a most
ridiculous practice which has sometimes been tried by
common farriers, that of making an orifice above the
rectum, and then introducing a machine similar to a
musical instrument called a. flageolet, with the idea of
evacuating the superfluous air, or wind, which they sup¬
pose to have produced the disease.
Blistering the wind-pipe, rowelling the chest, and a
small purgative of aloes and calomel now and then, have
often produced a good effect.
A pound or two of shot has been strongly recommend¬
ed to Mr Colemart, as a specific; but, upon trial, it has
been i
520
Diseases.
* Ter on's
.Farriery.
433
Thick
wind.
43 »
443
FARRIERY.
Part VI
been fount! to have no obvious effect: it was thought
that the shot would act by its specific gravity inclining
the stomach further back into the cavity ot the abdo-
men. ,
The treatment must be nearly eontined to diet anti
exercise 5 the animal should have little hay, and water
in particular must be administered with a very sparing
hand. These substances which afford most nourishment
in the least compass, as carrots, corn, split beans, &c.
should be given *, the horse should always be worked
upon an empty stomach ; and, upon the whole, his diet
should be small in quantity, but nourishing. By ob¬
serving this method, a broken-winded horse may do a
great deal of work, and be useful to the owner*.
According to Mr Blaine, internal medicines have
sometimes been found useful in this complaint. Lime-
water has been employed with advantage ; and the use
of tar is much recommended. Mr Blaine prescribes a
mixture composed of two gallons of lime-water, four
pounds of tar, and an ounce of fresh bruised squills, or
garlic, of which an English pint (or mutchkin) is to be
administered every morning.
A complaint similar to the foregoing often occurs in
the horse, and is called thick wind. It proceeds from
a very different cause, being always the cause of previous
inflammation, during which coagulable lymph has been
effused, as in the roarer. Thick wind may be distin¬
guished from broken-wind, by the inspirations and ex¬
pirations being equal in the former \ while in the lat¬
ter the respiration is not so frequent, and the principal
difficulty consists in expiration, which is of course per¬
formed in longer time than inspiration.
Little can be done towards a cure of this complaint.
We may prevent the disease by good management in the
administration of the aliments, exercise, &c. Calomel
has been employed to produce absorption, but without
any great effect ^ a rowel under the jaw, and frequent
applications of blisters on tbe wind-pipe, are the only
methods capable of producing absorption of the lymph.
Half a drachm of the digitalis, or fox-glove, in powder,
twice a day, makes an admirable remedy in this, and
local diseases of the lungs.
The breathing may be completely obstructed, either
by the want of a regular supply of fresh air, or by the
animals being obliged to breathe such kinds of air, as
are unfit for respiration. The consequence of this im¬
peded breathing, is a suspension of the vital powers,
er, if the obstruction continues long, death will some¬
times be produced. As suspended animation is always
attended with more or less of an apoplectic state, we
shall defer the consideration of those cases till we come
to treat of comatous diseases.
Chap. VII. Morbid Affections of Secretion and
Excretion.
The fluids that are -secreted or separated from the
general mass of blood, by means of the organs called
glands, are in some cases secreted in an unusual quan¬
tity ; in others their secretion is lessened, or their ex¬
cretion or passage out of the body is obstructed. Thus
in colds of the head, as they are called, in glanders,
and in some other affections, an unusual running takes
place from the nose $ in inflammation of the eyes the
secretion of tears is generally increased, sometimes di¬
minished, while it sometimes happens that their passage Diseases,
from the lachrymal gland out of the eye is obstructed.' v ■»-
Again the secreted fluids may undergo various changes
in their colour, fluidity, and composition. Thus the
urine is sometimes yellow, at others red, or blackish j.
it is sometimes extremely watery, at others very thick
and muddy, and in one particular disease, the diabetes^
it seems to lose altogether the properties of urine, and
appears like a solution of sugar, or honey.
In the present chapter, we shall consider the morbid
affections of the bile, and of the urine. We shall also
make some observations on costiveness and purging. ^
The principal morbid affection of the biliary system jaun(jiee
that takes place in the inferior animals, is the obstruc-or yellows
tion to the passage of the bile, from the liver into the
bowels, producing the disease called jaundice in the
human body, and commonly known to farriers and cat¬
tle-doctors, by the name of the yellows.
This disease seldom takes place in the horse, for as it
is almost always the consequence ot biliary concretions,
or gall-stones formed within the gall bladder, and as
this animal has no gall bladder, the disease in question
can seldom take place. It may however happen that
an obstruction may take place in the common duct or
pipe, that conveys the bile from the liver, either from
concretions formed in the duct, from a spasmodic con¬
traction of the duct, or from a schirrous or hardened
state of the liver. The disease is however sufficiently
common in cattle and sheep 5 and a description of the
symptoms that mark the complaint in these animals
will almost equally apply to the disease when it may
take place in horses. According to Mr Denny, young
horses are very subject to a variety of jaundice.
Its first visible sign is a yellowish tinge in the white
part of the eyes, mouth, and tongue j the mucus and
saliva, from the nostrils and mouth, are of a greenish
hue, bordering a little upon the yellow. The beast is
dull, and heavy, loathing all kinds of food, eating no
more than a bare sufficiency lor the support ol nature j
the skin is dry and itchy, especially behind the shoul¬
ders, where it can scarcely bear the touch. The beasts
have an utter aversion to exercise, or stirring from the
place where they are, and if removed with the least
degree of precipitation, will break into a cold sweat.
Their urine is of a deeper yellow than usual, which
has sometimes led to believe it was red water, or bloody
urine. The dung undergoes a very considerable alter¬
ation in all stages of the disease, and its general co¬
lour is blueish or brown, and much resembling burnt
clay $ but it varies in colour, according to the subject,
or different circumstances and seasons. If the disease
continues long, the beast gradually pines away, and at
last dies of a decline.
It is said that horses have sometimes died of jaundice,
in two or three days *, and in these violent cases a black
sanious discharge has taken place from the mouth and
nostrils a little before death. This is called by farriers
the black jaundice, and after death the liver is found
totally decayed. Mr Lawrence says that he has re¬
peatedly seen cases of this kind. Gibson speaks ol an
inflammatory species of jaundice, attended with delirium
and madness j but this was probably a violent inflam¬
mation of the liver.
We have said that the immediate cause of this dis¬
ease is an obstruction of the gall pipe, commonly owing
to
Diseases.
part VI.
to the formation of gall-stones,
these concretions is most likely to take place, when the
animals are deprived of their regular exercise, and are
at the same time allowed too full a diet, or are given
food of an improper quality. It is said to be very com¬
mon in some of the cold provinces on the continent,
where the cattle are stall-fed during the winter ; after
which the most of them are attacked with it in the
spring. It may sometimes be brought on by hard la¬
bour and poor living; but then it probably depends on
a diseased state of the liver.
In the treatment of jaundice, our chief reliance is
to be placed on the use of purgative medicines ; and of
these rhubarb, calomel, and aloes, seem to be the most
proper; and during their exhibition, gentle exercise
should be employed. Mr Denny says that much re¬
lief is often afforded in the jaundice of young horses,
by giving a ball composed of an ounce of aloes, half
an ounce of Venetian soap, and a drachm of calomel ;
every second or third night, and giving on the inter¬
vening mornings a ball of half an ounce of nitre, with
the same quantity of powdered rosin, and of common
soap. Mashes and warm water are to be given plenti¬
fully, and the horse must be kept warm by clothing,
and fully exercised.
In cattle, a vomit of emetic tartar may be tried at
the first appearance of the disease, as the effort of vo¬
miting may assist in promoting the passage of the gall¬
stone. If, however, the disease should arise in conse¬
quence of previous inflammation of the liver, vomits
will be of no use, and the best remedies will be mer¬
curial purgatives with soap. The food should consist
of succulent and watery substances, especially of fresh
grass ; as it is found that when cattle affected with this
disease are sent to pasture they commonly soon recover.
Warm mashes of bran or malt should be given frequent¬
ly, both to obviate costiveness, and as being good ar¬
ticles of diet. If the disease should continue obstinate,
and the use of mercurial medicines should be found ne¬
cessary, the animal must be confined within doors, dur¬
ing night and bad weather; and a horse should during
the exhibition of the medicines be covered with a single
cloth. It will be proper, whenever the weather and
other circumstances permit, to give the animal regular
exercise in the open air; but if necessity obliges us to
keep him within doors, the whole body, but especially
the belly, should be well rubbed for a considerable time,
twice or thrice a-day. This friction will be proper,
even though regular exercise can be taken in the open
air.
Horses, and sometimes cattle, are subject to a profuse
discharge of urine ; but as the complaint of which this
is a principal symptom, seems not to be seated in the
urinary organs, we shall not consider it here, but shall
treat of it among the general and more important dis¬
eases.
It often happens that there is an inability in these
animals to retain their urine for any length of time ;
they are either obliged to void it very frequently, and
in small quantities, or, what is more frequent, it drops
away imperceptibly and involuntarily, forming the com¬
plaint called incontinence of urine. This complaint
differs from diabetes, or profuse staling, in the urine
coming away by drops, or in very small quantities at a
Vol VIII. Part II. f
44*
443
onti-
nce of
He.
FARRIERY. 52,
The formation of time, whereas in diabetes it passes off in a full and co- Diseases.
pious stream. 1 *
Incontinence of urine is extremely common to dogs,
and often arises in these animals from excessive venery,
or from the violent efforts which they are sometimes,
by the brutality of bystanders, obliged to make to se¬
parate themselves from the females. It is also not un¬
commonly owing to the presence of a stone in the blad¬
der. M. Barruel, professor of the veterinary school
of Alfort, had a little Spanish bitch, not above five
inches high, and about seven years old, who was troubled
with an incontinence of urine, unaccompanied by any
other symptom ; she was sprightly and well, and was in
good condition. Not knowing to what to attribute the
complaint, M. Barruel tried a number of remedies,
such as warm bathing and clysters of various kinds,
but without effect; at last he killed the bitch, and
found in her bladder a stone that weighed an ounce
and 40 grains, a very considerable bulk, if we advert
to the small size of the animal.
This complaint is less common in the horse, but it
may arise in any of these animals from a paralytic
affection of the sphincter muscle at the neck of the
bladder ; which is sometimes the consequence of the
bladder’s being unusually distended with urine. When
there is reason to suppose that it is owing to this cause,
the best remedy is a blister applied above the pubis, or
the frequent application of stimulating liniments to the
same part.
A difficulty of making water, or even an entire sup-Suppreision
pression of urine, is a very common disease among horses,of urine.
and frequently occurs in sheep. The symptoms accom¬
panying this affection, differ somewhat according to the
causes which have produced it; we shall therefore con¬
sider it under several heads. 1. One of the most com- Cause from
mon causes of a suppression of urine, is suffering the over disten-
animal to travel for a long time without stopping him t’on ^
to allow him to stale; a circumstance which is oftenbladder*
neglected by thoughtless people, while on a journey.
From the urine being so long retained, the bladder be¬
comes excessively distended ; considerable irritation
takes place, and when the distention has proceeded to a
great height, the animal, though constantly stimulated
to relieve nature, is not able to effect his purpose, owing
to a paralytic affection that has taken place in the mus¬
cular coat of the body of the bladder, attended probably
with a spasmodic contraction of the sphincter. If the
animal be not soon relieved, a considerable swelling ap¬
pears above the pubis, accompanied with great uneasi¬
ness; the urine becomes absorbed, and is carried through
the circulation to various parts of the body, producing
an itching of the skin, and generally, in no long time,
apoplexy and death.
Sometimes, however, before any considerable absorp¬
tion can take place, the bladder either becomes inflam-
med, or bursts, and discharges its contents into the belly,
producing there inflammation and mortification.
This complaint is, as we have said, very common Watery
among sheep, constituting an affection which in Scot- braxy.
land is called the 'watery braxy. It is said that young
and vigorous sheep are most liable to it; and according
to the writers of the ingenious appendix to Mr Findla-
ter’s Survey, the immediate cause of the disease, is feed¬
ing too freely on succulent diuretic food, and resting too
3 kT long
;22 FARR
Diseases, long in their laires in the morning. It has been fre-
 v   quently observed, that this species of braxy is most apt
to make its attacks upon Sundays, because shepherds
generally sleep longer on Sunday mornings than other
days of the week, and, of course, allow the sheep to re¬
main too long in their laires. This disease may be pre¬
vented by avoiding too free a use of succulent diuretic
food, and by moving the animals from their laires early
in the morning, making them walk about for some time,
in order to encourage them to pass their urine and
purl¬
in attempting to effect a cure, it may be known
whether the bladder is affected, by a great fulness in
the lower part of the belly, immediately above the pu¬
bis. The seat of the distemper being ascertained, a fe¬
male silver catheter, or one of elastic gum, ought in¬
stantly to be passed through the urethra into the blad¬
der of females. This will draw oil' the urine, and give
immediate relief. But this wull be attended with
greater difficulty in males •, and if attempted, must be
done with a long and properly bent catheter or bougie.
In either case, when this cannot be accomplished, a
puncture may be made into the bladder with a trocar,
directly above the pubis j taking care not to wound the
intestines. By either ol these methods, the urine may
be discharged, and the animal relieved. In other re¬
spects, with a view to allay or prevent inflammation,
evacuations should be procured by clysters and warm
447 injections into the great gut.
From in- 2. In the case which we have been considering, the
fUmraa- u,;ne> though secreted as usual, could not be dischar¬
ged } hut a suppression of urine sometimes takes place
from the secretion not going on as usual, owing to some
affection of the kidneys, commonly an inflammation of
those organs. We can scarcely with propriety consider
this case here, but shall treat of it among the other in-
443 flammations in the second chapter of the next section.
Stone. 3. Another cause that may produce a suppression of
urine, or a difficulty in staling, is a stone in the bladder,
or gravelly concretions passing from the kidneys through
the ureters or urinary pipes. We have just seen that
a stone is sometimes found in the bladder of dogs -, but
doubts have arisen, whether this could take place in the
horse. Examples of it are no doubt very rare, but we
have sufficient proof that it may take place. Mr Claik
of Edinburgh mentions that he has several stones taken
out of different horses •, and it is said that Dr Mead had
in his cabinet one that weighed 11 ounces. M. Haz¬
ard gives an account of a dissection that he made of a
horse that died of a suppression of urine, in whom the
following appearances were observed. 1 he bladder con¬
tained a considerable quantity of red and bloody urine.
Its internal membrane was thickened, especially at its
lower part ; and it was also inflamed and gangrenous
in several points. The ureter contained at about its
middle, a fragment of a stone that entirely blocked up
the passage of the urine, and had no doubt been the
cause of this suppression. The stone was imbedded in
a cavernous kady like the kernel of a fruit. Within
the bladder there was also a stone about the si’ze of a
large pullet's egg, broken into two portions.
If we consider that symptoms of gravel are by no
means uncommon in the horse, that gravel is often
found in his urine, and that calculous concretions have
been frequently observed in his kidneys, we shall easily
2
I E R Y., Part VI.
see that these cases are not so extraordinary as some Diseases.;
may imagine. There is no doubt, however, that cases —-v—»
of a stone in the bladder cannot so frequently happen in
quadrupeds, from their horizontal position, which pre¬
vents the stone from passing from the kidney into the
bladder so readily as in the human subject. Hence the
kidneys have often been found to contain stones of a
considerable size, without the horse having been during
life affected with symptoms of calculus.
When concretions form in the kidneys, they gene¬
rally produce a great degree of irritation, and conse¬
quent inflammation ; but il a horse is affected with a
suppression of urine, there is reason to suppose that a
stone is lodged in the bladder. rlhe certainty of this
having taken place may be very readily ascertained, by
introducing the hand within the rectum, as the stone
will, for the most part, be felt below the finger.
It is not probable that internal remedies can have
any effect in cases of calculus in the horse. In the be¬
ginning of the complaint, when the symptoms are very
slight, diuretic medicines may be tried, and will per¬
haps bring away the small sandy particles j but il a
stone of any considerable size be lodged in the kidneys,
the case is incurable. If the stone has got into the blad¬
der, it may be extracted by making a cut into the
bladder above the pubis, and taking out the stone by
means of forceps, such as are employed by surgeons in
the operation for the stone. In the mean time the ani¬
mal may be relieved, by drawing off the urine from time
to time by means of a catheter, which is easily used in
the mare, and by preventing costiveness, loo much
labour or over exertion should also he avoided, and the
animal should live chiefly on succulent food. ^ (
4. A suppression of urine may arise from an obstruc-Qfcstructid
tion in or about the neck of the bladder. A curious at the ne«|
case of this kind occurred to M. Huzard, and he has^^ebladj
related the appearances on dissection, which were as
follows.
There was at the base of the spermatic arteries, on
the right side, a glandulous body about the bigness of
one’s fist, through which oozed a lymphatic fluid, that
was whitish and thick, in some places appearing like
pus. The bladder was enormously distended with urine,
and extended into the belly beyond its usual limits ) it
was inflamed and thickened 5 the urine was nearly in
its natural state. The neck of the bladder was filled
with varicose excrescences, that completely obstructed
the passage. These excrescences were red, and so hard
as to resist the knife $ they contained each a small par¬
ticle of hardened blood, in which two parts were dis¬
tinguishable. The bottom of the bladder was very
black, and its surface of a reddish yellow 5 the whole
of the urethra was red and inflamed. _ 450
It will be pretty evident, that, should a case like this Blood?
occur, it is incurable. It sometimes happens that the
urine appears unusually red, as if bloody. Ibis affec¬
tion may take place in any of these animals, and it is
called bloody urine, pissing of blood, or red water. It
is most common among cattle. It may arise from falls
or bruises, from overstraining at hard work, as in horses
from a hard-run heat in racing, or after any violent
exertion, such as a desperate leap ; or it may proceed
from inflammation of the kidneys.
When it takes place in cattle, the animals are affect¬
ed with an almost incessant desire to stale 5 sometimes
they
Part VI. FARRIERY.
Diseases, they make but little water at once $ sometimes the urine dangerous, and very difficult to cure. The complaint
  » ‘ comes away in its usual quantity. In this latter case, if is somewhat different in the several species, so as to re-
the urine be deeply tinged, it is considered as a very quire a particular description in each. Some horses are
dangerous symptom, and when it happens, the beasts liable to be affected with a purging from the slightest
leave the herd, and appear to feel considerable pain ; causes, and on every exertion. These horses are called
they hold up their tail, and sometimes hold their back by grooms washy horses, and they are said to have nar-
higher than common. In fact, these symptoms, which rower chests and lanker bellies than others ; and it is
co not seem well undeistood by the cattle doctors, mdi- to this unusual deformity that the purging is generally
cate an inflammation of the kidneys. attributed. Some horses are said to labour under a ner-
'When this disease is occasioned by strains, bruises, vous diarrhoea; those that are chiefly subject to it are
orany violent exertion, there is reason to fear that inflam- young, and of a weak and irritable habit. The com-
mation may take place. I his must therefore be guard- plaint generally appears on them only when at work ;
ed against by bleeding, cooling drinks, and succulent and when they are suffered to remain idle, their bowels
food ; by avoiding exercise and every thing that can are sufficiently healthy. Mr Lawrence had a favourite
heat or irritate. It is a common custom to give nitre young horse that was subject to this nervous scouring,
and other saline substances in these cases ; but when and on whom he tried a variety of medicines to no pur-
there is any inflammatory affection in the kidneys, these pose, as it was found that nothing but idleness could ar-
salts are improper, as they tend to increase the irrita- rest the complaint. To use Mr Lawrence’s words, “ the.
tion of these organs. The best drinks in such cases will nag whilst at play, was always fat as bacon, and very
therefore be thin gruel, linseed-tea, or bran-water. firm in body ; but a week’s work reduced his flesh, and
Cattle are said to be most subject to the red water in caused him to dung like a cow.” Horses of this deli-
the spring, or summer, while at grass ; and it is supposed cate constitution require great care and attention, nr
to be produced sometimes by sudden changes of the they will not be of much use to the owner. They
weather, by want of water, or the use of such as is un- should have strong nourishment, but it should be given
wholsesome. Young cattle are more subject to it than in small quantities at a time. Mr Lawrence recom-
those of more advanced age ; hence particular attention mends good old beans mixed with their oats, lucerne,
should be paid to these young animals ; as when the or strong upland hay, with rice mashes, carrots, and
affection has once taken place, it is considered as high- occasional runs of grass.
ly dangerous. These are the opinions of cattle doctors, A purging may be brought on in horses by a sudden
and we suppose they refer chiefly to inflammation of the change of diet, as from hay to grass, or from grass to
kidneys, of which bloody urine is, as we have said, a hay. Hence, in such horses as are liable to disorders of
prevalent symptom. This formidable disease will be the bowels, these changes should always be made verv
considered more at large hereafter. gradually. It is very commonly the effect of exposure
It appears that when cattle are sent from Europe to to cold while the body is heated, and is one of the least
the West Indies, the bulls,'when first put on shore, are dangerous affections ai’ising from that cause. A purg-
extremelv liable to this complaint, which often proves ing may also be owing to irritating substances, such as
fatal. It is attributed to the eager desire which these crude, unwholesome, or undigested food remaining in
animals, after having been so long confined to a dry the bowels ; and in these cases it is often attended with
diet on board, have for green succulent food, in which pain, from the formation of an acid in the bowels,
they will of course indulge to excess the first opportu- A purging in horses is seldom dangerous, except
nity. The remedies found most effectual are bleeding, when it arises to a great height, or continues very long,
and the administering of nitre and purging salts ; but so as to produce a great waste of flesh, or very consider-
it might probably be prevented by housing the cattle able weakness.
immediately after they are brought on shore, and ac- In general it is sufficient, in order to carry off a
customing them gradually to their change of diet. purging in horses, to avoid the causes which have pro-
Jl&ck^wa- sometimes the colour of the urine in sheep and cattle duced it, where these can be ascertained ; to wash away
ier. ^ nearly black, and they are then said to labour under irritating substances from the bowels, by giving plenti-
the black water. This affection is not well understood, fully of diluting liquors, such as water gruel aud lin-
but it is probably a variety of the last. It is said to he seed tea, or gradually to change the diet, if the purging
produced by feeding on cold, wet land, and that simple seems to have arisen from improper feeding. If, how-
removal of the cattle to a more favourable situation will ever, the disease should continue obstinate, or be attend-
often effect a cure. Mr Lawrence considers the black ed with unpleasant symptoms, means must be taken for
water as a symptom of incipient mortification of the kid- checking or removing it. Some caution is reouisite as
neys, and commends bleeding, (unless in a cow), cor- to the plan of treatment to be adopted ; as, ifffie corn-
dials and tonics, such as iron filings, with bark, opium, plaint be checked too suddenly, some other dangerous
niti’e, in strong beer, if the progress of mortification affection might be produced. Veterinary writers differ
be apprehended. We may remark, that, if mortifica- considerably with respect to the treatment of diarrhoea
tion of the kidneys has taken place, which may in ge- in horses ; some recommending gentle laxatives, as rhu-
neral be known by the stinking smell of the urine ; all barb, which Mr Lawrence considers as the sheet anchor
these remedies could produce no effect ; and it would in these cases; whilst othersasstrenuously advise against
be much better to kill the animal at once, than beat theuseofpurgatiVes,andrecommendopiumandastrin-
the expence of time, labour, and medicines, in attempt- gents. Probably in most cases there is little need of
45* *n8 eftect a hopless cure. laxatives, and after plentiful diluting, one of the best
touring or A scouring or purging is a very common disease in remedies will be clysters of starch or water gruel, with
)rses!§ in our ^omest‘e animals ; and in some of them it is very a small quantity of laudanum. If there is acidity in the
3 U 2 stomach
523
Diseases.
453
In cuttle.
FARR
stomach and bowels, prepared chalk or lime water may
be given with advantage j and it there is considerable
weakness, the strengthening astringent medicines may,
in the latter stages, be used without hesitation. vVe
agree with Mr Blaine, that these are less proper at the
commencement of the disease.
In cattle this complaint is sometimes very serious,
and farmers not unfrequently lose several of these ani¬
mals by it in a season. This has induced them to call
it the scouring rot. When the purging has continued
Jong, it produces in these animals a general weakness
and” loss of flesh. Their skin sometimes hangs loose
about the body j in other cases they appear hide-bound j
their hair turns sandy, or of a grayish colour j their eyes
grow pale ; the pulse becomes weak and irregular-, their
excrements thin and slimy, and frequently change co-
especially in the early stages of the disease > but
I E R Y. Part VI,
of fresh mutton suet boiled in 3 quarts of milk until the Diseases,
suet is dissolved, to form a drink to be given warm.i——v——'
This, we doubt not, will answer extremely well. If the
disease should go to an alarming height, starch clysters
with laudanum may be given as a last resource. Mr
Blaine remarks, that in these cases, he should be dis¬
posed to try animal food altogether; giving broth to
drink, or the blood of other animals, with meat balls
forced down the throat j as he thinks it not improbable
that thus a change might be effected in the constitution,
which might pave the way to a cure.
Dr Dickson thinks that much advantage may be de¬
rived in these cases, from a strong decoction of hartshorn
shavings and cassia, with powdered chalk, in the pro¬
portion of half a pound of chalk, four ounces of shav¬
ings, and an ounce of cassia, to be boiled together in
two quarts (chopins) of water to three pints, (mutch'
whin thee omul a* in t'is pretty^r advanced, the dung kins) adding the cassia towards the close of the boiling,
appears like half-chewed food; and in fact, in these A hornful of tins mixture is to be given several times
cases the food appears to pass through the bowels with¬
out undergoing the digestive process. It is said that
when the animals have been long affected with this
scouring rot, they feel a great degree of distress and
pain, when grasped on each side of the back-bone, just
behind the shoulders $ and this is considered as a sure
mark that the beast has become tainted or unsound,
from the scouring rot.
This complaint in cattle may arise from most of the
causes that have been stated to produce it in the horse j
but it is considered as being most commonly owing to
their being overheated in driving, and to want of suffi¬
cient nourishment, either with respect to quantity or
quality. It may be produced in cows, by their being
constantly and too frequently milked, while they are
deprived of proper nourishment; and it is not uncom¬
monly produced by lodging on wet ground in autumn,
and feeding on a coarse, unwholesome fog.
In the treatment of this complaint in cattle, a num¬
ber of strange remedies have been employed, such as
hogs dung, turpentine and butter-milk j dock root boil¬
ed in salt and water, and nettle root boiled in forge
water. Among the most sensible receipts that we have
seen, is one in Bowlin’s Cow-doctor, composed of three
ounces of bole armoniac, with two ounces of bay berries,
and the same quantity of alum, of shavings of ivory, and
powdered comfrey root, boiled in two quarts of skim¬
med milk, adding while boiling a handful of starch.
This is to be given for a dose, for which, however, it is
perhaps rather too strong. Mr Lawrence recommends
that, on the first appearance of the scouring, the cattle
should be taken to the home fold, and put on dry food,
which will generally supersede the necessity of medicine.
The remedy which Mr Blaine seems chiefly to rely on,
is a decoction of an ounce of ipecacuanha, a drachm
and a half of nux vomica, half an ounce of galls, two
drachms of alum, and 20 grains of white vitriol, in a
quart of water boiled to a pint. Perhaps this decoction
is rather too complex, and some of its ingredients may
be spared. The receipt, N° 30. is well suited to these
cases. It may be supposed that where the scouring has
continued for any considerable time, the bowels are be¬
come extremely sore and tender. In this case, mucila¬
ginous or oily substances would be of advantage, and
they should be given frequently, both by the mouth and
by way of clyster. Mr Lawrence recommends a pound
in the day, shaking it well every time. 454
Calves, when first weaned, are subject to a species of In calve*,
purging which sometimes proves extremely obstinate $
and it is said that the principal reason of the calf-feed¬
ers giving them chalk to lick, is to prevent this purg¬
ing. It appears that this disease will take place in
calves, when they are fed on the milk of some particu¬
lar cows $ and that when the milk is changed the com¬
plaint goes off. The purging may in general be check¬
ed by boiling starch and bean flour in their milk: and
if it still continues obstinate, a little ginger and lauda¬
num may be added. 4j5
This disease is extremely incident to young lambs, Pinning ia
and it is called by the shepherds pinning, because whenlaml)S,-
the purging has continued for any time, there flows from
the fundament a glutinous matter that fastens or pins
down the tail to the hips, and prevents any farther eva¬
cuation. When this is observed by the shepherds, they
commonly seize the lamb, and after washing away the
glutinous matter from the tail, so as to disengage it
from the hips, they rub the parts with fine earth, or
other fine powdery matter, to prevent their sticking in
future. Something of this kind is very proper, but
hogs lard, or any other greasy substance, would an¬
swer the purpose much better. The disease is said to
be produced by wet and cold in spring, together with
the ewes eating too greedily of soft moist grass. It may
be prevented or cured, by removing the flock to heathy
or poorer pastures, that abound with astringent or aro¬
matic plants.
Mr Findlater remarks, that among lambs fed with
their dams, upon the rich improved pasture of Lothian
parks, pinning never occurs ; whence it is probable
that it originates from milk concocted from poorer
pasture, which gives more curd than cream to the milk,
rendering the excrements of the lamb more viscid.
When the mothers have little milk, the lambs are very
rarely pinned. Pinning is therefore considered as a fa¬
vourable symptom of the lamb’s being well nursed. It
is not considered as a disease in Tweeddale; though, if
not redressed, it would be productive of disease. It is
considered as an accident to be guarded against, and
which, like other accidents to which sheep are liable,
requires the shepherd to he constantly walking through
his flock. No Tweeddale farmer would, on this account,
remove his ewes and lambs to poorer pasture, where the
lambs
: Part VI.
;Diseases, lamis would be worse nursed j as he knows, that if the
■m.1 y..» pinned lamb is timeously noticed, and relieved by pull-
456 ing up the tail, all danger is removed.
lds5s' Dogs are also very subject to this complaint, and it
may be brought on in these animals by any of the
causes which we have mentioned as producing it in the
other species. In young dogs it is often the effect of
worms, and in this case the stools are slimy, greenish,
and sometimes bloody. Common looseness in dogs may
be removed by much the same remedies as in other ani¬
mals, as by ipecacuanha, opium, with starch, or arrow
root clysters, and prepared chalk, if there is any acidity
in the bowels ; but where it proceeds from worms, it
cannot be effectually removed till they are expelled.
Purging must be carefully distinguished from dysen¬
tery, or what is called bloody-flux in the human species,
and brake-shaw in sheep, as in this latter there are
symptoms of inflammation, and commonly more or less
of fever. The distinguishing marks of this disease will
he considered hereafter, as we cannot properly treat of
^ it in this place.
ostire- Costiveness, or binding of the belly, occurs occasion-
ess. ally in all these animals ; but it chiefly calls for atten¬
tion in the horse, as in him it is more frequent and more
dangerous. It arises for the most part from want of
exercise, when the horse is kept upon hard dry food, as
oats or beans. It is a constant symptom of colic and
of inflammation in the bowels, and the continuance of it
always aggravates these complaints, and seldoms fails
to produce them where they were not before present.
It is best prevented by occasional change of diet; by
giving the horse barley boiled, or green food now and
then, where he cannot be frequently sent to pasture ;
and every night or two allowing him a mash of bran,,
or, if he is of a very costive habit, of malt. Regular
exercise and good dressing, especially friction on the
belly some time after feeding, are also good preventives.
If it should arise to any considerable height, the bowels
must be emptied by back-raking, and the administra¬
tion of softening, laxative clysters, which may be repeat¬
ed every three or four hours till the bowels become suf¬
ficiently regular. Purges given by the mouth, though
they may, after some hours, remove the costiveness,
seldom fail to do more harm than good ; especially if the
complaint has continued long, and there is considerable
heat of the body, fulness of the pulse, pain in the
bowels, or great irritation. In these cases, while the
bowels are opened by clysters, it may be proper to take
away a little blood.
Suckling calves are sometimes subject to costiveness.
When this happens, the chalk should be taken away, and
half an ounce or an ounce of magnesia be given them
in a pint of warm gruel; or if the costiveness continue,
a little rhubarb may be added.
Chap. VIII. Morbid Affections of Generation.
458 It has been wisely ordained by nature, that the in¬
ferior animals shall feel the passion of desire only at cer¬
tain seasons; and these periods are generally so adapted,
that delivery shall take place at such a time of the year
as will be best suited to the rearing and feeding of the
young animal. It is probable that in a state of nature
these animals, whether male or female, do not ex-
525
perience inordinate desire, except at the proper periods; Diseases,
and when domesticated, the females are scarcely ever sa- ' — v • -*
Jacious, except at these times. The males of these ani¬
mals, however, in the domestic state, especially dogs, are
occasionally subject to excessive lust, and all of them,
during the periods assigned by nature, become some¬
times very unruly, if not permitted to indulge their na¬
tural appetite. Should circumstances render it neces¬
sary to prevent them from indulging this propensity,
they must be kept on a lower diet than usual, or have
such food as contains least nourishment in the same
quantity: and must be made to use more exercise than
common. They must also be kept extremely cool,
and horses should at these times have less litter to sleep
on than usual.
It is of considerable consequence to those who makeindiffer-
breeding an object, that the animals who are to copulate ence.
should not be indifferent to the act in which they are
lo engage. It sometimes happens that either the male
or the female betrays a coolness or indifference, which
may defeat the object of the breeder. When it appears
that a stallion or a bull regards the mare or cow pre¬
sented to him with tranquil air, or turns from her when
he ought to do his duty, it is clear that something is
wrong, and that the issue of such a forced connection
would scarcely be worth the trouble of rearing. It is
said that Spanish stallions are more subject to this in¬
difference than others.
If an indifference of this kind should take place
in an animal that is generally keen and vigorous, it
would be wrong to employ any incitement to stimulate
him to an action for which he has perhaps been unfitted
by too much exertion of the same kind during the sea¬
son ; but where the animal is naturally thus cool, and
has otherwise the requisite qualities of a good stallion or
bull, it may not be amiss to employ some stimulating
means before leading him to the female. He should be
kept on a generous diet, and when particularly required,
he may have a cordial ball given him, with a quart of
good ale after it. This will generally answer the pur¬
pose, or if it does not, the animal is unfit for his office,
and should be discarded. It is a common practice
among some grooms to insert a slice of ginger into the
fundament of an indifferent horse, and this is said to
have the effect of rousing his latent powers.
Indifference for coition is more likely to take place
in the females of these animals, and it is no uncommon
thing for a mare or cow to refuse the male. In ge¬
neral this is owing to a poorness of diet; and these
females should, like the males, before being taken to be
covered, be put on a generous diet with moderate exer¬
cise. Probably all strong, stimulating remedies, such
as cantharides, which are sometimes given, do more
harm than good, as they may produce inflammation of
some internal organ, without producing completely the
desired effect. The cordial ball and strong ale^re the
most innocent remedies in these cases, and where nature,
is tolerably sufficient^ they will be the most efficacious. .
The parts of generation in these animals are subject
to certain accidents or diseases, and it is necessary that
we should notice the more common of these.-
The horse is subject to what is called a falling of the.Falling of >
penis. Thisconsists in a relaxation, and total weakness the penis,--,
of the parts destined to sustain and support it in its na¬
tural. 4.
F A R R I E R Y,
4^1
Falling of$
the womb.
526 F A R E I E B
" Diseases, ral state, and is in fact a kind of paralysis of the erec- labour,
v—' tor and accelerator muscles, or a total atony of the
suspensory ligament.
It may be produced by various causes, as by too
great exertion in labour*, hence it is common to draught
horses that are hard worked. It may also depend on a
violent spasm of the muscles of these parts, as this is
always succeeded by a proportionate relaxation and
atony. It is not unfrequently produced when a stallion
is made to cover too many mares in one season.
When the case is slight, after returning the penis
within the sheath, which should always be done, a pail
or two of cold water, or of salt and water, may be
thrown over it several times in the day, and the muscles
may be anointed with some stimulating liniment.
It has been advised to make superficial punctures about
the yard with a sharp needle, and then to wash it with
distilled vinegar *, but we do not know whether this plan
has been attended with the desired success. If the com¬
plaint continues obstinate, the penis must be bolstered
up, and a charge applied over the back part of the sheath
so as to leave sufficient room for the horse to make wa¬
ter. If the complaint is attended with a general weak¬
ness, tonics and cordial remedies must be applied.
When a cow has been delivered with more than
usual difficulty, or has been very long in labour before
procuring assistance, it not unfrequently happens that
the womb is inverted, or, as it is commonly expressed,
the calf-bed comes down. This accident is more likely
to happen to some cows than to others, and is more
especially incident to those of a weak habit of body,
and such as are unusually wide between the thighs. In
such cows it would be proper to pay more than usual
attention about the time when labour is expected to
take place, and the stall in which they are left should
be made very commodious, that they may frequently
lie down, as the great weight of their burden will have
most effect while they are standing. When the call-
bed is come down, it should be returned as soon as pos¬
sible, by the operator clenching his fist after greasing it
and putting it to the middle part of the womb, which
he is thus to push gently into its place, and when it is
up, he must take care not to withdraw his hand too
suddenly *, but it would be better to keep it within the
womb for a little, as it will stimulate the adjacent
muscles to preserve the parts in the proper situation.
After withdrawing the hand gently, the external parts
should be bathed with camphorated spirits, and the
beast must be watched, to prevent the same accident
from taking place again. It is the practice with some
to lead the cow down a hill after returning the womb,
as it is supposed that this is greatly advantageous to the
parts recovering their proper position. If proper assist¬
ance cannot. soon be procured, the inverted womb should
be laid on a clean soft linen sheet, and carefully covered
from the air, the irritation of which might produce an
inflammation. If the relaxation of the parts is so great
that the womb still comes down, recourse must be had
to a stav, to put behind, to prevent the womb from fal¬
ling down *, and some have recommended stitching it to
the adjacent parts with a wax thread. Probably this
operation would be attended with more danger than
benefit.
Cows and mares sometimes suffer abortion, or, as it is
called, slip their calf or foal, before the usual time of
Y.
Part VI
This accident may be. brought on by violent Disease*
exercise, especially by leaping hedges and ditches j v
by sudden frights, knocks, or bruises ; and it is also said
that it may arise from bad smells, and ardent desire in
the mare or cow ; but these latter causes are probably
imaginary. It is advised by some to keep cows who
have siipt their calves as free from having any com¬
munication with the rest of the cattle as possible, under
the idea that the accident may become infectious *, and
it is declared that experience has shown, that without
great care and management it may go through the
whole stock, and even return the next season, if the
same cattle are kept. We cannot vouch for the truth
of these assertions, but if true, the circumstance is very
remarkable.
When a cow or mare has siipt her young, unless this
accident has been occasioned by great exertion, it is a
proof that the animal is extremely weak, and she must
be put on a more nourishing diet, and have strengthen¬
ing remedies j but in general little is required after such
an accident, but rest, and perhaps a warm bran mash.
This latter may be frequently given to mares or cows
during pregnancy, as costiveness may he a great means
of producing abortion.
SECT. II. OF COMPLICATED DISEASES.
Many of the diseases, that have been treated of in
the last section, are very important, and several of them
highly dangerous ; but those which we are now to con¬
sider, have a superior claim to our attention, either from
their fatality, the rapidity of their progress, or their
intimate connection with some of the most important or
destructive maladies that affect the human race. They
will, therefore, require a somewhat fuller discussion
than we. have thought it necessary to give to the diseases
described in the last section.
We shall class them under the several heads of
Fevers and Febrile Eruptions*, Inflammations;
Lethargic diseases; Spasmodic diseases; Dropsies;
and Anomalous diseases ; which will form the titles of
as many chapters, the last comprehending those affec¬
tions, of which the nature or causes have not been ful¬
ly ascertained, with those that could not properly be
reduced under any of the former heads.
For the general doctrine of fevers, inflammations,
comata, spasms, and dropsy, we must refer to the me¬
dical articles of this work.
Chap. I. Of Fevers and Febrile Eruptions.
4*3
Abortion.
4*4
All the domestic animals may he affected with pri-inflamm?
mary fever ; and this may be either of an inflammatory tory few
or putrid kind.
i. Inflammatory Fever. Synocha.
Inflammatory fever is, we believe, seldom seen in a
primary or idiopathic complaint, except in the horse ;
and to the consideration of this fever, in that animal,
we shall here confine ourselves. The symptoms are thus
described by Mr Blaine :
“ It is not easy to say what is the first symptom of
fever in the horse ; but from the effects that we see
arise in some cases, it maybe presumed that it is a cold
fit. It is usual however first to observe this complaint,
by
’art VI. FARR
diseases, by the loss of appetite, anil dull heavy appearance of
V"""'' the animal j the extremities are cold, and the trunk hot,
or the body is cold, and ears are hot. If a horse is at¬
tacked with common fever, while he is at grass, he is
found restless, roving about the field, with an unsteady
staggering air, and his head held low j if in the stable,
frequently shifting his position, and is evidently restless
and uneasy. His pulse is generally full, frequent, and
hard, the two latter states of it are almost always pre¬
sent, but the former may vary. If the mouth is ex¬
amined, it will be found hot and dry, and frequently
smells strong $ the breath is particularly hot, and there
is often an increased redness of the inner membrane of
the nose, even though there should be no primary affec¬
tion of the lungs. I he eyes are dull, heavy, and some¬
times inflamed, and the horse starts, and is at times
drowsy, but has no regular sleep. In this fever the se¬
cretions are generally diminished, therefore the dung is
hard, and in small quantities j the urine sparingly made
and high coloured, and the excretions from the skin
equally confined, giving it a dry harsh feel. The re¬
spiration is quickened, which is shewn by the heaving
at the flanks, and which must be distinguished from that
difficulty accompanying inflammation of life lungs; in
which case the air appears drawn through aparttoosmall
for it, as though we were to breathe through a quill;
but in fever it is usually only simply accelerated.
“ This forms the first stage of the complaint, and
sometimes immediately succeeding to this, is an attack
on some one particular organ, as the brain, lungs,
bowels, or kidneys; in which case it ceases its primary
affection, and becomes secondary and symptomatic;
but when it remains purely of the febrile type, as the
disease advances the symptoms become more irregular,
seldom appearing the same in any two objects, arising
from particular states in the individual bodies, varieties
in the treatment, or from some peculiarities in the dis¬
ease itself. The pulse in this second stage continues
hard, but loses some of its fulness, and increases in fre¬
quency ; the skin becomes moister, the urine is secreted
in rather larger quantities, and sometimes to these suc¬
ceeds a purging; the watchfulness increases, and the
horse is often observed in these cases to chew a lock of
hay, and let it fall from his mouth again, as though in¬
sensible of its escape.
“ This disease seldom remains very long in this state ;
hut there either succeeds a gradual abatement in the
hardness and frequency of the pulse, the countenance
becomes more lively, the muscular weakness increases,
but the irritability lessens; the animal appears more
tranquil ; the secretions gradually return to their natu¬
ral state; the mouth becomes moist, and the heat regu¬
lar and equable ; and thus is formed a resolution of
the fever. This kind of fever, I believe, seldom termi¬
nates in a crisis, nor often by sweating; perhaps it may
sometimes by purging.
“ But when to the foregoing symptoms, instead of their
latter appearances, there succeeds great restlessness, or
sometimes contant drowsiness, the pulse becoming verv
quick, as from 70 to 80 pulsations in a minute, pre¬
serving some of its hardness, and accompanied with pro¬
fuse staling, though at others the urine remains high
Blaine's coloured, and small in quantity, and the thirst unaba-
tlines, fed j when to these are added great prostration of
ii. strength, a fatal termination may be expected*.”
I E R Y. 52'
We have said that simple fever is not common in Diseases.
sheep or cattle; but when it occurs in these animals,' y——
the symptoms differ little from those above describ¬
ed.
It must be remarked, that though the foregoing de¬
scription will apply to most cases in horses, all the
symptoms here laid down will not often be found in the
same case ; but they will vary according to the constitu¬
tion ol the animal and other circumstances. Sometimes
the fever will have less of the inflammatory type, and
will approacli to what is called a low or nervous fever.
Cases of low nervous fever are, however, very uncom¬
mon among horses. Mr Blaine says that he has met
with no instance of this kind, but that he was assured
by a Mr Bloxham, a veterinary practitioner of consider¬
able observation, that he had met with a well-marked
case of typhus fever. In cases that approach this low
type, the heat of the body is more irregular than in the
pure inflammatory fever, and the mouth often continues
moist though drink be refused ; and the secretions and
excretions are usually not so much affected. Some¬
times there takes place a discharge of glutinous matter
irom the nose, and the eyes are watery. The pulse in
these cases usually ceases to he full after the first 24 or
36 hours; and though it still continues hard, it is more
frequent than before, and becomes small and irregular
as the disease advances. This low variety of fever, is
more dangerous than the true inflammatory fever, and
requires more particular attention.
Inflammatory fever may be produced by any cause
that violently agitates the body, and unusually accele¬
rates the motion of the blood. It may be produced by
excessive exertion and fatigue, or by an exposure to
cold while the body is overheated. It is said to have
been sometimes brought on by a sudden fright. A very
common cause in hot climates, is long exposure to the
direct rays of the sun. Pure inflammatory fever is cer¬
tainly not contagious.
In the cure of inflammatory fever it is necessary to
draw blood as soon as possible; and the quantity of
blood taken away should be in proportion to the vio-
lence of the inflammatory symptoms. We are disposed,
however, to think, that a less quantity than is usually
recommended, perhaps not more than two quarts at
once, will be sufficient, as the weakness that comes on
in the latter stages of all fevers, will be greatly increased
by too much loss of blood. The blood should be pre¬
served in a proper vessel, as directed in N° 162. that it
may be ascertained how far it will be proper to repeat
the operation. When blood has been drawn, the horse
should be back-raked, or a hand passed up the rectum,
and the dung drawn carefully away, after which a cly¬
ster should be thrown up, such as N° 17. of the receipts.
It should be blood-warm, and should be passed up care¬
fully and gently. If there is much determination to
the head, a blister may be applied to the neck, or a
seton inserted as near the head as may be. Cooling
medicines may be administered, such as the drenches,
N° 22. and N° 26. All heating or cordial medi¬
cines, and stimulating food should in the early stage of
the fever, be carefully avoided. The diet should con¬
sist of light food that is easily digested, such as sweet
hay, or, if that can be procured, lucerne or sainfoin ;
bran mashes, and, by way of drink, thin gruel.
The rational mode of treating fevers, lately introdu-
.. ced
)
528
Diseases, ced into liuman medicine, will probably not soon be
J transferred to the stable. Grooms and farriers will not
, easily believe that it is necessary to keep a feverish horse
, cool, and allow him to breathe a free, pure air. The
practice usually followed in these cases is to shut up the
stable as closely as possible, and even to stop every
cranny in the door and windows. This practice is not
only sufficient to increase the disorder of the feverish
horse, but even to excite fever in such horses as happen
to be in the same stable. It is, besides, customary to
cover up the horse with a load of body-clothes, in or¬
der that he may sweat off the fever j and probably these
clothes are girded tight round his body by means of
rollers.
Instead of this absurd method of treatment, a fever¬
ish horse should, if possible, be put into a stable where
there is not more than one horse. As these animals
naturally love society, it is better that he should not be
quite solitary, otherwise he might be put in a stable by
himself. The stable should be roomy and airy, and
should be regularly cleaned. The horse may have
a light cloth thrown over him, but this should not be
fastened more than is sufficient to keep it from falling
off his body.
When the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, and
signs of debility begin to make their appearance, as
they never fail to do in the course of a few days, a dif¬
ferent plan of treatment will be required, as far as re¬
spects the administration of internal remedies. A horse
labouring under fever must be carefully watched, in or¬
der to mark the time at which the inflammatory symp¬
toms begin to give way to those of lowness and debili¬
ty ; and as the change is often very sudden, the horse
should be visited at least twice a-day, or oftener if
possible, as were the groom or other attendant to con¬
tinue the debilitating treatment after the symptoms of
debility come on, such a degree of weakness may be
produced as will not easily be recovered. The change
will be discovered chiefly by the alteration of the pulse,
which, from being hard and full, becomes softer and in
general weaker. This is the time to exhibit strength¬
ening medicines 5 but these at first should be of the
gentler kind, such as Peruvian bark, or willow bark,
which may be given at first in moderate doses $ and if
the debility continues, the dose must be increased, and
the medicine administered more frequently. During
the whole treatment, care must be taken that the horse
be not suffered to remain costive, and his bowels may be
kept moderately open, by giving him a warm mash
every night. If the weakness becomes very great, and
there appears much restlessness or heaviness, while the
pulse continues low, it will be proper to administer
some of the more powerful stimulant medicines, as cam¬
phor and opium, ammonia, or snake-root, as directed in
the receipts N° 35. and 38. As the horse becomes
convalescent, the stronger tonics, as oak bark, with
ginger, may be administered twice or thrice a-day $ and
as his appetite returns, he may be indulged with his
usual food, with gentle exercise. It will be proper,
however, to avoid any considerable exertion for a long
time after the animal has become convalescent, as a
considerable period must elapse before the body can re¬
cover its usual strength and vigour.
Inflammatory fever precedes or accompanies most vio¬
lent inflammations, especially those ol the brain and
3
FARRIERY. Part VI
other viscera, and it generally ushers in several of the Disease;!:
eruptive diseases. In some of these complaints the fe- 1 "■ y »
ver demands particular attention j but in most of them
it is merely a secondary symptom, and yields to the ge¬
neral treatment of the disease.
a. Epidemic Putrid Fever. Typhus. Murrain,
Pestle, Garble. Epizootee, Fr.
4«5
Putrid fever does not commonly attack horses, though Putrid fe
it has occasionally raged epidernically among these ani-ver.
mats. Eancisi, an Italian physician, has described an
epidemic fever that raged among horses in Italy about
the year iyi2, and Mr Osmer mentions an epidemic of
a similar kind, attended with critical abscesses. He
calls it the distemper, and says that it had raged at dif¬
ferent periods for more than 50 years.
The most serious epidemic fevers that have ever aP*Murrajn
peared among domestic animals, are those which, from
their violence and fatality, have been called murrains
or pests, and which have raged occasionally from the
earliest historical accounts.
Columella mentions a contagious disease, which he
calls erudites, that scarcely differs in its symptoms from
the murrains that we are presently to describe. The
following is his description. “ Crebri ructus, ac ven-
tris sonitus, fastidia cibi, nervorum intensio, hebitas
oculi, propter quae bos neque ruminat, neque lingua se
deterget.” He advises bleeding in the tail, and back-
raking, and clysters j and if it appears that the disease
is contagious, he recommends the infected cattle to be
separated from the rest of the herd.
A similar disease is also described by Yegetius, who
recommends a similar treatment, with the additional
advice : “ Mortua cadavera ultra fines villse projicienda
sunt, et altissime obruenda sub terris To carry the
carcases to a distance from the farm, and bury them
deep in the earth.
Marius, a Burgundian ecclesiastic, who wrote in the
6th century, mentions a disease, which he considers as
the smallpox, that destroyed great numbers of cattle.
“ Hoc anno (570) morbus validus, cum profluvio ven-
tris et variola, Italiam, Galliamque valde. afflixit, et
animalia bubula per loca superscripta maxima interie-
runt ^ Mw*
The first accounts that we have of any disorder of fiend’s Tr
this kind, since the beginning of the present century,
are related by Ramazini and Lancisi, two physicians
then living in Italy, where this disorder first broke out,
in the year 1711, in the territories of the republic of
Venice, in the country round Padua; and was said to
have been brought from Dalmatia, a province of Tur¬
key, by some merchants importing living cattle, ac¬
cording to their annual custom, from that and the
neighbouring parts. The disease soon spread itself
through most parts of Italy beyond the river Po, and
appeared two years after in the duchy of Ferrara, where
it so ravaged the country, in the years 1713 and I7I4>
that Lannonius, a celebrated physician of that time,
informs us, it was a prevalent opinion, that the whole
species would quickly become extinct. From Italy it
travelled through the Tyrolese into France. Shortly
after Germany suffered, as well as the Low Countries;
and from these parts it was supposed to have been trans¬
ported into Great Britain and Ireland. But there is
* no
4*7
Jppear-
Part VI.
[Diseases, no record of a new infection in this country since the
1 year I7r4> the middle of last century, when we
probably received the infection from Holland, where
this disorder then reigned, having received the infection
from some of the neighbouring parts of Germany and
Flanders.
About the year 1744, it was reported to have been
nee of the brought by some traders into Essex, who had purchased
Idui'n m ca^ves Holland, or some other of the provinces of
the low countries, which had the infection, and spread
through several counties, till it became a matter of im¬
portance to the state ; and on the 13th of February
1745 gave occasion to the passing of an act of parlia¬
ment, commanding that every probable, or even possi¬
ble, means should be employed, by officers appointed
for that purpose, to prevent the farther spreading of it.
Premiums were given to those who killed their cattle
as soon as the infection made its appearance 5 and fines
wrere imposed upon every one who acted in opposition
to the established laws, respecting driving, exposing, or
selling cattle, supposed or found to have caught the
disorder. Every precaution, however, which could be
suggested at that time, proved ineffectual; and fresh
orders were issued by his majesty in council, which
for some time were also found to produce very little ef¬
fect. It became so alarming to the country, that many
eminent medical characters in different parts of Eng¬
land, closely applied themselves to the study of reme¬
dies for this calamitous distemper. They differed in
opinion, whether it was a disease of an infectious na¬
ture, or proceeded from a malignancy in the state of
the atmosphere, or some peculiarity in the nature of
their food. The contradictory opinions which prevail¬
ed among them, nearly prevented some of the ablest
professional men from appearing in behalf of the public ;
especially Mr Barker, who wrote an ingenious pamph¬
let on the subject, and whose mode of treatment pro¬
ved more successful than that of many others, whose
pretensions were given to the public in a more confident
manner, and more strenuously supported.
From the several histories that have been given of
the disorder, it appears to have differed in its symptoms
and effects, according to the countries in which it ap¬
peared, the various seasons in which it commenced
its ravages, and some other circumstances not fully as¬
certained. There seems to have been no doubt that
the disease was infectious, or at least that it was easily
propagated among the species of animals which it at¬
tacked ; but it does not appear to have been capable of
spreading to other species j as men, horses, sheep, and
dogs, that lived in the neighbourhood of the infected
cattle, shewed no marks of having received the con¬
tagion.
In the historical sketch of the writers on veterinary
medicine, we mentioned several works on the subject of
the murrains that prevailed over Europe in the last cen¬
tury *, and of these it will have appeared that the great¬
er part were the production of foreigners. The most
celebrated of these foreign publications were those of
Sauvages, Goclicke, and Camper. The work of the
latter upon this subject is extremely valuable ; and as it
was written for the instruction of people in general,
having been delivered in the form of lectures before a
crowded audience, it is preferable to many others that
have appeared on the subject. It is given in the third
Vox. VIII. Part II. f
46 s
FARRIERY. 529
volume of Camper’s works on natural history, physiolo- Diseases,
gy, and comparative anatomy, lately published at Paris.v—>
Camper delivered four lectures ; in the first of which
he explains to his hearers the structure and direction
of the principal blood-vessels of the neck and extremi¬
ties in cattle, and the natural position and appear¬
ance of the entrails of these animals. In the second he de¬
scribes the natural structure of the four stomachs, the
liver, and the spleen, and of the heart and lungs. In the
third he explains the function of rumination, or chew¬
ing the cud, in all ruminating animals, but especially
in cattle. In the fourth lecture he gives an account of
the several writings that had appeared on the subject of
epizootic diseases; among which he particularly recom¬
mends a German work by Dr Krunetz, that of Goe-
licke, and those of our countrymen Brocklesby and
Layard. In the same lecture he gives a very accurate
detail of the symptoms of the disease as it appeared in
the province of Groningen hi the year 1768, with the
appearances on dissection ; his own opinion with respect
to the nature of the malady, and an account of the
most approved method of treating it. We regret that
this work came into our hands too late for us to make
any considerable use of it in this article.
The medical practitioners in England, to whom we
are most indebted for an accurate account of the symp¬
toms of this disorder, and a rational mode of treating it,
are Dr Brocklesby and Dr Layard. As the account
given by these gentlemen differs in several particulars,
though there can be no doubt that both describe the
appearances which fell under their own observations,
we shall extract a few particulars from both their pu¬
blications. The following is Dr Brocklesby’s account
of the disease.
For ten days or a fortnight the cattle were troubled Brockles-
with a dry cough, which is indeed not an uncommon b.v’f d.e-
symptom among cattle, at that time of the year, and *friptio11 of
therefore Dr Brocklesby did not consider it belonging^jnmUr"
to the present disease j the hair was rougher on the
skin than ordinary; their eyes looked heavy, and,
when the principal disorder appeared, they refusecl
fodder, but had an insatiable thirst for a time : The
milch cows decreased in their milk, which remained to
a certain quantity, sometimes for two days, before it
changed colour, but at length often dried up. Upon
ceasing to chew the cud, a shivering seized them all
over, and a high fever immediately came on ; the milk,
if any remained to that time, curdled over the fire, but
did not in the first of the disorder. At first the belly
was costive, but for the most part a looseness succeeded
within forty-eight hours after the shivering fit. The
stools were first green and watery, and of a stinking
smell j their consistence, however, altered afterwards
to a viscid, slimy matter, the purging accompanied till
about the seventh day, and about that time the excre¬
ments became thicker, in such as recovered ; and these
soon chewed their cud again, and tasted of fodder,
which they had before absolutely refused through the
whole disease. All that had not the looseness before
the third day died. The urine was very high colour¬
ed, and in smaller quantities. The degree of fever
was observed very high j upon the third day the pulse
beat near a hundred times in a minute, whereas the in¬
genious Dr Hales found a sound ox’s artery not to ex¬
ceed 38 pulses, in the same time. At different inter-
3 X. vais,
53°
FARRIERY.
Disease'
470
Appear¬
ances on
dissection.
. 471
jfl.s mode
of treat¬
ment.
vals, after the attack, they all laboured under a prodi¬
gious difficulty and panting for breath •, some suffered
these after the hrst day, others not before the third.
But this disorder suffered remissions, and seemed to be
augmented towards evening, and at night. Several
beasts discharged, towards the fourth or filth day, when
ill, a very great quantity of a frothy matter from the
mouth and eyes 5 others ran actually purulent matter
from the nostrils. As the disorder advanced, the eyes
sunk more in their orbits, and some were observed to be
quite blind. Towards the conclusion, the fore parts of
the body, and particularly the glands about the head,
were prodigiously swelled, and several beasts had a uni¬
versal emphysema, or crackling of air beneath their skin}
those that were not blooded, equally with such as were.
Frequently one might observe pustules break out on the
fifth or sixth days, all over the neck and fore parts.
Some cattle were raging mad on the first day ; such
were necessarily killed : some dropped down suddenly 5
others died on the third, most on the sixth or seventh,
very few alive to the fourteenth day j before death the
horns and dugs grew remarkably cold.
The appearances in the dead bodies of eight different
cows were as follow ‘ T. he flesh was ol a sound colour,
and everywhere lined with fat, the cellular membrane
between the skin and flesh was distended with air to
above the thickness of three inches. The paunch was
prodigiously distended with food, in all of them, but it
contained not any thing preternatural; nor indeed in
the reticulum or second stomach, were there any morbid
appearances •, but, upon incision of the omasus, or third
stomach, in which the food is naturally without much
juice, a most offensive stench rushed out, with a large
quantity of thin greenish water.
The blood-vessels on the inner surface of the ventri¬
cle were very full. The abomasus and part of the in¬
testines discovered the like morbid phenomena. The
liver, spleen, and kidneys, were as usual; but the gall¬
bladder seemed to be in the greater number fuller than
ordinary •, the consistence of some was thicker than the
rest, and the gall tasted disagreeably sweetish. Dr
Brocklesby did not observe any purulent matter invest¬
ing the inner surface of the intestines, though other
gentlemen discovered such, in some cattle, if he was
rightly informed ; but there appeared in some a slimy
mucus, all along the intestinal canal.
The lungs universally shewed the strongest signs of a
preceding high inflammation $ most of them were turgid
with red blood, while the smallest vesicles of the bron¬
chia, or air-vessels, were very much inflated. Some
few arterious vessels were replete with a gelatinous,
glairy mucus, and all the lungs appeared larger than
they do in common. The whole inner surface of the
trachea, or wind-pipe, was covered with a frothy mu¬
cus ; but he never found any ulcers with purulent mat¬
ter either at the root of the tongue, or in the lungs.
Upon opening two or three heads, he found large quan¬
tities of extravasated serum 5 and the blood retained
fluidity in the larger vessels long after death.
The method of treating the cattle recommended by
Dr Brocklesby is as follows : Before the cattle are
seized, he advises two setons, or pegs, to be put deep
into the dewlap, and into the under part of the neck ;
and immediately upon refusing fodder, the beasts should
have three quarts of blood taken away j and, after
Part VI
twelve hours, two quarts more ; after the next twelve Diseases;
hours about three pints may be let out j and after the y—.
following twelve hours, diminish a pint of blood from
the quantity taken away at the preceding blood-letting*,
lastly, about a single pint should be taken away in less
than twelve hours after the former bleeding ; so that
when the beast has been blooded five times, in the
manner here proposed, the worst symptoms will, it is
hoped, abate j but if the difficulty and panting for breath
continue very great, he sees no reason against repeat¬
ing bleeding, or at least against taking away the fifth
time, instead of a single pound, twice that quantity.
In the mean time the setons or pegs should be daily
promoted to suppuration by moving the cord ; and the
cattle should have as much bran-water as they choose to
drink luke-warm. This should be made a little tart or
sourish, either with common vinegar or spirit of vi¬
triol , and immediately after the first bleeding they
should have a drench composed of a drachm and a half
of camphor, well rubbed with two ounces of honey,
adding an ounce and a half of nitre, and about a quart
of water-gruel.
It is extraordinary that this treatment, with a little
variation in the internal medicine, is recommended by
Mr Feron as the result of his own experience, in what
he calls the general inflammation of cattle. It is a
curious coincidence*, as we suppose that Mr Feron,
from his not noticing Dr Brocklesby’s pamphlet, has
never seen it.
The doctor recommends keeping the cattle very
warm, and guarding against the admission of any cool
air, a practice in which he will scarcely be followed at
the present day. 47,
The symptoms of this distemper as described by DrLayanj’s
Layard are, on the first appearance of the infection, a account 0
decrease of appetite ; a poking out of the neck, imply-the "'st¬
ing some difficulty in deglutition, a shaking ot the head,
as°if the ears were tickled *, a hanging down of the ears,
and deafness ; dimness of the eyes ; and a moving to
and fro in a constant uneasiness. All these signs, ex¬
cept the last, increase till the fourth day. Then a stu¬
pidity and unwillingness to move, great debility, to¬
tal loss of appetite, a running at the eyes and the nose,
sometimes sickness and throwing up of bile, a husky
cough and shivering. The head, horns, and breath are
very hot, while the body and limbs are cold. The
fever, which was continued the three first days, now
rises and increases towards evening *, the pulse is all
along quick, contracted, and irregular. A constant
diarrhoea, or scouring of foetid green faeces, a stinking
breath, and nauseous steams from the skin, infect the
air they are placed in. The blood is very florid, hot,
and frothy. The urine, or stale, is highly coloured *,
the roofs of their mouths, and their barbs, are ulcerated.
Tumours, or boils, are to be felt under the panniculus
carnosus, or fleshy membrane of the skin j and erup¬
tions appear all along their limbs, and about their
dugs. If a new milch-cow be thus ill, her milk dries
up gradually, her purging is more violent, and on the
fourth day she is commonly dry. There is such acri¬
mony or sharpnessjn their dung, that a visible irrita¬
tion is to be observed during some time in ano. They
groan much, are worse in the evening, and mostly ly¬
ing down. These symptoms continue increasing till
the seventh day from the invasion, on which generally,
though
fart VI.
Disease*, though sometimes protracted till the ninth, the crisis
v—/ or turn takes place.
If after the seventh day from the invasion (at which
time a crisis may be expected), the eruptions, boils, or
abscesses are decreased in bulk, or totally disappear,
without having broken or discharged outwardly, or an
aggravation of the symptoms already mentioned, with
no intermission •, it may be assuredly pronounced, that
the beast will die.
As to the cure, immediately upon the first appear¬
ance of the distemper, the beast should be put into some
place where it may be kept clean, warm, and as free
as possible from infectious steams of other beasts in the
same condition. I he beast must be bled in proportion
to its strength, washed with warm water and vinegar,
to clear the hair from filth and insects, and rubbed
every morning and evening, for a quarter of an hour,
with a dry linen or woollen cloth, or straw, to promote
perspiration. A rowel also is to be made in the dew¬
lap, which is to be dressed twice every day, which
rowel is also to be kept in a month at least after the
recovery of the beast.
Should the beast be hot, hang down his head,
breathe with difficulty after the bleeding, dung hard,
and the skin feel tight and thick j then it will be very
proper to give a gentle, cooling purge in this first stage.
When the beast has voided the hardened dung, or if
it should not have wanted purging, the following drench
is to be given. Take of madder-root, three ounces;
of turmeric and horse-radish-root, each one ounce; of
fenugreek-seeds, bruised, two ounces ; of chamomile-
flowers, dried leaves of feverfew, rue, and sage, of each
one handful. Boil them half an hour in a gallon of
small ale, well hopped, to three quarts ; then strain the
liquor, and give the beast three pints in the morning,
and the remainder in the evening. No dry or solid
fodder is to be offered till the beast chews the cud a-
gain. Between these drenches a quart or two of distil¬
led vinegar-whey must be given frequently in the day,
to dilute the hard fodder, and strengthen the coats of
the stomach ; and hay-water may be also given. Great
care must be taken, twice or thrice a-day, to cleanse
the mouth, barbs, and nostrils of the distempered cattle,
with some absterging acidulated liquor. On the fourth
day, if the beast be heavy, dull, shivering, no pimples
or knots arise, and a purging be coming on, the follow¬
ing drench must be given at about eight in the even¬
ing, and repeated three or four nights, as occasion re¬
quires.
Take, of Virginian snake-root, contrayerva root,
chamomile flowers powdered, of each half an ounce ;
Venice treacle, six drachms : Mix all these in three pints
of vinegar-whey, and give the drench lukewarm. Let
a person sit up all night with the beast, and give it fre¬
quently a quart of vinegar whey. Venice treacle may
also be serviceable ; and if there be any signs of morti¬
fication from the dark and relaxed appearance of the
mouth, the coldness of the skin, the black fetid dung,
insensibility, &c. the Peruvian bark must be instantly
given every four or six hours, as occasion may require,
taking the usual medicines in the intervals. In the last
stage, let the swellings that puff up the skin be opened
and digested ; and after the crisis takes place, if a
scouring should ensue, it is not to be hastily stopped,
though diligently watched and restrained, lest it
531
weaken the beast too much ; and to cleanse the stomach DJs :aw*.
and bowels, let a purge of rhubarb, senna, &c. be
given. Dr Layard advises to let the beast drink wa¬
ter-gruel lukewarm, and keep it on dry meat, though
sparingly; and at night to give an ounce of electuary
of diascordium, in a quart or three pints of small ale,
warm. But it after the crisis the beast is costive, and
the skin dry, harsh, and tight on the flesh ; dunging may
be procured by giving in the evening a mash of bran,
with a handful ot beans bruised, and an ounce of Ep¬
som salt. He recommends, however, the greatest
exactness in observing when the crisis is over ; for the
least laxative medicine, or opening food, at the height
ot the disease, and consequently in the former stages of
expulsion and maturation, will certainly bring on a
scouring, attended with tatal consequences, or at least
very difficult to be removed. In winter time, the cat¬
tle, upon recovery, should not be turned out at once to
the pasture grounds, let these be ever so dry ; but to¬
wards the middle of the day, in fair weather, turning
them out two hours, and then bringing them in again,
will gradually use them to the open air. In summer,
morning and evening will be the most suitable times ;
for the heat of the sun, or cold, may bring on other
disorders.
“ A farmer, (says Dr Layard), lost ten head of cat¬
tle, and two more were dying, and seven others ill,
when I took upon me the direction of the seven which
were last fallen ill. By the preceding treatment five
uf these recovered. One cow, very near her time of
calving, died ; and the seventh was certainly lost for
want of observing the due time of the crisis, and purg¬
ing too soon.”
Such are the accounts given by Brocklesby and Lay¬
ard, of the symptoms and treatment of this destructive
malady; and it will be seen that their accounts differ
no more than what may be expected from two different
persons describing a similar disease that occured at two
different periods; for the murrain described by Dr
Brocklesby appeared in the years 1744 and 1745,
while that of which Dr Layard has given an account
occurred between 1750 and 1760.
The causes and nature of this disease have not been 473
exactly ascertained. Some have supposed it connected
with a peculiar state of the atmosphere, and that it did
not originate in contagion. Many considered the prin¬
cipal causes of the disease to be previous bard winters,
obstructed perspiration, worms in the liver, and cor¬
rupted food.
Hard winters have been considered as a cause of this
disease, because it was in 1710, after the hard winter in
1709 that the great mortality among the cattle was ob¬
served; and because the hard winter in 1740 was fol¬
lowed by the contagion in 1741, which spread over the
most part of Europe. Not to mention many others,
the murrain in 1768, followed immediately after a
pretty hard winter in 1767. On the other hand Cam¬
per remarks, that the hard winter in 1727 was not fol¬
lowed by the contagion ; from which it would appear
that the epidemic does not necessarily depend on the
severity or mildness of the preceding winter.
It was attributed by many to obstructed perspi¬
ration ; and to prevent its attack, it was proposed to
cover the cattle during the nights of autumn, and to
make them sleep within doors during the spring nights.
3X2 It
F A R It I E K Y.
532
Diseases.
* Ocwvres
de Camper,
tom. iii.
p. uo.
It may, however, be observed, that if this reasoning
were true, the disease ought to have been less prevalent,
or ought not to have appeared at all, in those provinces
where, for the sake of saving the dung, they house the
cattle at night, even in the summer as well as in the
spring and autumn. Besides it appears that the con¬
tagion was not known at Bern, though the cattle in
that district lay all night in the field whenever the
weather would permit. # . .
Camper justly ridicules the idea of the disease origi¬
nating from worms. _
“ If (says Camper), you demand of me to what I
attribute the first of the distemper, I shall answer,
as it were to be wished that all naturalists would do in
similar cases, that I do not know $ that the subject is
above my comprehension, and doubtless above that of
every man
There seems no doubt, however, that the complaint
was infectious, and that, provided proper means were
taken to prevent infection, the distemper would not
spread. The means proposed by Dr Layard and some
other medical practitioners, to destroy the contagion,
was to bury the carcases of the infected animals, and to
slaughter all that appeared to have received the infec¬
tion. Inoculation was proposed by some, as a means
of diminishing the ravages of the murrain ; and is said
to have been practised in Denmark with considerable
success : but if this be true, it is probable that the epi¬
zootic disease that raged in Denmark was of a different
nature from that which appeared in Britain, and on
some parts of the continent $ as inoculation seems to
have been tried in these places without effect. What
probably led to the proposal of inoculation was, that
the disease was considered by some as exactly similar
to the smallpox in the human body. This opinion was
adopted by Dr Layard, and seems to have arisen from
the boils or suppurating tumours which appeared on the
bodies of most of the affected cattle ; but these tumours
do not appear to be similar to the eruption that takes
place in smallpox, but rather resemble the boils or
buboes that take place in the plague and some other
highly infectious fevers. On the whole, it seems to us
pretty evident, that the disease is of the nature of
putrid fever, and we have therefore ranked it under
this head.
It appears from Camper’s works, that inoculation
was attended with so much success in many cases on
the continent, that a great number of cattle was saved
by it, who probably could not have been recovered from
the natural disease. The advantages attending inocu¬
lation according to Camper are,
ist, That we can expose to the danger of contagion
such calves and heifers only as are of a moderate price.
2d, That the heifers pass through the disease before
they take the bull, and consequently before they are
pregnant. This is attended with more advantages than
may appear at first sight; for when the contagion at¬
tacks a whole herd, all at once, oxen, calves, heifers,
and cows are seized without distinction. Such cows as
are pregnant generally slip their calf, and even if they
should perfectly recover, their womb is so disordered
that it will never afterwards be capable of retaining
the calf; besides, that afterwards it is a longtime before
they come in heat, so that the proprietor is obliged to
FARRIERY. Part VI,
keep them for a whole year without deriving from them Diseases.
47 £
any benefit, except he fatten them for the butcher.
If the success of inoculation, as well as the certainty
of the cattle being incapable of a second infection, were
fully ascertained, the plan of inoculation would be ex¬
tremely proper. If these points were fully established,
would they not, however, considerably militate against
the opinion that is entertained by the best writers on
the subject, even bv Camper himself, that this disease
is an idiopathic putrid fever, and not an eruptive com¬
plaint like the smallpox ? . _ 474
Considering the disease as one that is highly contagi- Means of
ous, every method should be taken to check the pro- 'becking
gress of the infection. For this purpose the houses
where the cattle are stabled, should be kept perfectly B
clean, and well ventilated. It would also be proper to
fumigate these places twice a day with the vapours of
some mineral acid, such as the nitrous or muriatic
acids, as has been recommended by Dr Johnstone,
Guyton Morveau, and Dr Carmichael Smith. This
fumigation may be easily effected by placing pipkins
of warm sand in various parts of the cattle-houses, and
particularly at the doors, and placing on the sand a
cup containing common salt or pounded nitre, on which
is to be poured a sufficient quantity of sulphuric acid or
oil of vitriol, stirring the mass now and then with a
glass rod, to promote the escape of the acid vapours.
We shall conclude this subject with a series of que¬
ries that were circulated among medical men on the
continent by the Society of Medicine at Paris, for the
purpose of gaining every necessary information respect¬
ing this alarming pestilence, as they may tend to direct
the inquiries of those who shall in future have an op¬
portunity of observing the distemper.
1. What is the situation of the country in which the
epidemic appears, and what is the nature of the soil ?
2. Of what quality are the waters which the cattle
usually drink, and of what dimensions are the reser¬
voirs that contain them ?
3. What is the quality of the pasturage, and what
are the plants which most constantly grow in the pas¬
tures ?
4. Of what nature is the fodder and the grain that
are given to the cattle within doors ?
5. Have there been any abundant rains or inunda¬
tions ; has the water continued for a long time on the
ground, and what are the effects it has produced on
the fodder ?
6. Or has there on the contrary been any great
drought, and how long has it continued ?
7. What has been the season for getting in the hay,
and for harvest; and what effect does the season seem
to have had on the hay and other fodder ?
8. What circumstances seem to have rendered it ne¬
cessary for the cattle to work ?
9. Has the distemper been announced by any pre¬
vious symptoms *, and what were they ?
10. Did the disease come on with shivering, with
coldness of the horns and ears, and with the loss of ap¬
petite ?
11. Did the heat come on soon after the cold fit, or
was it not preceded by a cold fit ?
12. Do the animals continue lying, without being
able to raise themselves ou their legs ?
13. When
art VI. FARR
(tiseases. I3* When they are lying, is their head low, or how
y—^ do they hold it ?
14. Are their eyes red, watery, and hot ?
15. Are their nostrils dry, or does there ooze from
them a mucous matter ?
16. Is their tongue in the natural state, or is it very
red, or is it covered with a yellow or brown mucus j is
it moist or dry, or are there on it any tubercles ?
17. Is their throat inflamed, or are there on it any
aphthous crusts ?
18. Is the animal fatigued with a cough, and is this
cough very frequent ?
19. Does the flanks heave or not?
20. Do the animal seem to feel any great pain when
he is touched in the flanks, or the belly, on the spine,
or on the rump ?
21. Are there any pustules or tumours on the surface
of the body ?
22. Is the hair smooth or staring, or does it easily
come off" when the skin is curried, or even when the
body is rubbed with a wisp of straw ?
23. Does the animal seem much disordered, or does
he refuse every sort of drink ?
24. Does he chew the cud ?
25. Has he a frequent discharge of urine, and what
is the colour and consistence of it ?
26. Has he a discharge by stool more frequently or
less than usual, and are the excrements natural, or very
dry, or very liquid ; what is their colour and odour, and
is their discharge preceded or accompanied with a fre¬
quent explosion of wind ?
27. Are there to be observed any little convulsions
below the skin, especially about the neck ?
28. Is the belly in its natural state, or is it swell¬
ed } is it soft, or hard and tense ?
29. At what periods do these several circumstances
take place ?
30. How does the distemper terminate ; what are
the symptoms that announce a healthy termination,
and what are those which precede death ?
31. In what state after death are found the stomachs,
the bowels, the liver, the spleen, the lungs, the heart,
and the brain ?
32. What remedies have been administered to the
diseased beast ?
33. What sensible effects have these remedies pro¬
duced ?
34. Lastly, what regimen has been observed in the
4^6 convalescent state ?
uptive The eruptive diseases incident to dometic animals
eases, are but few, when compared with the exanthemata
that take place in the human body. Many such dis¬
eases are, however, described by veterinary writers,
especially on the continent, where they seem to be much
more prevalent than among us. In particular, it ap¬
pears, that in the southern parts of Europe the sheep
are frequently affected with an eruptive disease that
nearly resembles the smallpox j and, like this disease
in the human subject, there are two varieties of this
affection, a distinct and a confluent, A very particular
account of this disease, as it occurred at Cauterets in
the department of the Lower Pyrenees in France, was
drawn up by M. Tenon, and communicated by him to
the agricultural society at Paris , and a translation of it
I E R Y.
has been published in the Farmer’s Magazine for May
1804, from which we have taken it.
3. Sheep-pox. Claveau, Fr. i
This distemper, which at Cauterets is called the
smallpox, is contagious ; and indiscriminately attacks
wedders, ewes, lambs, and goats, more especially when,
shut up during winter in conflned cots, the animals are
kept very hot. It is a very singular circumstance, that
this distemper should only appear at Cauterets, after
intervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years j while in
Guienne, and the Higher Languedoc, it rages every
year. Besides, that in the former mountainous tracts,
the weather is colder than in the plains of the latter
districts, the sheep of the Pyrenees are kept more apart
from each other than in the low countries, and the
different flocks are much less liable to meet together,
or to pass through the same roads, by which they
are not nearly so much exposed to the danger of in¬
fection.
When seized with this distemper, the sheep become
dull and weak, and they loathe their food $ the head,
eyes, ears, and gums, are swelled $ and hard white tu¬
mours appear in the groins and under the joint of the
shoulder. Three or four days after the appearance of
these tumours, pimples break out in different parts of
the body. At first, these are situated on the naked
skin between the thighs, and on the places where the
wool is short and scanty $ afterwards, they break out
about the head, and successively over the whole body,
even on the eye-lids, ears, and throat. In this stage
of the disease the animal swallows with pain, being
obliged to hold back the head, and to stretch out the
neck for the purpose, and it breathes with great dif¬
ficulty. As the disease goes on, the pimples enlarge,
and become inflamed, particularly at their bases $ they
Suppurate and burst $ the matter which runs out
mixes with the wool, and mats along with it into
hard lumps, and afterwards dries and falls to powder j
the wool falls oft’ in locks $ and even the scarf skin
peels off in large pieces, which are full of holes. When
the distemper begins to abate, the sheep rub themselves
on the posts of the racks, or any other hard substance
which comes in their way and by this means the
wool, along with the loose skin and dried pus, are rob¬
ed off. If proper precautions were not employed, this
would infallibly spread the contagion by infecting any
other sheep that might be brought into the same cots :
but, on purpose to destroy the infection, new cribs are
either substituted for the old ones, which are pulled
down and burnt, or else the infected cribs are washed
with cream of lime, and the cots are thoroughly fu¬
migated with burning juniper and other aromatic
plants.
There are several varieties of this disorder. In some
of these the eruption of pustules is by no means com¬
plete as above described j sometimes the pimples grow,
black, and dry up without coming to suppuration j at:
other times the disease is of a complicated nature. But,
as the disorder only appears at distant periods among
the sheep at Cauterets, we are not to expect very lull
information concerning its various degrees from the
shepherds of that district *, neither have,, they any de¬
cided experience of the effects of sulphur, or setons, or
533
Queaseg.
534
Diseases.
farriery.
of blister?, in the cure of this distemper. Blisters
are said to have scarcely any effect upon the skins of
sheep. ,
It is certain, that the flesh of such sheep, as have died
of this disorder, is very unwholesome, has a very bad
taste, and is even dangerous to eat •, and they add, that
when dogs happen to feed on it, they catch the disease,
and spread it by infection. Three cats, by eating this
food, had their heads affected with an eruption of pus¬
tules, by which thev were first blinded, and afterwards
lost their lives. Hence the necessity of the precaution
which is taken at Cauterets to bury deeply the carcases
of sheep which die of this disease.
I had an opportunity, says M. Tenon, at a butcher’s
in Paris, to examine some sheep which had died of this
disorder. The skins were covered with suppurated pu¬
stules, which penetrated as far as the cellular mem¬
brane, and the fat in their neighbourhood was affected
for a considerable distance all round, being browner and
firmer than the ordinary fat j and this alteration pene¬
trated even to the flesh.
The inhabitants of Cauterets affirm, that these pu¬
stules are found on the liver and other internal parts of
the body.
M. Tenon madeevery possible inquiry to learn whether
this disease was ever communicated from the sheep to
mankind, but he could learn no instances of such in¬
fection : it is believed, however, in Languedoc, that it
is communicated from sheep to rabbits. He could not
learn whether the sheep were ever affected a second
time with the same disorder •, but we cannot expect in¬
formation at Cauterets on this part of the subject, since
the disease only appears there for a single season, after
intervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years, while the
sheep live but eight, or at most, ten years ; so that any
of them, which have once been diseased, cannot be alive
when the next period of contagion comes round.
Whenever the disorder appears in the flock, the in¬
fected animals are separated from the rest, and shut up
in warm cots, having plenty of wheat or barley straw
given them for litter j they are fed with hay and after-
math which have been made on a dry field, with a
little salt, and are allowed lukewarm water for drink.
In the flat country at Tarbes, which is ten leagues
distant from Cauterets, and considerably warmer than
in the Pyrenees, and where this distemper is much
more frequent, a different method of treatment is fol¬
lowed. At the beginning of the disease blood is drawn
by cutting the ear *, the cots are fumigated for five or
six successive days, by burning aromatic and strong
smelling herbs, preferring the dried stems of garlic for
this purpose these are burnt on a large stone in the
middle of the cot, while all the vent holes are careful¬
ly stopped, to prevent, as much as possible, the smoke
from escaping. The shepherds of Tarbes have great
confidence in the beneficial effects of fumigating with
garlic steams, which occasions a great discharge from
the nostrils, especially in such cases of the disease as
are complicated with catarrhal disorders, and with the
staggers or vertigo.
At Bellegarde, near Audi, they give to each beast
a double handful of white mulberry leaves, which they
allege is a most effectual cure, and serves excellently
for preventing the attacks of the disease.
Part VI,
When, at Cauterets, the disorder begins to abate, Diseases,
whatever be the season of the year, the animals are —v-
clipt, on purpose to assist the drying of the pustules,
and to favour the growth of a new fleece. After this
the sheep fatten very quickly j and it is worth while to
remark, that the fleece which immediately succeeds this
disease is finer and more silky than any former or future
fleece on the same beasts.
Formerly this disease made great ravages among the
sheep at Carcassone, till a method was fallen on to in¬
oculate the disease. M. Tenon learned this fact in
1762 from Dr French, an Irish physician, who lived
in Languedoc for several years } but it was not till
1763 that he received particular information on this
curious subject from M. Berra, mayor of Carcassone, to
whom he had written for information, and who pro¬
cured him a memoir on the diseases ol sheep in that
part of the country. From this memoir the following
account of inoculating the sheep-pox is extracted.
“ The seigneur of Manx, in the diocese ot Nar-
bonne is the first, and almost the only person who has
practised inoculating the smallpox on his flocks ; and
having been successful during ten years experience of
the practice, his widow has ever since continued to fol¬
low his example.
“ In the month of September, when the heat of sum¬
mer is past, and before there is any danger of very cold
weather j while the pastures are still in good order, and
the lambs, which are now six or seven months old, are
strong enough for withstanding the forced the disease,
this season is chosen as the fittest for communicating the
smallpox to the sheep. For this purpose the fresh skin
of a sheep, either ewe, wedder, or lamb, which has died
of the disease, or, instead of that, one taken from a
sheep which has been killed while affected by it, is
placed on the floor of the cot. Into this cot all the
young sheep of the year are driven, and they volunta¬
rily rub and roll themselves on the diseased skin. Very
soon afterwards the symptoms of the disease begin to
appear *, they have a dull and heavy appearance, hold
down their heads, are somewhat fevered, and loathe
their food. On purpose to aid the eruption of the pu¬
stules, bread dipt in wine is given to the sheep j they
are anxiously preserved from being exposed to great
heat or great cold, and particularly from rain. By
these precautions they speedily recover, and it very
rarely happens that even one dies out of a flock ol three
hundred.
Although the disorder has often spread over the dis¬
tricts in the neighbourhood of the estate where this
practice prevails, there has been no instance of a single
sheep, after undergoing the above described operation,
having been infected a second time. It ought to have
been noticed, that the inoculated flock is carefully pre¬
vented from mixing with any other sheep, by keeping
it in a separate cot, and on a particular pasture, the
other shepherds being forbidden to use either for the
flocks under their charge. By these precautions, the
disease is prevented from spreading, and such proprietors
as do not wish to have their sheep artificially infected,
have themselves to blame if they do not avoid the place
where the diseased sheep are kept. Since this practice
has been followed, it has been observed that the dis¬
order has not returned so frequently, but that it has not
proved
Part VI. FARRIERY.
Diseases, proved in the least degree destructive to the flocks which appears to be infectious
47 8
jw-pox.
Farm-
Hag. vol. r.
! 175-
have not been inoculated.
M. Berra adds, that the lambs never lose their
wool under the instance of the inoculated disorder, and
that their fleeces are equally good in every respect with
those of the uninfected, so that no difference can be
perceived *.
This disease was once pretty common in Britain, but
is now scarcely known among us. It is, however, just¬
ly apprehended, that importation of sheep from the con¬
tinent may again introduce it; and Sir Joseph Banks
has taken much pains to caution the public against the
danger of such an introduction.
4. Cow-pox, or Kine-pox. Vaccina.
A greater blessing was never procured to mankind
than what has been already derived, and will, we trust,
be ultimately derived, from the invaluable discovery of
the inoculated cow-pox, in preventing the person who
has received it from being afterwards liable to variolous
contagion. For this blessing we are certainly indebted
to the labours and experiments of Dr Edward Jenner.
There is no doubt that the disease was known many
years ago in some of our principal dairy districts ; but
Dr Jenner has all the merit of having extensively cir¬
culated the discovery, and of having first applied it to
those valuable purposes to which an almost universal
experience has shown it to be well adapted.
The symptoms and origin of this disease amongst
cows, have been briefly described by Dr Jenner in his
publications on the subject. The first of these appeared
in 1798, while Dr Jenner was practising in Berkely in
Gloucestershire, where he had an opportunity of fre¬
quently seeing the disease.
“ In this dairy country, (says Dr Jenner) a great
number of cows are kept, and the office of milking is
performed indiscriminately by men and maid servants.
One of the former having been appointed to apply dres¬
sings to the heels of a horse affected with the grease ;
and not paying due attention to cleanliness, incautiously
bears his part in milking the cows with some particles
of the infectious matter adhering to his fingers. When
this is the case, it commonly happens that a disease is
communicated to the cows, and from the cows to the
dairy maids, which spreads through the farm, until
most of the cattle and domestics feel its unpleasant con¬
sequences. This disease has obtained the name of the
cow-pox. It appears on the nipples of the cows in the
form of irregular pustules. At their first appearance
they are commonly of a palish blue, or rather of a co¬
lour somewhat approaching to livid, and are surrounded
by an erysipelatous inflammation. These pustules, un¬
less a timely remedy be applied, frequently degenerate
into phagedenic ulcers, which prove extremely trouble¬
some. The animals become indisposed, and the secre-
^enner's tion of milk is much lessened-f-.”
iuwy, There sometimes appears another kind of eruption on
the udder of the cow, which on a superficial view may
be mistaken for cow-pox. It consists of a number of white
blisters on the nipples, and these blisters are filled with
a whitish serous fluid. They are to be distinguished
from the pustules that take place in the cow-pox, by
their not having the blueish colour of the latter, and
by their never eating into the fleshy parts, being confin¬
ed to the skin, and ending in scabs. This eruption also
but not nearly in so great a
degree as the true cow-pox.
Dr Jenner considers this spurious eruption as being
chiefly produced by the transition which is made by
the cow, in the spring, from a poor diet to one that is
more nourishing, by which the udder at this season be¬
comes more than usually vascular for the supply of milk.
There is, however, another sort of inflammation and pus¬
tules, which appears to be not uncommon in all the dairy
counties in the west of England. A cow intended to
be exposed for sale, and having naturally a small udder,
is for a day or two previously neither milked by the
milker, nor is her calf suffered to have access to her; thus
the milk is preternaturally accumulated, and the udder
and nipple become greatly distended. The consequences
frequently are inflammation and pustular eruption.
As the eruption of the cow-pox disappears in a few
days, little more is required than to keep the teats clean,
and handle them as carefully as possible during milking. 479
The fact of cow-pox originating from the matter of
grease, or of the latter being capable of producing the*n Srease*
former, was, we believe, first discovered by Dr Jenner;
but the opinion was for some time considered as fallaci¬
ous. Many unsuccessful attempts were made by Dr
Woodville and by Mr Coleman to produce cow-pox by
inoculating the udders of cows with matter from greasy
heels. Some experiments made by Mr Simmons
tended still farther to disprove Dr Jenner’s opinion.
But about five years ago, Dr John Loy published a
small pamphlet, in which he has related some experi¬
ments made by himself, with a view to determine this
controverted point. He was led to make these experi¬
ments from some cases that fell under his observation, of
a disease very similar to the cow-pox appearing on per¬
sons who must certainly have derived it from the matter
of grease. Dr Loy’s experiments fully confirmed the
opinion of Dr Jenner, and proved that the matter of
grease would, by inoculation, produce ir the human
body a disease exactly resembling cow-pox, and like it
capable of protecting the inoculated person from an in¬
vasion of the smallpox. Dr Loy also proved, that in
some cases, the cow-pox might be produced in cows by
the immediate application of the matter of grease, but
that this experiment did not succeed unless the horse
had also a general affection of the system. This led
Dr Loy to suppose that there exist two species of grease,
the one merely a local affection, the other a general af¬
fection of the system*. * Loy’s ac‘
The reasons that induced Dr Jenner to suppose thatcount °f
cow-pox originates in grease are thus stated by himself,
in his second publication on the subject of cow-pox. The^OrPin
First, He conceived grease to be the source of cow- of Cow-pox,
pox, from observing that where the cow-pox had ap¬
peared among the dairies in Gloucestershire (unless it
could be traced to the introduction of an infected cow
or servant), it had been preceded at the farm by a horse
labouring under grease, which horse had been attended
by some of the milkers.
Secondly, From its being a popular opinion through
that dairy country, and from its being insisted^on by
th ose who there attend sick cattle.
Thirdly, From the total absence of the disease in
Scotland and Ireland (as the doctor was informed from
the best authority), where the men servants are not em¬
ployed in the dairies.
Fourthly, ,
536
farkiery.
Diseases.
* Jenner's
further
Observa¬
tions, p. 21.
480
L« Louret.
Fourthly, From having observed that morbid matter
generated by the horse, frequently communicates m a
casual way, a disease to the human subject so like the
cow-pox, that in many cases it would be diincult to
mark the distinction between the one and the other.
The truth of this observation is well illustrated by the
above experiments of Dr Loy.
Fifthly, From his being induced to believe from ex¬
periments, that some of those who had been thus infect¬
ed by the horse, resisted the smallpox.
Sixthly, From the progress and general appearance
of a pustule on the arm of a boy whom he inoculated
with matter taken from the hand of a man that had
been infected by a horse, and from the similarity to the
cow-pox, of the general constitutional symptoms which
followed *.
5. Le Louvet.
Continental writers describe a variety of eruptions
under the general name of c/iarbon, or carbuncle, which.
affect various parts of the body, and have received dif¬
ferent names according to the part which they attack.
We shall here only notice one of these which raged
epidemically about the middle of the last century in
Switzerland, where it is called le Louvet.
It affected both cattle and horses, but seems to have
been attended with different symptoms in each. Ac¬
cording to M. Eeynier, a physician at Lausanne, who
published an account of the distemper, when an ox is
seized with it, he suddenly loses his strength, trembles,
seems desirous of lying constantly on the ground,
whence he seldom moves except to refresh himself; he
carries his head low, and his ears slouching ; he is sad,
and moans j his eyes red, his skin very hot and dry,
and his breathing frequent and difficult. When the
disease has made some progress, expiration is always
followed with a considerable depression of the flanks;
there is a frequent cough ; the breath is very fetid ;
the heart and arteries beat violently; the tongue and
palate are dry and become blackish; the animal loses
his appetite and ceases to chew the cud ; there is con¬
siderable thirst; the urine is scanty, reddish, and the
excrement hard and blackish towards the beginning of
the disease, and sometimes limpid and bloody. Cows
lose their milk. On most of the animals inflammatory
tumours are produced, which appear sometimes on the
chest, sometimes on the vertebrae of the neck, and on
the belly ; at others on the udder, and the parts of ge¬
neration. At other times they entirely cover the skin
in pimples, like those of the mange or scab.
All these symptoms do not often appear on the same
subject; but in proportion as more of them occur, the
,disease is the more fatal. In general, death takes
place on the fourth day, when the symptoms are vio¬
lent ; if they pass the fourth day, and are not worse on
the seventh, their recovery is pretty certain, though
they are often not convalescent before the fifteenth
dav, , .
’When the urine is turbid, and deposits a whitish se¬
diment ; when the excrements are more abundant than
in thtfftatural state, moist and not very offensive; when
the skin is black and relaxed, the pimples filled with
whitish matter, the thirst alleviated ; when the appetite
and rumination return, and when the pustules begin
to dry up, a perfect recovery may be expected : but on
3
Part VI
the contrary, when there is much swelling of the belly, Diseases;
when the animals moan much, when there appear great ’ ’“’v
debility, trembling, convulsions, retention of urine, diar¬
rhoea or dysentery,a fatal termination maybe looked for.
On opening the bodies of such animals as die of this
disease, there appear on the skin numerous black tu¬
mours, full of yellow serous fluid that effervesces with
acids ; the muscles are livid, soft and flaccid ; the lungs
wasted, full of tubercles and little ulcers, especially on
those animals which died on the fourth day. The sto¬
mach and bowels are beset with red tumours, full of a
tenacious clammy fluid.
M. Reynier considers the predisposing causes of this
disease to be the bad quality of the water which the
beasts drank, the corrupted state of their food, exces¬
sive fatigue, low and ill-aired stables, deficiency of her¬
bage, and tempestuous weather. Like many other
medical men of his time, he held the immediate cause
of the disease to consist in an alkalescent state of the
blood. The method of cure consisted in giving drenches
of emollient decoctions, clysters of the same substances,
with nitre and vinegar mixed with honey; and towards
the latter stage of the disease, the Peruvian bark and
camphor were administered. This was a very innocent
and gentle treatment, and it is no wonder that so many
of the cattle died.
6. Strangles.
4si
The disease called strangles in horses, is consideredsixanglei!
by Mr Blaine as a specific fever, accompanied with a
disposition to inflammation in the glands of the head and
throat. It most commonly attacks horses betwixt four
and six years of age, though it may occur at any period
before six; but rarely appears after that age. Young
horses are most subject to it when first brought to labour,
and put on the nourishing diet of the stable, though Mr
Lawrence has seen it in unbroken colts in the field. It
seems that few horses escape having it once in their life.
It commences with a considerable degree of fever;
the breath is hot, the eyes are heavy and languid, the
horse thrusts out his nose, has a hoarse cough, and la¬
bours under some difficulty in swallowing. There soon
appears a swelling between the jaws, or on the inside
of the lower jaw, which usually extends to the parotid
glands. These swellings, if left to themselves, go on
to suppuration; and about the fifth or sixth day they
break and discharge a considerable quantity of matter;
but sometimes the heat, hardness, and swelling of the
glands continue for a long time. These symptoms are
usually attended with a running at the nose, which is
considered as a favourable sign.
This complaint is seldom dangerous, though now and
then there is some risk of suffocation, and sometimes it
degenerates into glanders. Of this Mr Lawrence has
seen several instances. It appears to be contagious, and
may be propagated by inoculation, which has induced
us to consider it among the febrile eruptions.
The writers on farriery have strangely differed with
respect to the nature of this affection. The elder
Lafosse considered it as analogous to the smallpox ;
Bracken, as a species of cynanche, or quinsey; and it
certainly nearly resembles the cynanche parotidea, or
mumps. Others have supposed it to be like the chicken-
pox, or measles.
It is not agreed on whether it is better to check the
inflammation
hrt VI.
Diseases, inflammation of the glands, or to encourage tlieir sup-
■ -y—puration. Mr Blaine recommends the former plan,
which is best effected by bleeding, purging, and the use
of diuretics j while a solution of sugar of lead is applied
to the swelling externally j but if the swellings continue
hard and hot, it will be proper to encourage suppura¬
tion by the frequent application of warm poultices. If
there is much soreness and swelling of the throat, a
large blister should be applied to it. If there is much
fever, nitre or emetic tartar may be added to the
horse’s water; for it would be wrong to give him medi¬
cine in the form of a ball or drench. He may have
frequent warm mashes ; and to encourage the running
at the nose, there should be hung to it a bag contain¬
ing a warm mash, which should be frequently renewed.
The horse’s head should be kept warm, and currents of
cold air should be avoided. When the tumours break,
the discharge should be assisted by enlarging the open¬
ing and applying warm poultices, and the ulcers may
be dressed with the common digestive ointment. If the
discharge proceeds by the mouth, the parts should be
frequently washed with vinegar and water sweetened
with honey.
4S» J
ease. Grease. Eaux aux Jambes, Fr. Greasy heels.
In the fourth chapter of the last section, N° 423. we
made a few observations on swelling of the legs, and
we remarked that this complaint often terminated in
grease.
Grease is a complaint that is extremely common
among horses, to whom it is peculiar, not being known
to affect any other species of animals, or at least there
is no other animal in whom that peculiar secretion
which constitutes the matter of grease in horses is
found to take place. There appears to be two varieties
of grease; the one a mere local affection, the other a
more general affection of the system attended with
fever.
The complaint first appears by a slight swelling about
the coronet and pastern, sometimes accompanied with
pain or itching, so that the horse rubs his feet against
each other, or stamps and shifts himself from side to
side. On feeling the swelled part, it is commonly found
much hotter than usual, and is evidently red and in¬
flamed. Very soon there may be perceived an oozing
through the skin, of a yellowish fluid that is very offen¬
sive, and of an unctuous greasy feel. This swelling gra¬
dually extends up the canon towards the knee, and
when the horse is taken out to work, he appears stiff and
lame till he becomes heated ; and when he returns from
work, the leg appears hot and inflamed. The swelling
and oozing of fetid greasy fluid gradually increase till
cracks begin to make their appearance in the skin about
the heels, the hairs about these parts fall off, and the
skin below appears puffy, of a whitish or livid colour;
and on it are generally seen little bladders, from which
a matter of the same kind as what we have described
oozes out. These vesicles soon become ulcers, and the
matter they contain assumes the appearance of pus,
which irritates and inflames the neighbouring parts,
fretting and excoriating the skin. Generally a number
of red granulations or excrescences appear within the
ulcers, and from their form are commonly called grapes ;
and if the complaint continues long, the hoof becomes
fungous, or there is a luxuriant growth of soft spongy
Vol. VHI. Part II. +
537
horn. If the complaint be neglected, the ulceration of Diseases,
the part increases, and extends even to the bones, which —v—'
become soft, spongy, and at last carious.
In what is called the confirmed state of grease, the
affected parts are exquisitely sensible, and they bleed
on the slightest touch, and there are commonly produ¬
ced a number of horny excrescences about the fetlock.
The hair stands erect, and the horse becomes lean,
weak, and excessively irritable.
Such are the general appearances and progress of
grease; but there are often some little varieties in both.
Sometimes the cracks appear very early in the disease,
and sometimes there is considerable fever; but whether
this precedes the appearance of the vesicles, or is occa¬
sioned only by the pain and irritation that accompany
the complaint, we are uncertain. It should seem, from
the observations of Dr Loy and others, that a fever,
such as accompanies eruptive diseases, frequently at¬
tends grease ; and in this case, as we have said, it is to
be considered as a general affection. It is described as
such by Huzard, and other continental writers ; and
they even speak of the appearances that have been found
on dissection of horses that have died when affected
with this complaint, of the repercussion of the erup¬
tion from cold, &c. On the other hand, there is no
doubt that fever may be excited by the irritation of the
parts, especially if the horse is obliged to work. It
may take place in any of the legs, but is more common
in the hind legs.
Such horses as have round fleshy legs, such as have
white hair upon their legs, and in general, such horses
as are weak and phlegmatic, are more subject than
others to grease.
It may be brought on by various causes. It is very
commonly produced by allowing horses to stand long
idle in the stable. In this way the circulation, which is
naturally more languid in the legs, especially in the
hinder legs, than in other parts of the body, becomes
so languid in the heels, that the veins cannot readily
propel forward their contents, and consequently an ac¬
cumulation takes place in the minute capillary branches;
whence swelling and inflammation. This accumulation
is assisted by the perpendicular situation of the legs, by
which a column of blood, that for want of the action of
the muscles is moved with difficulty, continually presses
on the lower parts. Hence we find, that when horses
are not allowed to stretch themselves at their ease, they
are extremely subject to swelled legs and grease. The
languid circulation is still greater in horses that are
naturally of a weak constitution, or who have been de¬
bilitated by disease. So great is the effect of diminish¬
ed exercise in producing swelled legs in grease, that
some horses are always affected with this complaint when
brought into the stable, and can be preserved from it,
only by being regularly turned out into the field after
work. It is very commonly observed, that when horses
first come up from pasture, or from a straw yard, they
are all more or less affected with swelled legs ; and if
these are not diligently- attended to, they soon have
greasy heels. It is certain that horses in their natural
state, or while kept constantly at pasture, are mever
affected with grease.
Sudden changes from heat to cold, or vice versa,
frequently produce this complaint; but, according to
Mr Feron, it is more commonly produced bv sudden
3 Y changes
F A K R I E R Y.
53 8
Diseases.
FARR
changes from cold to heat. “ If (says he) a colt Is
taken from grass, and immediately kept m a warm sta¬
ble after having been used to the severity of the atmo¬
sphere, he then gets the disorder. When old horses are
troubled with the grease, we shall find that their feet
have been exposed first to cold, and afterwards to heat,
as when they have been in cold water or snow for a
long time, and on coming into the stable have a large
bed of straw, or perhaps hot dung, to stand upon. 'I ins
sudden transition from cold to heat, produces a. weak¬
ness in the legs, particularly in the skin j when inflam¬
mation and cracks, similar to chilblains in the human
subject, take place, and are called the grease in
horses.” , • r
Nothing contributes more to the production ot grease
than negligence, with respect to keeping the legs
clean, and rubbing them often. It is a disputed point,
whether the hair that grows about the fetlock is preju¬
dicial or not to horses that are subject to grease. It is
contended by Mr Richard Lawrence, that grease is a
very common consequence of removing the hair ; and
considering that the hair is a good preservative against
sudden transitions from heat to cold, we are disposed to
think its removal improper, where the heels are not al¬
ready ulcerated. On the other hand, Mr Blaine re¬
marks, that whenever accidental wet occurs, this hair
must retain a large quantity of it, and hence be long
in drying, occasioning a copious evaporation, and thus
producing much cold, and that the hair renders it dif¬
ficult to keep the legs so clean, as they might be pre¬
served without it. Even supposing these arguments to
be just, they only show the necessity of greater care and
attention in rubbing the heels dry and keeping the hair
free from dirt.
Grease may also be produced by too much hard work,
after which the legs swell, and if the swelling be ne¬
glected the heels may become greasy. This, however,
is probably not a very common cause.
Grease is said to be most common in spring and
autumn, when horses are moulting or casting their
coats.
On the whole, it appears that this complaint may
take place in two different states of the body ; a state
of general weakness, the effect of constitution or dis¬
ease j and a state of plethora, attended with propor-
' iional languid circulation in the vessels of the legs or
feet.
In the treatment of grease, we must consider whether
it be merely a local affection, or be connected with
some general morbid aflection of the body j and we
must also attend to the state of the affection, as the na¬
ture of the local applications will depend much on the
progress that the disease has made.
In the early stage of the complaint, when the in¬
flammation is slight, and the skin is not yet broken, if
it has been owing to want of exercise and plethora, it
may be proper to draw blood from the veins of the
thighs, and a diuretic ball, such as N° 12. or 13.
should be given, and repeated every two or three days.
The hair must be cut close, and the heels well washed
■with warm soap and water, after which they must be
gently rubbed till they are perfectly dry, and bathed
with some stimulating liniment. This plan, with gen¬
tle exercise and a cooling diet, especially bran mashes,
I E R Y. Part VI.
with an ounce of nitre in each, every night, will pro- Disease!-
bably prevent the complaint from going any farther.
If the inflammation be very considerable, and the horse
is plethoric, he must be bled pretty largely from the
jugular vein, and have a mild purge. Cloths, dipped
in vinegar and water, or in a solution of sugar of lead,
should be applied to the heels after washing, and kept
constantly moist with the same liquor. More than
walking exercise here will be improper j but il it is
dry weather, a run for a few hours a-day in a field will
greatly contribute to removing the swelling. Mr Fe-
ron, who is a great advocate for warm fomentations in
inflammatory affections of the feet and legs, recom¬
mends the legs to be kept the whole day in warm wa¬
ter ; and when they are taken from the bath, to be well
wrapt up in a warm poultice of bran and water. If by
these means the inflammation subsides, the legs may be
washed with a solution of alum.
If cracks appear, great attention must be paid to keep
them clean from dirt, and they should be frequently
washed with a solution of blue vitriol. If grapes ap¬
pear, they may be touched with blue vitriol, or burnt
alum ; or if they become large, they must be cut away
with a sharp knife, and afterwards seared with a hot
iron. If the ulcers are foul, one of the best applica¬
tions will be a solution of verdigrise, or the ointment
commonly called Egyptiacum, of which verdigrise forms
one of the principal ingredients.
The strictest attention to diet, regimen, and cleanli¬
ness, must be observed during the whole treatment,
and gentle exercise must be persisted in. The best diet
on these occasions will be cut grass, lucerne, fresh clo¬
ver, carrots, or good sweet hay, and an occasional feed
of corn. The horse should not be tied up in the stall,
hut should stand loose while he is in the stable, and
should be allowed no litter, except at night. The sta¬
ble should be kept perfectly clean and well aired, and
not too warm.
Sometimes, even though the complaint should not at
first have originated in debility, there will, if the dis¬
ease is of long standing, be produced a considerable de¬
gree of weakness. In these cases the cure will be
greatly assisted by giving strengthening remedies, such
as bark, hors^-chesnut bark, &c. And as in this weak
state of the blldy the discharge from the ulcerated sur¬
face is commonly, thin and ichorous, the sore must be
dressed with stimulating ointment 5 and if there appears
a tendency to mortification, as sometimes happens, a
powder of equal parts of Peruvian bark and opium
should be sprinkled on the sores, before applying the
plaster. If the discharge is very offensive, a ferment¬
ing poultice, such as N° 64. may be applied over the
dressing®.
It will readily appear, that the best means of pre¬
venting grease, will be to give the horse regular exer¬
cise, to dress him well, and especially to keep his legs
dry and clean, and to avoid the extremes of heat and
cold.
Grease might perhaps- have been considered under
the head of specific inflammation } but as it is sometimes
attended with a general affection of the body, and is
ultimately connected with one of the most interesting
eruptive diseases, we thought it best to treat of it in this
place.
r,art Vf.
Disease*.
■- *  Chap. II. Of Inflammatory Diseases.
i. Inflammation of the Brain. Phrenitis. Mad
Staggers, Phrenxy, Megrim, or Sough. Mai de feu
^ ou d’Espagne, Fr.
ihflamma- This is one of the most serious and fatal inflammations
jon of the which affect the animal system. It attacks occasion-
r‘l‘ * ally all the domestic anunals, but horses and cattle are
the most subject to it. In the former it is generally call¬
ed the mad stagger's, to distinguish it from apoplexy or
sleepy staggers; when it occurs in cattle, it usually takes
one of the other names which we have given as synonyms.
Inflammation of the brain is sometimes preceded by
giddiness and partial blindness ; the animal holds his
head low, or rests it against the manger ; he appears
dull, heavy, and sleepy ; gradually, however, these symp¬
toms go oft, and are succeeded by others of a very dif¬
ferent nature. His eyes appear red, fiery, and spark-
ling; he now holds his head higher, and appears for
some time to look constantly at any object before him :
soon he becomes very restless, till by degrees he is quite
unmanageable. He sometimes lies down, and tumbles
about, and then remains quiet for a while ; but he soon
gets up again, and is as ungovernable as before, render¬
ing it dangerous for any person to approach lim. The
pulse in this disease is full and hard, and there is consi¬
derable throbbing of the temporal arteries. The pulse
is not always the same in every case, being in general
less frequent than in health, but sometimes more so.
There is always a considerable degree of fever, and
the head seems peculiarly affected. The secretions
and excretions are generally diminished, but it is said
that they are sometimes increased.
Such are the symptoms as they generally appear in
the horse ; those which take place in cattle, as they
are described in the best books on the subject of cattle
medicine, differ in a few particulars.
The animal is described as looking frightfully, being
unusually watchful, starting often, groaning vehement¬
ly, as if affected with sudden and violent pain ; his re¬
spiration slow, but he sometimes makes very long inspi¬
rations, and appears for a time as if his breathing was
entirely suspended. Suddenly the beast will rise, turn
about, and instantly lie down again, showing marks of
great restlessness and delirium. When the frenzy is
high, the eyes look red and furious; at other times
they border on languor and stupefaction ; but the beast
always appears to labour under considerable fear, and
dreads the approach of every thing; he is often quite
ungovernable, and scarcely ever inclines to rest, except
in the latter stage of the disease, when, if it has been
neglected, or has not yielded to the usual remedies, a
lethargy takes place, and the animal sinks. Sometimes
the urine is hot and high-coloured ; but it is said that
before a fit of phrenzy takes place, the urine is oftin
of a pale colour, and thinner than natural.
When the symptoms of fury or irritation suddenly
cease, and a lethargy takes place, while the pulse be¬
comes feeble, and the strength diminishes, the case is
pretty certainly hopless ; but if the fever, redness, and
flashing of the eyes gradually subside, without the pulse
sinking, or great debility coming on, the beast may ge¬
nerally be pronounced recovering.
On opening the head of such animals as have died of
539
this complaint, very evident marks of inflammation ap- Diseases,
pear about the membranes of the brain, and verv lie-
quently in the substance of the brain itself. All the
vessels are turgid with blood ; and on cutting into the
brain, innumerable little red points are to be seen,
which do not appear in the natural state. Very com¬
monly an effusion oi blood, or of purulent matter, is
found to have taken place in the cavities of the brain,
or in some part near its surface.
fhe causes of inflammation of the brain are generally
the same that produce inflammatory fever, applied in a
greater degree ; as great heat, excessive exercise, a sud¬
den change from a poor to a rich diet.
1 he cure of this complaint requires the most prompt
and decisive measures. Blood must be taken in large
quantities from the jugular vein or temporal artery.
Not less than three quarts should be taken from an or¬
dinary horse, ox, or cow ; and if the animal is very
large, four may be taken ; and the bleeding must be
repeated a few hours after, if the symptoms do not
abate. When the beast is very furious, it is often dan¬
gerous to bleed in a very deliberate way ; but as his re¬
covery will almost certainly depend on a sufficient loss
of blood in the early part of the disease, it will not be
amiss to bleed him in the manner described by Mr
Blaine, as having been practised by an eminent veteri¬
nary surgeon, who being called to ahorse affected with
staggers, and in such a state of delirium that none of
the ordinary precautions for securing him could be
adopted, plunged a lancet into each jugular, and per¬
mitted the animal to bleed till he fainted, by which
means, though the disease was lar advanced, he saved
the horse. After bleeding, a stimulant blister should
be applied to the top of the head, and the sides of the
neck should be well rubbed with a mixture of powdered
cantbarides and oil of turpentine, and other means used
to promote external inflammation, for the purpose of
determining the blood from the head. Mr Coleman is
said to recommend in these cases the pouring of boiling
water on the pasterns, by which means blistering will
speedily be produced in these parts. In desperate cases
the determination of blood to the head may be most ef¬
fectually stopped, by tying a ligature about one of the
external carotid arteries ; but in doing this great care
must be taken not to include within the ligature the
nerves that run near the artery, as these nerves are the
principal branches that supply the stomach yand if they
be included in the ligature, the functions of that organ
will be in a great measure destroyed. In addition to
these means costiveness must be carefully guarded a-
gainst. After back-raking, a stimulating purging cly¬
ster should be injected as soon as possible, and if an in¬
terval of quiet will permit, a purging ball, such as N°
I5* ma.V be given by the mouth. If the above means
are adopted in proper time, the animal will generally
be saved ; but if some days have elapsed before vigor¬
ous steps are taken, there can be little hopes of a cure.
ulr Downing, in his work on cattle-doctoring, men¬
tioned in 87. advises a method of treating inflamma¬
tion of the brain in cattle, that is extremely contradic¬
tory and inconsistent. He at first very properly advises
bleeding; but he directs this to be followed by giving
diapente, a very powerful cordial medicine, the admini¬
stration of which completely counteracts the effects of
the bleeding. Dr Downing describes a fever of the
3 Y 2 brain
FARRIERY.
eye.
5_}.o F A R It
Diseases, brain as distinct from inflammation •, and he then treats
' ' of a sleepy fever. These are evidently symptomatic altec-
tions, and should have been given as such, as well as gid¬
diness, or swimming in the head, which is described by
Dr Downing “ as a distemper belonging to the cavities
of the eyes and optic nerves. It gives a wavering mo¬
tion to the body. For if the optic nerve, or its expan¬
sion on the bottom of the eye called retina, be agitated
by any preternatural heat or other emotion, objects will
change their situation ; therefore this disease is a fever
affecting the cavities of the eyes, or the optic nerves.”
2. Inflammation of the Eye. Ophthalmia Membra-
naruin. Moon-blindness.
Jnflaiimia- Though in the human subject there are several spe-
tion ot the c;es of ophthalmia, in the horse there is but one, which
is in a great measure synonymous to what has been cal¬
led ophthalmia membranarum by medical writers. This
disease in the horse is ol considerable importance, as it
is not merely a local disease, but appears to be connec¬
ted with some constitutional affection. Before we de¬
scribe the symptoms and treatment ot this complaint, it
will be proper to remark, that in the eye of the horse
there is a firm cartilaginous substance, situated at the
inner corner ot the eye, the greater part of which is
hidden by the eyelids, but a small portion projects be¬
yond them, and may be distinguished by its black co¬
lour. This is commonly called the haw, and by ana¬
tomists the membrana nictitans, and is supposed to be a
production of the retractor muscle. Our reason for
mentioning this part will appear immediately.
Inflammation of the eye sometimes makes its appear¬
ance very suddenly 5 at others it is gradual in its attack.
In general, one of the earliest symptoms of it is a swel¬
ling of the eyelids, especially of the upper, which is
with difficulty held open ; the eyes water considerably,
and drops of tears may be seen at the extremity of the
lachrymal duct, which do not appear in the healthy
state of the eye. The external transparent parts of the
eye become discoloured and obscured, appearing of a
blackish glassy hue ; sometimes of a dull white, at others
brown or bluish. Red vessels may be seen running over
the white of the eye, especially at the corners, and
sometimes reaching to the centre of the eye. The cor¬
nea is said to be most obscured on its upper part j but
this is probably owing to the situation of the person who
looks at the eye, who being below it, sees directly
through the lower part of the cornea, and but oblique¬
ly through the upper. When the eyes are in this state,
the horse is very impatient of light, and holds his head
down to guard against it. The eyelids and ball of the
eye are evidently much hotter than usual, and some¬
times there may be seen through the cornea, a small
quantity of thickish matter called pus, in the lower part
of the anterior chamber of the eye. The cartilaginous
membrane or haw is now much more visible, and projects
forward considerably outward from the corner of the eye.
It not unfrequently happens, when the disease has
not proceeded farther than we have described, that it
gradually, sometimes pretty suddenly, disappears, and is
seen again in the course of a few weeks, although some¬
times it comes back in the course of a few days. The
disappearance of inflammation in the eye ot the horse
is sometimes so sudden, that the eye, which one day is
considerably inflamed, will appear the next perfectly
I E R Y. • Part V]
clear and healthy. Sometimes it seems to appear and Diseases,
disappear periodically } and it has been supposed by --y—
ignorant people, that in these periods it follows the
changes of the moon, whence it has received the name
of lunatic blindness. If the disease does not thus disap¬
pear, or if it appears again, and reaches the height be¬
fore described, the inflammation goes on, and the cor¬
nea becomes more obscure ; or, what very frequently
happens, the cornea recovers its transparency, and the
crystalline humour becomes opaque, forming the disease
already spoken of in N° 3 25*
In the horse, one eye frequently only is affected,
whereas in man, both eyes are generally inflamed at
the same time. This disease more frequently occurs in
young horses of five or six years old, than in those of a
more advanced period. It is said that horses are never
affected with inflammation of the eyes till they are bro¬
ken, or taken up from the pasture where they have re¬
mained from their birth.
A plethoric state of the body seems very much to
predispose to inflammation of the eye, and this seems to
account for its occurring so frequently in horses of five
or six years old, as at that age they generally cease to
grow, and are, of course, more disposed than at other
times to fulness of blood. Sudden changes of tempera¬
ture form a very common exciting cause of this disease,
and the heat and foul air of a close stable frequently
produce it. Such horses as are kept in dark stables are
also more subject to it, from the effect of sudden expo¬
sure to broad day-light. Want of exercise, or extremes
of idleness and hard work, may also assist in producing
it. Mr Coleman considers this disease in the horse as
an inflammation of a specific nature, very different from
any that occurs in other animals. The principal reasons
for supposing that the constitution is affected are, that a
horse affected with an inflammation of the eye either
does not perspire, or sweats profusely, indicating a slow
fever. If the animal is bled or purged, the eye speedi¬
ly becomes clear ; and if the same causes are applied,
the same eye, or more commonly the other, becomes in¬
flamed, and sometimes the disease appears alternately
in each eye.
Provided the proper means be taken in the early
stage of the disease, the. inflammation is commonly soon
removed 5 but when the crystalline humour becomes
opaque, no means hither employed have, as we shall
presently see, produced any benefit.
In the treatment of this affection, it must be remem¬
bered, that the constitution is deranged, and that our
remedies must therefore not be confined to local appli¬
cations to the eye. General blood-letting will almost
always be required ; but, unless the horse is very fat or
plethoric, this need not be repeated. It will be proper
also to apply a blister or two to the head, as near the
eye as possible, and the veins at the corners of the eye
should be opened, to draw blood from that part. The
horse must be put on lower diet, and should use only
very moderate exercise the stable should be kept well
aired and cool •, and if the horses eyes are very sensi¬
ble, and the stable happen to have windows, these
should be darkened. It will generally be advisable to
give a purgative medicine j and the horse may drink
frequently of some cooling liquor, especially of water,
with nitre dissolved in it. Rowels have been sometimes
recommended ; and it is said that considerable benefit
has
part VI.
FARRIERY.
54i
pleases, lias followed the insertion of setons as near the eye as
■> possible. They have sometimes been passed through the
white of the eye, just below the transparent cornea j
but to this we should object, as being liable to produce
specks that may extend to the cornea. As there is ge¬
nerally considerable dryness of the skin in this com¬
plaint, it may be useful in some cases to administer a
gentle sudorific, such as a solution of two drachms of
emetic tartar, or N° 22. of the receipts may be given.
With respect to the applications to the eye itself,
those which appear the most likely to be of advantage,
are stimulating substances, such as tincture of opium,
solution of blue vitriol, red precipitate, in the form of
a soft ointment, such as N° 40. Sometimes, however,
these stimulating applications do harm 5 and it is found
that a weak solution of sugar of lead, or acetate of zinc,
as prescribed in N° 31. are most useful. We must
here take notice of an absurd practice that is in use
among common farriers, of cutting away the haw,
which they consider as a very principal part of the
complaint. There is no doubt, however, that relief may
have been procured by this operation, as it will gene¬
rally be attended with a pretty copious elfusion of blopd,
that will relieve the distended vessels $ but as this effu¬
sion can be more easily produced by scarifying the red
vessels of the white of the eye ; and, by opening the
angular veins, there is no occasion to take away a part,
which is certainly of considerable use to the animal.
Sheep are sometimes affected with inflammation of
the eyej but in them, as in most other animals, it is
merely a local disease, and is generally relieved by to¬
pical bleeding. In the corrected agricultural report of
Perth, it is stated, that the common practice in that
district for relieving inflammation in the eyes of sheep
is, to open the veins in the corner of the eye; and
hold down the animal’s head, so as to allow the blood to
get within the eye. There is no doubt that this bleed¬
ing does good ; and the introduction of the blood with¬
in the eye may, we believe, also be of service; not,
however, in the way supposed by the reporter, but be¬
cause it acts as a gentle stimulus.
We have already, in N° 324. made some observa¬
tions on cataract, and noticed the inefficacy of all the
usual methods of treatment. It may not be improper
here to add the result of Mr Coleman’s experimental
attempts to relieve this complaint, as stated by Mr
Feron.
“ The professor has begun with bleeding from the
jugular or angular veins, and, at the same time, employ¬
ing purgatives frequently repeated, as well as diuretics
administered one after another. After which he lias
tried all the medicines of Messrs Phipps and Wathen,
but without any degree of permanent success. The lo¬
cal and surgical treatment has been as follows, viz.
“ 1st, He has ordered scarifications, and to pass a
sefon through the membrana conjunctiva ; but without
effect.
“ 2tllv, We have removed some of the larger vessels
going to the cornea, and divided them with the actual
cautery, but with no success.
“ 3dly, WTe have applied leeches to the conjunctiva,
but without effect.
14 Lastly, We have taken up both carotid arteries,
which was of no avail, from the anastomoses which the
vertebral arteries form with them.
“ Therefore, the treatment is confined entirely to Diseases,
bleeding, purging, and diuretics-, fomentations of warm *■-—v- 1
water, in order to diminish the irritation from the tears
that run over the cheek } and plenty of moderate and
continual exercise, so as to increase the perspiration.”
3. Catarrh. Catarrhus. Mor Fottnc/ering, ov Com¬
mon Cold. „
485
Catarrh has been placed by Dr Cullen among the Catarrh, or
profluvia, or fluxes attended with fever j we have ven-co^-
tured, with some modern authors, to rank it as an in¬
flammation, because the increased secretion of mu¬
cus, which might entitle it to be called a profluvium,
though sometimes pretty considerable, is not a constant,
or often a very remarkable symptom of the disease j and
in all cases appears to be the effect of an inflammatory
state of the pituitary membrane. There are generally
reckoned two species of catarrh, simple cold, and epi¬
demic catarrh, or influenza. Though in the latter of
these the catarrh is probably only symptomatic, we
shall, in compliance with the usual custom, consider it
immediately after common catarrh.
This disease attacks all the domestic animals; but
horses and dogs are most liable to it, and in them the
symptoms are most severe. It usually commences by a
general dulness and heaviness, a dryness and increased
redness of the inside of the nostrils, from which there
soon proceeds an unusual secretion of mucus$ a dryness
of the eyes, or sometimes an increased effusion of tears.
In a short time there is generally added some degree
of cough and difficulty of breathing ; and sometimes
there is with these symptoms a considerable degree of
heat and dryness of the skin; increased thirst, and not
unfrequentlv a loss of appetite. At first the cough is
dry, and sometimes continues so ; but more frequently,
when the complaint has remained for some time, a
fi’othy whitish mucus is coughed up. The pulse is not
always much affected in this disease ; but in general it
is fuller and harder than natural. The first symptom
of the disease is not uufrequently a chilliness and tremb-
ling.
The principal causes of catarrh in domestic animals,
as w-eli as in man, are sudden changes of temperature,
especially cold applied when the body is in a state of
perspiration, or entering a warm apartment after having
been long exposed to a cold air. Drinking cold water;
when sweating, is also a common cause ; and these
causes are the more likely to produce their effect when
the animal is in a plethoric state.
If neglected, catarrh may go on to inflammation of
the lungs ; in the horse it may produce thick wind, or
even broken wind ; in cattle it may end in chronic
cough ; and in sheep it may lay the foundation of con¬
sumption or pulmonic rot. It is also not unfrequently
followed by the complaint caWoA glanders, which we
are presently to describe. An improper mode of treat¬
ment, especially giving cordials and other hot medi¬
cines, will hasten on these terminations of the disease.
If attended to in time, and if the proper mode of treat¬
ment be adopted, the symptoms are, in general, soon
removed.
If the complaint is slight, and there is little fever, it
will often be sufficient to take the animal within doors
into a warm stable, give him a warm mash, and put a
cloth over him, when he will perspire through the
night,
\
542
Diseases.
486
J nilu«n7a.
farriery.
night, and be nearly well next morning. This plan
will also answer, if it be adopted immediately, on per¬
ceiving the chilliness, or shivering. If, however, consi¬
derable fever has taken place, and the animal’s pulse is
hard, it will be proper to draw blood, according to the
urgency of the symptoms, before giving any internal
remedy, or using warm clothing. After bleeding, a
drench, composed of warm ale, with a drachm or two
of salt of hartshorn, or half an ounce of spirit of harts¬
horn sweetened with molasses, will prove an excellent
remedy, after taking which, the animal should be wrell
rubbed down, and clothed as before. If the animal is
costive, back-raking, followed by clysters, will be ad¬
visable; and throughout the treatment costiveness must
be avoided. If there is considerable fever, the drench,
N° 22. or 26. where costiveness is to be obviated,
should be given every six hours. Some practitioners
advise balls in these cases, as in most others ; but as
there is often some swelling of the throat, and always
considerable irritation about the fauces, it is better to
give the remedies in the form of drenches. The cough
seldom needs particular attention during the inflamma¬
tory state of the disease, as it will generally go oil when
the inflammation is removed ; if it should continue ob¬
stinate, it becomes a chronic cough, and must be treated
as directed under N° 436.
4. Influenza, or Epidemic Catarrh.
The epidemic catarrh also affects all these animals,
and has sometimes been known to attack a whole yard
of oxen, horses, and cows, in one night. It differs from
common catarrh in the degree of fever, which, in this
complaint, is always very considerable, and is one of the
first symptoms. There is a smart shivering, followed by
considerable heat and dryness of the skin, and the fever
is commonly attended with great heaviness and pain of
the head, and affection of the eyes. In this complaint
there is also a great degree of weakness, which comes
on pretty early in the disease, and this weakness not
unfrequently brings on a fatal termination of the dis¬
ease. Sometimes there is a considerable discharge from
the nostrils; at others this discharge is either trifling, or
the nostrils are dry, in which cases the fever is most
considerable.
The epidemic catarrh appears to depend on some
peculiar state of the atmosphere ; but there is no doubt
that it is capable of being propagated by contagion.
It is more prevalent in the spring, especially when this
has been preceded by a mild winter. It is said, that
when cattle are at these times exposed to currents of
air from the north-east, they are most likely to be af¬
fected with it.
In the commencement of this disease, it will he proper
to house the animals ; but too much warmth must be
avoided, as it would tend to increase the weakness that
forms a principal part of the disease. It may sometimes
be necessary, when the fever runs very high, to draw
blood once; and, at any rate, it will be proper to apply
a blister to the head, or on each side the neck. Though
warmth must be avoided, great care should be taken
not to expose the animals to a draught of air. Warm
mashes may be given as in common catarrh, but when the
fever has subsided, cordials and strengthening remedies
will be required ; and if the appetite is tolerably good,
the diet may be more nourishing than usual. The ani-
Part V]
mals should on no account be hard worked, but be al- Diseases,
lowed to rest from the time the disease is first noticed, —y—«.
except taking gentle exercise when their strength will
admit of it.
What is commonly called the distemper in dogs is
now pretty generally considered as a sort of epidemic or
contagious catarrh. We shall therefore treat of it in
this place.
5. Of the Distemper in Dogs.
4S7
No disorder is more general among dogs than that Distempt!
which is generally known by the name of the distemper; in dogs,
and none is so destructive. It is asserted that, except
the plague, no disease is so fatal to the animal which it
attacks.
It appears that this disorder has not been known in
Britain till within the last 50 years, but, during that
time, it is astonishing what numbers of dogs have fallen
victims to it. For these last fifteen or twenty years,
however, the distemper has been less frequent, and has
assumed a milder form.
The symptoms of the distemper are not alike in every
case. The following are, according to Mr Blaine, its
usual appearances. It generally begins with a dry husky
cough, attended with dullness and want of appetite, a
running from the eyes and nose, and loss of flesh. As
the disease advances, the dog appears much emaciated,
and grows excessively w;eak, particularly in the loins and
hind legs. Convulsive twitchings of different parts, es¬
pecially of the head, come on, attended with dimness of
sight; and, as the disease proceeds, and puts on a more
virulent form, these twitchings degenerate into strong
convulsive fits, which continue for a long time, and re¬
peatedly return. In these fits the dog foams at the
mouth, runs round, and appears to be in great pain, and
to have a constant desire to dung. This is sometimes
attended with obstinate costiveness, at others with vio¬
lent purging. The stomach is extremely irritable ;
every thing that the animal takes being immediately
thrown up. When the disease has reached this state,
the animal seldom recovers, and is usually carried ofl’in
one of the convulsive fits.
In every part of this disease there prevails a want of
energy, and a particular paralytic affection of the nerves.
This latter symptom, in some instances, remains long
after the disease has been otherwise removed ; but, in
general, the strength returns almost immediately on the
removal of the other symptoms.
The distemper in its worst form is often mistaken for
canine madness; but they may in general be distinguish¬
ed, by attending to the following points.
1st, The distemper seldom occurs except in puppies,
its most common period being from six to twelve months.
Madness may occur at any age, but seldom attacks
puppies.
2d, In the distemper dogs drink freely ; in madness,
though they often attempt to drink, it does not appear
that they are capable of swallowing the water.
3d, In the distemper the animal does not attempt
to bite; but, in madness, the propensity to biting seems
to be incessant.
4th, In madness there appears to be a loss of reason
at all times, though, as is said, they are so sen¬
sible, as to know their master ; but in the distemper,
though there is sometimes a loss of reason, it lasts no
longer
Part VI. FARR
Diseases, longer than during the continuance of the convulsive
II, therefore, a young dog will drink, as soon as
the cflt'ct of the convulsion is removed, but more par¬
ticularly when his weakness is excessive, and strongly
apparent in the intervals between the fits, it may be
pretty safely concluded, that he is affected with the
distemper, and not with madness. These circumstances,
says Mr Jilaine, should be carefully remarked, as they
are unerring, and may save many a valuable animal
from destruction, and many a timid mind from the
most dreadful apprehensions.
The cause of the distemper is difficult to explain ;
nor do the most careful dissections, in every stage of
the complaint, ascertain more than that there is a ge¬
neral inflammation of the mucous membrane j but
whether the true seat of the disease is confined to that
membrane, and all the other symptoms are the conse¬
quences of it, or are real affections of other parts, is
an undecided point, although it is certain that its
first appearance is by an inflammation of the pituitary
membrane, and which, is one of the most lasting, as
well as constant symptoms. That this inflammation
is given from the membrane of the nose, to the upper
part of the gullet and wind-pipe, is evident by the
swelling of the glands of the throat, the tender¬
ness and dry cough; and that this inflammation
extends from thence to the same membrane of the
Stomach and intestines, is equally so, producing
vomiting, costiveness, or purging. It has generally,
as we have said, been considered as a species of ca¬
tarrh; hut it has been suggested to us, by an ingeni¬
ous friend, that, from Several symptoms, as well as
from its attacking dogs only once in their lives, it is
more analogous to pertussis, or chincough, in the human
subject.
Withrespect to the cure of the distemper, Mr Blaine’s
directions and remedies appear to have been tolerably
successful. With the nature of his remedy we are un¬
acquainted, but believe it to be a preparation of mer-
cury. This medicine has been made known by exten¬
sively advertising it, and although certificates of its uti¬
lity are numerous, they make no part of the advertise¬
ment, but are to be seen at Mr Boofey’s, in Old Bond
Street, London, the wholesale agent j the form is a
powder. Explicit instructions accompany it; and the
price, considered with its asserted efficacy, hears no pro¬
portion, as no sportsman would think five times the sum
too much for the preservation of a valuable animal.
Although so efficacious, it is nevertheless innocent
enough for a child to take j nor must those who are
advocates for strong remedies imagine, that, because
the effects of this shake not the whole constitution,
that the disease will not be eradicated by it. When
the disorder is strong, after it is given, there is for the
most part a gradual decrease of the symptoms, and no¬
thing but a small moisture at the nose remains, which
speedily disappears the next day. If the attack is
slight, no more is seen of it, and the animal is at once
well.
From the varieties in the size, and consequent strength
of dogs, a difference in the quantity of the medicine is
necessary j the packets are therefore marked I, 2, and
3* For a mastiff, pointer, setter, or dog of a large size,
N I. should be procured. Hounds, spaniels, and those
1 E R Y. J43
of a middling size, require No 2. j and all the lesser Disease*
dogs, N° 3. , 
It has been already observed, that in the severity
of the disorder, there is frequently so great an irritabi¬
lity of the stomach, that every thing taken into it is in¬
stantly thrown up ; in such cases, the powder should be
carefully mixed with a small piece of butter, at the same
time adding to it thirty, forty, or fifty drops of lauda¬
num, according to the age, size, and strength of the
dog } who is to be watched, whether the medicine is re¬
tained, and kept as still as possible; but should it be
tin own, up, notwithstanding this addition, in two hours
after the same quantity of laudanum should be given
with the powder, in a little broth or milk, and half
an houi afterwards the powder mixed into a paste with
treacle, honey, or flour, and thus the vomiting will be
pievented. Should there be at the same time obstinate
costiveness, it is probable that sickness maybe the conse¬
quence of it, and must be removed before it will cease }
twenty grains of jalap, or, in preference, fifteen grains
of calomel, with four or five drops of laudanum, may be
given in a small ball j or two table-spoonfuls of castor
oil, may, if more convenient, be used. Should these
not stay on the stomach, a clyster with milk, salt and
oil seldom fails to remove the costiveness, after which
the powder should be given, if there has been great
sickness, with the laudanum j if not, without it.
When, likewise, extensive purging accompanies the
complaint, the laudanum should not be omitted j as
by running off rapidly by stool, the effect of the medi¬
cine is equally lost, as if it were vomited up. In such
Csaes it will be proper to give before the powder thirty
or forty drops of laudanum, with two ounces of olive
oil. We should always attempt to remove the sickness
and purging, or costiveness, before administering the
powder, as the eflect of this will be then more certain.
In the milder form of the disease, however, nothing is re¬
quisite but to give the powder in such a way, as that the
dog may take the whole of it $ for which purpose the
powder should be well mixed with a small quantity of
any thing that the dog will eat, or, if he is averse to
eating, it should be made up into a small ball with honey,
tieacle, or butter, and forced down his throat. It must
not be mixed with any liquid, as it is so heavy that it
would fall to the bottom, and thus will probably be lost.
Care should be taken to give the medicine on an empty
stomach, as the effect will otherwise be lessened or de¬
stroyed 5 and the dog should he carefully watched to see
if the medicine he thrown up, as, if this is the case, or
if there is reason to suppose that the whole dose is not
given, a second should be administered. Mr Blaine
concludes with observing, that the symptoms remove
without any particular appearance ; yet so quiekly, as
that there is seldom any remains of the disease two hours
after the medicines have been administered.
Mr .Daniel has witnessed the extraordinary effects in
the distemper, from Dr James’s powder, given in the
following manner. When the symptoms of the distemper
are apparent, a third part of one of the parcels inclosed
in the half-crown packets is to be given, mixed with a
little butter, and the dog is to have plenty of warm
broth, or milk and water, and, if possible, he is to be
near a fire, or at least kept very warm. Two hours after¬
wards another third part is to be administered} and
should neither of these operate by vomiting or purging,
at
* Daniel's
Rural
Sports,
yof. i.
544 F A Pt R
* Diseases at the end of four hours, give the remaining third.
Should the two first portions have the effect, the rema.n-
ina third should not be given until four or six hours
(according to the evacuations) after the expiration ot
the four hours •, in the interim the dog is to be en¬
couraged to lap, and if he refuses, be forced to
take plentifully of warm broth, or. milk and water.
Very seldom, even when the case is inveterate, but
the evacuations are brought on by the taking of one
packet, generally by the second dose ; but should it so
happen that there is no such proof of the powder s
effect, the second parcel should be divided into similar
proportions, and applied in the same manner, until the
stomach is emptied. 'Warmth and warm liquids will
quickly perfect the recovery. As soon as the dog’s ap¬
petite returns, let him be fed (at first rather sparingly)
with animal food *. ,
Dr Darwin advises, that the dog be permitted to go
about freely in the open air, and have constant access to
fresh water. The use of being as much as may be in
the air is evident, because all the air which we breathe
passes twice over the putrid sloughs of the mortified
parts of the membrane which lines the nostrils, and
the maxillary and frontal cavities •, that is, both during
inspiration and expiration, and must therefore be loa -
ed with contagious particles. Fresh new milk and fresh
broth should be given them very frequently, and they
should be suffered to go among the grass, which they
sometimes eat for the purpose of an emetic, and, it
possible, should have access to a running stream ot
water, as the contagious mucus of the nostrils, both
of these animals and horses, generally drops into the
water when they attempt to drink. Bits of raw nesh,
if the dog will eat them, are preferred to cooked meat j
and from five to ten drops of opium may be given with
advantage, when symptoms of debility are evident, ac¬
cording to the size of the dog, every six hours. It
sloughs can be seen in the nostrils, they should be mois¬
tened twice a-day with a solution of sugar of lead, or
of alum, by means of a sponge fixed on a bit of whale¬
bone, or by a syringe. The lotion may be made by
dissolving half an ounce of sugar of lead in a pint ot
\ Darwin's water "f.
Zoonomia,
▼ol. ii. 410.
43S
Bheuma-
iist-'
6. Rheumatism.
There seems no doubt that horses, and perhaps cattle,
are affected with rheumatism; but it is sometimes diffi¬
cult to ascertain the presence of the complaint, or to
distinguish it from other causes that produce lameness.
It may take place in any of the limbs, but it is moie
frequently observed to affect the hip-joint and the ad¬
jacent membranes 5 and when seated here, it is called
the sciatica, and sometimes the hip-govt. It will require
considerable judgment to distinguish this complaint",
hut it may generally be knowm by attentively examin¬
ing the limb in which the lameness is seated, from the
hip down to the foot, and by attending to the causes
that seem likely to have produced the lameness. In
rheumatism, the skin will be found dry, and the affected
part swelled, and the lameness attendant on it will be
more readily removed by exercise than that which has
its cause seated in the foot, or which arises from bony
excrescences. Rheumatism in the horse, as in the human
subject, may be either acute or chronic, and the latter
is the more obstinate.
I E R Y. Eart VI
Rheumatism, like catarrh, is produced by sudden Diseases.
changes of temperature, and by exposure to a cold ' -
moist atmosphere. It is no otherwise dangerous than
as it renders the animal lame.
The cure of rheumatism differs according to its state.
In the acute one bleeding may be proper ; after which
a warm mash, with two drachms of emetic taitar dis¬
solved in the water, should be given, and the horse
treated as directed under Catarrh. If a sweat is pro¬
duced, and kept up for some hours, the complaint
will probably disappear, aud its return may be pre¬
vented by frequent friction of the affected part, re¬
gular exercise, a nourishing diet, and attention to
avoid changes of temperature. In the chronic rheu¬
matism, bleeding will be improper; and the most likely
means of relief will be, to rub the affected parts se¬
veral times a-day with some stimulating liniment, or,
if convenient, to use the warm bath for a considerable
time together, or to foment the affected limb for an
hour or two every night, after which the limb must be
rubbed perfectly dry. Pretty constant exercise will
also contribute greatly to the cure, and costiveness must
be avoided. A blister applied over the affected part
will sometimes do good. According to Mr Lawrence,
the only cure to be depended on is a month’s run ot
salt marshes in the spring, and being continued abroad
in some shady place till autumn, afterwards mercurial
physic, and the best stable care.
7. Inflammation of the Lungs. Pleuritis. Peripneu¬
monia. Pleurisy. Peripneurhony. Rising of the
Lights. Rot. .
The luno-s are frequently inflamed in the domestic laflarama
animals; and, as in man, the inflammation may be seated tion of th
either in the membrane covering the lungs and lining lun&8*
the chest, or the pleura, or in the substance of the lungs,
constituting the two varieties,pleurisy zn&peripneumony.
The disease has been called by common farriers, rising
of the lights, from an idea that the lungs protruded
against the throat, and caused that difficulty of breath¬
ing which is one of the principal symptoms of this com¬
plaint. The other vulgar appellation of rot seems to owe
its origin to the appearance which the lungs sometimes
present on dissection, being found in a state of mortifica¬
tion, and partial decomposition, as if they were rotten.
It is of little consequence to distinguish the two varieties
of the disease, as the treatment is the same in both.
According to Mr Feron, the symptoms of inflamma¬
tion of the lungs in the horse are invariably as follow.
The respiration is quick, the breath hot, the extremities
cold, the tongue dry and hot, the flanks heaving, the
patient never lying down, which forms a very characte¬
ristic symptom ; and sometimes he hangs down his head.
If nothing has been done, it is hardly possible to save
his life, after three days have elapsed ; and, after death,
the right side of the heart is found to have been inflat¬
ed, and, on some occasions, so much distended with blood
as actually to burst, and the lungs are found to resem¬
ble putrid liver, the cells filled with blood, from the
great distension of the pulmonary arteries, and perhapis
sometimes effusions take place ; the pulse ,s oppressed,
from the great distention occasioned by the blood in the
right side of the heart, while the left side of that organ
is weak from want of sufficient blood.
To Mr Feron’s account it may be added, that the
pulse,
3
Fart VI.
FAR
Diwase*. pulse, at the commencement of the disease, is generally
*—"V—' more full, harder, and more frequent than natural; hut,
as soon as the disease reaches the stage at which it is
usually first observed, the pulse has become small and
oppressed, and but little increased in frequency ; the
veins of the neck are swelled and prominent, and the
eyes are generally red and startinff. There is sometimes
cough, at others none ; but the difficulty of breathing is
always great, and the horse stands extended, panting for
breath, with heaving flanks and open nostrils, till, no
longer able to support himself, he drops down and dies.
This fatal termination sometimes takes place in a very
short period ; in 48, 36, or even 24 hours.
The only disease with which this can easily be con¬
founded, is colic ; and the discriminating marks will be
mentioned when we treat of this disease. At present it
will be sufficient to remark, that when a horse appears
dull, holds his head very low, breathes with difficulty,
especially during inspiration, stands constantly, has a
quick heaving of the flanks, a fulness of the eyes, and
redness of the inside of the nostrils, and when the pulse
is small and oppressed, he may almost certainly be de¬
clared affected with inflammation of the lungs.
It may not be improper to give a brief explanation
of the symptoms which we have enumerated ; and they
are chiefly to be explained from the difficulty with
which the blood passes through the lungs, on account of
the unusual accumulation in the pulmonary vessels.
Hence the difficulty of breathing, and the aversion
that the horse expresses to lie down ; for it is evident,
that he will breathe more easily in a standing posture
than if he were lying j because, as was remarked in
the table of the extremities of the muscles, some of
these act on the chest when the fore legs are fixed,
and thus assist in carrying forward the ribs, and thus
increasing the cavity of the chest. The impeded pas-
»age of the blood through the lungs also explains why
the pulse is weak and oppressed j and hence, when this
obstruction is relieved by lessening the quantity of blood,
the pulse never fails to become stronger and fuller.
The causes of inflammation of the lungs are doubt¬
less sudden changes of temperature, especially when the
animal is plethoric ; it is probable that the most common
cause is a sudden change from heat to cold and moisture.
It is at present, however, more fashionable to consider
the reverse of this as the general cause of pulmonary
complaints; and we understand that Mr Coleman goes
so far as to say, that horses are never attacked with in¬
flammation of the lungs from exposure to simple cold,
" for, that the turning of horses to grass without prepara¬
tion, though it may render them emaciated, seldom pro¬
duces the complaint in question. Mr Feron also, who
may be considered as a pupil of the veterinary college,
is of opinion, that inflammation of the internal viscera
proceeds from a sudden transition from a cold to a hot
temperature, but seldom or never from a hot to a cold
one. We are aware that these gentlemen have bor¬
rowed their theory from Dr Beddoes, and it is of little
consequence to our present purpose, whether it be cor¬
rect or not.
The judgment to be formed with respect to the ter¬
mination of this disease, which is always highly dan¬
gerous, will depend on the urgency of the symptoms,
and on the changes that take place after the exhibition
of the usual remedies. If the pulse becomes fuller and
Vol. VIII. Part IX, f
R I E R Y.
stronger after bleeding; if tbe breathing becomes less [>•,
difficult; if the parts where blisters have been laid in- —
flame soon, and the blisters rise well ; and, in particular,
if the horse lies down, and seems less distressed, we may
hope that the danger is lessened ; and if these favour¬
able signs continue for 24 hours, we may consider a
cure as pretty certain : but, if the pulse still continues
small and oppressed, more especially, if it becomes
quick and irregular; if the difficulty of breathing con¬
tinues or increases ; if there is a rattling in the throat,
with partial cold sweats and extreme dejection; a fatal
termination must be looked for, which will speedily
take place, if the breath becomes cold or fetid. It u
considered as a very unfavourable symptom when the
horse appears insensible to external stimuli ; as when
blisters do not rise well, nor rowels easily suppurate.
In tbe cure of inflammation of the lungs, every
thing will depend on the speedy adoption of the most
vigorous measures, and the first and principal remedy
is bleeding. This should be performed as soon as pos¬
sible, and to a greater extent than in most inflamma¬
tory diseases. It will scarcely be proper to take less
than five or perhaps six quarts at first, and the bleeding
must be repeated, though less copiously, some hours
after, if a considerable remission of the symptoms does
not take place. It must not be expected that the pulse
will rise much after a second or third bleeding; but,
if it is not considerably weakened, and if the oppressed
feel of it is removed, we may be sure that the bleeding
has not been carried too far. Another principal means
of checking the internal inflammation is, to excite an
inflammation externally near the seat of the complaint,
by every means in our power. A large blister should
be applied on each side of the chest, and to the inside of
the fore legs; a rowel should be inserted below the chest,
and if the symptoms are very urgent, another near the
belly. Mr Coleman recommends inflating the cellular
membrane below the skin with air, so as to bring on an
inflammation between the skin and muscles; and if this
does not succeed, he advises that some stimulating fluid,
such as oil of turpentine, be injected. We should sup¬
pose this carrying inflammation rather too near the
lungs ; but from some trials that Mr Coleman has made,
and some others of Mr Feron, this method seems to
have been attended with considerable advantage. In
addition to these means, the fore legs should be well
rubbed two or three times a day with oil of turpentine,
or the liniment in No 42. of the receipts. These are
the external means that are chiefly to be relied on ; and
if these be followed up speedily, and with proper atten¬
tion, there will be seldom any occasion for internal re¬
medies. If these be given, they must be such as are
calculated to cool the body, and to check inflammation,
such as the drenches N° 22. and 26. especially the
latter, as it is necessary to keep the bowels open. Per¬
haps foxglove might here be given with advantage, a*
directed under that article, at 290. Mr Feron recom¬
mends diuretics, and a ball composed of an ounce and a
half of emetic tartar, a drachm of opium, and 13 or
20 grains of calomel. We do not know whether this
is the practice of the veterinary college, but it appears
to us to be inconsistent with the bleeding and other
evacuants which are generally found most successful.
As costiveness would tend to increase the inflammatory
symptoms, back-raking and the occasional use of mild
3 Z clysters,
545
546
Diseases.
49°.
Pulmonic
rot in
sheep.
49*
Pleurisy
4ogs.
clysters, will be requisite. In general, warm water, or
this with a little Glauber salt dissolved in it, will be
sufficient, as all heating purgatives would do harm.
The horse should be kept rather warm, should be
clothed, and should drink frequently of warm gruel.
Food will not be requisite, and, if set before him, he
would probably not touch it. Exercise of every kind
must be avoided, at least so long as the inflammatory
symptoms continue. ^ #
The most favourable termination of this complaint
is by resolution, when the inflammatory symptoms go
oft' without producing suppuration or ulceration of the
lungs ; but sometimes this state is unavoidable, an ulcer
is produced, and, if the matter is not thrown off, it
may either produce suffocation, or bring on hectic fever
and consumption. When it is found that a cough
remains after the inflammation has subsided, and a
quantity of mucus is thrown off, the evacuation of
this should be promoted by gentle expectorants, and
the horse must still be kept warm. Though the matter
may be completely expectorated, there will generally
remain a difficulty of breathing, or thick wind, when
inflammation of the lungs terminates by suppuration.
Sometimes there is left an anasarcous or dropsical state
of the lungs, and in these cases it is said that blue
vitriol and turpentine, to the amount of two drachms of
each, mixed into a ball, with a proper quantity of
linseed powder, and given every morning, have been
beneficial. It may also be proper to apply a blister
over the wind-pipe.
Inflammation of the lungs in cattle differs little m
symptoms, and nothing in the treatment, from that
which we have been describing in the horse.
The lungs of sheep are very frequently affected with
inflammation, which forms one ot the diseases that has
been confounded under the name of rot. It most fre¬
quently attacks young sheep, especially those of the
more delicate breeds $ and it is most prevalent in damp
pastures, and during unfavourable seasons. The symp¬
toms of this disease in sheep have not been well de¬
scribed, but they probably differ from those in horses
and cattle, only in degree. It does not appear to be so
speedily fatal, although the animals seldom or never
recover from it. Towards the latter stage of the disease
there is considerable weakness j and at this time there ap-
jpears below the jaw an (Edematous swelling, containing
a quantity of fluid, which is easily evacuated by piercing
the tumour. This tumour is called the pock in Scot¬
land. On opening the bodies of sheep that have died
of this species of rot, the lungs are found full of knots
or tubercles, similar to those which appear in human
subjects that have died of pulmonary consumption, and
sometimes the lungs appear mortified or rotten. The
liver, however, in these cases, is sound, which distin¬
guishes this variety from the other diseases called rot.
We do not know that this disease admits of a cure in
sheep, though it might probably be prevented by hous¬
ing them, or affording them shelter, at those seasons
when it is most likely to occur.
ifl Inflammation of the lungs occurs sometimes in dogs,
but it does not seem to be very frequent in these ani¬
mals. It requires pretty much the same treatment as
in the horse, except that here emetic tartar may be given
in such a quantity as to excite considerable sickness,
without vomiting. This would be improper in the
FARRIERY. Part V!
horse, as it would be difficult to regulate the dose of cisea,ef,
the medicine, so as not to produce such an irritation ol v—v —
the stomach as might considerably increase the animal’s
distress, and augment the difficulty of breathing.
8. Inflammation of the Liver. Hepatitis.
We have no doubt that inflammation of the liver
takes place occasionally in mostol our domestic animals j
and it is probably a more frequent disease than is gene¬
rally supposed. Both species of it, viz. the acute and
chronic, may appear in these animals, and it will ap¬
pear presently, that the latter is a very common dis¬
ease among sheep. Though dissection has clearly
shewn, that the liver in cows, horses, and sheep, has
been affected witli inflammation during the life of the
animal, yet any account of the symptoms of this dis¬
ease that is given us by the veterinary writers, is so
obscure, that we cannot pretend to give any thing like
a perspicuous history.
According to Air Blaine, this disease, consideied as
a distinct affection, is seldom met with in the horse,
though, when great abdominal inflammation exists, the
liver often partakes of the general disease. In the de¬
scription of the symptoms, this author states that it is
usually accompanied with costiveness, lor the gland
ceases to secrete the bile from its being in an inflamed
state $ and that bile which was secreted, is not poured
into the intestines, but becomes deposited in the skin,
producing jaundice, which is known by the yellowness
of the eyes and the tongue. The pulse is generally full,
hard, and frequent, but the pain not very intense. It
would be difficult to detect it, unless by the symptoms
of fever, accompanied with yellowness of the mouth and
eyes. There would possibly be pain in the shoulder as
in the human, in which case the horse might on trial
be found lame.
It is easy to see, that this description is a fanciful
picture of the disease, drawn from the analogy that the
author supposes to exist between inflammation ol the
liver in man and the same disease in horses j and it is
probably not to be depended upon.
The writers on cattle medicine describe the symptoms
of the disease in cattle to be a difficulty of breathing,
evident marks of fever, yellowness of urine, a swelling
about the short ribs, and an unusual distention about
the barren or womb. Here the symptoms ol an acute
and chronic distemper seem to be conlounded.
As for the symptoms of the disease in sheep, in whom
it forms one of the varieties of rot, we have seen no ac¬
count of them any further than as they are confounded
with those of the other varieties of rot, and, as such,
they will be noticed when we come to treat of the rot
in general. If this disease could be detected in its
acute state, the cure would probably not be difficult j
but when it appears in the chronic form, it is, we be¬
lieve, seldom removed.
"When the bodies of such animals as have died of
inflammation of the liver are opened, the liver has been
found in various states of disease j sometimes it is harder
and firmer than usual, and very frequently there are
parts of it that are scirrhous and discoloured, resisting
the knife when we attempt to cut through them. Some¬
times the biliary ducts are almost bony, and there is
commonly found in them, and sometimes in other parts
of the liver, a species of worm called Jluke ; i\iz fasciola
henniica
49*
InftanmiR.
lion of t]
liver.
493
Hepatic :|
in
494
49 j
Part VI.
I Diseases, hepatica of naturalists.
» abscesses formed in the liver, and frequently, especially
in sheep, this organ is mortified or decayed.
The causes of this disease are very obscure ; in horses
and cattle it is said to be most common in hot seasons
and warm climates, and that such of these animals as
are fat are more exposed to its attacks. It may also be
brought on by blows or bruises on the short ribs, by
which the liver may have received some injury. In
sheep it is said to be more common in dry weather,
especially when the animals have but a scanty supply
of food, and when they are of a costive habit. It is
supposed by many, that this species of rot owes its
origin to the flukes that we have described, as found
in the liver after death $ but, as these flukes have been
found in the livers of sheep that had never been ap¬
parently affected with the rot, and, as they are fre¬
quently found in the livers of old sheep, this cause is
probably rather fanciful; though when these animals are
very numerous, or when they are situated in a very
sensible part of the liver, they may excite a degree of
irritation, and consequent inflammation, just as a great
quantity of hots in the stomach of horses have been
found to bring on inflammation of that organ.
In attempting the cure of this disease, when it is
ascertained to be present, we must consider whether it
is acute or chronic. When it occurs from injuries,
it will probably be of the former kind, but in most
other cases it will be chronic. Acute inflammation
will require, bleeding, purging, blisters, and low diet,
as in all other cases of internal inflammation ; but, in
chronic hepatitis, the most likely remedy is mercury,
which may be administered either internally, in the
form of calomel or corrosive sublimate, or externally
rubbed into the skin on some parts of the animal’s
body. This mercurial friction may be performed with
tolerable ease on the sheep, by pulling off the wool
from the inside of the thighs, and rubbing a drachm
or two of the strongest mercurial ointment upon these
parts every night, till the general system becomes af¬
fected, which may be known by the swelling of the
gums, offensiveness of the breath, and increased flow
of saliva from the mouth. This, however, would be
an expensive and tedious cure j and if many of the flock
appear affected, it would be better to kill them as fast
as possible, before the disease has made such a pro¬
gress as to render the animals lean. If a mercurial
course should be attempted, the animals should be
housed during the course, and should be kept on
good nourishing food. Costiveness must be avoided
in all these cases, by the administration of gentle clys¬
ters, or occasional doses of opening physic. A very
good medicine, in all cases of liver complaints, is a ball
composed of calomel and soap, as directed under jaun¬
dice, N° 441.
9. Inflammation of the Stomach.
FARKIERY.
Sometimes there are ulcers or the animal would perhaps point to the left side about
the tenth
496
Umma
Gastritis.
The stomach may be inflamed, both in horses and
aiach*16 ca^e» from '’arious causes; but this is a disease, the ex¬
istence of which is not easily detected. Here also Mr
Blaine has supplied the want of observed symptoms by
analogy, and has supposed that there would pr'vbably be
unsuccessful efforts to vomit j and, as the stomach is so
essential an organ, the pulse wovAA probably be affect¬
ed even more than in inflammation of the bowels j that
or eleventh rib j that there would be great
distress evident in the countenance and manner, and
that the loss of strength would be very great.
In cattle there are generally reckoned two species of
inflammation of the stomach, one affecting the first sto¬
mach or paunch, and the other the third stomach or
the manyplies. This latter is commonly denominated
lake-burn. The symptoms of the disease in these ani¬
mals are also very obscure, but they are probably simi¬
lar to what have been described above.
If the reader looks back to N° 409. he will see de¬
tailed, a case that occurred to Mr Clark, in which in¬
flammation of the stomach was observed, and detected
after death ; and though the symptoms there described
are few, they are probably more characteristic of the
disease in question, than any imaginary description
which we can copy from writers who have never seen
the complaint.
This disease is extremely dangerous, and will not
admit of a cure, unless effectual means are taken at its
commencement.
Inflammation of the stomach is commonly produced
by some acrid irritating substance which the animal has
swallowed, and this is the effect produced by most
poisons. A large quantity of cold water drunk while
the animal is in a violent perspiration, will also produce
it. It not unfrequently accompanies inflammation of
the bowels, which we are immediately to describe. It
is said to be sometimes produced in cattle by the giving
of too strong a dose of astringent medicines to cure the
red water or bloody urine; and as we have seen in
N° 409. it may sometimes be occasioned by bots.
The d isease can only be cured by very copious bleed¬
ing, frequently repeated ; by giving mucilaginous drinks,
such as water gruel or linseed tea, applying a large
blister just behind the short ribs, and the frequent ad¬
ministration of relaxing clysters. If poison has been
swallowed, we must proceed as recommended under
N° 407. though in most cases of inflammation of the
stomach, it will be the most humane plan to effect a
radical cure by shooting the animal through the head,
or cutting his throat.
10. Inflammation of the Bowels. Enteritis. Red
Colic. Inflammatory Colic. Dry Rraxy in Sheep.
Tranchee Inflammatoire ou Rouge, Fr.
This is a disease, to which all the domestic animals
are subject, but it is attended with somewhat different tion of the
symptoms, in the several species. bowels.
It is generally preceded by more or less fever. In
horses, the first remarkable symptoms that appear, are
a great degree of restlessness, with loss of appetite, thirst,
with considerable heat, and dryness of the mouth. The
animal evidently labours under violent pain, and is per¬
petually lying down and getting up again, scraping and
stamping with his feet, with which he sometimes strikes
his belly. When the belly is touched with the hand,
the horse betrays extreme sensibility, and shrinks from
the touch. The pulse is always increased in frequency,
and is hard, giving the sensation of a cord below the
finger. The skin feels unusually hot, all over the body,
except at the ears, which are said to be cold. The
tongue is commonly covered with a white fur. Costive¬
ness is almost a constant symptom of this disease, and
3 Z 2 till
548
Disea ws.
FARR
till the inflammation is suMued, this continues very ob¬
stinate, or, if the animal dungs, it is in very small quan¬
tity, and the excrement is very hard. The urine is
voided in very small quantities, and with great pain,
especially towards the latter period of the disease. The
symptoms go on with more or less rapidity, till the in¬
flammation is subdued by the proper remedies, or till it
terminate in the death of the horse.
Returning health may be expected when the heat of
the body gradually lessens, while the pulse becomes full,
regular, and of the natural frequency, when the horse
dungs freely, and returns to his usual appetite, and
cheerfulness. But when there appears a sudden relief
from pain, with a soft, feeble, or irregular pulse, and a
purging of oflensive black matter comes on, mortifica¬
tion0 of the bowels has taken place, and the horse will
expire in a few hours.
On opening the body, evident marks of high inflam¬
mation appear in many parts of the bowels, the outer
or membranous and muscular coats of which will he
found red, and in some parts black. The inflammation
is frequently found to have extended to other parts, as
the stomach, liver, or bladder j to some of which the
guts will be frequently found adhering. On opening
into the cavity of the bowels, these will be found great¬
ly distended with air, and the great guts loaded with
hardened excrement ; and sometimes the inner mem¬
brane will appear highly inflamed, or even corroded,
shewing evident marks of its having suffered considera¬
ble irritation, from some acrid substance.
Inflammation of the bowels is distinguished from colic,
by the frequency and cord-like feeling of the pulse, by
the presence of fever, by the tenderness of the belly,
and by there being little or no remission of the pain.
It is said that in colic the horse rolls much on his back,
but is not so apt to do this in inflammation of the bowels.
It will be seen by and by, that a long protracted colic
frequently terminates in inflammation.
Inflammation of the bowels may be produced by acrid
or poisonous substances taken into the stomach. It has
been sometimes produced by giving hellebore to horses,
as a purge j and it is said to arise sometimes from giv¬
ing purgatives at improper times, or in too large a dose.
It is very commonly brought on by giving the horse
cold water, when he is much fatigued, and so much
overheated, as to be in a profuse sweat, or by dashing
cold water upon him, by wading in cold water, or by
standing in a draught of cold air, under similar circum¬
stances of fatigue and sweating. Costiveness too long
neglected, or entangled rupture, is also not an uncom¬
mon cause.
In the treatment of the inflammation of the bowels,
as in all other internal inflammations, we must begin
with copious and repeated bloodletting, after which a
free evacuation of the bowels must be attempted by
back-raking and the injection of softening clysters, such
as warm water-gruel, mixed with half an English pint
of castor oil. All acrid clysters must be avoided, as
they will only tend to increase the inflammatory affec¬
tion of the bowels, and even Glauber salts and other
saline purgatives are scarcely proper, from the irritation
they may produce. After bleeding and evacuating the
bowels, warm fomentations applied to the belly may
be of service, and the cloths should be applied as hot
as possible. After the fomentation, the belly may be
I E V, Y. Part VI
rubbed with some stimulating liniment, such as oil of Diseaw,,
turpentine, or essence of mustard. Firing has been re-  y—
commended below the belly, as also frequent friction
with the curry-comb, so as to irritate the skin, and al¬
most make it bleed. Probably no medicine should be
given by the mouth, farther than softening, diluting
drinks, such as warm water-gruel or linseed tea. Food
at the beginning of the disease is out of the question j
but when the inflammation is a little relieved, the horse
may have a bran mash. I he body should be kept warm
by clothing, and all exercise should be avoided.
Inflammation of the bowels in sheep is called dry
hraxy in Scotland, and of this disease we have an ex¬
cellent account in Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles. 4l>t
This disease is most fatal to young and robust sheep Dry braij
about six or seven months old, called in many parts ofin ibeeji.
the island hogs. It is more destructive upon some farms
than others ; and even upon these, in one season more
than another. In a hog fence, or pasture capable of
keeping 30 score of hogs, there is in some years a loss
from three to four score. This is a very serious matter,
as each of these would sell in the spring, or beginning
of summer, for half a guinea or 11s. Ibis disease be¬
gins at those times when inflammatory disorders are
most apt to prevail, in the months of October and No¬
vember, and is produced by the common causes of in¬
flammation, cold, exertion, external injury, &c. During
these months, slight frosts set in, and the ground in the
morning is often covered with hoar frost, or what is
called in some parts of Scotland rhine. It is probable,
that eating grass covered with hoar frost, may be one
cause of the disorder. If so, moving the animals about,
and preventing them from eating, until the frost i*
melted by the sun, may tend to prevent the disease.
This disease runs its course very rapidly. When
the shepherd leaves his flock at night upon their laires,
he sometimes observes a hog look dull, loitering be¬
hind, and restless j sometimes lying down and suddenly
getting up again : and in the morning, he will often find
it dead, or nearly so. At other times he will discover
no apparent ailment among his flock ; and in the morn¬
ing, he may find one or two dead or dying. Irom thi*
it appears that the disease is very acute.
This is further evinced by the appearances after death,
when the carcases are opened. Their bellies are exces¬
sively swelled, and distended with a putrid air : the
whole intestines being red and inflamed, gangrenous,
and in some degree mortified. This putrid taint seems
to be communicated to the whole carcase, as all the
muscular parts, and fat, smell strongly of corruption.
The hogs that die of this disease, are frequently fat
and in good order, which shews that the disease is of
short duration.
We have already mentioned the eating of grass,
which is covered with hoar frost, as a very probable
immediate cause of this disorder. But is there any pre¬
disposing cause ?
In answer to this question, we shall adduce a fact
which is well authenticated. Many parts ol the western
Highlands of Scotland, had been for ages occupied by
horses and horned cattle. At the introduction of sheep
into those districts, the best grass was that which had
sprung from the tath and excrements of these animals.
During many years after these districts were converted
into sheep farms, braxy remained unknown. It crept
art VI.
F A K K I E R Y.
.„i»e»*c8. in at last, and the severity of the disease was long in
-—v——' proportion to the length of time the pastures had been
occupied by sheep.
From these we would infer that pasturing upon their
own tath, is a predisposing cause of braxy among sheep ;
and that a frequent alteration of the species of stock,
upon every sheep pasture, might serve to prevent the
evil. This idea corresponds with the general laws of
the Supreme Being, who certainly never intended that
this earth should be monopolized by any particular spe¬
cies of animals j but has so ordered matters, that the
happiness of individuals shall result from the happiness
of the whole family of animated beings.
Hence it would appear a beneficial practice in store
farmers, in place of one fence, to keep two or more en¬
closures of this description, and to change the stock up¬
on them every season. This we know to be contrary to
general practice, and that which is called the hogs
fence, is carefully guarded against the intrusion of
every other animal.
Lambs, immediately after they are weaned, are fre¬
quently sent to poor pasture, which is called burning
them. Now this appears to be a very bad practice 5 for
the consequence is, that they fall off considerably, be¬
fore they get at the rich grass in the hog’s fence, of
which they eat too freely ; and thus become disposed to
the disease treated of. Children, and all domesticated
animals, are carefully fed with nourishing food for a con¬
siderable time after they are weaned ; and yet they fall
off for some time. It would certainly be better to
give the lambs the bogs fence at once, and use every
precaution to prevent them from falling off.
As the disease is generally advanced to a dangerous
height before it is observed, we fear that medicine af¬
fords but a very faint hope of cure. The disease being
inflammatory, the shepherd should attempt to bleed the
distressed creature as soon as possible j which be can
easily do, by cutting off part of the tail, or by nicking
it underneath, or by cutting off part of the ears. The
animal should then be removed to a house or shed, and
attempts made to produce evacuations. In brute ani¬
mals, it is difficult to produce these by medicines ad¬
ministered by the mouth. The speediest and most effec¬
tual method, is by injections into the rectum or anus.
Such injection may consist of a small handful of chamo¬
mile flowers, two spoonfuls of aniseeds, and as much
caraway seeds j to be boiled slowly in a Scotch mutch-
kin or English pint of milk and water, until the half is
evaporated. The liquor should then be strained off, and
two tea spoonfuls of castor oil added, or if this is not at
hand, the same quantity of sweet oil may be used. This
should be administered warm by an injection bag and
pipe, or by an elastic gum bottle with a pipe properly
fitted. Nothing can be easier, than to give a sheep a
clyster in this way j and in all probability it will have
a happy efl’ect in evacuating the bowels and procuring
relief.
If this does not appear very soon, it may be repeated
an hour after, and a large spoonful of common salt add¬
ed to the former ingredients. If, after all, the animal
does not seem relieved, another clyster may be given,
consisting of a small tea cupful of warm milk and wa¬
ter, to which are added from 20 to 25 drops of lauda¬
num.
As there is a great distention of the stomach and
549
bowels, arising from airs or elastic vapours, generated pittas,
in the intestines, Mr Walker of Cumberland, in a trea* —v*—
tise he wrote upon the diseases of brute animals, has
suggested a remedy for this disorder, which has often
proved successful in his district. It consists in pushing
down their throats a flexible tube, such as Dr Monro
has recommended, and which has proved successful in
relieving cows that had over-gorged themselves with red
clover early in the season (see N° 405.). This seems
a probable means of affording temporary relief, and
every shepherd that has the care of the hog flock,
should be furnished with one of these tubes, adapted to
the size of the sheep, lor trying the experiment upon
those that labour under the disease.
“ In regard to the quality of pasture (adds Mr Find-
later) as a cause of sickness ^ Tweeddale farmers seem of
opinion that it arises from thefoulness of the grass at the
root in the hogs fences, which are never eaten bare.
Some, therefore, take care to have the land to be saved
for the hog fence, once eaten as bare as possible early
in summer, by the black cattle upon the farm, or by old
sheep.
“ It seems ascertained in Tweeddale, that land which
has been in use to be pastured by older sheep, when con¬
verted into a hog fence, is not liable for some time to
produce sickness. Two accidental experiments occur¬
ring in which this practice took place, in consequence
of new arrangements in the farms of Harehop in Eddie-
stone parish, and of Lyne in Lyne parish, confirm this
conclusion. It is farther confirmed by an experiment
of Mr Murray, tenant in Flemington mill. About 20
years ago, lie bought in different parcels of lambs for
hogs, and laid them upon the hog fence of his farm
of Broughton-haup, in Broughton parish. In one of
the parcels of much higher condition than the rest, the
sickness broke out to such extent, that they were dying
at the rate of two or three daily ; so that the whole par¬
cel seemed in imminent risk. He transferred this whole
parcel to the farm of Fingland in Newlands parish,
where only old sheep were kept, putting them on some
of the lower pasture of that farm, which had been hain-
ed for feeding the crock ewes, and transferring a pro¬
portional quantity of these ewes to Broughton-haup hog
fence. Not one of the lambs died upon Fingland. To
the same effect, it deserves attention, that in small farms,
not admitting of distinct hirsling, where, of course, old
and young sheep pasture mixed together, hogs are very
little liable to sickness, though perhaps worse in other
respects.
“ From November at smearing time till Christmas
(1797), two facts with regard to the mode of cure have
been stated to me, and which I am disposed to think
authentic. In the farm of Drummelzier, parish of Drum-
melzier, three hogs (out of four upon which the experiment
was tried) recovered, upon bleeding, and having poured
down their throats, a decoction of tobacco ; about a
finger’s length of twist tobacco boiled in water till the
water has diminished to a gill, being the dose for each.
In the farm of Broughton-haup, parish of Broughton, with¬
in the same space of time, nine or ten (out ofT6 or 17 up¬
on whom the experiment was made) recovered upon
bleeding, and having an injection of tobacco smoke ad¬
ministered froni a common tobacco pipe, by kindling
the tobacco, inserting the pipe shank into the anus, and
blowing : the experiment, however, was not so success¬
ful
550
Diseases.
* Find-
later's
Survey.
499
Dysentery,
or molten
grease.
FARRIERY.
Part VIIB
ful in some later instances. I have long ago seen a ewe
cured by bleeding, and injection of Glauber salts from
a common clyster-bag and pipe. When braxy breaks
out, it might be useful, where attainable, to lay the
hogs, nightly, upon a dry ground, if the hog fence is
wet, the chilliness of wet ground contributing no doubt
to the production of inflammation. Clover foggage or
turnips might be jjood preventatives, from inducing a
lax habit*.”
ix. Dysentery. Molten-grease, or Body-founder*
Bi'eak-shaw, (in sheep). Gras fondu, Fr.
Dysentery is the other disease that, with catarrh,
forms Dr Cullen’s order of profluvia} but as there are
evident marks of inflammation of the bowels observed
on inspecting the bodies of such animals as have died.of
this complaint, we have placed it immediately after in¬
flammation of the bowels, in which we have followed
M. Pinel and some other late writers.
This disease is not uncommon in tire horse, and pro¬
bably it is still more frequent in cattle and sheep. It
very commonly begins with some degree of fever, as a
trembling, dryness of the mouth, loss of appetite, a
great degree of weakness, drooping of the head and
ears, sometimes a copious sweating, but more common¬
ly dryness and heat of the skin. There is usually a
heaving of the flanks, and the animal turns his head
towards them, as if griped. There are frequent de¬
jections from the anus, but these seldom consist of the
natural excrement, but of a mucous, slimy discharge,
accompanied with a peculiar fatty substance, like soft
suet. There is evidently much distress during these eva¬
cuations, and sometimes the fundament appears excori¬
ated. It is not uncommon to see blood pass with the
stools, generally in streaks, but sometimes in such a
quantity as to tinge the whole discharge of a red colour;
and in the latter stages of the disease there generally
appear membranous, filmy substances, which have been
compared to soaked leather. rlhese substances have
been supposed to be the inner membrane of the bowels
that has been eroded and thrown off by the violence of
the purging ; but they are merely coagulable lymph,
such as is very commonly thrown off from inflamed sur¬
faces. The pulse, towards the beginning of the dis¬
ease, is commonly hard and full, but as the complaint
goes on, it becomes quick, small, and sometimes irregu¬
lar. The animal is very stiff, and much averse to mo¬
tion, and if the disease continues long, there usually
comes on a swelling of the legs.
When animals that have died of this disease are dis¬
sected, the inner coat of the bowels is found inflamed,
in some places covered with coagulable lymph, such as
we have described as being thrown out in the discharge,
and not unfrequently ulcerated in various parts, some¬
times mortified and corroded.
This disease does not appear so dangerous among the
inferior animals in this climate, as in warmer countries j
but it sometimes proves fatal, or terminates in a weak¬
ness of the bowels and scouring, that are not easily re¬
moved. If the fever is but little or soon abates, if
the animal appears not to labour under much pain, and
if the discharge of natural excrement soon returns, the
disease will probably terminate favourably in a short
time •, but if there is great pain and fever, with exces¬
sive weakness, and if the mucous discharges continue
3
very frequent, and mixed with much blood, the danger Diseases
is considerable. ——v^>
It is necessary to distinguish this complaint from tho
common purging or scouring, with which it is very ge¬
nerally confounded. It must therefore be observed, that
in scouring, there is no fever, whereas this is common
in dysentery j that the discharge in scouring, though
thin, has almost always the appearance of excrement,
is not bloody, and is scarcely ever mixed with fatty
matter.
Dysentery is more common in hot weather, and in
hot seasons, than at other times *, but is very commonly
produced by the sudden application of cold, especially
to the legs or belly, while the body is overheated and
fatigued : hence swimming in autumn, drinking large
quantities of cold water while in a profuse sweat, or
other sudden changes from heat to cold, have common¬
ly produced it. It is said to be frequently brought on
by riding a horse very hard in hot weather. Mi' Law¬
rence says that when a boy, he rode a horse that had a
great deal of loose gross flesh about him, 21 miles in a
warm summer morning, and thus brought on an attack
of molten grease. It is also not an uncommon disease
among post horses.
From the appearance of the fatty matter in the dis¬
charge that takes place in this complaint, the older
writers on farriery were induced to give it the name of
molten grease, conceiving that a principal part of the
disease consisted in a melting down of the fat of the ani¬
mal, which being conveyed by the absorbents into the
circulation, is thrown out by the exhalants on the bowels,
and carried off with the dung. Mr Blaine laughs very'
heartily at this idea, and seems to pride himself on the
discovery, that what has been mistaken for fat, is no¬
thing more than an increased secretion of the mucus of
the intestines, and is as liable to a horse with little fat,
as to one with much. Mr Lawrence, on the other hand,
argues strenuously that this matter is really greasy, and
says, that “ with respect to the evidence of sense, had
Mr Blaine ever seen a horse under the discharge of
molten grease, he might have found on experiment,
that part of the discharge in question is inflammable
and liquefiable, which are not the characters of albu¬
men, but of real grease $ and (continues Mr Lawrence)
viewing the matter through the medium of experience,
I can see no sort of improbability in a colliquation of
loose, substantial, internal fat, by sudden inflammation,
and its consequent effusion and discharge by an unusual
emunctory. Gibson gives an instance which convinced
him (apparently incredulous before) of the possibility of
a horse’s grease being melted. He found the fat melt¬
ed and turned into an oil, and drawn off from its pro¬
per cells into the blood vessels. He says farther, this
disease is not unlike the greasy diarrhoea which hap¬
pens to men.” Not having ourselves seen a case of
dysentery in horses, we are not prepared to decide the
difference between these two champions of the old and
new school ; but as Mr Lawrence is very worthy of
credit in whatever has passed under his own observation,
we have no doubt that this debated substance is of a
fatty nature.
As it seems certain that dysentery is of an inflamma¬
tory nature, it is proper to begin the cure by bleeding,
especially if tbe horse is plethoric, or if the pulse is full
and hard. It will then be proper to clear the boW'els
by
krt VI. FARR
iseases. ^7 a laxative clyster, and to give internally a drench
composed of five or six ounces of Glauber’s salt dissol¬
ved in a quart of water-gruel, or the drench N° 26. of
the receipts; and this may be repeated every three or
four hours. This will probably, in the course of the
day, produce a plentiful discharge of excrement, and
when the bowels appear well cleared, the horse may
have a warm mash, be covered up warm, and perhaps
a perspiration will be brought on, which, if the disease
is slight, will probably complete the cure. If the dis¬
ease should continue, an English pint, or pint and a
half, of castor oil may be given, and clysters, composed
of water-gruel, or starch boiled in water, should be >
given warm very frequently. When by these means a
pretty copious discharge of excrement has been produ¬
ced, the horse may have a ball composed of two drachms
of opium, and half an ounce of ipecacuanha, or a drachm
of emetic tartar, washed down with a quart of good
porter. If there is considerable pain, it may be ad¬
visable to foment the belly for half an hour at a time,
with flannels wrung out of a warm decoction of poppy
heads. During this treatment the horse should be kept
clothed, and currents of air in the stable should be
avoided. When the disease is subdued, as the horse
will pi’obably remain very weak, it will be proper to re¬
vive him by nourishing diet, and cordial and strength¬
ening remedies.
The appearances of dysentery in cattle are not un¬
like those that occur in the horse, only that perhaps in
them there is not so much of the^nw fondu. The dis¬
ease among these animals is commonly called far¬
del bound. The treatment is the same as above de¬
scribed.
This disease is not uncommon in sheep, by the name
of breakshaiv ; but shepherds very commonly confound
it with diarrhoea or purging. Mr Loch of Kachan
very properly distinguishes between them, and observes
that the breakshavo is analogous to dysentery in the hu¬
man species, and occurs most commonly in the end of
wet summers. The discharge is thin and greenish (Mr
Loch supposes from the wet grass becoming acid in the
stomach, and turning the gall green) ; it is more or less
mixed with blood, sometimes florid, sometimes black
and grumous ; the animal pines for a week or two, and
dies, though sometimes he recovers. The cure com¬
monly employed by Mr Loch’s herd, is warm milk
poured down the animal’s throat; but Mr Loch pro¬
poses to try, in addition to this, nitre in half drachm
doses, with chalk or some other absorbent powder, and
20 or 30 drops of laudanum twice or thrice a-day, with
frequent injections of warm milk and water. This plan
seems best adapted to the latter stages of the disease.
According to Mr Gillespie of Glenquich (quoted by
Mr Findlater), this disease is often produced by over¬
heating, when the sheep are hunted by dogs, in folding
them, &c. or when otherwise scared and terrified. It
is stated by Mr Gillespie to be considerably infectious ;
and he considers tarring part of the flock to be the best
means of checking the infection, under the idea, that
the smell of the tar will overcome that of the con¬
tagion.
12.. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Nephritis.
Strain of the Kidneys.
This disease is not uncommon among horses and cat-
I 500
: ttkshaw
sheep
;oi
rama-
•*10! the
eys.
I E R Y.
tie ; but it is more frequent in the former, as they are
more exposed to those causes that appear generally to
produce it.
The symptoms of this disease in horses, are tolerably
well-marked. The horse stands wide with his hind¬
legs, appears dull, and expresses considerable pain, of¬
ten looking at his flanks. When pressure is made pn
his loins the horse flinches, and is evidently much di¬
stressed ; the pulse is hard and full, and commonly more
frequent than natural. When both kidneys are in¬
flamed, little or no urine is secreted, and what little is
evacuated is generally bloody ; but when only one kidr
ney is inflamed, the other continues to secrete urine,
but the natural quantity is on the whole much diminish¬
ed, and there is commonly considerable pain during the
evacuation.
Inflammation of the kidneys is liable to be confound¬
ed with inflammation of the neck of the bladder; and
the best means of distinguishing them, is to pass the
hand up the fundament, by which the state of the blad¬
der beneath may be easily ascertained. If the bladder
be considerably distended with urine, the inflammation
is almost certainly seated in the neck of the bladder
but if the bladder be shrunk and empty, the disease is
probably situated in the kidneys. It must be allowed,
however, that this mark of discrimination will not hold
good till the disease of the kidneys is pretty far advan¬
ced, as it very commonly happens that when a gland
is inflamed, its secretion is at first increased. At the
commencement of the disease, therefore, the symptoms
which we have enumerated, especially the sensibility
which the horse evinces on touching his loins, are chief¬
ly to be depended on. It must be remarked that one
of the kidneys has been found diseased, and even puru¬
lent, after death, when it shewed no marks of inflam¬
mation during life. This disease is attended with con¬
siderable danger, and unless the inflammation be spee¬
dily removed, matter will be formed, which, if it does
not pass off by the urinary pipes into the bladder, will
find a passage into the belly, or behind the peritoneum,,
and produce hectic fever and consumption, or the kid¬
ney may mortify, and death will soon follow.
The kidneys may become inflamed, either from ex¬
ternal injury, or from irritating substances that pass
through them in the course of the circulation. Inflam-.
motion of these organs is frequently produced by placing
the saddle too far back upon the loins, and riding hard
for a long time while it is in this position. It is some¬
times the effect of throwing cold water upon the body
while it is in a sweat; but according to Mr Blaine and:
Mr Feron, it is most frequently produced by the indis-.
criminate use of strong diuretic medicines.
In the treatment of this disease, we must vigorously
employ the means that we have so often recommended
for the cure of internal inflammations ; bleeding in its
full extent, emollient clysters, and the production of
external inflammation : but it is necessary in this disease
to caution the practitioner against the use of blisters, as
the matter of cantharides, when taken into the circula¬
tion, and carried, to the kidneys, will considerably in¬
crease the inflammation and distress. A. good substitute
for blisters of cantharides would be, to pour, hot water
on the loins, so as to raise a blister on each side, which,
however cruel it may appear, could not produce so much,
pain, as the animal already, feels from the. disease.. It
hag;
552 F A R B.
Disease* has been recommended, to excite a degree of inflamma-
  y   tion in the external part of the loins, by means oi hr-
incr: but probably the hot water will do as well, and is
less painful. No medicine should be given by the
mouth, that is in the least heating or irritating *, and
nitre, turpentine, balsam of copaiva, &c. so warmly re¬
commended by most of the writers on farriery, would
only serve to aggravate the disease. The horse may
drink frequently of water gruel, linseed tea, or such
other mild, mucilaginous liquors •, and if he seems to
require food, bran mashes will be the most proper article
of diet. If there is much costiveness, purgative clys¬
ters may be given, or in cases of necessity, six or seven
drachms of socotorine aloes in a ball. All exercise
must be avoided, and the horse should have a good bed
of litter, on which he may lie down when fatigued.
13. Inflammation of the Bladder. Cystitis.
I.flamma- The bladder may be inflamed either in its body, or
tioa of the neck, and the symptoms difler somewhat in these
bladder. tw0 varieties. When the body of the bladder is in¬
flamed, there is produced such a degree of irritation,
that the bladder becomes incapable of retaining its con¬
tents for any length of time ; and the animal is perpetu¬
ally making small quantities of urine. He also makes
frequent attempts to dung. On passing the hand up
the fundament, the bladder will be found very hot and
sensible j and in this variety of the complaint, as in in¬
flammation of the kidneys, it is empty and collapsed.
When the neck of the bladder is inflamed, there is at
first a suppression of the urine, but afterwards it is con¬
tinually passing off in drops j and on examining the
bladder by the fundament, it will be found more or less
distended, according to the continuance of the com¬
plaint. There is usually considerable fever in both
cases. The pulse is hard and full at the beginning of
the disease, but after this has continued for some time,
the pulse becomes small and oppressed.
Inflammation of the bladder takes place more fre¬
quently in male than in female animals y but it is said
to be sometimes produced in the latter, at least in mares,
by passing some irritating substance up the urethra, in
order to make them horsy. Both cases of this disease
are attended with considerable dangerbut the latter
is generally the most dangerous; but in a mare a cure
is generally easier than in a horse.
The treatment of this complaint differs little from
that of the inflammation of the kidneys, and chiefly
consists in bleeding, the frequent use of softening clys¬
ters, low diet, and the production of external inflamma¬
tion by any other means than the use of cantharides
blisters. If the bladder be found considerably distended,
it will be necessary to evacuate the urine, either by
the means of a catheter, which may be easily passed up
in a mare, or by making an opening into the bladder j
for performing which in the male, Mr Feron gives the
following directions. “ It happens that the urethra is so
constructed, that it is not in our power to introduce an
instrument immediately into the bladder, without per¬
forming an operation •, for the urethra of the horse forms
two curvatures or angles, before it reaches the bladder,
.and therefore it is not possible to introduce an instru¬
ment into the bladder, which will preserve its curvity
all the way. We therefore introduce a staff of a plia¬
ble wood, or whalebone, to the angle at the 03 pubis,
I E R Y. ?art VI
as near the rectum as possible with safety ; we make a DUea**
cut upon it, and then introduce the female catheter, or r—•
some similar .tube, without however removing the staff
to prevent our losing the incision, taking care to avoid
the instrument’s passing into the cellular membrane, in¬
stead of entering the bladder. If such an accident was
likely to happen, it is advisable not to attempt the ope¬
ration, but to continue and insist upon all the emollient
remedies.
“ We may also puncture the bladder with a trocar,
by the rectum, or through the inferior part of the ab¬
domen. . .
“ In either case we are likewise directed by Mr Cole¬
man, to make the puncture as near the os pubis as pos¬
sible, that we may not wound the peritoneum ante¬
riorly. By this method the operation recommended
through the rectum may be performed without expo-
sing or opening the cavity or the abdomen _ Farrier)
In the female an opening may be easily made into ^
the bladder, with a trocar, introduced by the vagina.
It has been recommended in the mare to throw up an
injection of some oily or mucilaginous fluid, to supply
the place of mucus, in sheathing the bladder from the
irritation of urine. As in the inflammation of the kid¬
neys, every thing that can heat or irritate the urinary
organs must be carefully avoided.
14. Cords.
SC}
It is well known in most breeding countries, that aC«d*
great many calves die every year, of an unknown dis¬
ease, with which they are affected very shortly after
birth. The common name which this disease receives
in Scotland, is the cords ; and while its fatal and wide¬
ly extended effects are the subject of just regret, the
disease itself is looked on as incurable, and no pains are
taken to investigate its nature, symptoms and causes,
and no remedies suggested as a cure or preventive.
Whatever be its nature, this disease is exceedingly dan¬
gerous, and so extremely rapid, fterminating frequently
in a night’s time), that all means of relief are commonly
useless even before it is observed. _
Almost all calves, that are said to have died of the
cords, appear, when they are opened up, exceedingly
red, and the small leaders, or ligaments, are consider¬
ably swelled, and have some resemblance to strings pas¬
sing through the internal parts, from which probably
the disease has its name. Every symptom indicates a
considerable degree of plethora, if not a very high de¬
gree of inflammation.
It is commonly observed, that calves are most liable
to be affected during the first days, or weeks, after they
are calved. If they outlive five or six weeks, they are
seldom in any danger.
Calves that suck their mothers, we believe, it will be
found, are not so liable to the disease, as those who are
fed by the hand. , . „ -t
The greatest number of calves who fall a sacrifice to
this disease, if not the whole of them, are those who are
closely confined to the house from their birth, without
ever being exposed to the free open air without doors.
It is a well known fact, that calves who are dropt with¬
out, and remain in the fields, are in little or no danger.
Cows that are laid on to graze for beef frequently turn out
to be in calf} and it is no uncommon thing to see them
drop their calves in the midst of frost and snow, and yet
r these
Part VI.
iDiseasea. these young creatures, if they can once get to their feet,
y - ' without being frozen to the ground, are hearty and
well. Calves, lambs, and foals, require exercise and
fresh air; and nature directs them to take a great deal.
It is astonishing to see with what force and vigour,
(particularly the calf), and how long, they will run.
But this free, unconstrained, and severe exercise with¬
out doors, seems to be the very thing that makes them
* Fam. thrive, and to be necessary to their very existence *.
Mag. vol. Xhe great object is to prevent this disease ; and the
7' following method of treating the new-born calves, prac¬
tised by a correspondent of the Farmer’s Magazine,
seems to be attended with complete success.
The time when this gentleman’s cows are bulled is re¬
gularly noted down in a book ; and when they are near
calving, they are watched frequently night and day.
As soon as the calf is dropped, it is received into a large
basket or skull, made of willows, with a handle at
each end, and plenty of clean straw in it. It is
then carried by two persons to the stall in the calf-
house, where it is gently rubbed with straw. The
calf-house is next to the cow-byre; and is fitted up with
stalls like a stable, about three feet wide, and about five
feet long. Every stall shuts in by itself, with a door
and hinges, for fear of the calf lying back too far, to
choke itself in its binding. As soon as the mother has
had a little rest after calving, she is milked, and a little
of the milk given to the c&lf as early as possible. If
the weather is cold, and the mother long in giving milk,
it is taken to the fire, and warmed in a pan until it
is blood-warm, and then given to the calf; about six or
eight gills, according to the size of the calf, and repeat¬
ed four times in 24 hours. As the calf gathers strength,
the quantity may be increased ; but too much milk at
one time is as bad as too little, until it is a month or six
weeks old. When the calf is able to stand, it is tied to
a stake ; as it is more in the power of the servants to give
it milk in that situation, than when going about loose.
If a calf gets cold milk, it is sure to bring on a tremb¬
ling : and the cords or some other malady follows ;
which he has often seen exemplified amongst the neigh-
!?.p.»p5.l)0ur‘ng young stock f.
15. Farcy. Le Farcin, Fr.
5O4
ircy. shall conclude this chapter with a brief account
of two diseases ; or rather, as it should seem, of two mo¬
difications of the same disease, that frequently take place
in the horse, to whom they are almost peculiar; though
something like them is occasionally found in other ani¬
mals. We shall hereafter take notice of what farriers
call the water farcy, which we consider as similar to
anasarca in the human body ; but the disease we are
about to describe, appears to be rather a peculiar in¬
flammatory affection of the absorbent vessels below the
skin. There seem to be two varieties of farcy, acute
and chronic; or rather a mild and a malignant variety.
The commencement of farcy appears to be rather ob¬
scure, and probably it is seldom observed in the begin¬
ning of the inflammation. The first appearances that
are described by writers, are a number of swellings that
rise in almost every part of the body, particularly the
head, neck, and extremities. The lymphatic vessels be¬
low the skin appear like knotted cords; and this appear¬
ance is found to be owing to a distention and inflamma¬
tion that take place in these vessels, especially at their
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
553
valves, where the knots are produced. As the disease Diseases.
proceeds, these knotted swellings burst, and ulcers are 1 s  
formed which are very difficult to heal. The forma¬
tion of these ulcers may be considered as terminating
the mild stage, and commencing the malignant form of
tlve disease; in which the horse loses his appetite, grows
lean and weak, and commonly has a degree of hectic
fever. If the progress of the disease has not been ar¬
rested, a swelling takes place in the head and nose, and
there comes on from the latter a copious discharge of a
peculiar glairy mucus, which shews that the disease has
degenerated into glanders, under which name we shall
proceed to describe it; and shall afterwards consider
the nature, causes, and treatment of both.
16. Glanders. Le Morve, Fr.
5O
According to Mr Blaine, the usual symptoms ofGlandeis
glanders are an increased secretion of the mucus of the
nose, which is at first thick, and like the white of an
egg. He has seen it continue so, while at other times
it becomes purulent; but there is usually a degree of
viscidity andglueiness about the matter, that as it were
fixes the sides of the nostrils together, and is strongly
characteristic of this disease. On examining the nostrils,
there may generally be perceived a number of ulcerated
surfaces, very similar to shankers that occur in the ve¬
nereal disease. These ulcers do not always appear
soon ; but they are produced in all virulent cases, and
never fail to appear when the disease terminates fatally.
They are at first small, and disposed in lines along the
lymphatic vessels ; but as the ulceration proceeds, it be¬
comes more extensive, till the whole inner surface of
the nostrils is affected, and at length the bones of the
nose are affected, and become carious. When the ul¬
cers have continued for some time, the matter changes
its glairy appearance, and becomes bloody and offensive ;
and this is more particularly the case when the bones
become diseased. In the latter stages of the complaint,
the emaciation and weakness of the animal are greatly
increased ; he becomes affected with a short tickling
cough ; the hair grows dry and harsh, and falls off on
the slightest touch, and thus the horse gradually pines
away.
Sometimes only one side of the head is affected, but
more commonly both at the same time.
The best account of the appearances of glanders on
dissection, has been given by M. Chabert, in a work
which he published in 1785, on the means of ascertain¬
ing the existence of glanders, and of preventing their
effects. From the numerous bodies which he opened,
M. Chabert has drawn up the following general account
of the morbid appearance?.
The lungs are generally more affected than any other
of the viscera ; we find them often swelled and filled
withhydatids, tubercles,and obstructions. The bronchial
glands are very often swelled and ulcerated, and this is
sometimes the only injury that we can perceive on dis¬
section. The membrane that lines the bronchia and
the wind-pipe, is most commonly inflamed and ulcerat¬
ed ; the bronchia are filled with a thick matter, that
commonly resembles what the animal discharges by the
nostrils. The internal surface of the bones that form
the different cavities of the nose, and the gristly parti¬
tion of the nostrils, are often carious, and covered with
purulent matter; and the membrane which lines the
4 A nostrils
FARRIERY;
5°6
FARRIERY.
n05trils Is ulcerated. The spleen, the liver, and the kid-
neys, are also sometimes considerably diseased } and the
Part VI
ulcerated state of the kidneys, not unfreqoently appears
during life, by the purulent matter that is discharged
with the urine. On opening the head, we sometimes
find the brain softer and more flaccid than in a healthy
animal. There is often a great quantity ol serum in its
cavities, and the glands are much swelled.
The glanders is liable to be confounded with several
of those diseases, in which an unusual discharge proceeds
from the nostrils as catarrh, strangles, and consump¬
tions : but chiefly with the two former. It may be dis¬
tinguished from catarrh, by the absence of fever in the
early stage ; bv the matter discharged from the nostrils
being thick and glairy from the first ; whereas, in ca¬
tarrh, there is almost always considerable fever in the
beginning, and the discharge is at first watery. In a
common cold the general health is also more or less a -
fee ted, and from the first there is usually a cough and
loss of appetite-, whereas, these symptoms scarcely ever
come on in glanders, till tl,e disease has subsisted lor a
considerable time. Glanders may be distinguished fiom
strangles by the high fever which commences the latter,
and by the swelling and speedy suppuration of the
glands of the mouth and throat.
° Of these two affections, glanders is the most dange¬
rous : as farcy, when taken at its commencement, may
frequently be removed but we believe the instances of
a perfect cure in glanders are very rare.
The causes of these complaints are very obscure. It
is said that farcy may be brought on by the same causes
that predispose to mange, as want of cleanliness, bard
work, and low diet } and there is no doubt that this dis¬
ease, as well as glanders, is contagious. Glanders, be¬
sides being produced by contagion, may also be the ter¬
mination of several disorders, as of catarrh, strangles,
and consumption, however different from these diseases
in their commencement.
The nature of glanders is not well understood, al¬
though, of late, many ingenious men have investigated
the subject, and made considerable discoveries. It is
not certain when the disease was first known. Mr
Lawrence dates it from the same period with the Lues
Venerea ; but there seems no doubt that the disease was
known to the ancients, though we do not know by what
name it was called. Vegetius speaks of a disease which
he calls humiditas, which Mr Blaine supposes to be
the same with our glanders $ but which the *ear^
Camper considers as analogous to the murrain, see IN
466. Blundevil, and after him Markham, give the
following description of its rise, progress, and comple¬
tion. “ Of cold first cometh the pose, (that is stoppage
of the head), and the cough, and then the glanders, and
last of all the mourning of the chine.” The two
Messieurs Lafosse, made, as we have seen, several disco¬
veries with respect to glanders, especially the father,
who, in 1749, demonstrated before the academy of scien¬
ces at Paris, that the seat of the disease is wholly in the
pituitary membrane-, and he proposed curing it by-
injecting the whole of this membrane through open¬
ings made with the trepan, into the frontal, nasal, and
maxillary sinuses. Lafosse divided the disease into se¬
veral species ; hut it appears that all these may be redu¬
ced to two, the mild and malignant, or the chronic and
acute ; the chronic being that in which the running of Diseases,
the nose is trifling, and of a transparent colour, with no ' y—*
appearance of ulceration in the nostrils -, while in the
acute or malignant variety, there is considerable ulcera¬
tion j the discharge is very offensive ; there is a swel¬
ling below the under jaw, and the bones of the nose
are carious.
The best of the English writers on farriery appear
to have known little or nothing of the disease more
than the symptoms. Dr Bracken considered it as not
contagious, and Gibson gives but a poor account of it,
for which he seems indebted to Snape.
“ The late professor of the veterinary college (says
Mr Blaine), published his remarks on this disease j but
it is evident that he knew little or nothing relating to
it, but what he gained from Lafosse, and consequently
his opinions offered nothing new. The present profes¬
sor has prosecuted the inquiries relative to it much far¬
ther, and by an extensive course of experiment has
thrown very considerable light on the nature of the dis¬
ease ; and though we are not yet much more success¬
ful in attempts at the cure, yet we have less reason to
despair. By Mr Coleman’s experiments it is proved
beyond a doubt that farcy and glanders are specifically
the same disease, but affecting different parts . to estab¬
lish this, horses have been inoculated with the matter
of farcy, and glanders has been produced; which put the
matter beyond a doubt. Farther, Mr Coleman produ¬
ced glanders m a sound animal by the inoculation with
the matter of glanders. This M. St Bel asserted could
not be done. Farcy has likewise been produced by the
same means, hut it appears that it was some time be¬
fore it could be effected -, but it has been produced by
Mr White. It cannot therefore be inferred, that be¬
cause the farcy and glanders are so diflerent m their
apparent situations they are distinct diseases : every poi¬
son has its preference of parts •, and likewise the same
poison, under different modifications, affects different
parts.
Mr Coleman is of opinion, that in glanders, the
whole circulating fluids are affected. To prove this,
he bled an ass from the jugular vein till he was to all
appearance dead, when he introduced the blood from
the carotid artery of a horse labouring under glanders,
till the ass was reanimated. In a few days the most ma¬
lignant glanders appeared. I believe another ass was
inoculated from this, which became glandered. This
experiment, I think, (adds Mr Blaine), tinows, great
light on this complaint, and indeed on pathology in
general; and we may hence be led to hope, that internal
remedies may be more useful than external, which have
been thought to be the only means by which we could
hope for "a cure ; for provided we could destroy the
poison existing in the blood, and keeping up the action
in the part; the action, or at least the specific part of
it, might cease in the affected part, and we might in¬
duce a healing process by the usual means. As such,
our only hope must consist in exciting a new action in
the system, whereby the glanderous one will he sus¬
pended, till by the continuance of the new action the
virus of glanders is completely expelled by the change
the fluids naturally undergo*.” _
The treatment of these diseases will differ accordingOwW
to their state and degree of malignity. For the cur® p°cac.
OArtVL F A B R I E R Y. 555
liJwease* fa'rcy> blisters are much extolled by Mr Feron, and
^ the actual cautery is very generally employed to des¬
troy the swellings of the lymphatics, and to excite these
vessels into greater action. To assist this purpose, diu¬
retics are to be administered, and the horse should take
as much exercise, especially draught labour, as he will
bear without considerable fatigue. Two remedies have
of late been employed internally, when the system be¬
comes considerably affected ; these are verdigrise, and
corrosive sublimate. Mr Feron directs the former to
be given in the following manner. A ball composed
of one drachm of verdigrise, and a quarter of an ounce
of common turpentine, is to be given every night and
morning, gradually increasing the quantity of verdi¬
grise till the horse can take from three drachms to half
an ounce in the course of the day. If the animal be¬
comes costive, he is to have a clyster night and morn¬
ing, and a purgative ball of seven drachms of aloes,
and half a drachm of calomel, once a week. After
having gone through a regular course of physic, he is
to have the following balls. An ounce of green cop¬
peras (e) in powder is to be mixed up with Venice tur¬
pentine, and a sufficient quantity of linseed powder,
to make eight balls, one of which is to be given every
morning, while costiveness is to be avoided as before
directed.
In giving the corrosive sublimate, we should begin
with a small dose (see Stimulants), and gradually in¬
crease it so long as the stomach will easily bear it. As
mercury in some form seems to be the best remedy that
can be employed in these affections, calomel, or the
common blue pill, may be given instead of the corrosive
sublimate, if the latter should occasion much disorder,
or if the horse is very much weakened. During this
course the animal must be supported by nourishing diet,
but should frequently have a change of succulent vege¬
table food. Mr Blaine speaks of a horse that was so
far reduced (by glanders, we suppose) as not to be able
to stand, and who was drawn into a field of tares, and
suffered to take bis chance j the consequence was, that
when he had eaten all within his reach, he was able to
rise and search for more, and eventually recovered.
The treatment recommended above has, it seems, of-
Iten been successful in farcy, and the same internal reme¬
dies have been recommended in glanders, but we be¬
lieve they have been employed with little success. Mr
Feron advises to draw blood in the beginning of glan¬
ders, while the disease is still local, and to keep the
animal upon warm mashes of bran, putting the same
into a nose-bag, for the purpose of fomenting the nos¬
trils. He is then to go through a course of gentle phy¬
sic, while strict attention is paid to the necessary di¬
rection of the food, exercise, dressing, cleanliness, and
water. The water must be always warm, and made
white with bran or gruel. After this course, he re¬
commends balls made of opium, arsenic, and sulphur,
or of extract of hemlock, calomel, &c. avoiding cos¬
tiveness during their exhibition. He thinks it necessary
to insert two rowels, one below the under jaw near the
swelling, and another under the chest; and he recoin- Distas<;i.
mends frequently syringing the nostrils with a lotion ——v-—.
made of two ounces of spirit of wine, and the same
quantity of vinegar, mixed with a gallon of water ; or
with a solution of corrosive sublimate. According to
this gentleman, if the disorder is attacked in its infan¬
cy, it will generally submit to the above course of treat¬
ment ; but if the disorder is so far advanced as to ex¬
hibit the symptoms of virulence, which we have de¬
scribed as constituting the acute or malignant stage of
it, it will increase in opposition to all art, and it will be
necessary to take away a life that every degree of assi¬
duity rvould not render worth preservation.
As the farcy is probably contagious, and the glan¬
ders in most cases is certainly so, it is proper, as soon as
a horse is affected with either of these diseases, to keep
him in a separate stable, and to take care that he does
not come near any other horses : and no part of his
harness, or furniture, should be used for any other horse,
till it has been well washed with soap and water, aud
exposed for a long time to the pure air.
Glanders is considered by Dr Darwin, and some
other writers, as a contagious catarrh, and in some
cases it certainly is so j but when it is the consequence
of farcy, or of dangerous chronic diseases, it appears
to be an affection of a peculiar kind. Mr Lawrence
considers the glanders as so perfectly incurable, that he
recommends the coUarmakers knife as the easiest,
cheapest, and most infallible remedy.
Chap. III. Of Lethargic or Comatose Diseases.
I. Apoplexy. Vertige, Fr. Staggers, Sleepy Stag- Apoplexy
gers, Lethargy, or Vertigo. or staggers.
Staggers is one of the most comprehensive terms in
farriery j and under it are confounded almost every af¬
fection of the brain, or all those diseases in which there
take place giddiness, unusual heaviness, drowsiness, or
convulsions. We have already seen the term applied
to inflammation of the brain, and we have no doubt
that many cases are described as staggers, which are
really instances of epilepsy. Of this kind we consider
the case so humorously related by Mr Lawrence in his
treatise on horses, vol. ii. p. 406. “ Walking up Fleet-
street, I observed a crowd of people wonderfully di¬
verted with the agonies of a cart-horse beating himself
almost to pieces, in, I think, the most violent convul¬
sions I ever witnessed. He threw himself repeatedly
upon the foot-path, and was very near going headlong *
into a shop,” &c.
Mr Feron, who in general keeps very clear of the
errors of ordinary farriers, which he often ridicules with
much success, has confounded inflammation of the brain
and apoplexy, under the general name of staggers, con¬
sidering them as both inflammatory, and merely modifi¬
cations of the same disease. Even Mr Blaine, who, as
Mr Lawrence expresses himself, seems upon every oc¬
casion eager to catch the dernier gout of science, has
4 A 2 described
(e) Mr Feron directs green copper: but we suppose this is merely a typographical error4 for copperas, or
sulphate of iron ; and we have therefore ordered it by this name, as sulphate of iron is a good tonic, and may be
very properly employed in this disease.
556 FARR
' Diseases, described staggers under the name of lethargy, and does
    not even mention its identity with apoplexy in the hu¬
man body.
We consider staggers, properly so called, as the same
with apoplexy; the appearances, the causes, and the
treatment of’both are the same, making allowance for
some slight variations in the structure and economy ol
the different animals whom they affect.
This complaint sometimes comes on suddenly $ but
in general it is preceded by symptoms that mark a con¬
siderable determination of blood to the head, such as
heaviness, drowsiness, insensibility, (see N° 3x 7.) occa¬
sional fits of giddiness, (see IS0 318.) and partial blind¬
ness, (see N° 321.). There seems no doubt that the
horse is sometimes affected with headache, which ap¬
pears by the animal’s hanging down his head and
drooping his ears, by the eyes being dull and watery,
by dropping of urine, and costiveness. These symptoms
often precede an attack of apoplexy, though they are
sometimes only signs of a disordered stomach.
When a fit of staggers comes on, the animal falls
suddenly, and is perhaps convulsed for a few minutes,
but more commonly appears quite insensible. Ihe
pulse during the fit is usually slower than natural, and
much oppressed ; the breathing is slow, heavy, and la¬
borious, and there is evidently an increased accumula¬
tion of blood in the vessels of the head. The animal
remains for a longer or shorter time in the fit, and
sometimes he never recovers j but, in general, in eight
or ten minutes the fit goes off, and the animal rises.
Sometimes after a fit of the staggers, the animal ap¬
pears for a time more active and lively than before j
but very often he remains heavy and sleepy, especially
after repeated attacks, and sometimes a paralytic af¬
fection of some of the limbs is the consequence of the
lit. p
Apoplexy may be distinguished from inflammation of
the brain, by the fever, restlessness, and fiery appear¬
ance of the eyes, that never fail to usher in the latter
complaint. We would distinguish it from epilepsy, by
the foaming at the mouth, and strong convulsions, by
which this latter is always accompanied.
An apoplectic fit may be the consequence of an over¬
loaded or otherwise disordered stomach j and is no un¬
common termination of several diseases, as epilepsy,
locked jaw, &c. But it is generally the consequence
of too much fulness of blood, brought on by a full diet,
attended by idleness or want of exercise. It is more
common to old than to young animals, especially such
as have large heads and short necks. For the imme¬
diate and many of the exciting causes of this complaint,
see Apoplexy, Medicine Index.
A fit of apoplexy is often produced in an animal that
is predisposed to it, by some sudden or violent exertion,
such as drawing a heavy load, &c.
The means of preventing apoplexy when an attack of
it is threatened, have been already explained (in N°
317,318, and 407.). When a fit of apoplexy takes place,
if the animal is full of blood, which generally happens,
it will be proper to bleed, from the temporal artery, or
jugular vein, to an extent proportioned to the state of
the animal. If the animal appears weak, bleeding
should not be attempted 5 but the determination of
blood to the head may be effectually checked by mak¬
ing pressure upon the carotid artery, taking care at the
I E K Y. Part VI,
same time, not to include the jugular veins. Mr Cole- Discasej.
man recommends tying up the carotid arteries in dan- *—
gerous cases of staggers, and Mr Feron says, that he
has often repeated this experiment with success. The
bowels should be emptied in the usual manner, as soon
as possible ; and a strong stimulating clyster should be
injected. When the animal comes to himself, if fat
and plethoric, he should have a good strong purgative
ball, and afterwards some gentle diuretic medicines. He
should be kept quiet for some hours after the fit \ but
when the physic has properly wrought, he should have
gentle exercise, which must be gradually increased, ac¬
cording as he is able to bear it} and great care should
be taken to keep the bowels open, and to prevent too
great an accumulation of blood.
2. Palsy. Paralysis. Thortor-ill, (in sheep.)
7 • 5°S !
The inferior animals sometimes become paralytic,
and we have seen that a palsy in the hind legs is one
of the principal symptoms of the distemper in dogs. A
paralytic disorder is not uncommon among sheep, and
is called by the shepherds the thortor-ill. It sometimes
arises from their having eaten some poisonous or nar¬
cotic plants, but is very generally the effect of great
weakness produced by want of proper nourishment.
The best remedy seems to be white vitriol, given three
times a day; and the food should be of the most whole¬
some and nourishing kind.
We had intended in this chapter to consider pretty
much at large, the various cases of suspended animation,
or asphyxia, such as drowning, hanging, suffocation
from fixed air or other noxious gases, as torpor from
cold ; but this article has already swelled to an unex¬
pected length, and we have yet much important matter
on our hands. We must therefore refer our veterinary
readers to the article Medicine •, as the means to be
there directed for restoring suspended animation in man
will, with some little modification, apply to similar cases
in the domestic animals.
Chap. IV. Of Spasmodic Diseases.
1. Locked Jaw. Tetanus. Stag-evil. Mai de Cerf.
5°9
lx has been remarked in N® 10. that horses are ex-Locked
tremely subject to the locked jaw, which proves one ofjaw.
the most obstinate and fatal diseases by which they are
affected. It seems also occasionally to appear among
cattle, but it occurs to them much less frequently than
to horses. We do not know that any writer has de¬
scribed this disease in the horse better than Mr Gibson,
whose description we shall therefore copy, though it is
expressed in rather an uncouth style.
“ As soon as a horse is seized in this manner, his
head is raised with his nose towards his rack, his ears
pricked up, and his tail cocked, looking with an eager¬
ness, as an hungry horse when hay is put down to him,
or like an high-spirited one, when upon his mettle ; in
so much that those who are strangers to such things,
when they see a horse stand in this manner, will scarce
believe any thing of consequence ails him; and I have
seen such persons greatly surprised when they have been
told of the danger. But they are soon convinced, when
they see other syjnptoms come on apace; that his neck,
grows
rt VI.
F A R B I E R Y.
iseases. grows stiff, cramped, and almost immoveable $ and if a
'-V—' horse in this condition lives a few days, several knots
and ganglions will rise on the tendinous parts thereof
and all the muscles, both before and behind, will be so
pulled and cramped and stretched, that he looks as if
he was nailed to the pavement, with his legs stiff, wide,
and straddling j his skin so tight on all parts of his
body, that it is almost impossible to move it $ and if
trial be made to make him walk, he is ready to fall at
every step, unless he be carefully supported; his eyes are
so fixed with the inaction of the muscles, as gives him a
deadness in his looks. He snorts and sneezes often,
pants continually with shortness of breath ; and this
symptom increases till he drops down dead, which ge¬
nerally happens in a few days, unless some very sudden
and effectual turn can be given to the distemper.
This disease is generally primary or idiopathic ; but
it is sometimes symptomatic. The pulse is not always
much affected ; there is seldom any fever, and the in¬
ternal functions are seldom impaired till towards the
latter stages of the disease.
We h ave not many accounts of the appearances that
have been discovered on dissecting horses which have
died of this disease. In two dissections by M. Huzard,
the bowels within the belly, especially the stomach and
large intestines, were considerably inflamed ; the liver
was full of black and fluid blood, and in one case a con¬
siderable quantity of blood had escaped into the cavity
of the belly ; the substance of the liver was very tender,
as if it were decomposed or rotten. The other viscera
of the belly, and the heart and lungs, were in their natu¬
ral state. On opening the head, considerable marks of
inflammation appeared in the brain, the c/ioroidplexus
was distended with blood, and in one case the maxil¬
lary and frontal sinuses of the right side were full of
black blood ; the dura mater was inflamed, and its ves¬
sels, as well as those of the brain, were turgid with
blood ; the ventricles of the brain contained a quantity
of serous fluid. In one of the cases the inflammation
bad extended even to the periosteum on the right side,
which was much redder than that on the left.
It is difficult to say whether the disease depended on
an inflammatory affection of the brain, or whether this
was the consequence of the violent spasmodic contrac¬
tion of the muscles during the height of the disease: but
we are inclined to think the latter was the case.
Instances of recovery from this disease in horses are
very rare ; we shall presently give one from Mr Gib-
sor, which is rather remarkable. A cautious opinion
ought therefoi’e to be given in every case of locked-
jaw.
This affection may be produced by various causes,
particularly from wounds, where the nerve is partially
divided; from cold, when the body is in a profuse
sweat. It may arise also from internal irritation, as
from worms, which, in Mr Gibson’s opinion, are a very
common cause of it. Probably it more frequently pro---
ceeds from wounds, as a puncture in the foot or any
other part; and it has certainly often been brought on
by the barbarous operations of docking and nicking.
There seems no doubt that the brain is the principal
seat of the affection.
In the treatment of locked jaw, it is necessary to use
some vigorous measures as early as possible ; but unhap¬
pily no method hitherto adopted has proved successful;
557
even in a few cases. Opium, aconite, hellebore, &c. Disease*,
have been tried in the veterinary college in very large 11 v"
doses, but without any beneficial effects. From con¬
sidering it as a disease of the brain, trepanning has been
used, with the view of making pressure on the brain,
and this has sometimes appeared to take off the spasm
of the muscles ; but as soon as the pressure was removed,
the spasms returned with nearly equal violence. An
infusion of tobacco, to the amount of two pounds, has
been given by Mr Coleman, but the symptoms appeared
to be aggravated. Mr Feron recommends bleeding,
and immersing the animal in a warm bath at 90° of
Fahrenheit, so as to keep the whole body covered with
the water for two or three hours, which he has known
to be successful ; but the horse must afterwards be
clothed and kept very warm. The most probable
means to relieve the animal seem to be giving opium in
large doses by way of clyster, frequently repeated, and
rubbing the whole body frequently with some stimulat¬
ing liniment, such as oil of turpentine and tincture of
cantharides. Mr Blaine recommends a clyster com¬
posed of a strong decoction of poppy heads, with two
ounces of camphire dissolved in brandy ; or if this be
thought too expensive, one with two ounces of spirit of
hartshorn and four ounces of oil of turpentine, mixed
with two or three yolks of eggs, and a pint of ale. The
cold bath is found one of the most effectual remedies in
the human body, and we should conceive that it is more
likely than any other means to do good in the horse ;
but it will be necessary to rub him as dry as possible
after throwing the water over him.
If it is ascertained that the disease proceeds from a
punctured or lacerated wound, it will be proper imme¬
diately to scarify the wounded part, so as, if possible,
completely to divide the affected nerve, as in some cases
where this has been done, the spasms have been removed.
It must be confessed, however, that even this has fre¬
quently failed. If it has proceeded from a punctured
wound in the foot, Mr Blaine thinks it advisable to take
up the nerves of that foot on each side ; for though this
might occasion temporary lameness, yet, if the horse
were saved, this might be removed in a few weeks. ^IG
The following case related by Mr Gibson, in his Case,
last work on the diseases of horses, is very instructive ;
even though it should be contended that the cure was
effected by nature, and not by Mr Gibson’s remedies.
A young troop horse was suddenly seized with this
kind of convulsion, which was first discovered as he was
leading out to water, at the afternoon’s watering time.
“ I happened, (says Mr Gibson), to be then present,
and perceived him come reeling along with his nose
turned out, his eyes fixed and immoveable, with all the
other signs that usually attend this fatal distemper ; and
when be came to the trough he could not reach the water
because of the cramp and stiffness of his neck ; and when
it was held to him in a pail, could not drink, though he
shewed an eagerness for it; his mouth being shut up so
close, that it was scarce possible to put a knife between
his teeth. W hen we found it impossible to administer
any kind of medicine, till by rubbing his cheeks, jaws,
and temples, and his whole neck, for a considerable
time, we made a shift, with great difficulty, to thrust
down part of a calomel ball, on the end of a small
stick, and then to put into bis nostrils a very small por¬
tion of a strong cephalic drink, thinking by that meana,
tG rt
558
FARR
Disease*, to convey the ball downwards into his stomach, which
‘ v   however had but little effect, any farther than this, that
he had not such sudden fits and agitations as I have seen
in others in the like circumstances, but continued more
quiet •, neither did his fever increase, as usually happens
when the distemper is gaining ground ; but all this
while his mouth continued so much shut, that he could
• neither eat nor drink for three weeks ; only by continu¬
ally rubbing his jaws and neck, he would sometimes
make a shift to suck a handful of scalded bran, or some¬
times a little oat-meal, moistened with warm water;
but in so small a quantity, that it is possible he might
have starved, if other methods had not been taken to
keep him alive.
« I have often observed that the forcing the jaws
open by violent means, puts a horse into such agonies,
that it rather increases than abates the symptoms; and
therefore I contrived to give him both iood and phy¬
sic by the fundament, through a pipe fourteen inches
long, by which he seemed to receive great benefit; for
we could perceive the symptoms to abate daily. His
Hanks grew more quiet, he stood more still, and free
from sudden fits and startings; all which symptoms are
usual in the continuance and increase ol the distem¬
per. The clysters were contrived in the following
manner.
“ Rue, pennyroyal, and chamomile flowers, or each a
handful; savin and box, of each a handful; garlic, an
ounce ; castor and assafoetida, of each half an ounce.
“ In making this clyster, the herbs are to be boiled
first, in two quarts of water, in a covered vessel, the
•pace of ten or fifteen minutes, with the castor and assa¬
foetida cut in small pieces, and tied in a rag ; not only
to save the castor from waste, but that it may be squeez.-
©d into several clysters. Then the garlic to be added
and continued, close covered, over the fire the space of
ten minutes longer; after this the liquor to be poured
off into a pan, or any other convenient vessel; then add
of linseed oil and treacle, of each four ounces, with half
an ounce of unrectified oil of amber ; the treacle and
the oils are to be mixed with the decoction, when it is
put into the bag.
“ This clyster was repeated once a-day for a fort¬
night ; and by way of diet, was given every day three
or four quarts of milk, boiled with oat-meal and water,
a bag with a long pipe being left in the stable for that
purpose. He retained every thing that was administer¬
ed that way, which he generally sucked up of himself
without force. This perhaps was in some measure ow¬
ing to the nature of this universal convulsion, which
causes such irregular motions in the midriff and mus¬
cles of respiration, as in some measure inverts the natural
motion of the guts ; and for the same reason horses in
this condition seldom dung, but stale often ; and when
they dung, it drops from them in a manner insensibly,
and often no more than one or two balls at a time :
and therefore as this horse could receive little or no
sustenance by the mouth, I was determined to make
trial how far he might receive nourishment by way of
injection backwards; whether a thin diluted food
thrown into the straight gut, and from thence over in¬
to the small guts, by the help of a long pipe, might
not find a passage into the blood through the lacteals,
especially the experiments of this kind made on the
human body, both in administering food and physic,
I E R Y.
Part Vli
particularly in giving the bark, by way of clyster, in Diseaiei,
agues and intermitting fevers, which has been found v—*
successful where the stomach was not able to bear its
austerity. It was upon this footing that I treated him
in the manner I have described, which I imagined was
not altogether without effect; for he scarce ate in three
weeks what was sufficient to sustain him one day; so
that it was impossible for him to have lived, had he not
been supported by what was thrown into his bowels ;
and though by this means he lost his flesh very sensibly,
yet he still retained a good deal ot vigour and vivaci¬
ty. He had two men constantly to look after him,
and these relieved by others, who had orders to rub
bis whole body often, which greatly helped to relax
his skin, and remove the crampness of his muscles ; and
though he bad not for the first fortnight recovered the
use of bis jaws, yet we observed him daily to move with
less stiffness, and often to lick in his manger, as if he
craved after food. He also breathed with less difficulty,
and had several other good signs. rIliis encouraged
me to try another experiment with opium, from the
known quality of that drug in relaxing the animal
fibres; which I therefore thought might be of service
to remove the contractions of the muscles about Ins
mouth and jaws, which all this while continued in some
measure obstinate, and, without some powerful relief,
might prove fatal, even though the original cause was
in a great measure taken away ; therefore I caused an
ounce of crude opium to be dissolved in one of his cly¬
sters, which was followed with these circumstances, that
the horse soon lay down, began to point his ears back¬
wards and forwards, and could move his neck pretty
freely, and his mouth was so far at liberty, that he
took his drink with little or no difficulty, and could
eat hay and bran sufficient to sustain him. He like¬
wise moved his whole body so readily, that rve could
walk him an hour every day ; and that I might follow
what I imagined had been so successfully begun by the
opiate clyster, I ordered him some days after an ounce
of the common Matthew’s pill, which contains about
two drachms of opium, and the same quantity of assa-
feetida, made into a ball, which was given at bis mouth,
and ryashed down with a nornful of gruel, which was
done with great ease, bis mouth being grown pretty
pliable. This ball being once more repeated, be re¬
covered daily, being continued for some time in the
use of the drinks, which were now administered only
twice a-week, with a good rubbing; and as soon as be
began to recover his flesh, he was gently purged. By
these means he w’as perfectly cured, without any other
ill effect than a blemish upon one eye, caused by the
violent and strong contraction of the muscles during the
convulsions, which indeed were as bad as any I ever
saw, even where they proved the most fatal.’’
We have related the above case thus particularly, in
the author’s own words, because we have scarcely ever
seen a case of locked-jaw in horses so well described,
both as to its progress and treatment. Whatever might
have been the cause that produced the complaint in
this horse, it was evident that it did not depend upon
any congestion of blood in the head, and Gibson judged
very properly in not employing bleeding, ^ purging, and
rowels, which appear to have been the indiscriminate
practice of farriers in his time ; and which might bo
very proper where the convulsions proceed originally
from
FARRIERY. 559
Gibson says, that he has seen the far- dog at his own shadow, panting, running a straight Diseases.
and heedless course against any thing in his way, bit- y-—
ing with violence ; other dogs fly him by instinct.
By comparing the above diagnostics with the follow¬
ing account of Air Meynell’s, it will be seen how little
dependence is to be placed on the description of those
who have not written from their own actual observa¬
tion. We doubt not that Air Lawrence derives his
account from what he conceived to be the best infor¬
mation, and he is therefore not accountable for his er-
art VI.
i&ieaae*. from the head.
J riers in such cases put a rowel on each side of the neck,
one on the belly, one on the forehead, and one on each
side. It appears, however, that this practice met with
but little success, as in this complaint the skin is drawn
so tight in all parts that the rowels seldom suppurate
kindly, but very commonly produce a mortification, and
thus increase the animal’s distress.
2. Epilepsy, or Falling-sickness. Convulsions.
We have already stated onr opinion, that several
cases that are commonly called staggers are really in¬
stances of epilepsy, and we have no doubt that several
strange convulsive disorders that are described as af¬
fecting domestic animals may be referred to the same
head. Of this kind we consider the skipping complaint
among lambs described by Air Lawrence j “ I remem¬
ber in former days, (says be), on the borders of Suf¬
folk, several scores of lambs were seized with an un¬
common malady, leaping and jumping about the fold-
yard in a strange manner $ and a dung-heap being rais¬
ed to the level of the eaves of a low-tiled barn, a num ¬
ber of the lambs ran skipping up to the top of the roof,
as though they bad been possessed by more devils than
Alary Magdalen, or even the nuns of Loudun. The
whole parish wisely concluded they were bewitched, and
a wretched and aged pauper became the object of their
suspicions and their deadly hatred. I do not precisely
recollect, but I fear the brutal, senseless, and infernal
supposed preventive of witchcraft was recurred to,
burning one of the poor animals alive.” We should
be disposed to account for so many animals being seized
with it at once, on the principle of imitation, just as
we have seen a number of children at school fall into
fits from seeing one of their number affected with epi¬
lepsy. The treatment of this complaint must be regu¬
lated by the state of the body at that time. If this is
plethoric, bleeding, purging, and low diet, will be ne¬
cessary ; if it is weak, a strengthening plan must be
adopted.
3* Canine AIadness. Hydrophobia. Rabies Ca~
nina. La Rage, Fr.
Of this most dreadful malady, the nature of which is
so little understood, and of which the cure still remains
a desideratum in medicine, the accounts hitherto given
are very imperfect.
Our principal object should certainly be to ascertain
the origin and progress of the symptoms, as they appear
in the dog, in whom the disease appears to originate.
The account of these symptoms, as given by different
authors, is exceedingly contradictory. The best ac¬
count that we have seen is that of Aleynell of Quoi n-
don in the county of Leicester, and which is published
by Dr Arnold in bis account of a case of hydrophobia.
Before we give Air Meynell’s view of the symptoms,
we shall quote a passage from that part of Mr Law¬
rence’s treatise on horses, in which he speaks of canine
madness. The passage is as follows. “ The diagno¬
stics of canine madness are, hunger and thirst, without
power to eat or drink} trembling, eyes fierce and
flaming, hanging of the ears and tail, which is bent in¬
wards } lolling of the tongue, foaming, barking of the
513
SI*
line
‘Inesj,
According to Mr Aleynell, the first symptom of ca-Mr Mey-
nine madness in dogs appears to be a failure of appe-neh’8 ac*
tite in a small degree, that is, the dog does not eat his^"1
usual food with his usual eagerness, though, if better
food be offl’ered him, he may eat it greedily. A dispo¬
sition to quarrel with other dogs comes on early in the
disease. A total loss of appetite generally succeeds,
though dogs sometimes eat and lap water the day before
their death, which generally happens between seven
and ten days after the first symptoms have appeared.
A mad dog will not cry out on being struck, or show
any sign of fear on being threatened ; though he will,
very late in the disease, appear sensible of kind treat¬
ment. A mad dog, in the height of the disorder, has
a disposition to bite all other dogs, animals, or men.
When not provoked, he usually attacks only such as
come in his way } but having no fear, it is peculiarly
dangerous to strike at or provoke him.
Mad dogs appear to be capable of communicating
the infection early in the disorder, and as soon as they
begin to quarrel with and bite other dogs.
The eyes of mad dogs do not look red or fierce, but
dull, and have a peculiar appearance, which is easily
distinguished by such as have been used to observe it,
but which is not easy to be described.
Alad dogs never bark, but occasionally utter a most
dismal and plaintive howl, expressive of extreme dis¬
tress, and which they who have once heard can never
forget. So that dogs may he known to he going mad
without being seen, when only this dismal howl is heard
from the kennel.
Alad dogs do not foam or froth at the mouth, but
their lips and tongue appear dry and foul or slimy.
Alad dogs are generally sufficiently sensible to know
those to whom they have been accustomed.
Air Aleynell is confident that dread of water is not a
symptom of this disease in dogs.
Though mad dogs generally refuse both food and
drink, in the latter stage of the disorder, yet they never
show any abhorrence or dread of water, will pass
through it without difficulty, and lap it eagerly to the
last. But it is remarkable, that though they will lap
water for a long time, and eagerly, and do not seem to
experience any uneasiness from it, yet they do not ap¬
pear to swallow a single drop of it } for however long
they may continue lapping it, no diminution of quanti¬
ty can be perceived.
He has never known a dog shew symptoms of the
disease in less time after the bite than ten days } and
he has known many instances of dogs having died mad
as late as eight months after the bite. The symptoms
generally appear between three and eight weeks after
the bite.
A dog had been bitten, and confined by accident,*
and
560
farriery.
Part V
Diseases, and not from any suspicion of danger, _ for a whole
-v—-' vear, so as to have no communication with any other
dog all the time j and went mad at the end of that pe-
ri°Mr Meynell makes the following additional obser¬
vations. “ I am persuaded that the disorder never ori¬
ginates from hot weather, putrid provisions, or from
any other cause but the bite. For however dogs may
have been confined, however fed, or whatever may
have been the heat of the season, I never knew the
disorder commence, without being able to trace it to
that cause 5 and it was never introduced into the ken¬
nel but by the bite of a mad dog. I do not say that X
am certain that the disorder never originated from
any cause except the bite ; but I say that I never
knew a dog go mad that I had no reason to believe had
been bitten.
“ Some dogs, in the last stage of the disorder, have
a locked jaw.
“ I do not recollect ever to have heard a dog bark
after I have perceived symptoms of madness upon him.
“ I consider an unusual disposition to quarrel with
other dogs as a certain sign of beginning madness ; and
it is the only one I know.
“ I believe the disorder always comes on so gradually
that mischief may be prevented by proper care.
“ I believe after symptoms have ever appeared, they
never go entirely oil j and that the disease, though
sometimes very slow in its progress, always terminates
in death.
“ Dogs known to have been bitten frequently es¬
cape, but I believe not near so frequently as men.
“ Almost all the mad dogs that I have seen have
been confined.
“ The hairs of a mad dog do not stand erect more
than those of other dogs.
“ I do not know that there is any thing remarkable
in the manner of a mad dog’s carrying his head or his
ta>l* r • 1
“ I do not know that there is any thing fierce in the
appearance of the eyes of a mad dog. I believe I
should know a mad dog to be mad from the appearance
of his eyes, but I cannot describe this appearance.
“ I do not know that a dog in the beginning of this
disorder, is disposed to sneak aw'ay growling, or to shun
the society of other dogs j but if I observed any thing
particular in the manner of a dog, I should certainly
confine him.
“ I do not believe that dogs are more afraid of a
mad dog than they are of any other dog that seems
disposed to attack them.”
(Mr Daniel was witness to an instance of this innate
dread of a mad dog in other dogs, at Bradwell in Es¬
sex, where he was hunting with the reverend H. Bate
Dudley. Mr Dudley walked his hounds to the water
to swim them } he had himself swam over to an island
about a hundred yards from the shore, and most of the
hounds had followed him, but some of them could not
be compelled to do so. At this juncture an alarm of a
mad dog was given, who had been pursued many miles,
and done variety of mischief in his progress j he seized
one of the hounds that would not go into the water,
* Daniel's and the remainder, to the number of seven or eight, im-
'—1 mediately upon his approach to them, took to the water,
N‘
1 attacked
2
3
4
5
6
July 1st.
August 3d.
September 3d.
Ditto 4th.
November 10th.
December 8th.
“ There are two kinds of madness, both of which I Diseast
have known to originate from the bite of the same dog.—y-
Among huntsmen, one is known by the name of raging,
the other by that of dumb madness. In dumb madness,
the nether jaw drops, and fixes ; the tongue hangs out
of the mouth, and slaver drops from it. In raging * ArmU\
madness, I believe the mouth is shut, except when the
dog snaps or howls, and that no moisture drops from
it
The following facts and observations upon the con¬
sequences of the madness among Earl Eitzwilliam’s
hounds, perhaps mark the attack and symptoms of this
disorder more accurately than any other description of
a similar accident.
In the night of the 8th of June 1791, the man who
slept in the kennel was unusually disturbed by the
hounds fighting ; he got up to quiet them several tiroes,
and always found the same hound quarrelling. Noticing
the riotous behaviour of this particular hound, and at
the same time an appearance of stupidity in him, he
was induced to suppose that he was going mad, and ac¬
cordingly confined him in a place by himself, after
which the pack was quiet the remainder of the night.
When the huntsman came to the kennel in the morn¬
ing, he was told what passed, and the supposed mad
hound shewn to him; his appearance was suspicious j
some meat was given to him, part of which he ate, al¬
though there was an apparent difficulty in swallowing.
Two days passed in suspense but at the end of the
third day bis disorder was confirmed •, and at the end
of the fifth day he died mad. Immediate preparations
were made for confining 42 couple of hounds separate¬
ly, until the month of September, which was rigidly
adhered to. By this means, Mr Hopkinson, a medi¬
cal gentleman of Petersborough, had an opportunity
wherein he very skilfully and exactly minuted the
symptoms and progress of this disease.
Six hounds went mad in the following order.
Rural
Sports.
and swam across to those in the island*.)
3
The hounds were first taken from their chains in
September, and exercised for about half an hour to*
gether, not more than four or five couple at a time,
and not trusted out of the sight of the attendant. W hen
this exercise was over, they were again confined sepa¬
rately, and fed at separate troughs. In the beginning
of October, they were taken out ten couple at a time ;
at the latter end of that month, twenty couple ; still ob¬
serving the same caution with respect to separate con¬
finement after they returned from exercise. In the be¬
ginning of November they were hunted, but were
chained up, as at first, after hunting, until the third
week of that month, when they were let loose in differ¬
ent apartments of one, two, three, four, and five couple
together. This regulation was continued till the month
of June 1792, as the huntsman, who has had much ex¬
perience in this disease, did not deem them safe under a
vear.
The only remedy employed was mercurial ointment;
and all the hounds, except the bitches that were in
whelp,
"art VI. F A B R
Diseases, whelp, underwent two frictions, so as to produce in some
— y ' of them a violent salivation.
Mr Hopkinson remarks, that from the above state¬
ment it seems that the disorder is as virulent, as to the
power of inoculation (by which process it is always
communicated) at its commencement, as at the advan¬
ced stage of it $ for all the six dogs that went mad were
probably infected on the 8th of June, within a few hours
of each other.
It is a common opinion, that when a dog is bitten by
one that is mad, a few weeks confinement, sea-bathing,
or the popular nostrums, are either of them sufficient to
prevent his taking the disease, and from spreading its
mischievous effects j but in this case, there was a fair
opportunity of proving that there is no security after
six months, perhaps not after twelve; that mercury has
no certain power to prevent it; and it appears that the
huntsman had repeatedly employed all the popular re¬
medies, without any effect whatever. He had also observ¬
ed nearlythe sameprogress of thedisease in several packs
of hounds, where no expence had been spared, for every
medicine in use, sea-bathing, &c. In the present in¬
stance, there was this remarkable difierence, that no
internal medicine had been given, and the huntsman
never knew fewer hounds attacked with the disease.
The result of the huntsman’s experience in the pre¬
ventive plan is therefore in favour of a separate con¬
finement ; for whenever he had depended on medicine,
and not on the above plan of treatment, the disease had
made dreadful havock.
There is no reason to suppose that the hound which
first went mad, was not bitten by any other dog, but
that it was in him a spontaneous disease. The whole
pack were examined very attentively, and bites found
upon four couple, one of which was seen fighting with
the mad hound twice ; he underwent a longer confine¬
ment than the rest; however, none.of them were at¬
tacked by the disease, and it is singular that no bites
were discovered upon the six hounds that went mad.
The infection taking place or not, is therefore perhaps
the result of chance ; yet, although no bites were per¬
ceived upon the hounds which went mad, there is every
ground to believe they were bitten, but that the wounds
being small, were concealed by the hair. Mr Daniel
suggests, that most probably there were bites within
side of the lips or jaws, where the venomous saliva
might be more fatally and quickly absorbed into the ha¬
bit, than where the teeth had to penetrate through the
thick outer skin of the dog.
Mr Hopkinson continues his remarks with respect
to the symptoms of madness in dogs, and states that
those which distinguish the attack of the hydrophobia,
are in general a loathing of food, although this is not
universal, as they will sometimes eat solid food, but re¬
fuse liquid. The first and only symptom that N° 3.
had of the disease, was eating his own excrement when
food stood by him ; the feeder knowing this to be con¬
trary to what the dog would do if he were well, he im¬
mediately confined him. For a day or two he was in
some doubt whether his suspicions were well founded ;
but he proved right, for the dog died raving mad upon
the fifth day.
At the commencement of the disorder, the mad dog
has a particular tendency (if loose) to lick and smell
the penis and fundament of another dog ; this should
VOL VIII. Part. II. b f
I E B Y. 561
be looked upon as a very suspicious symptom. The Diseases.
huntsman speaks of this as an almost never failing
one.
There seems for the first two or three days to be in¬
tervals of sense ; and during that time they usually re¬
cognise their master, their eyes look clear and well,
their tongues moist, and of the proper colour ; but if a
dog is loose at this time, he will in general bite every
thing he meets with. He will sometimes, during this
stage of the disease, leave his home for several hours,
spread his disorder by biting men and beasts, and return
home again. 1 he mad dog, when confined, seldom
survives the fifth day from the first attack ; if suffered
to run about, there is reason to believe his death is has¬
tened by a day or two. At the end of the third or
fourth day, his appearance is much altered, his eyes are
sunk, his tongue black and dry, he makes horrid bowl¬
ings, and seems much disturbed; indeed the concluding
scene is dreadful to witness. In the first stage of the
canine madness, it is difficult for a person not conver¬
sant with the disposition of dogs in general, and of the
mad dog in particular, to ascertain whether the dog is
really mad or not ; even Lord Fitzwilliam’s huntsman
was doubtful for a day or two respecting the hound men¬
tioned in this account, as being the first attacked with
the disease ; however, in the advanced stage of it, no
one can be mistaken.
It is the generally received opinion, that mad dogs
will not take the water; but in the summer of 1791,
there occurred in the neighbourhood of Petersborough,
two instances of mad dogs, when closely pursued, swim¬
ming a large navigable river. A doubt might have ari¬
sen, as to their being mad, but that two hogs went mad
from the bite of one, and the other was pursued for
many miles by Lord Fitzwiiliam’s huntsman, who,^™^*
from his experience in the disease, was not likely to be Sports.
mistaken. Both dogs completely swam the river 5x5
Of all the remedies that have been employed for the
cure of this dreadful disorder, none seems so likely to
be successful as the cold bath. This remedy was re¬
commended about 200 years ago bv the Seigneur d’Es-
parron, in his “ lauconnene,” and he gives a curious
instance of its success in the cure of a mad dog. “ I
will relate (says he), what happened to a gentleman
of my acquaintance. He discovered that some of his
dogs had been bitten by a mad dog; and after some
time, several of them betrayed symptoms of the disease.
Ihese he ordered to be killed ; but it happened that
one which was a great favourite was seized, and he de¬
sired his servants to throw him into the river. By
chance, the dog in coming up from the bottom, got
entangled in the roots of a tree by the cord with which
he had been tied, but in such a manner that his nose
just remained above the water. In this situation he re¬
mained for three days, at the end of which period he
got loose and returned to the house, to the great as¬
tonishment of his master ; and here I afterwards saw
him, as cheerful and healthy as before. I have no
doubt (continues d’Lsparron) that if mad dogs could be
plunged intoavater without danger of their biting, they
would all recover ; and I believe that if the same prac¬
tice were pursued with men, which might easily be done,
many an unfortunate wretch might be saved. The
danger of being bitten might be prevented by first put¬
ting a muzzle on the animal, and he might then bq re-
4 B tained
562
Diseases, tained in the water, as long as may be judged prudent
< .1.—.y—... > or necessary
*D'Espar- Another writer, Defouilloux, who published a work
ran Fau- on |ltmtjng in 1583, recommends plunging into salt-
fo/une, gu(;1° (1ogs as |)ave been bittenj for the purpose of
preserving them from the effects of the disease.
As the effect of remedies when the complaint once
appears is so uncertain, it should be our principal object
to use all the preventive means in our power. When,
therefore, it is discovered that an animal has been bitten
by one that is mad, the wounded part should immedi¬
ately be cut out, where this can be done with safety, or
at least should be deeply scarified to the very bottom of
the bite. The wound should then be repeatedly washed
with soap and water, or with a solution of soda poured
upon it in a stream from a considerable height j and
afterwards the wound should be seared to the bottom
with a hot iron •, or where this cannot conveniently be
done, a quantity of aquafortis, or oil of vitriol, should
be poured into it, so as to destroy all the remains of
the virus or poison. If the part bitten be the ear, it
should be cut off and seared. After these means, it
will be proper to plunge the animal once a day into
cold water, or where convenient into the sea j and he
should be strictly watched, that if these means should
have proved unsuccessful, the earliest appearance of the
disease may be perceived.
Dr Arnold, to whom we are indebted for Mr Mey-
nell’s account of the symptoms of madness in dogs,
gives the following advice with respect to the method
of treating a dog that is suspected of being mad.
$16 “ Though every dog that is bitten does not receive
the disorder, yet, as the time of its appearance after the
bite is so very uncertain, and as a great proportion of
those that are bitten do actually receive it, and as there
is no criterion by which we can ascertain whether a dog
has or has not received the infection, but the breaking
cut of the disorder, it is earnestly to be wished that all
owners of dogs would immediately destroy, or secure
for a great length of time, every dog known, or but
suspected, to have been bitten by a mad dog.
“ It is also earnestly to be wished, that all persons
possessing dogs would immediately tie up or destroy
such of their dogs, whether known to be bitten or not,
as shall begin to be disordered in any way, of which
the nature and cause is not perfectly obvious ; and es¬
pecially if there be the smallest reason to suspect that
the dog was bitten, and that the disorder is really an
incipient madness.
“ It is still more to be wished that they would im¬
mediately destroy all dogs known to be in any state of
madness, if it be at the same time known that they have
not yet bitten any other animal, and particularly no
person whatsoever ; and that no dog that has bitten
anv animal or person be destroyed as a mad dog if it
can be avoided, but that every dog be secured and
tied up, that it may be certainly known whether he
be mad or not. If he has the symptoms of confirmed
madness, they will plainly discover themselves, and he
will die in ts>n days and less j if he is not, he may be
Artn0Jd safely enlarged in the space of a fortnight, and the per-
yhobui. * S0H bitten will be freed from the most distressing ap-
517 prehensions. *’*
Worming Before we dismiss the subject of canine madness, it
ȣ dogs, be exgected that we should take some notice of the
2
Part VI,.
operation of worming dogs, so celebrated among Dieeasec
huntsmen and breeders ol dogs, as a supposed preven- '"
tive of this dreadful malady. This operation is as
old as the days of Pliny, and has ever since been more
or less esteemed among the vulgar. But neither the
operation itself, nor its effect, seem to have been well
understood. The idea of a worm being lodged in the
tongue of the puppy, the extraction of which is to pre¬
vent the animal from going mad, is truly ridiculous j
and as such has been deservedly laughed at by sensi¬
ble people in all ages. But though it is neither a worm
that is extracted, nor is the extraction a preventive of
madness, it seems, however, pretty well ascertained,
that the performing of this operation is productive of
considerable advantage, in preventing the dog from
doing mischief, even though he should run mad. It
seems that in dogs who have been wormed, and are af¬
terwards seized with hydrophobia, the tongue swells to
such a degree as to prevent the animal from closing
bis jaws upon the object which he attempts to bite.
The following observations of a late ingenious and
entertaining writer on the subject are entitled to much
attention.
Very strong proofs have been adduced of its utility
nor is it natural to imagine, that so easy and effective an
operation would have been omitted, had no more vir¬
tue been attributed to it than it really possesses $ and
wherein it failed, the absolute prevention of madnesa
was said to be the consequence *, whereas the fact was
and is, that taking out the worm hath nothing to do
with annihilating the disorder, although it will most
certainly hinder the dog, seized with it, from doing
any hurt to man or beast. A late author asserts, he
had three dogs, that vvere wormed, bit by mad dogs at
three several periods, yet, notwithstanding they all
died mad, they did not bite to do any mischief j that
being determined to make a full experiment, he shut
one of the dogs up in a kennel, and put to him a dog
he did not value j the mad dog often run at the other
to bite him, but his tongue so swelled, that he could not
make his teeth meet. The dog was kept in the kennel
until the mad one died, and was purposely reserved for
two years afterwards, to note the effect, but he never
ailed any thing, although no remedies were applied to
check any infection that might have been received
from the contact of the mad dog.
Mr Daniel has had various opportunities of proving
the usefulness of worming, and inserts three of the most
striking instances, under the hope of inducing its gene¬
ral practice.
A terrier bitch went mad that was kept in the ken¬
nel with 40 couple of hounds: not a single one wa*
bitten, nor was she seen to offer to bite. The bitch
being of a peculiar sort, every attention was paid to her,
and the gradations of the disease, (which were extreme¬
ly rapid) minutely noted. The hydrophobia was fast
approaching before she was separated from the hounds,
and she died the second day alter. At first warm milk
was placed before her, which she attempted to lap, but
the throat refused its functions ; from this period she
never tried to eat or drink, seldom rose up, or even
moved ; the tongue swelled very much, and long be¬
fore her death the jaws were distended by it.
A spaniel was observed to be seized by a strange
dog, and was bit in the lip 5 the servant who ran up to
e Part
FARRIERY.
’art VI. FARRIERY.
Diseases. p-irt them, narrowly escaped, as the dog twice flew at belly with his hind feet. There is seldom any fever in
1 i a ^ew minutes after the dog had quitted the yard, this disease ; and when it does occur, it is only after the
the people who had pursued gave notice of the dog’s disease has existed for some time. The pulse is seldom
madness, who had made terrible havock in a course of affected ; hut when the pain is very great, it is a little
ten miles from whence he had set oflf. The spaniel was quicker than natural. The belly commonly feels hard
a great favouiite, had medicine applied, and every pre- and tense. Colic is almost always accompanied with
caution taken ; upon the fourteenth day he appeared to costiveness, though griping pains not unfrequentlv at-
loathe Ins food, and his eyes looked unusually heavy j tend severe scouring.
the day following he endeavoured to lap milk, but If the above symptoms are attentively examined, they
could swallow none j from that time the tongue began will commonly serve to distinguish this disease from in¬
to swell, he moved himself hut seldom, and on the third flammation of the bowels. It is generally observed,
day he died. lor many hours previous to his death, that the pain in colic returns only at intervals, and the
the tongue was so enlarged, that the fangs or ca- extremities are seldom cold. It must not be overlooked
nine teeth could not meet each other by upwards of an however, that when colic continues for a considerable
inc'v, time, it may terminate in inflammation, so that the dis-
Lhe hounds were some years after parted with, and tinguishing symptoms mentioned here and in N° 497.
were sold in lots. A madness broke out in the kennel are to be depended on, only in the early stage of the
of the gentleman who purchased many of them ; and disease.
although several of these hounds were bitten and went Cattle are extremely subject to colic ; but it is said
mad, only one of them evei attempted to bite, and that to be more common in young than in old cattle. The
was a hound from the duke of Toitland s, who, in the symptoms do not differ from what we have described,
operation of worming, had the worm broke by bis strug- only that it is said, that these animals, when affected
gling, and was so troublesome that one half of it was with gripes, strike their heads and horns against every
suffered to remain ; the others all died with symptoms thing in their rvay. J
similar to the terrier and spaniel, viz. a violent swelling Colic is easily removed, when the proper remedies
of the tongue, and a stupor rendering them nearly mo- are employed, before any symptoms of inflammation
tionless, and both which symptoms seemed to increase make their appearance *, but if the remedies be delay-
with the disease. . , ed till inflammation takes place, the cure is very pre-
The idea that worming prevents a dog from receiv- carious. J
ing the infection when bitten should be exploded 5 but Colic is very commonly the consequence of neglect-
fche foregoing facts show how far it may be recommend- ed costiveness, and by this it is always increased. It
ed for the restriction of a malady horrid in its effects may be ascribed to improper food, especially such as
where a human being is concerned, and which to the is apt to produce flatulence or sourness in the stomach
sportsman and the farmer is attended with such dan- or bowels 5 bv drinking cold water immediately after
gerous and expensive consequences. _ • eating j and by exposure to cold, during violent sweat-
We cannot pretend to say, what it is that the worm- ing.
ers of dogs take away from the tongue ; but we cannot As it is not always easy to distinguish flatulent co¬
suppose, that Mr Daniel, though he calls it a worm, lie from inflammation, it is the safest plan to begin
really believes that it is so. The following are his di- the treatment by bleeding, to the extent of three or
rections for performing the operation. four English quarts j and the appearance of the blood
The worming of whelps should be previous to their will generally inform us whether it will be necessary
being sent out to quarters; this operation is to be per- to repeat the operation. See N° 162. The next cir-
formed with a lancet, to slit the thin skin which immedi- cumstance to be attended to, is the evacuation of the
ately covers the worm ; a small aw/ is then to be intro- bowels by back-raking and softening clysters. In ge-
duced under the centre of the worm, to raise it up ; the neral, after this operation, a large quantity of air will
further end of the worm will with very little force make be evacuated, and considerable relief will be afford-
its appearance, and with a cloth taking hold of that ed. After these means have been employed, some
end, the other will be drawn out easily. Care must be stimulating aromatics, such as oil of turpentine, oil
Daniel's taken that the whole of the worm comes away without of aniseseed, essence of peppermint, or some of the
tt. breaking j and !t rarely breaks, unless cut into by the other stimulants enumerated in N° 285, and 286
SU lancet> or wounded by the awl should be given by the mouth ; and if these do not
l!ic- 4. Colic. Colica. Spasmodic 0? Flatulent Colic, Gripes, Proc»re relief, it will be proper to give a ball contain-
Sats, Fret, or Gulliom. Tranchee, Fr. ing half an ounce of calomel, and immediately af~
. . ter it, a drench of peppermint water, with live or six
This is one of the most painful disorders with which drachms of laudanum. The cure will be considerably
horses are affected j and it seems to occasion them as assisted by rubbing the belly gently with a warm cloth j
much distress as inflammation in the bowels, with and the animal should be gently trotted, for a consider-
which it is very commonly confounded by ordinary able time, while led by the halter. Warm fomenta-
farriers. . . tions to the belly have been recommended; but if there
In this disease the horse expresses his pain, by fre- is a considerable accumulation of air in the stomach and
quently lying^ down and rolling on his back, and after bowels, these would do harm by increasing the expan-
having^ remained a short time in this position, starting sion of the air, and thus adding to the animal’s distress j
up again. TUie hair is staring, and there are sometimes for it must be remembered, that a horse cannot easily
cold sweats. He frequently makes attempts to stale, belch up wind by the mouth 5 and where there is any
looks anxiously at his flanks, and sometimes strikes his obstruction backwards, every thing that can increase the
4 B 2 expansion
563
Disease*.
Sip
Dropsy.
520
Water
farcy.
S*i
farriery.
expansion of the confined air, must do harm. On the
contrary, every thing that is capable of diminishing the
volume of air, may probably relieve the pain. It
might be worth while to try how far the application of
cold to the belly would be attended with advantage 5
and this might easily and safely be effected, by bathing
the belly-with strong spirit of wine, which speedily eva¬
porating, will considerably diminish the temperature of
the belly. It will be proper, where the disease conti¬
nues obstinate, to administer warm softening clysters,
every hour or two •, as well for the purpose of obviat¬
ing costiveness, as for removing the spasmodic constric¬
tion of the bowels. We are assured, that where most
other means have failed in procuring relief in flatulent
colic, this has been obtained by means of the smoke of
tobacco drawn up the fundament. The simplest way
of administering this remedy, is to introduce the small
end of a tobacco pipe, after having filled the bowl and
lighted it *, when the smoke will insensibly be drawn
up by the action of the horse’s bowels.
Chap. V. Of Dropsical Diseases.
Our domestic animals are sometimes affected with
dropsy j and this may be either diffused through the cel¬
lular membrane below the skin j or the water may be
contained within one or more of the cavities, as the
head, the chest, and the belly.
External dropsy, or what medical writers call ana¬
sarca, and farriers water farcy, is not common, unless
it accompanies a dropsical collection within the body.
It sometimes affects particular parts, as the legs, the
sheath, or the lips $ and at other times it is diffused over
the whole cellular membrane. It is known by the
swelling of the part, which is cold, and retains the im¬
pression of the finger for some time. The urine is ge¬
nerally more sparing and of a deeper colour than is na¬
tural ; and the animal appears considerably weak. tThis
disease, when it has proceeded to any considerable
height, and when the animal is much debilitated, is not
easily removed ; but when it is slight and of no long
standing, it will in general yield to remedies.
All the species of dropsy more commonly affect old
than young animals ; and such as are debilitated by any
previous cause, are more subject to it. It is said that
horses are more likely to become dropsical in spring
and autumn when they are moulting.
The cure of general dropsy is to be attempted by the
use of diuretic medicines, accompanied with a nourish¬
ing diet, gentle exercise, and frequent friction all over
the body, especially over those parts where the accumu¬
lation of fluid is situated. The action of the diuretics
must be assisted by a sufficient quantity of drink *, and
it will be proper to give the animal some of the more
powerful strengthening remedies, such as white vitriol,
oak bark, logwood, &c.
1. Dro?sy of the Head. Hydrocephalus. Sturdy.
Turnsick.
Dropsy of the head seldom affects horses or cattle ;
but a peculiar collection of water in the head is very
common among sheep, in whom it is called the Sturdy
or Turnsick. One of the best accounts of this disease
Part VI,
that we have seen is that which is given in the second Diseases,
appendix to Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles, which -y—«
we shall give nearly in the words of the author.
This disease is peculiarly incident to young sheep, or
hogs, of a year or eighteen months old. It consists of
a collection of water generally formed upon the exter¬
nal surface of the brain, immediately below the skull;
and sometimes, though not often, in the centre or
ventricles of the brain. When the water forms in the
last-mentioned parts, we apprehend it is almost univer¬
sally mortal.
The disorder isfirst discovered, by the animal not keep¬
ing up with the rest of the flock, and by its appearing
dull and stupid. It is afterwards observed to go round
in a giddy manner ; and at length it appears blind, and
the pupil of the eye seems wide and relaxed. It may
continue a long time in this situation before it dies j and
it is believed that sheep sometimes recover of this dis¬
ease without any thing being done for them. They
are often in good order when they die, as they con¬
tinue to feed tolerably well, until near the last period.
Though some recover, with or without means, perhaps
it may be most adviseable to kill them early in the dis¬
ease, provided they be in good order, as this local dis¬
temper does not affect the goodness of the mutton.
When the collection of water is on the outside of the
brain, it is often cured by thrusting a sharp wire up the
animal’s nostrils, until it reaches the water, and opens
a passage for it to run off. In other cases, it is cured by
an operation which some shepherds perform very dex¬
terously. The water is contained in a bladder, or vesicle,
(a hydatid') generally about the size of a walnut. The
part of the skull immediately above where it is situated,
feels softer than the other parts. This the shepherd dis¬
covers, by pressing with his thumb and fingers, upon dif¬
ferent parts of the fore and upper parts of the skull.
The bone here has become thinner, and feels soft j from
which he is certain that the watery collection is formed.
After the disease has gone on a considerable time, and
he judges it ripe for the operation, he raises the scalp,
and lays the bone bare to a sufficient breadth, with a
sharp knife ; he then discovers more accurately the ex¬
tent of the thin soft part of the bone, and with a strong
and sharp-pointed knife, he makes a circular incision in
the skull, raises up, and takes out the part. He then
sees the clear thin bladder underneath, which he lays
hold of with a small hook, or the point of a needle, and
gently draws it out ; taking all possible care that it be
not broken, or the water spilled, which would prove
unfavourable to recovery. He finds a considerable hol¬
low in the brain where the bag was situated, over which
he brings the flap of skin that was raised, so as to cover
it as neatly as possible. Over the whole, he applies a
plaster of tar, and leaves the rest to nature. This ope¬
ration frequently proves successful.
Mr Findlater remarks, that in Tweeddale, one case
in three, where a perforation is made by the pointed
wire, or the trepan, usually ends favourably. Of late
it has been the custom among the shepherds of that dis¬
trict, to bore into the skull of sheep affected with the
sturdy, with a common gimlet $ and however rough
or apparently dangerous the operation, it seems fre¬
quently to prove successful. The operation is made
by boring from the root of the nostrils, in an oblique
direction
’art VI.
FARRIERY.
incases.
j.
Jliitpsy of
chest.
U,2'5
U isy of
tllielly.
direction to the root of the horn on the opposite side of
the head.
2. Water in the Chest. Hydrothorax.
This complaint appears but seldom in the inferior
animals : but it may take place from excessive debility;
and according to Mr Blaine, it is sometimes the conse¬
quence of inflammation in the lungs. Here however
this writer is probably mistaken, and confounds water
in the chest with empyema, or a collection of matter
within the chest, which is not an uncommon termina¬
tion of pneumonia.
When dropsy in the chest does occur, the animal la¬
bours under a difficulty of breathing, especially when
lying down; and the pulse is feeble, and commonly ir¬
regular. The urine is scanty and high coloured. If
the collection of water is pretty considerable, it may be
perceived by the sound that is produced, when the chest
is struck with the hand j but this is often a deceitful
sign, and should not be tried till a long time after the
animal has drunk ; as, for some time after drinking, the
water that remains in the stomach will, when the ribs
are struck, produce a sound that might lead us to sup¬
pose there was water in the chest.
This complaint commonly proves fatal, both in man
and animals, and probably there is no means of cure,
except by evacuating the water, by an opening into the
chest; an operation which is always precarious, and
commonly as dangerous as the disease which it is in¬
tended to relieve. If it is determined however to try
the experiment, the opening should be made between
the seventh and eighth rib, near the breast bone, on that
side of the chest where the water is supposed to be ac¬
cumulated. In making the opening, the skin should
be drawn tight towards the edge of the seventh rib j
when a cut is to be made in the place above directed,
with a sharp knife, not cutting too boldly, but rather
scratching with the point of the knife, till the skin and
the muscles are completely divided. After this, a pipe
must be introduced through the opening, and fastened
by a bandage round the animal ; some soft linen or a
piece of sponge being placed over the opening, after as
much water as possible has run off’, to suok up the re¬
maining moisture, and exclude the air.
3. w ater in the Belly. Ascites.
This is the most common species of dropsy, and is
known by the genera! symptoms of dropsy that have
been described in N° 319. and 320. attended with an
unusual swelling of the belly *, while the skin is cold,
and very tight. When the belly is struck with one
hand, while the other is held upon the opposite side, a
fluctuation may be perceived, much more distinctly than
in the last species.
It is brought on by the usual causes of dropsy that
we have already mentioned, and it is not an uncommon
consequence of jaundice and other chronic disorders.
It is not quite so dangerous as dropsy in the chest, but
it is very apt to return after having been removed.
The treatment should be begun with diuretics, and
now and then a mercurial purge, while the body is
strengthened by tonic medicines, nourishing diet, and
gentle exercise. If the accumulation of water becomes
very great, it may be easily evacuated, by making a
puncture into the belly, and introducing a pipe as in the^
last case. Mr Lawrence has gone into the mistake ge¬
nerally committed, of supposing that little drink should
be given in cases of dropsy. It is now well ascertained
that moderate drinking considerably increases the effi¬
cacy of diuretic medicines.
Chap. VI. Of Anomalous Diseases.
1. Diabetes. Profuse Staling, or Pissing-evil.
It sometimes happens, that horses or cattle make aProftse
much greater quantity of urine than is natural ; so that stub’s-
the quantity evacuated exceeds the quantity of fluid
drunk by the animal. Probably this disease occurs
more frequently among cattle than among horses,
though it is scarcely mentioned by the writers on cattle
medicine, and the account that is given of it by veteri¬
nary writers is extremely imperfect. Mr Blaine de¬
scribes the urine, as being five or six times the natural
quantity, as milky or watery, and depositing a sedi¬
ment which has the taste and appearance of sugar. As
we have never observed a case of this disease in horses
or cattle, we cannot say how far this description of the
urine is correct j but if the urine evacuated by these
animals in diabetes resembles the human urine in the
same disease, it is clear and almost colourless, has the
smell and taste of honey, deposits little sediment, but
on being evaporated, leaves a thick substance like
treacle.
Considerable thirst accompanies this disease ; and!
when it has continued long, the animal becomes ex¬
tremely weak and emaciated. The skin is usually dry
and harsh, the pulse is small and quick, and the appe¬
tite in the early part of the disease is much increased.
This complaint commonly proves fatal; few instances
of a recovery having been observed in man ; and we
do not know that any successful case in any of the do¬
mestic animals is on record.
The causes of diabetes are very obscure, especially in ■
the inferior animals; it seems to be the consequence of
great weakness, and some unusual action of the diges¬
tive organs. The various theories that have been given
in explanation of this disease, as far as relates to the
human body, will be noticed in the article Medicine ;
and if we shall meet with an opportunity of examining
the disease in horses or cattle, we shall endeavour to
give a more accurate account of it, under VETERINARY’
Art.
In the treatment of diabetes in horses, &c. the me¬
thod proposed by Dr Rollo for the cure of this disease
in man, has been recommended, and we believe adopted,
by Mr Coleman; with what success we cannot say.
This method consists in making the animal abstain as
much as possible from vegetable food ; and giving him
broth and balls made of flesh, mixed up with paste of
wheat flour. He should have as little drink as possible. .
Astringent remedies are commonly employed in these
cases, such as Japan earth, alum, white vitriol, muriate
of iron, oak bark. See receipts, N° 29.
2. Black-Quarter, Quarter-Ill, or Black
Spald.
There is a disease that proves very fatal in some dis-Q ^ .
tricts to calves or cattle of a year or two old, the na-- arter L‘>
ture of which is little understood, but it seems nearly
allied.
$66
Disease*, allied to the Haivkes or Hocks, described in N° 428.
' v ’ Mr Lawrence considers the disease as appearing under
various forms, to which he gives the following names }
s/ieivt of blood; vomit of blood; blood in the back;
blood in the legs, or crateuch; blain in the tongue, or
overflow of blood ; striking in, or rising of the blood;
highani, or iron-striking; joint murrain, or garget;
black quarter ; quarter-evil; black leg.
We have given as a synonym the name of black
spald, because we consider the disease so called in Scot¬
land, as nearly, if not entirely, the same with the black
quarter of the writers on cattle medicine. As we have
not seen the disease, we shall copy what Mr Lawrence
says of it, in his treatise on cattle.
“ All our animals, oxen, sheep, and pigs, I have ob¬
served, are subject to sanguineous effusion or overflow
of the blood, on being put, in a low and weak state, to
rich or succulent keep. They very commonly drop on
a sudden, and die in the blood, as it is termed j when the
carcases putrify almost immediately, and are totally lost.
Pigs which die in this way, have their skins so univer¬
sally suffused with the blood, that they appear enve¬
loped, or rather shrouded, in Morocco leather. In oxen,
chiefly young cattle, nature commonly finds a vent for
the disease, in an eruption on the leg, quarter, or shoul¬
der, attended \e\\\\ pneumatosis or a collection of air in
-the cellular membrane, or, as it is commonly termed, be¬
tween the flesh and the skin j whence the crepitating or
crackling noise, which is heard on pressure. Another
termination of the disease, is by a deposition of matter
upon the joints, whence the term of joint garget or
murrain. I know not whether I am correct in referring
the crateuch to this class, which is said, in Scotland, to
be a swelling and lameness in the legs ; but the old
writers particularly mention blood in the legs. Blain or
garget in the tongue, attended with inflammation and
vesicles or bladders in that part, is said to be a symp¬
tom of the disease, and also to arise from heat and fatigue.
“ This disease has swept off great numbers of yearling
and two-year old cattle, and become indeed endemial
in certain districts, where any such scourge was un¬
known, it is said, previously to the introduction of arti¬
ficial grasses, with the full feeding on which the animals
become surfeited : thus the improvident use of good
produces evil. The breeders being alarmed at the ra¬
vages occasioned by this murrain, which generally car¬
ried off the forwardest and best of the cattle, no won¬
der that the fertile brains of cow-doctors were put into
intestine motion, and that the ideas of the favourite en¬
gines, the knife or fire, were whirled uppermost. In
effect, some skilful leech introduced the following most
extraordinary operation, as a preventive of the disease
in question ; which I apprehend in the contemplation,
either of physiology or common-sensology, could have
no better prophylactic or preventive view, than shaving
the animal would have; which I beg leave to recom¬
mend in the stead, as at least free from cruelty. The
ill-starred beast is cast, bound to a stake, all his four
legs are cut open from the claws upwards to the height
of several inches, in order to find among the tendons
and ligaments a strong blood vessel of a bluish colour,
which said offending vessel, guilty of the original sin of
producing joint murrain, being caught with a crooked
needle, is cut away. It is great pity, for the sake of
hypothetical uniformity, that the above-said blue blood-
Part VI
vessel had not been called a worm, since the brains of Dj,ea^,
so many of our cattle folk have been infested with » ■" v
worms from very high antiquity
After much jocose, but rather coarse ridicule of me-™*" CB
thods that have been proposed for the cure of this dis- ^
ease, Mr Lawrence thus proceeds. “ Prevention of
this malady is the only cure worth notice : because, af¬
ter the attack, the very nature of the case renders all
remedy either uncertain, or of very little profit, even it
successful, on account of the expence of time and mo¬
ney. With this view the young cattle must not be
pushed so forward in condition $ and indeed the same
precaution may be useful in some degree, with respect
to the full aged. A piece of short or inferior keep
should be reserved, as a digesting place, in which the
cattle may be occasionally turned to empty and exercise
themselves. Those observed to advance very fast may
be bled monthly for several months : of the efficacy
of this practice, however, I have by no means so
good an opinion as that of giving medicines which
prevent internal obstruction. I am well aware of the
difficulty, or rather total impracticability, of such mea¬
sures with a number of cattle in the field, or I am con¬
vinced, that occasional purges, or alterative medicines,
would prevent those diseases which seem to take their
rise in over repletion and accumulation. Six drachms,
daily, of equal parts sulphur and antimony, in fine
powder, would be sufficient for a young beast j but to
be of any permanent use, it must be continued at least
a month ; or salt might be of use. Rowelling also
might be an efficacious preventative. Keep two rowels
or setons open in each beast during several months f.” t IbM.
In the 5th vol. of the Farmer’s Magazine, is theP-588,
following communication from a practical farmer re¬
specting the cure of this complaint.
“ The first cure for this complaint that I ever saw
performed, was on an ox of four and a half years of age.
As he was going in the plough, I observed him a little
lame in one of the hinder feet. At first I thought he
had trampled upon a stone j but as it still grew worse,
I soon suspected it was the quarter-ill the more so, as
there was a good year-old died of that disorder three
weeks before. By the time he was got to the byre,
the crackling between the skin and the flesh was very
perceptible on the top joint of the off-side hinder leg.
As our blacksmith had some skill among live stock, he
was instantly sent for. The first thing he did was to
take a little blood from a vein in the neck. He then
pulled the skin from the flesh on the side that seemed
most pained, still keeping the beast walking as much
as possible. He then caused cold water to be poured in
large quantities on the part affected, still rubbing and
keeping the skin loose on the affected part. Finding the
skin to adhere much to the flesh, he then made three cuts
with a penknife, two inches long, into which he rubbed
salt and water. In this manner he continued four
hours : the one time driving him, then pouring on
water, rubbing in salt, and loosening the skin from the
flesh. By this time he was not near so cripple, and
began to take his food. We were ordered, however,
to keep him in motion all night, and in the morning
he was well for his food, and never had any more signs
of the disease. Since that time I have followed the
blacksmith’s practice, and have often been successful.
Only instead of pouring water on the place, I fasten a
rope
FARRIERY.
Disease*, rope about the beast’s head, and take it to a deep pool,
■—V ■■ ' causing it to swim up and down, and drive it frequent¬
ly* g'ving It ar> ounce or half an ounce of laudanum,
according to the size or age of the beast, but I never
did cut the skin. I have good reason to believe that
the above method has been the means of curing several
ol my young cattle, as I never saw any that took that
disease, and no means used for their recovery, but died ;
those I opened, had all the blood collected in the af¬
fected quarter. I find it more difficult to cure in the
fore quarters than in the hinder, and if it seize the
bowels, I hardly think that it will cure by any
means.”
of which writers give an account, are, falling of in
flesh, and unusual dullness and heaviness. The flesh
feels loose and flabby, especially about the loins j and
if pressure is made about the hips, a crackling is some¬
times perceptible. It is said that those who are accus¬
tomed to handle the ears and legs of sheep, may in the
earliest stage of rot discover symptoms of loiv fever, but
probably this is only the case in pulmonic and hepatic
rot. Now, or soon afterwards, the countenance looks
pale, as do the gums and tongue. On parting the
fleece, the skin is found to have, lost its fine rosy colour,
and is become of a pale red. As the disease advances,
the skin appears dappled with yellow and black spots.
The eyes have a peculiar appearance $ they lose their
lustre, and look like the eyes of dead fish. Mr Find-
later says, that in Tweeddale, the principal mark of rot¬
tenness is taken from the appearance of the eye in the
corner next the nose, when the eyeball is turned so as
to look away from the nose j as the flesh that adheres
to the eyeball below the eyelids, in the corner next the
nose, is in a sound sheep of a florid red colour : where¬
as, in a rotten sheep, the flesh is of a dull appearance,
and of a yellowish red colour, resembling that of a rot¬
ten egg, when the white and the yolk are confounded
together. When the disease has continued long, the
breath becomes fetid, the gums spongy, the teeth and
sometimes the horns loose, the animal is commonly af¬
fected with a scouring, the fleece looks torn and ragged,
and the whole separates from the skin with a slight pull.
Great weakness and emaciation attend the latter stage
of the disease j and these continually increase till the
animal dies, or till dropsy comes on, which always ter¬
minates fatally.
The principal appearance on dissection is presented
by the liver, which is found in various states, according
to the progress or severity of the disease. When a sheep
is killed a few days after contracting the rot, the thin
edge of the small lobe of the liver appears of a trans¬
parent white or bluish colour, and this colour spreads to
a greater extent according to the severity of the com¬
plaint. Sometimes it does not extend more than an
inch from the edge ; at others it occupies a considerable
part of the lobe. In severe cases, the whole external
coat of the liver is found diseased, commonly assuming
an opaque colour interspersed with lines or patches of a
darker red. The upper end of the liver is sometimes
found speckled like the back of a toad, to which it is
said to bear a striking resemblance. Very commonly
the liver is found full of hard knots, and sometimes
there are ulcers in various parts of it. Are not some
of these appearances peculiar to the hepatic rot ?
When the liver of a sheep affected with the rot is boiled,
it loses its consistency, and breaks down into small pie¬
ces ; whereas it is well known that a sound liver be¬
comes by the same process firm and solid.
When sheep have died suddenly in the first stage of
this disorder, there may commonly be discovered a
quantity of wheyish-coloured fluid in the cavity of the
belly j and in these cases the outside of the liver is ge¬
nerally covered with a coat of coagulable lymph. This
is one of the appearances described by Dr Harrison $
and is similar to what is often observed in the belly of
animals that have died of dropsy in the belly.
In stating the causes and treatment of general rot'.
51S
it in
' :eu.
fy'Homs
nerai
3. On the Rot in Sheep. General or True Hot.
Hydropic Rot.
The name of the rot in sheep, and the ravages that
are annually made by it among the flocks of most sheep
districts, are familiar to every one ; but little pains have
been taken to fix the precise meaning of the word, and
the particular disease, to denote which it should be ex¬
clusively employed. Some of those who appear to have
paid particular attention to the subject, have yet follow¬
ed the example of shepherds and farmers, in confound¬
ing under the name of rot, several diseases which differ
considerably in their nature, causes, and method of
treatment. Two medical men who have lately publish¬
ed ; the one, Dr Dickson, on the General Management
of Sheep, as connected with practical agriculture $ the
other, Dr Harrison, on this particular subject of the
rot, have still considered it as one disease. In the se¬
cond appendix to Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles,
and in the fourth number of the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, the distinction of the rot into
three different morbid affections, is, however, clearly
marked j and there seems no doubt that these three dis¬
eases are very similar to consumption, hepatitis or in¬
flammation of the liver, and scurvy, in the human body.
The first of those which we have briefly noticed in N°
490. under the name of pulmonic rot, is distinguished by
cough, hectic fever, wasting of flesh, and in many cases
by the formation of a watery swelling below the chin.
The second, mentioned by the name of hepatic rot in
N° 493. is characterized by a degree of fever accom¬
panied by inflammation, and thickening of the outer coat
of the liver, or some diseased state of the biliary ducts or
pipes, connected with the presence of flukes in the liver,
if not sometimes produced by them. The third species
has been called general rot, as in this the whole system
is more or less affected j true rot, because it appears to
be the most common of the three, and to be that to
which the name seems more peculiarly applicable 5 and
hydropic rot; because, if the animal is suffered to live,
the disease commonly terminates in partial or general
dropsy. This species is what we are now to consider;
and after having given as clear an account of it as we
can collect from the descriptions that have been lately
published, we shall make a few observations on the
causes, treatment, and prevention of the rot in general,
endeavouring as much as possible to discriminate be¬
tween the three varieties.
It is probable that the first symptoms of the rot have
seldom been observed. The earliest marks of the disease
568
Diseases.
* Ftnd-
later's
Survey,
li. 404.
5^9
fareiery.
Part VI
we cannot perhaps do better than copy what is given
on this subject in Mr Findlater’s Survey of Peebles,
to which we have already been so much obliged. It
arises from deficient or bad aliment, whether the.food
itself be bad and scanty, or the animal be inca¬
pable of digesting it properly. It is most common from
the former cause, want of food 5 and the disease is
much the same with scurvy among the human race.
In addition to these causes, whatever tends to depress
the spirits, frequently excites, or at least exasperates,
the malady. It is said that soldiers in a garrison have
been known to be seized with the scurvy on hearing bad
news j and I doubt not but terrifying sheep with dogs,
or other means, may produce or aggravate this disease.
We may hence see what mischief a fox chase, or any
exhibition of that sort, is calculated to bring upon a
flock of sheep. The disease is also said to be produced
by feeding upon watered grass 5 and hence shepherds,
in many parts of Scotland, are careful to keep off their
sheep from the tender grass produced by the occasional
overflowing of rivulets. Feeding also in marshy and
damp pastures, is known to be a powerful cause of the
rot.
“ The only means of cure are, a supply of good and
wholesome food, and invigorating the stomach by per¬
mitting the animal to feed on those stimulating and aro¬
matic herbs which are agreeable to its taste. It is be¬
lieved that on dry sweet pastures, where there is a suffi¬
cient quantity of furze and broom, juniper, and other
shrubs that are palatable to sheep, the rot is seldom
heard of. When ground is sown down for sheep pas¬
ture, parsley, thyme, peppermint, and other aromatic
herbs, should be sown with the grass seeds, as these
plants serve both to prevent and to cure the rot. In
addition to these means of cure, every thing that tends
to annoy or depress the animal in its weakly state ought
to be avoided *.
The following facts with respect to the production of
rot, considered as a general disease, are chiefly taken
from Dr Harrison’s Inquiry.
Poor, clayey, and loamy lands are most subject to
rot.
Grounds that are always dry, or always under water,
and such as are always sufficiently wet to preserve a
constant running of water, were never known to suffer
from the rot.
Ponds of living water are equally safe j but when at¬
tempts to drain lands have been made, and have not
fully succeeded, sheep which feed on such lands are very
much exposed to the rot.
Grounds newly laid down for pasture, or ploughed
fields that have been exhausted by repeated crops, where
the sward is thin, and where the water remains in
plashes for want of proper outlets, are peculiarly sub¬
ject to the rot.
Marshes that are overflowed by the sea, and boggy
situations, especially in Ireland, are seldom known to
rot.
Lands that have been limed, and many soils that are
chiefly composed of calcareous matter, are considered
as very likely to produce the rot.
Ewes that are with lamb, or are giving suck, are
less liable than other sheep to be affected with the
rot.
Eight causes have been assigned for the production Discases |
of rot, viz. _ > # v'—i
1. A vitiated dew. It is stated in the Survey of Lin¬
colnshire, that a shepherd, who, when young, was shep¬
herd’s boy to an old man that lived at Nettlam near
Lincoln, a place famous for the rot, declared his per¬
suasion that sheep took the rot, only in a morning be¬
fore the dew was well off. His master’s shepherd al¬
ways kept his flock in fold till the dew was gone, and
with only this attention his sheep were kept sound when
all his neighbours lost their flocks. Dr Harrison re¬
marks, that if this cause were just, the rot should ap¬
pear equally on all lands.
2. The disease has been attributed to a crust or ear¬
thy sediment that adheres to the grass after wet weather,
or after the overflowing of running water.
3. It has been supposed to be owing to the luxuriant
and quick growing herbage that is produced in hot
moist seasons. But all luxuriant pastures do not pro¬
duce the rot.
4. It has been attributed to the sheep grazing on
some particular herbs, such as the butterwort (pingui-
cula vulgaris), the white rot {Jiydrocotyle vulgaris),
round-leaved sundew (drosera rotundifolia), and long¬
leaved sundew Qdrosera longifolia) ; but these plants
do not grow on every rotting soil.
5. The disorder has been imputed to flukes in the
liver. We have already stated our opinion, that flukes
may produce the hepatic rot.
6. The rot has been supposed to depend on the in¬
fection of sheep-pox. This opinion seems to have arisen
from a confusion of terms.
7. M. Daubenton considered the disease to he produ¬
ced by poverty of food, and too much water. There is
no doubt that these causes commonly produce the last
species of rot which we have mentioned. 530
8. Dr Harrison is of opinion that the rot is always Dr Hawi-
generated by the exhalation or effluvia produced by the s°n^, tr¬
action of the sun’s rays on soils that are partially cover-^t° ie
ed with stagnant water. After adducing a number of
ingenious arguments in support of his opinion, Dr Har¬
rison sums up the amount of his doctrine in the fol¬
lowing manner.
“ From the variouscircumstancesenumerated,! think
I am justified in attributing the rot in sheep and other
animals to paludal effluvia j but with respect to their
nature and constitution, it is very difficult to form any
rational judgment, as they have hitherto eluded the most
subtle and delicate inquiries. It must, however, be ad¬
mitted, si causa latet, vis est notissitna; and conse¬
quently the subject, from its great importance to the
public in general, is entitled to a serious investigation.
“ Without heat and moisture, no deleterious vapours
can be generated 3 and yet it is equally certain, that
both these causes are insufficient to produce either a re¬
current fever, or the rot, since they are confined to par¬
ticular situations. Other auxiliaries are therefore ne¬
cessary j and I am inclined to believe that vegetable or
earthy particles, and probably both, are required, as
well as heat and moisture, to constitute the noxious ema¬
nations or gasses called miasmata paludum.
“ Probably it will be found, on further inquiry that a
great variety of animal and vegetable effluvia are extri¬
cated in different places3 and that many disorders should
be
3
A RK 11; R\ rJLATE CCXl
\
11rAj'rA/ />sf/i / S<'/* /
fa miiEin:
Fig- 2.
jFi<7- 4.
PLATE CCXU.
Fig- ■')
H'.trrnjlrpnp Sculp/
FARRIERY.
PLATE CCXUI.
Jiiyr<iv«> ly W. trc/uhaUXJin':
'
.
FARRIERY.
PLATE CCXIV
Fig. 22.
Engraved Try WArchibcddEdirA
farrif:ry.
PLATE CCXV.
Fig.ia.
Tiff A3.
Fig.16.
Engraved lyy^i.WiLscmEdinV
Fi$- 17-
FARRIERY
Fzy. IS.
PLATE CCXVI.
Fig. 19.
idex.
tiseases. be attributed to them, which'are at this time imputed to
other causes.
“ Poisonous vapours are extremely active and sudden
in their efi'ects, of which proofs may be found in the
history of every contagious and endemic disorder. We
have, therefore, no reason to be surprised, that sheep
and animals are so immediately affected by pasturing in
moist places, where these effluvia are copiously produced
in hot weather. Other causes operate slowly, and re¬
quire such a long-continued application, that I do not
think the rot can be introduced by them, though I am
of opinion, that by occasioning general weakness, they
make the constitution more susceptible, and lay it more
open to morbid impressions. In the human body, we
know that fatigue, cold, fasting, and other debilitating
causes, are efficacious auxiliaries, although of themselves
they are totally inadequate to produce any contagious
disorder. They, therefore, seem to contribute equally,
and in the same manner, to facilitate the operations
of marsh miasmata, upon the human body and other
hTamson animals*.’’
i the Rot, It is said, that for a short time after contracting the
i ;t« rot, sheep feed more heartily than usual ; and for this
reason, butchers and graziei-s, when they wish to fatten
sheep speedily for the market, not unfrequently turn
them into a rotting pasture.
The prevention of the f'ot will be easily suggested by
attending to the facts and observations that have just
569
been given, as it consists in avoiding the causes that seem Diseases,
to produce it, and avoiding or correcting the soil where —v"-—
it is found most readily to take place. “ It is conlident-
ly asserted, that decoctions of bitter herbs, with salt,
have frequently preserved sheep from the rot. Salt is
supposed to constitute part of Fleet’s celebrated nos¬
trum j and we know that bitters are desei’vedly recom¬
mended to prevent intermittents, the dysentery, and
other disorders, which originate from exhalations.
“ In Oxfordshire, Dr Lower has frequently known six
or seven spoonfuls of strong brine, and stale urine, with
soot steeped in it, to be given with great success. This
is done at spring and fall of the year, when the dew is
counted the most dangerous. This course of physic is
continued eight or ten days, or till the sheep eat their
meat heartily $ and if they were taken in time, there
seldom died any in a whole flock. For the same pur¬
pose, Ellis recommends the following medicine in his
Practical Husbandry.
“ Take a peck or better of malt, and mash it as though
you would brew it into ale or beer, and make eleven or
twelve gallons of liquor j then boil in it a quantity of
shepherds purse, comfrey, sage, plantain, penny-royal,
wormwood, and bloodwort; add yeast, and afterwards
salt, to the mixture j then turn the liquor into a vessel.
After April comes in, give seven or eight spoonfuls to
every sheep, once in the w'eek, if the weather, be wet j
and if dry, not so often*.” * Harrison
on the Rot,
p. 41.
FARRIERY.
INDEX.
PORTION, N° 462
sorbents, 293, b, e,f
J sorption, morbid, symptoms of, 304
* vjrtus, a writer on farriery, 27
j ? of a horse, mode of ascertaining, 101
Ixander's, Mr, probang, 403
e.es, 273, a.
1 eratives, 285
J m, 281, a. 293, a.
imirosis, 323
r.monia, 267, a. 285, a. 293, b.
■‘•moniac, gum, 265, a.
iitomy necessary to a farrier, 13
J.urism, 431
^ ler-berries, 326
^ ’seseed, 285, c.
dynes, 289
receipts for, 290
S 'alkalines, 293, h, i, k,
keunonial powder, __ 263, b. 267, d.
simony, 263, a. 267, c.
butter of, 293, c.
calx or oxide of, 267, e.
Empties, 285, 293, a, d, k, /.
^ ispasmodics, >85
receipts for, 288
rOL. VIII. Part II.
Appetite, loss of, N° 416
Aromatics, 285
Arteries, wounds of, 430
Asafxtida, 265, b.
Asarabacca, 27 5, a.
Ascarides, 413
Ascites, 323
Astringents, 281
receipts for, 282
B
Boc/t-raking, 257
sinew, clap or strain of, 356
rupture of, 360
Balls, directions for preparing, 252
administering, 253
cordial, 286
Balsam of copaiva, 265, d. .269, a. 285, a.
pern, 265, c.
sulphur, 265, e.
Bars of the horse’s hoof, 124
Barbadoes tar, 285 e.
Barret's work on farriery, 59
Barley, 277, a.
Barm, 293, /.
Bartlett's work on farriery, 64
Bats, 518
Bays, oil of, 295,/
f
Bistort, N* 281, b.
Black quarter, or black opald, 325
Bladder, inflammation off. 302
Blaine's instructions for studying
farriery, ig
works on veterinary me¬
dicine, gi
Bleeding, 139
place of performing . 161
cases requiring, 163
cautions respecting, 166
danger of a ligature in, 160
the blood to be saved, 162
securing the orifice, 163
in the temporal artery, 164
topical, ^ i6y
Blindness, ^19
partial, ^21
total, 322
moon, 324
Blisters, 28 3, f.
Blown in cattle, 404
Blundeville's work on horses,
Bog-spavin, 366
Boardman's dictionary,
Boi/y-founder, ^gg
Bones of the horse’s foot, U4
Bots, 409, 411
4 ^ Bourgelat's
57° •
Bourgelat's works on farriery,
Boruels of the horse described,
Bracken's works on farriery,
Brain, inflammation of,
BraxJj, watery,
dry,
Brocklesh/s works on murrain,
description oi do.
account of the appear¬
ances on dissection,
method of treating it,
Bruises,
Buffon's natural history,
Burdon's works on farriery,
Burgundy pitch,
Burstenness,
Byre, feeding, Mr Hunter’s,
construction of,
N° 36
107
63
483
446
498
66
469
470
471
345
37
57
285, h.
419
236
206
Caecum of the horse, 111
Calculus, 448
Calomel, > 273, i. 291, e.
Calves, mode of rearing in Essex, 235
Camper's works, 54
Camphor, • 267, 287, ff.
Canker, 385
of the ear in dogs, 397
Cantharides, _ 285,y.
Canine madness. See Hydrophobia
285, i.
368
285, k.
283, l.
b. 29 x, a.
181
Capsicum,
Capulet, or capped hock,
Caraway,
Cassia,
Casting,
Castor oil, 273,
Castration,
when best performed, 182
Cataract, 314
unsuccessfully treated, 484
Catarrh, 485
epidemic, 486
Cattle, food of, _ 230
medicine, rude state of, 88
Caustics, 293, a, c, e, g, k.
Celsus writes on farriery, 25
Chabert's writings on farriery, 46
Chamomile, 277, b.
Chaps, \ 341
Charcoal, 293, d.
Chemical remedies, 293
receipts for, 294
Chemistry necessary to a farrier, 15
Choking in cattle, 402
Circulation, morbid, symptoms of, 305
Clark's, James, works on horses, 68
method of shoeing, 138
Bracey, paper on bots, 78
Cleanliness, necessity of, 203, 239
Clothing of horses, 204
Cloves, 285, m.
Clysters, directions for preparing, 256
administering, 257
Coffin bone, 119
farriery.
Cold, common, N° 485
Coleman, Mr, appointed professor of
the veterinary college,
works of,
artificial frog,
method of treating wounds
in the joints,
Colon of the horse,
Colic,
inflammatory,
Columella's writings on farriery,
Contracted feet,
Cooling remedies,
receipts for,
Cordials,
Cords,
Corns,
Coronary ligament,
Cornea, opacity of,
Costiveness,
Cough, chronic,
Cows, delivery of,
London mode of feeding,
Coro-houses,
pox,
originates in grease,
Cropping,
Crust of the horse’s hoof,
Culley's work on cattle,
Cummin,
Curb,
Cutting,
D
Daniel's Rural Sports,
remarks on the
of dogs,
Dark ages, state of farriery in the,
Delivery,
of cows in cross positions,
in cases of preternatural
obstruction,
Denny's work on horses,
Depression of spirit,
Diabetes,
Diarrhoea,
Dickson's practical agriculture,
Diet of domestic animals,
Digestion, morbid, symptoms of,
Diseases of man and animals similar,
classification of,
Distemper in dogs,
Diuretics,
receipts for.
Docking, first used in England,
absurdity of,
how performed,
Dogs, food of,
vegetable food,
oatmeal,
barley-meal,
Dog kennels. See Kennel.
Downing's viovk. on cattle,
Drenches, directions for preparing,
administer¬
ing*
Index.,
N° 2041
75
77
i56
35i
1x2
5x8
497
24
383
279
280
285
375
5°3
129
325
457
436
187
237
206
478
479
179
122
89
285, 0.
372
391
worming
Dressing of horses,
Dropsy of the head,
of the chest,
belly,
Drowsiness,
Dysentery,
Bars of horses should
med,
Eggs,
Elecampane,
Emetics,
powder for dogs,
Emetic tartar,
Emollients,
receipts for,
Enquiries to be made by farriers,
Epilepsy,
Epispastics. See Stimulants.
Epsom salt,
Err/lines,
Essex mode of rearing calves,
Either,
Eumelus, a writer on farriery,
Excretion, morbid, symptoms of.
Exercise,
Expectorants,
receipts for,
Eyes, inflammation of,
glass,
sound, marks of,
F
Falling of the fundament,
of the penis,
womb.
False quarter,
Farcy,
water,
Farriery, origin of the term,
extended application of,
defined,
importance of,
to farriers,
to farmers and country
gentleman,
to medical men,
much indebted to medical
men,
knowledge requisite for the
practice of, 1
instructions for studying, J
means of improving, 20, 2
early history of, obscure, 2
progress of, in France, 4
on the rest of
the conti¬
nent, 47* 5
in Britain, 5
Fatigue, 31
Feeders of dogs, duties of, 23
Feeding, foul, 41
Fennel, 285, \
Feron's works on farriery.
Fever, inflammatory, 4^
255 P«trid» ^
Findlater
94
5X7
29
186
187
xfvS
80
3*5
524
452
218
3°3
10
312
487
269
270
176
177
178
238
240
241
242
87
254
521
5221
5231
31
499
not be trim*
180
295. «-|
295. *»
263,
264.
263, a. 267, c.
277
278
3°91
5^
273* 4
27j
23 j
287, b.
27
307
24S
26;
26c
484
323
32c
42c
46c
46:
391
50
52(
Index.
Find later's survey of Peebles, N° 92
remarks on slir-ep shelter, 209
Firing,
uses of,
Flux
Fly in sheep,
.Fog-sickness,
Fomentations,
Food of horses,
beans,
carrots,
times of feeding,
hay,
cut straw,
ground corn,
of cattle,
dogs,
preparation of,
administration of,
Foot of the horse, anatomy of,
its importance
rot in sheep,
Fouls,
Founder,
body,
Foxglove,
Fractures,
of the haunch-bone,
Freeman's work on the foot of the
horse,
Fret,
Frog of the horse’s foot,
does not support the weight of
the horse,
importance of its receiving pres¬
sure,
Coleman’s artificial,
Fundament, falling of,
J74
J75
452
336
4°4
261
219
221
222
223
224
227
228
230
238
243
245
P- 443
N° 97
387
386
378
n 499
389, a.
361
362
85
518
* 25
126
127
*56
420
Gadjly, bite of,
(ialangal.
Galls,
Gamboge,
Garble,
G
Garfaull's work on horses,
; Garlic,
338
283, a.
281, c.
273, d. 291, b.
466
40
■ - . . 265, £•.
Generation, morbid, symptoms of, 308
Gentian, 283, b.
Gibson's works on farriery, 62
Giddiness, 318
l^ger, 276, o. 285, r.
j landers, jjoj
Glass, 295, c.
eyes, 323
dauber's salts, 273, k.
Goelicke's work on murrains, 48
Goulard's extract, 379» e’
'rain, whole, danger of giving too
much of it to horses at once, 226
'rains of paradise,
'reuse,
molten,
fogginess,
udion,
285,
482
499
377
518
farriery.
Gum ammoniac, N° 265, a.
arabic, 277, c.
dragrant, 277, d.
Gutta serena, 323
H
Habitations for domestic animals, 190
Harrison on the rot, pg
theory of the rot in sheep, 530
Hartmann,
Hastfer's work on sheep, 51
Haw of the eye, 484
Hay, heated, much relished by horses
and cattle, " 224
Flellebore, white, 285, t.
Hemlock, 289’ b.
Henbane, 289) c.
Hidebound, ^ 2 8
Hierocles, a writer on farriery, 27
History of farriery, importance of, 22
Hocks, or haukes, ^28
Hoof of the horse, j2I
Hoose, 436
Hop, 289;^.
Horse, skeleton of the, 9^
age of, means of ascertain-
i»g> 101
muscles of, i02
stomach of, 104
food of, 2Ip
chesnut, 283, c.
raclIsh» 285, u.
Hoven in cattle, 404
Hunter's feeding byre, 236
Huzard's writings on farriery, 46
Hydrophobia, ‘ ^ x 2
symptoms of, in dogs, as
related by Meynell, 313
progress of, among a pack
of hounds, 3x4
effect of immersion in cu-
ring, 313
prevention of, 516, 317
Hygeiology, i mport ance o f, " jy
T
Jalap, e
Japan earth,
Jaundice, ^ r
Jaw, locked, (j0p
Jejunum and ilium of the horse little
different from the human, 109
Jenner's account of cow-pox, 478
Immersion, effects of, in curing canine
madness, 3^
Inanition,
Indifference, 4^
Indigestion, acute,
Inflammation of the brain, 483
eye, 484
Jungs, 489
liver, 492
stomach, 496
intestines, 497
kidneys, 301
, „ 571
Inflammation of the bladder, N° 302
Influenza, 486
Insensibility, ^ j ~
Intestines of the horse, small, ic8
large, no
inflammation of, 497
Hon, _ 281,
muriate of, ;iK
Itch, o oq
K
Kennel, construction of,
duke of Richmond’s,
size of,
lodging room of,
doors of,
inner court of,
Kidneys, inflammation of,
Kino,
210
211
212
214
215
216
501
281,/.
1.
Laffosse's, sen. work on farriery, 48
method of shoeing, 133
jun. works on farriery, 30
FoA'e-burn, 495
Lameness, ^43
Lampas, 401
Lard, hog’s, 27^ e.
Lawrence's, John, proposal for im¬
proving veterinary
practice, 21
works, 86
Rich, works on horses, 82
Lawson's food for horses and cattle, 229
Layard's works on murrain, 67
account of do. 4*2
Lead, sugar of, 279, ‘d.
wllite, 293, d.
Leanness j
Lice and fleas, ^33
Ligaments of the horse’s foot, 120
injuries of, 333
Ligature in bleeding, danger of, 160
Lights, rising of the, 489
Lime,^ 2^2, e.
Linne's Pan Suecicus, ~
Lint seed, it*'f
Liquorice, 277, g.
Liver, inflammation of, 492
Lofts above stables, improper, 20r
Logwood, 281, g.
Looseness, 4^3
Louvet, 480
Loy's experiments on the connexion
oi grease with cow-pox, 479
Lumbrici,
Lungs, inflammation of the, 489
M
Mallenders and sallenders,
Mange in horses,
cattle,
sheep,
dogs,
treatment of,
Markham's works on farriery,
Marshmallows,
4 C 2
327
330
331
332
333
334
58
277, h.
Materia
SI2
Materia me&\ca., knowledge of, neces¬
sary to a farrier
Medical knowledge useful to a farrier, n
Medicines for domestic animals 249
not to be given to horses
unnecessarily, 297
Megrim, 4^3
Mercury, 263, c. 276, b- 285, v.
red nitrate of, 49
MeyneWs account of the appearances
of madness in dogs, 513
Mint, 285, *.
Miscellaneous remedies, 295
receipts,. 296
Molten grease, 499
Monro's pliable tube, 4°5
jlfoon-blindness, 3 24, 484
More croft's work on shoeing, 9°
method of shoeing 155
Morfoundering, 4^5
Motion, morbid, symptoms of, 302
Mouth, sore, 399
wounds in, 400
Murrain, appearance of, in Europe, 33
history of, 466
appearance of, in Britain, 467
account of, by Brocklesby, 469
by Layard, 472
causes of, 473
means of checking the pro¬
gress of, 474
queries respecting, 475
Muscles of the horse enumerated, 102
extremities, table of, 103
Mustard, 285, a, ci
Myrrh, 283, e.
N
Narcotics. See Anodynes.
Natural history useful to a farrier, 14
Navicular bone, 118
Newcastle's, duke of, work on horses, 60
Nitre, 269, c- 279, a.
Q
0«&.i)ark, 281, h. 283,^
Oatmeal preferable to barley-meal lor
dogs, 241
Oestrus bo vis, 338
ovis,. 339
equi, 409
hrernorrhoidalis, 410
Oil, castor, 273, b.
olive, 277, i.
Ointments, 259
Opium, 267, g. 287, c. 289, e.
Or if ce of a vein, mode of securing,
in the horse, 3 63
Osmer's work on shoeing, 65
shoe, # 136
Overfeeding, 404
Overreach, 346
0.r-houses, 208
Oxen, shoes for^ 157
farriery.
Pastern bone, small, N 117
Pau/et's work on murrains, 45
Pelt rot, 34°
Pembroke's, Lord, work on horses, 69
remarks on shoeing, 13?
Pepper, 285, c. c.
Peppermint, 285, b. b.
Peruvian bark, 283, g.
Petagonius, a writer on farriery, 27
Peripneumony, 4^9
Phrensy, > 4^3
Physiology necessary to a farrier, 13
Pinning in lambs, 455
Pissing-txW, 524
of blood, 45°
Plethora, 427
Pleurisy, 4$9
Poison, 4° 7
Po/e-evil, 395
Pomegranate, 281, t.
Poppy, 289,/i
Potash, 269//.
Poultices, 260
Powders, 251
Pox, sheep, 477
cow, 478
Practice of farriery, *9
Precipitate, red, 285, x.
Puekeridge, 33 ^
Pulse in different animals, 424
method of feeling, 425
Pummiced ieet, 3^8
Purges, 27°
absurdity of giving to horses
indiscriminately, 271
should not be preceded by
strong exercise, 272
receipts for, 274
Purging in horses, 452
in cattle, 453
in calves,. 454
in lambs, 455
in dogs, 456
Q
Quarter-\\], 525
Quassia, 283, ft.
Quittor, 347
R
of the horse, 1*3
Refrigerants, 279
Respiration, morbid, symptoms of, 306
Palsy,
Pastern bone, large,
508
llS
Restlessness^
Reynier's work on cattle,
Rheumatism,
Richmond's, duke of, kennel,
Fading's veterinary pathology,
Ring-hove,
Roarer,
Ronden's work on farriery,
Rosin, ,
Rot, pulmonic,
hepatic,
pelt,
foot,
general,
Rowels, mode of making,
situations proper for,
when improper,
Rozier's work on animals,
Ruelli's collection on farriery,
Ruini's anatomy of the horse,
Rupture,
S
St Bel, M. account of,
Sal ammoniac,
Index.,
N° 168!
1691
1701
44;
m
3Q(
419!
75
279,4.
. n 29I» f
273,/ 285, ce. 291,d
279, c. 293,4.
283, il
Indicus,
Salt, common,
spirit of,
of steel,
Sandcracks,
Saunier's work on horses,
Sauvage's work on murrain,
Scab,
Secretion, morbid, symptoms of,
Sensation, morbid, symptoms of,
Sensibility, morbid,
Sedatives. Ses Anodynes.
Sesamoid bones,
Setons described,
use of,
mode of introducing,
Sheep cots,
Shoeing horses, principles of,
331
3M
. 51
488
211
79
373
436, 437
41
269, e.
490
^493
340
387
526
38c
49
34
33:
307
301
3i3
116
171
172
173
109
... . *4°
origin of, Note (d) p. 447
common method of, 133
its defects, 134
Lafosse’s method, 135
Osmer’s do. 136
Lord Pembroke’s do. 137
Clark’s do. 138
Coleman’s do. 139,154
Morecroft’s do. 153
shoe to be adapted to the hoof, 144
changes to he made gradually, 146
Coleman’s ordinary shoe, 152
of oxen, 157
Shoulder-sWp, 354
Sialagogues, 276
Silver, 293, g.
Sinclair's, Sir J. remarks on cattle, 232
Skeletofi of the horse described, 99
Slipping the calf or foal, 462
Snape's anatomy of the horse, 61
Snores or snivels, 435
Soap, 269,/. 273,£•
Sole of the hoof, horny, 123
sensible, 128
Solleysel's woik on tarriery, 32
Sough, 483
Spavin, 37L 433
Spaying,
Spirits,
Sp/ents, 37®
Squill, 265,4,
Stables should be dry and elevated, 191
roomy,- J92
double, improper, J93
should not be low in the roof, ^
stalls of, i9i
flooring of,
b Stables
iJex.
manger, N° 197
rack, I9°
should not be too close, 199
mode of ventilating, 200
windows of, 201
should be apart from the dung¬
hill, 203
takers, mad, 483
sleepy, 5°5
•iffness, > . 344
‘{Restrain in dogs, 355
larch, 277> k-
laves acre, 295ig'
imulants, _ 28 5
receipts for, 206
omach of the horse, structure of, 104
bursting of, by swelling of
grain,
inflammation of,
concretions in,
orax,
rains,
rangles,
raw, use of, as food,
rengthening remedies,
receipts for,
Imghalt,
abb's anatomy of the horse,
abbecl feet in dogs,
ardr/,
blimate, corrosive,
1 dorifics,
receipts,
o-or of lead,
/ rfeit in horses,
dogs,
rgery necessary to a farrier,
, idled legs,
1 ringes improper in giving clysters, 258
T
Reworm,
pirn's works on farriery,
r,
1 '
414
71
2*5,fZ
226
496
415
265 i.
353
481
227
283
284
393
70
382
521
285,™.
266
267
279, d.
329
418
16
428
FARRIERY.
Teeth of the horse described, N° 100
Temporal artery, mode of opening, 164
Tenon's account of sheep-pox, 477
Theomenes, a writer on farriery, 27
Thorough-pin, 367
Thorter-ill, 508
Thrush, running, 384
Ticks, “ 337
Tin, 291, f.
Tobacco, 269, g. 275, b.
Tonics, 283
Topical bleeding, 167
Tormentil, 281, k.
Tread, 346
Trimming horses ears absurd, 180
Turbith mineral, 263, c.
Turnsick, 318
Turpentine, 26g, h, 2%$,g g.
oil of, ^ 269, i. 285, g g.
Varix, 433
Vegetius's work on farriery, 26
Veins, wounds of, 351, 432
Veterinary art, 2
college of Lyons, 35
of London, establish¬
ed, 72
examining commit¬
tee of, 76
regulations of, 77
method of shoeing
in, 139
Vinegar, _ 279,/ 293, i.
Vitet's work on veterinary medicine, 43
Vitriol, blue, 283,/.
white, 281,7K.
Vitriolic acid, 279, g-. 281, b. 293, h.
Ulcers, 394
Vomiting, why impracticable in the
horse, 105
Urine, incontinence of, 443
suppression of, 444
from distention
of the bladder, 445
573
Urine, suppression of, from inflam¬
mation, N° 447
from stone, 448
from obstruction
at the neck of
the bladder, 449
bloody, 450
W
Warbles, 338
Warts, 326
Water, red, 45O
black, 451
Weight of horse shoes, 149
for a coach horse, 150
for a saddle horse, 151
Wheat given to horses on the conti¬
nent, 220
White's work on the veterinary art, 81
Wind, broken, 437
thick, 438
Wind-galls, 365
Withers, fistulous, 396
Womb, falling of the, 461
Worms, 408
Worm medicines, 291
receipts for, 292
Wormils, 338
Worming of dogs, 517
Wounds, 348
of the feet, 349
of the joints, 350
how best treated, 351
punctured, f 352
in the mouth, 400
of arteries, 430
of veins, 35 L 43 2
Xenophon's work on horsemanship, 30
Yeast,
Yellows,
'Line, -
393>l-
441
295, h.
FAR
FARTHING, a small English copper coin, a-
mounting to one-fourth of a pen.iy. It was anciently
calledas being the fourth of the integer or
penny.
Farthing of Gold, a coin used in ancient times,
containing in value the fourth part of a noble, or 2od.
silver. It is mentioned in the stat. 9 Hen. V. cap. 7.
where it is enacted, that there shall be good and
just weight of the noble, half-noble, and farthing of
gold.
Farthing of Land seems to differ from Farding-
deal. For in a survey-book of the name of West-
Hapton in Devonshire, there is an entry thus ; A. B.
FAR
holds six farthings of land at 126I. per annum. So that Farthing,
the fartfling of land must have been a considerable Fasces-
quantity, far more than a rood. v
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes tied up to¬
gether with rods or staves, and borne before the Ro¬
man magistrates as a badge of their office and au¬
thority.
According to Florus, the use of the fasces was in¬
troduced by the elder Tarquin, the fifth king of Rome ;
and were then the mark of the sovereign dignity. In
after times they were borne before the consuls, but by
turns only, each his day j they had each of them 12,
borne by as many lictors. These fasces consisted of
branches,
Fasces
IT
Fascina¬
tion.
FAS . t 5'
branches of elm j having in the middle a secims or axe,
the head of which stood out beyond the rest. 1 ubli-
cola took the axe out of the fasces, as Plutarch assures
us, to remove from the people all occasion of terror.
After the consuls, the pretors assumed the fasces. In
the government of the decemvirs, It was the practice at
first for only one of them to have the iasces. After-
wards each of them had twelve after the manner of the
kings.
When the magistrates who by right had the axes car¬
ried before them, had a mind to show some deference
to the people, or some person of singular merit, they
either sent away the lictors, or commanded them to lower
the fasces before them, which was called submittere
fasces. Many instances of this occur in Roman history.
FASCETS, in the art of making glass, are the
irons thrust into the mouths of bottles, in order to con¬
vey them to the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in antiquity, a thin sash which the Ro¬
man women wrapped round their bodies, next to the
skin, in order to make them slender. Something of
this sort seems also to have been in use amongst the
Grecian ladies, if we can depend upon the representa¬
tion given by Terence, Eun. act ii. sc. 4.
Haud similis est Virginian nostrarum, quas mat'res stu¬
dent
Demissis humeris esse—vincto cor pore, ut gracilesfiant.
Fascia, in Architecture, signifies any flat member
having a considerable breadth and but a small projec-
ture, as the band of an architrave, larmier, &c. In
brick buildings, the jottings out of the brick beyond
the windows in the several stories except the highest
are called /hwm.? or fascue.
Fascia Lata, in Anatonuj, a muscle of the leg, call¬
ed also semi-wembranosus. See Anatomy, I able of
the Muscles.
Fasciae, in Astronomy, the belts seen on the disk
of the superior planets, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.——
See Astronomy, passim.
FASCIALIS, in Anatomy, one of the muscles of the
thigh, called sartorius. See Anatomy, Table of the
Muscles.
FASCINATION (from the Greek fitamctmn, to
fascinate or bewitch), a sort of witchcraft supposed to
operate either by the eye or the tongue.
Ancient writers distinguish two sorts of fascination,
one performed by looking, or the efficacy of the eye.
Such is that spoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue :
Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.
The second by words, and especially by malignant
praises. Such is that mentioned by the same poet in
his seventh eclogue :
Aut, si ultra placitmn laudarit, baccare frontem
Cingite, ne vati noceat mala lingua futuro.
Horace alludes to both kinds in his first hook of
epistles:
Non istic obliquo oculo mea commoda quisquam
Limat, non odio obscuro, morsuque venenat.
Fascination of serpents, a faculty which these ani¬
mals are supposed to possess of attracting birds from the
4 ] FAS
air, and making them their prey. See Ofhiology Fufcina.
Index. bon
FASCINES, in Fortification,^ faggots of small wood, H
of about a foot diameter, and six feet long, bound in ast' _
the middle, and at both ends. They are used in raising
batteries, making chandeliers, in filling up the moat
to facilitate the passage to the wall, in binding the ram¬
parts where the earth is bad j and in making parapets
of trenches to screen the men. Some of them are dip¬
ped in melted pitch or tar and, being set on fire, serve
to burn the enemy’s lodgments or other works.
In corrupt Latin fascenina, fascennia, and fascinata,
&.c. are used to signify the pales, fascines, &x. used to
enclose ancient castles, &c.
FASCIOLA, the Fluke nr Gourd Worm, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of vermes intestina. See
Helminthology Index.
FASHION-PIECES, in the sea-language, the aftmost
or hindmost timbers of a ship, which terminate the
breadth, and form the shape of the stern. They are
united to the stern-post, and to the extremity of the
wing-transom, by a rabbit, and a number of strong nails
or spikes driven from without.
FAST, in general, denotes the abstinence from food,
(see Fasting) •, hut is more particularly used for such
abstinence on a religious account.
Religious fasting has been practised by most nations
from the remotest antiquity. Some divines even pre¬
tend its origin was in the earthly paradise, where our
first parents were forbidden to eat of the tree of know¬
ledge. But though this seems carrying the matter too
far, it is certain that the Jewish church has observed
fasts ever since its first institution. Nor were the neigh¬
bouring heathens, viz. the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and
Assyrians, without their fasts. The Egyptians, accord¬
ing to Herodotus, sacrificed a cow to Isis, after having
prepared themselves by fasting and prayer*, a custom
which he likewise ascribes to the women of Cyrene.
Porphyry affirms, that the Egyptians, before their
stated sacrifices, always rested a great many days,
sometimes for six weeks ; and that the least behoved to
he for seven days ; during all which time the priests
and devotees not only abstained from flesh, fish, wine,
and oil *, hut even from bread, and some kinds of pulse.
These austerities were communicated by them to the
Greeks, who observed their fasts much in the same
manner. The Athenians had the Eleusinian and Thes-
mophorian fasts, the observation of which was very ri¬
gorous, especially among the women, who spent one
whole day sitting on the ground in a mournful dress,
without taking any nourishment. In the island of
Crete, the priests of Jupiter were obliged to abstain all
their lives from fish, flesh, and baked meats. Apuleius
informs us, that whoever had a mind to he initiated in
the mysteries of Cybele were obliged to prepare them¬
selves by fasting ten days ; and, in short, all the pagan
deities, whether male or female, required this duty of
those that desired to he initiated into their mysteries,
of their priests and priestesses that gave the oracles,
and of those who came to consult them.
Among the heathens fasting was also practised be¬
fore some of their military enterprises. Aristotle in¬
forms us, that the Lacedaemonians having resolved to
succour a city of the allies, ordained a fast throughout
the
FAS [ 575 ] FAS
astin?. w^°^e extent of their dominions, without excepting
-y—Jeven the domestic animals ; and this they did for two
ends •, one to spare provisions in favour of the besieged ;
the other to draw down the blessing of heaven upon
their enterprise. The inhabitants of Tarentum, when
besieged by the Romans, demanded succours from their
neighbours of Rhegium, who immediately commanded
a fast throughout their whole territories. Their enter¬
prise having had good success by their throwing a sup¬
ply of provisions into the town, the Romans were
obliged to raise the siege ; and the Tarentines, in
memory of this deliverance, instituted a perpetual
fast.
Fasting has always been reckoned a particular duty
among philosophers and religious people, some of whom
have carried their abstinence to an incredible length.
At Rome it was practised by kings and emperors them¬
selves. Numa Pompilius, Julius Caesar, Augustus, Ves¬
pasian, and others, we are told, had their stated fast
days : and Julian the apostate was so exact in this ob¬
servance as to outdo the priests themselves, and even the
most rigid philosophers. The Pythagoreans kept a
continual lent; but with this difference, that they b?-
lieved the use of fish to be equally unlawful with that
of flesh. Besides their constant temperance, they also
frequently fasted rigidly for a very long time. In this
respect, however, they were all outdone by their ma¬
ster Pythagoras, who continued his fasts for no less
than 50 days together. F.ven Apollonius Tyaneus,
one ot his most famous disciples, could never come up
to him in the length of his fasts, though they greatly
exceeded those of the ordinary Pythagoreans. The
Gyrnnosophists, or Brahmans of the east, are also very
remarkable for their severe fastings $ and the Chinese,
according to Father le Comte, have also their stated fasts,
with forms of prayer for preserving them from barren¬
ness, inundations, earthquakes, &c. The Mahometans
too, who possess so large a part of Asia, are very re¬
markable for the strict observance of their fasts ; and
the exactness of their dervises in this respect is extra¬
ordinary.
Fasting was often used by the heathens for supersti¬
tious purposes j sometimes to procure the interpreta¬
tions of dreams ; at others, to be an antidote against
their pernicious consequences. A piece of supersti¬
tion prevails to this day among the Jews ; who, though
expressly forbidden to fast on Sabbath days, think them¬
selves at liberty to dispense with this duty when they
happen to have frightful and unlucky dreams the night
preceding, that threatened them vvitli great misfor¬
tunes. On these occasions they observe a formal fast
the whole dayj and at night the patient, having in¬
vited three of his friends, addresses himself to them
seven times in a very solemn manner, saying, “ May
the dream I have had prove a lucky one !” And
his friends answer as many times, “ Amen, may it be
lucky, and God make it so !” After which, in order
to encourage him, they conclude the ceremony with
those words of Ecclesiastes, “ Go eat thy bread with
joy 5” and then set themselves down to table. They
have also added several fasts not commanded in the law
of Moses, particularly three, in memory of sore di¬
stresses their nation has suffered at different times.
I he abstinence of the ancient Jews commonly last-
2
ed 27 or 28 hours at a time ; beginning before sun- Fauin«
set, and not ending till some hours after sunset next
day. On these days they were obliged to wear Fasti,
white robes in token of grief and repentance j to cover't--
themselves with sackloth, or their worst clothes ;
to lie on ashes j to sprinkle them on their head, &c.
Some spent the whole night and day lollovving in the
temple or synagogue, in prayers and other devotions,
barefooted, with a scourge in their hands, of which
they sometimes made a good use in order to raise their
zeal. Lastly, in order to complete their abstinence,
at night they were to eat nothing but a little bread
dipped in water, with some salt for seasoning ; except
they chose to add to their repast some bitter herbs and
pulse.
The ancients, both Jews and Pagans, had also their
fasts for purifying the body, particularly the priests
and such as were any way employed at the altars j for
when nocturnal disorders happened to these, it was un¬
lawful for them to approach all the next day, which
they were bound to employ in purifying themselves.
On this account at great festivals, where their ministry
could not be dispensed with, it was usual for them, on
the eve thereof, not only to fast,' but also to abstain
from sleep, for the greater certainty. For this purpose
the high priest had under officers to wake him, if over¬
taken with sleep j against which other preservatives wei’e
also made use of.
FASTERMANS, or Fasting-men, q. d. homines
habentes, was used in our ancient customs for men in
repute and substance 5 or rather for pledges, sureties,
or bondsmen j who, according to the Saxon polity,
were fast bound to answer for one another’s peaceable
behaviour.
FASTI, in Roman antiquity, the kalendar wherein
were expressed the several days of the year, with their
feasts, games, and other ceremonies.
There were two sorts of fasti, the greater and
less : the former being distinguished by the appella¬
tion fasti magistrates, and the latter by that oifasti
kalendares.
1. I he fasti kalendares, which were properly and
primarily called /cs/f, are defined by Festus Pompeius
to be books containing a description of the whole year :
i. e. ephemerides, or diaries, distinguishing the several
kinds of days,/<?s*f, profesti; fasti, nefasti, &c. The
author of these was Numa, who committed the care
and direction of the fasti to the pontifex maximus, whom
the people used to consult on every occasion. This cus¬
tom held till the year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius,
secretary to the pontifices, exposed in the forum a list of
all the days on which it was lawful to work j which
was so acceptable to the people, that they made him
curule sedile.
These lesser fasti, or fasti kalendares, were of two
kinds, urbani and rustici.
The fasti urbani, or fasti of the city, were those
which obtained or were observed in the city. Some
will have them thus called, because they were exposed
publicly in divers parts of the city j though by the va¬
rious inscriptions or gravings thereof on antique stones,
one would imagine that private persons had them like¬
wise in their houses. Ovid undertook to illustrate
these lasti urbani, and comment on them, in his Libri
Fastorum, ,
FAS
[ 576 ]
Fast?,
Fasting
Fastorum, whereof we have the first six books still re¬
maining j the last six, if ever they were written, being
10 l’n the fasti rvstici, or country fasti, were expressed
the seveial days, feasts, &c. to be observed by the
country people : for as they were taken up in tilling
FAS
not perfectly recover for some months. At this
time she lost the use of her eyelids ; so that she was'
under a necessity of keeping them open with the fin¬
gers of one hand, whenever she wanted to look about
her. In other respects she continued in pretty good
health *, only she never had any appearance of menses,
Fasting.
country people: for as they were a en up b but neriodically spit up blood in pretty large quanti-
tl,e ground, fe^rfcas.s.s^cr.fice^— . and h - ,ime it nose.
1116 LTIUUiIUj . 1 . . £ •
lidays were enjoined them than the inhabitants ot ci
ties * and they had also some peculiar ones not observ¬
ed at Rome. These rustic fasti contained little more
than the ceremonies of the kalends, nones, and ides ;
the fairs, signs of the zodiac, increase and decrease
of the days, the tutelary gods of each month, and cer¬
tain directions for rural works to be performed each
month. _ . »
2. In the greater fasti, or fasti magistrates, were
expressed the several feasts, with every thing relat¬
ing to the gods, religion, and the magistrates ; the
emperors, their birth-days, offices, days consecrated to
them, and feasts and ceremonies established in their
honour, or for their prosperity, &c. With a number
of such circumstances did flattery at length swell the
fasti *, when they became denominated Magm,^ to dis¬
tinguish them from the bare kalendar, or fasti kalen-
Fasti was also a chronicle or register oftime, wheie-
in the several years were denoted by the respective con¬
suls, with the principal events that happened during
their consulates 5 these were called fasticonsulares,
or consular fasti. , .
Fasti, or Dies Fasti, also denoted court days. I he
word fasti, fastorum, is formed of the verb fan, to
speak,” because during those days the courts were
opened, causes might be heard, and the praetor was
allowed fari, to pronounce the three words, do, dico,
addico : The other days wherein this was prohibited
were called nefasti.' thus Ovid,
Ille nefastus erit, per quern tria verba silentur ;
Fastus erit, per quern lege licebit agi.
These diesfastiwece noted in the kalendar by the letter
F: but observe, that there were some days ex parte fasti,
partly fasti, partly nefasti; i. e. justice might be distri¬
buted at certain times of the day, and not at others.
These days were called intercisi, and were marked
the kalendar thus 5 F. P. fastos primo, where
justice might be demanded during the first part of that
rjo V.
FASTING, the abstaining from food. See Fast.
Many wonderful stories have been told of extraordi¬
nary fasting ; great numbers of which undoubtedly
must be false. Others, however, we have on very good
authority, of which some are mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Abstinence. Another we have in the
Fasting Woman. A full account of this very un¬
common case is given in the Phil. Trans. Vol. LXVII.
Part I. the substance of which follows : The woman,
wh.ose name was Janet MlLleod, an inhabitant of the
parish of Kincardine in Rosshire, continued healthy
till she was 15 years of age, when she had a pretty severe
epileptic fit; after this she had an interval of health for
four years, and then another epileptic fit which conti¬
nued a whole day and a night. A few days after¬
wards she was seized with a fever, which continued
with violence several weeks, and from which she did
3
ties, and at the same time it flowed from the nose.
This discharge continued several years 5 but at last
it ceased : and soon alter she had a third epileptic fit,
and after that a fever from which she recovered very
slowly. Six weeks after the crisis, she stole out of the
house unknown to her parents, who were busied in
their harvest work, and bound the sheaves of a ridge
before she was observed. In the evening she took to
her bed, complaining much of her heart (most proba¬
bly her stomach, according to the phraseology of that
country) and her head. From that time she never rose
for five years, but was occasionally lifted out of bed.
She seldom spoke a word, and took so little food that
it seemed scarce sufficient to support a sucking infant.
Even this small quantity was taken by compulsion ; and
at last, about Whitsunday 1763, she totally refused
every kind of food or drink. Her jaw now became so
fast locked, that it was with the greatest difficulty her
father was able to open her teeth a little, in order to
admit a small quantity of gruel or whey; but of this
so much generally run out at the corners of her mouth,
that they could not be sensible any had been swallow¬
ed. About this time they got some water from a not¬
ed medicinal spring in Brae-Mar, some of which they
attempted to make her swallow, but without effect.
They continued their trials, however, for three morn¬
ings; rubbing her throat with the water, which run
out at the corners of her mouth. On the third morn¬
ing during the operation, she cried out, “Give me
more water; and swallowed with ease all that re¬
mained in the bottle. She spoke no more intelligibly
for a year ; though she continued to mutter some words,
which her parents only understood, for 14 days. She
continued to reject all kinds of food and drink, till
June 1765. At this time her sister thought, by some
signs she made, that she wantedPer jaws opened ; and
this being done, not without violence, she called in¬
telligibly for a drink, and drank with ease about an
English pint of water. He father then asked her why
she would not make some signs when she wanted a
drink ? to which she answered, why should she when
she had no desire. It was now supposed that she had
regained the faculty of speech ; and her jaws were kept
open for about three weeks by means of a wedge. But
in four or five days she became totally silent, and the
wedge wras removed because it made her lips sore. She
still, however, continued sensible ; and when her
lids were opened, knew every body, as could be guessed
from the signs she made.
By continuing their attempts to force open her jaws,
two of the under foreteeth were driven out; and ot
this opening her parents endeavoured to avail them¬
selves by putting some thin nourishing drink into her
mouth ; but without effect, as it always returned by the
corners. Sometimes they thought of thrusting a little
dough of oatmeal through this gap of the teeth, which
she would retain a few seconds, and then return with
something like a straining to vomit, without one paj-
FAS C 577 ] FAS
sistirtg. tide going down. Nor were the family sensible of
.-y—> any thing like swallowing for four years, excepting the
small draught of Brae-Mar water and the English pint
of common water. For the last three years she had not
any evacuation by stool or urine, except that once or
twice a-week she passed a few drops of urine, about as
much, to use the expression of her parents, as would
wet the surface of a halfpenny. In this situation she
was visited by Dr Mackenzie, who communicated the
account of her case to the Royal Society. He found
her not at all emaciated j her knees were bent, and the
hamstrings tight, so that her heels almost touched her
buttocks. She slept much, and was very quiet: but
when awake, kept a constant whimpering like a new¬
born weakly infant. She never could remain a mo¬
ment on her back, but always fell to one side or ano¬
ther and her chin was clapped close to her breast, nor
could it by any force be moved backwards.
The doctor paid his first visit in the month of Oc¬
tober; and five years afterwards, viz. in October 1772,
was induced to pay her a second visit, by hearing that
she was recovering, and had begun to eat and drink.
The account given him was most extraordinary. Her
parents one day returning from their country labours
(having left their daughter fixed to her bed as usual),
were greatly surprised to find her sitting upon her hams,
on the side of the house opposite to her bed place, spin¬
ning with her mother’s distaff. All the food she took
at that time was only to crumble a little oat or barley
cake in the palm of her hand, as if to feed a chicken.
She put little crumbs of this into the gap of her teeth ;
rolled them about for some time in her mouth ; and
then sucked out of the palm of her hand a little water,
whey, or milk ; and this only once or twice a day, and
even that by compulsion. She never attempted to
speak; her jaws were fast locked, and her eyes shut.
On opening her eyelids, the balls were found to be
turned up under the edge of the os frontis ; her coun¬
tenance was ghastly, her complexion pale, and her whole
person emaciated. She seemed sensible, and tractable
in every thing except in taking food. This she did
with the utmost reluctance, and even cried before she
yielded. The great change of her looks Dr Macken¬
zie attributed to her spinning flax on the distaff, which
exhausted too much of the saliva ; and therefore he
recommended to her parents to confine her totally to
the spinning of wool. In 1775, she was visited again,
and found to be greatly improved in her looks as well
as strength ; her food was also considerably increased
in quantity ; though even then she did not take mere
than would be sufficient to sustain an infant of two
years of age.
The following remarkable instances of animals being
able to live long without food, are related by Sir Wil¬
liam Hamilton in his account of the late earthquakes
in Italy (Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxiii.). “ At Soriano
(says he), two fattened hogs that had remained buried
under a heap of ruins, were taken out alive the 42d day;
they were lean and weak, but soon recovered. Again,
“ At Messina two mules belonging to the duke de Bel-
viso remained under a heap of ruins, one of them 22
days, and the other 23 days ; they would not eat for
some days, but drank water plentifully, and are now
recovered. There are numberless instances of dogs
remaining many days in the same situation ; and a hen
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
belonging to the British vice-consul at Messina, that Ka*tiii<r,
had been closely shut up under the ruins of his house, Fastolf.
was taken out the 22d day, and is now recovered ; it '"“"v
did not eat for some days, but drank freely ; it was
emaciated, and showed little signs of life at first. From
these instances, and those related before of the hogs
at Soriano, and several others of the same kind that
have been related to me, but which being less re¬
markable I omit, one may conclude, that long fasting
is always attended with great thirst, and total less of
appetite.”
An instance of a similar kind, not less remarkable
than either of the two preceding, we find in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine for January 1785, communicated by a
correspondent, as follows : “ During the heavy snow
which fell in the night of the 7th of January 1776, a
parcel of sheep belonging to Mr John Wolley, of Mat-
lock, in Derbyshire, which were pastured on that part
of the East Moor that lies within the manor of Mat-
lock, were covered with the drifted snow: in the
course of a day or two all the sheep that were covered
with the snow were found again, except two, which
were consequently given up as lost; but on the 14th
of February following (some time after the break of
the snow in the valleys, and 38 days after the fall), as
a servant was walking over a large parcel of drifted
snow which remained on the declivity of a hill, a deg
he had with him discovered one of the two sheep that
had been lost, by winding (or scenting) it through a
small aperture which the breath of the sheep had made
in the snow ; the servant thereupon dug away the snow,
and released the captive from its prison ; it immediate¬
ly ran to a neighbouring spring, at which it drank for
a considerable time, and afterwards rejoined its old com¬
panions as though no such accident had befallen it. On
inspecting the place where it was found, it appeared to
have stood between two large stones which lay parallel
with each other at about two feet and a half distance,
and probably were the means of protecting it from the
great weight of the snow, which in that place lay se¬
veral yards thick : from the number of stones around
it, it did not appear that the sheep had been able to
pick up any food during its confinement. Soon after¬
wards its owner removed it to some low lands ; but as
it had nearly lost its appetite, it was fed with bread and
milk for some time : in about a fortnight after its
enlargement it lost its sight and wool : but in a few
weeks afterwards they both returned again, and in the
course of the following summer it was quite recovered.
The remaining sheep was found dead about a week
after the discovery of the other.”
In the same publication f is recorded the death off Suppl, for
one Caleb Elliot, a visionary enthusiast, who meant to1?8?- O-
have fasted 40 days, and actually survived 16 without i,,tuai*r'
food, having obstinately refused sustenance of every
kind.
FASTOLF, Sir John, a valiant and renowned
English officer, a knight banneret and of the Garter,
who served in France under Henry IV. V. and VI.
ivas descended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and
was born about the year 1377. He was as much dis¬
tinguished for his virtue at home, as for his valour
abroad ; and became no less amiable in his private,
than he had been admirable in his public character;
He died in 1457, upwards of 80 years of age, as we
4 D le&ra
FAT
[ 578 3
FAT
learn from his noted cotemporary William Caxton the
first English printer. By an unaccountable mistake it
has been asserted, that Shakespeare’s 1 alstaff was drawn
to ridicule this great man j and this has made judici¬
ous biographers more studious to preserve his reputa-
FAT, an oily concrete substance, deposited in dif¬
ferent parts of animal bodies. See Botany Index.
Strong exercise, preternatural heat, an acrimonious
state of the juices, and other like causes, by which the
oily parts of the blood are attenuated, resolved, or eva¬
cuated, prevent the generation of fat \ labours of the
mind also have this effect, as well as labour or intempe¬
rature of the body. Hence rest and plentiful food are
sufficient to fatten brutes j but with men it is often
otherwise. It is surprising how soon some birds grow
fat; ortolans, it is said, in 24 hours, and larks still
sooner.
Fats may be divided, from their consistence, into
three kinds: (1.) The soft and thin, which grow per¬
fectly liquid in a very small heat j (2.) The thick and
consistent, which liquefy less readily j and, (3.) The
hard and firm, which require a still stronger heat to
melt them. The first is called Pinguedo; the second
Axungia ; and the third, Adeps, as taken from the
animal, and Sebum, or Sevnm, when freed from the
skins, &c. This use of the names, however, is not
constant, some employing them differently.
A great number of fats have been kept in the shops,
for making ointments, plasters, and other medicinal
compositions; as hog’s lard, the fat of the boar, the
fox, the hare, dog, wild cat, Alpine mouse, beaver 5 that
of hens, ducks, geese, storks ; of the whale, pike, ser¬
pents, viper, &c. as also human fat.—In regard to all
these kinds of substances, however, much depends upon
the manner of purifying or trying, and of keeping
them. .
To obtain fat pure, it must be cut into pieces, and
cleaned from the interposed membranes and vessels. It
must then be cleansed from its gelatinous matter by
washing with water, till the water comes from it co¬
lourless and insipid ; it is afterwards to be melted with
a moderate heat in a proper vessel with a little water j
and it is to be kept thus melted till the water is entire¬
ly evaporated, which is known by the discontinuance
of the boiling, which is caused by the water only, and
which lasts till not a drop of it remains j yet it is after¬
wards to be put into an earthen pot, where it fixes j
then it is exceedingly white, sufficiently pure for the
purposes of pharmacy or chemical examination.
Fat thus purified has very little taste, and a weak,
but peculiar smell. For its analysis and chemical pro¬
perties, see Chemistry Index..
One of the chief uses of fat probably is, to receive
into its composition, to blunt and correct a great part
of the acids of the aliments, and which are more than
are requisite to the composition of the nutritive juice,
or which nature could not otherwise expel. This is
certain, that the greater the quantity of aliments
taken by healthy animals, above what is necessary for
their nourishment and reproduction, the fatter they be¬
come. Hence animals which are castrated, which are
not much exercised, or which are come to an age when
the loss and production of the seminal fluid is less, and
which at the same time consume much succulent ali-
2
ment, generally become fatter, and sometimes exceed- pat)
ingly so. _ Fata
Although fat be very different from truly animalized Morganai
substances, and appears not easily convertible into nu- U,"’Y—**
tritive juices, it being generally difficult of digestion,
and apt to become rancid, as butter does in the sto¬
machs of many persons ; yet in certain cases it server
to the nourishment and reparation of the body. Ani¬
mals certainly become lean, and live upon their fat,
when they have too little food, and when they have
diseases which prevent digestion and the production of
the nutritive juice't and in these cases the fatter animals
hold out longer than the leaner. The fat appears to
be then absorbed by the vessels designed for this use,
and to be transformed into nutritive juice.
Fat, in the sea language, signifies the same with
broad. Thus a ship is said to have a fat quarter, if the
trussing in or tuck of her quarter be deep.
Fat likewise denotes an uncertain measure of capa¬
city. Thus a fat of isinglass contains from 3^ hundred
weight to 4 hundred weight; a fat of unbound books,
half a maund or four bales j of wire, from 20 to 25
hundred weight ; and of yarn, from 220 to 221
bundles.
Fat, or Vat, is used also for several utensils : as, 1.
A great wooden vessel, employed for measuring of malt,
and containing a quarter or eight bushels. 2. A large
brewing vessel, used by brewers to run their wort in.
3. A leaden pan or vessel for the making of salt at
Droitwich.
FATA morgana j a very singular phenomenon,
mentioned by different philosophical writers and travel*
levs, particularly by Brydone and Swinburne. They
inform us that it is seen in the straits of Messina, and
sometimes denominated the castles of the Fairy Morgana.
The accounts of this phenomenon differ considerably
from each other, and travellers are not unanimous as to
the causes which are necessary for its production. It
would perhaps be difficult to determine how far the imagi¬
nation of those who have spoken of it may be considered
capable of producing astonishment, yet the actual ex¬
istence of such a phenomenon admits of no dispute.
The first chapter of Minasi, in his dissertation on the
Fata Morgana, speaks of this phenomenon in the follow¬
ing manner. When the rising sun shines from that
point whence its incident ray forms an angle of 450 on
the sea of Reggio, and the bright surface of the water in
the bay is not disturbed either by the wind or the cur«
rent, the spectator being placed on an eminence of the
city, with his back to the sun and his face to the sea y
on a sudden there appear in the water, as in a catoptric
theatre, various multiplied objects, that is to say, num¬
berless series of pilasters, arches, castles well delineated,
regular columns, lofty towers, superb palaces, with bal¬
conies and windows, extended alleys of trees, delightful
plains with herbs and flocks, armies of men on foot and
horseback, and many other strange images, in their
natural colours and proper actions, passing rapidly in
succession along the surface of the sea during the whole
of the short period of time while the above-mentioned
causes remain. # .
“ But if, in addition to the circumstances betore
described, the atmosphere be highly impregnated with
vapour and dense exhalations, not previously dispersed by
. the action of the wind or waves, or rarefied by the sun,
FAT [ 579 ] FAT
Fata it then happens that in this vapour, as in a curtain ex-
argana, tended along the channel to the height of about 30 palms,
J and nearly down to the sea, the observer will behold the
scene of the same objects not only reflected from the
surface of the sea, but likewise in the air, though not so
distinct or well defined as the former objects from the sea.
il If the air be slightly hazy and opake, and at the
same time dewy and adapted to form the iris, then the
above-mentioned objects will appear only at the surface
of the sea, as in the first case, but all vividly coloured,
or fringed with red, green, blue, and other prismatic
colours.”
From this account of Minasi it appears, that there
are three different species of Fata Morgana $ the first
appearing at the surface of the sea, denominated the
Marine Morgana; the second in the air, called the
Aerial Morgana, and the third only at the surface of
the sea, or Morgana fringed with prismatic colours.
The same ingenious author attempted to trace the ety¬
mology of the word Morgana, which he thinks is de¬
rived from tristis, and Icetitia officio. This
splendid sight affects all descriptions of men with such
joy, that they run towards the sea, exclaiming Morgana,
Morgana ! This etymology of Minasi may seem at first
view to be a contradiction in terms ; but it will appear
most natural, when we consider the joy which the Mor¬
gana inspires, and the corresponding sorrow or dejection
which must be felt when it vanishes away. Our author
informs us, that he beheld this magnificent appearance
three times, and would rather behold it again than the
“ most superb theatrical exhibition in the world.”
- In his physical and astronomical remarks on this phe¬
nomenon, he observes that the sea in the straits of Mes¬
sina exhibits the appearance of a large inclined specu¬
lum ; that, in the alternate current or tide which flows
and returns in the straits for six hours each way, and is
constantly attended by an opposite current along shore
to the medium distance of about half a league, there
are many eddies and irregularities at the time of the
change of its direction ; and that the Morgana usually
appears at this period. He ascribes the effects produced
by it to the supposed inclination of the surface of the
sea, and its subdivision into different planes by the con¬
trary eddies. The effects produced in the air he consi¬
ders as the result of saline and other effluvia suspended
in the air. These appearances are produced by a calm
sea, and one or more strata of superincumbent air dilfer-
ing in refractive, and consequently in reflective power,
rather than from any considerable change in the surface
of the water, with the laws of which we are much bet¬
ter acquainted than with those of the atmosphere.
To the above account we shall add the following,
given by M. Houel, whose judgment and veracity ren¬
der his authority highly respectable. “ In fine summer
days, when the weather is calm, there arises above the
great current a vapour, which acquires a certain densi¬
ty, so as to form in the atmosphere horizontal prisms,
whose sides are disposed in such a manner, that when
they come to their proper degree of perfection, they
reflect and represent successively, for some time (like a
moveable mirror), the objects on the coast or in the ad¬
jacent country. They exhibit by turns the city and
suburbs of Messina, trees, animals, men, and mountains.
They are certainly beautiful aerial moving pictures.
There are sometimes two or three prisms, equally per¬
fect 'f and they continue in this state eight or ten mi- Fata
nutes. After this, some shining inequalities are ob- Morgana
served upon the surface of the prism, which render |
confused to the eye the objects which had been before , a cr*
so accurately delineated, and the picture vanishes. The
vapour forms other combinations, and is dispersed in
air. Different accounts have been given of this singu¬
lar appearance ; which for my part I attribute to a bi¬
tumen that issues from certain rocks at the bottom of
the sea, and which is often seen to cover part of its
surface in the strait of Messina. The subtile parts of
the bitumen being attenuated, combined, and exhaled
with the aqueous globules that are raised by the air,
and formed into bodies of vapour, give to this con¬
densed vapour more consistence; and contribute, by
their smooth and polished particles, to the formation of
a kind of aerial crystal, which receives the light, re¬
flects it to the eye, and transmits to it all the luminous
points which colour the objects exhibited in this phe¬
nomenon, and render them visible.”
FATE (fatum'), denotes an inevitable necessity de¬
pending upon a superior cause. The word is formed
a fando, “ from speaking:” and primarily implies the
same with effatum, viz. a word or decree pronounced
by God; or a fixed sentence whereby the Deity has
prescribed the order of things, and allotted to every
person what shall befal him.
The Greeks called it uftcc^fitvn, as it were a chain or
necessary series of things indissolubly linked together.
It is also used to express a certain unavoidable desig¬
nation of things, by which all agents, both necessary
and voluntary, are swayed and directed to their ends.
See Necessity.
In this last sense, fate is distinguished into, 1. Astro¬
logical fate, arising from the influence and position of
the heavenly bodies; which (it was supposed) gave
laws both to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the
wills of men. 2. Stoical fate, defined by Cicero an or¬
der or series of causes, wherein, cause being: linked to
cause, each produces another, and thus all things flow
from one prime cause. To this fate the Stoics subject
even the gods.
Fate is divided by later authors into physical and di¬
vine. Physical fate is an order and series of natural
causes appropriated to their effects. By this fate it is
that fire warms, bodies communicate motion to each
other, &c. and the effects of it are all the events and
phenomena of nature. 2. Divine fate is what is more
usually called Providence. See Providence.
FATES, in Mythology. See Parc;e.
FATHEMITES, Fatemites, or Fathimites,
the descendants of Mahomet by Fathema, or Fatima,
his daughter. They never enjoyed the caliphate of
Mecca or Bagdad, but reigned in Barbary and Egypt.
See the history of these countries.
FATHER, a term of relation denoting a person who
hath begot a child. See Parent and Child.
By the laws of Romulus, a father had an unlimited
power over his children. Amongst the Lacedaemo¬
nians, as we learn from Aristotle’s Politics, the father
of three children was excused from the duty of mount-
ing guard for the security of the city ; and a father of
four children was exempted from every public bur¬
den. The Poppaean law, amongst the Romans, granted
many valuable privileges to the fathers of three chib-
4 D 2 1 dren;
FAU [580] FAW
dren j amongst which one was, that he should be excu¬
sed from civil offices, and that the mother should have
liberty, in her father’s lifetime, to make a will, and
manage her estate without the authority of tutors.
Natural Father, is he who has illegitimate children.
See Bastard $ and Law Index.
Adoptive Father, is he who takes the children of
some other, and acknowledges them as his own. See
Adoption.
Putative Father, is he who’is only the reputed or
supposed father. Joseph was putative father of our
Saviour.
FATHER-in-law, is a person married to a woman who
has children by a former husband, &c. to which chil¬
dren he is said to be a father-in-law.
Father is also used in theology for the First Person
in the Trinity.
Father is also used in a figurative sense on divers
moral and spiritual occasions. ’Ihus, it is applied to
the patriarchs; as we say Adam was the father ol all
mankind, Abraham the father of the faithful, &c.
Father, in church history, is applied to ancient
authors who have preserved in their writings the tradi¬
tions of the church. Thus St Chrysostom, St Basil, &c.
are called Greek fathers, and St Augustine and St Am¬
brose Latin fathers. No author who wrote later than
the 12th century is dignified with the title ot lather.
Father, is also a title of honour given to prelates
and dignitaries of the church, to the superiors of con¬
vents, to congregations of ecclesiastics, and to persons
venerable for their age or quality. T-hus we say, the
right reverend father in God, the father general of
the Benedictines, the fathers of the council of Nice,
father of his country, &c.
FATHERLASHER, a species of fishes belonging
to the genus cottus. See Cottus, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
FATHOM, a long measure containing six feet,
used chiefly at sea for measuring the length of cables
and cordage.
FATNESS. See Corpulency.—It is observed,
that for one fat person in France or Spain, there are a
hundred in England and Holland. This is supposed to
be from the use of new malt liquors, more than from
the difl'erence of climates or degrees of perspiration.
Indolence may cause fatness in some few constitutions ;
but, in general, those who are disposed to this habit
will be fat in spite of every endeavour to the contrary,
but that of destroying health.
FATUARH, in antiquity, were persons who, ap¬
pearing inspired, foretold things to come. Ihe word
is formed of Fatua, wife of the god Faunus, who was
supposed to inspire women with the knowledge of futu¬
rity, as Faunus himself did the men.—Fatua had her
name from /arf, q. d. valicinari, “ to prophesy.”
FAVERSHAM, a town of Kent, in England. See
Feversham.
FAVISSiFi, in antiquity, were, according to Festus
and Gellius, cisterns to keep water in : but the favissae
in the Capitol at Rome were subterraneous cellars, where
the old statues, broken vessels, and other things used in
the temple, were laid up. They were much the same
with the archive* and treasury of modern churches.
FAUNA, a deity among the Romans. She was
daughter of Picus, and was originally called Marica.
Her marriage with Faunus procured her the name of Fau&a
Fauna, and her knowledge of futurity that of Fatua ||
and Fatidica. It is said that she never saw a man af- Fawitei 1
ter her marriage with Faunus, and that her uncommon '““"'V'-*
chastity occasioned her being ranked among the gods
after death. She is the same, according to some, as
Bojia Mater.
FAUNALIA, in antiquity, Roman feasts celebrated
in honour of the god Faunus, who was the same among
the Romans with the Pan of the Greeks.
The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones of
December j i. e. on the fifth day of that month. The
principal sacrifice was a roe-buck j or rather, according
to Horace, a kid, attended with libations of wine and
burning of incense. It was properly a country festival,
being performed in the fields and villages with peculiar
joy and devotion. Horace gives us a very gay descrip¬
tion thereof in the 18th ode of his third book v
■ Tener plena cadit hcedus anno :
Larga nec desunt Veneris sodali
Vina craterce : vetus ara multo
Fumat odore.
Struvius in his Roman kalendar marks the feast of
Faunus on the day of the ides of February, which is
the 30th day of that month ; and the Faunalia he
places on the fifth of the ides of December, or the 9th
of that month : and in chap. ix. he shews, that there
really were two I'aunalia ; the one in February, men¬
tioned by Ovid, Fast. lib. iv. ver. 246, the other on
the 9th of December, mentioned by Horace in the
place just cited.
FAUNS, (Fauni), among the ancients, were a
species of demi-gods inhabiting the forests ; called also
Sylvans (Sylvani'), and little differing from the Satyrs.
They delighted more particularly in vineyards $ and
they generally appear as attendants of Bacchus, in the
representations of Bacchanal feasts and processions.—
They were represented as half men, half goats, having
the horns, ears, feet, and tail of a goat, a very flat nose,
and the rest human. Though the Fauns were held for
demi-gods, yet they were supposed to die after a long
life. Arnobius shows that their father or chiefrFaunus
himself, lived only 120 years.
F'AUNUS, in fabulous history, a son of Picus who
reigned in Italy about 1300 years before the Augustan
age. His bravery, as well as wisdom, have given rise
to the tradition that he was son of Mars. His great
popularity, and his fondness for agriculture, made his
subjects revere him as one of their country deities after
death. He was represented with all the equipage of
the satyrs, and was consulted to give oracles.
FAVONIUS, amongst the Romans, the wind which
blew directly from the west.
FAVORINUS, an ancient orator and philosopher
of Gaul, who flourished under the emperor Adrian,
and taught with high reputation both at Athens and
Rome. Many works are attributed to him j among
the rest, a Greek miscellaneous history often quoted by
Diogenes Laertius.
FAUSTUS. See Fust.
FAWKES, Francis, an ingenious poet, had his
school education at Leeds j from whence he was trans¬
planted to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took
the degrees in arts. Entering early into holy orders,
he
F E A [ 5
"awkes be settled first at Bramlmm in Yorkshire, near the ele-
Q gant seat of that name (Mr Lane’s), which he cele-
. brated in verse in 1745* i'1 a 4to pamphlet anonymous.
His first poetical publications were, Gavven Douglas’s
Description of May and Winter modernized. Re¬
moving afterwards to the curacy of Croydon in Surry,
he recommended himself to the notice of Archbishop
Herring, then resident there on account of his health,
to whom, besides other pieces, he addressed an ode on
his recovery in 1754, printed in Mr Dodsley’a collec¬
tion. In consequence, his grace collated him in 1755
to the vicarage of Orpington with St Mary Gray in
Kent) and Mr I awkes lamented his patron’s death in
1757 *_n a Pathetic elegy styled Aurelius, first printed
with his grace’s seven sermons, in 1763. He married
about the same time Miss Furrier of Leeds, In April
1774> by the late Dr Plumtree’s favour, he exchanged
his vicarage for the rectory of Hayes. He was also
one of the chaplains to the princess dowager of Wales.
He published a volume of poems by subscription in
8vo, 1761 j the Poetical Kalendar 1763 j and Po¬
etical Magazine 1764, in conjunction with Mr Woty j
Partridge Shooting, an eclogue, to the honourable
Char. Yorke, 4!-0j an(l a Family Bible, with
notes, in 410, a compilation. But his great strength
lay in translation, in which, since Pope, few have
equalled him. Witness his fragments of Menander
(in his Poems) j his works of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,
Moschus, and Musseus, igmo, 1760; his Idylliums of
Theocritus, by subscription, 8vo, 1767; and his Ar-
gonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, by subscription also
(a posthumous publication, completed by the Reve¬
rend Mr Meen of Emanuel College, Cambridge), 8vo,
1780. He died August 26. 1777-
FAWN, among sportsmen, a buck or doe of the
first year j or the young one of the buck’s breed in its
first year.
FE, Fo, or Fo/ii, the name of the chief god of the
Chinese, whom they adore as the sovereign of heaven.
They represent him shining all in light, with his hands
hid under his robes, to show that his power does all
things invisibly. He has at his right hand the famous
Confucius, and at his left Lanza or Lanca, chief of the
second sect of their religion.
FEAL, a provincial term for sod or turf.
FsAL-Dykes, a cheap sort of fence common in Scot¬
land j built with feal or sod dug up by the spade from
the surface of grass ground, consisting of the upper
mould rendered tough and coherent by the matted
roots of the grass thickly interwoven with it. If only
a very thin bit of the upper surface is pared off with
a paring spade, the pieces are called divots. These
being of a firmer consistence, are more durable when
built into dykes than feal, but much more expensive
also.
FEALTY, in Law, an oath taken on the admit¬
tance of any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he
holds his land : by this oath the tenant holds in the
Ireest manner, on account that all who have fee hold
perfidem et Jiduciam, that is, by fealty at the least.
This fealty, at the first creation of it, bound the
tenant to fidelity, the breach of which was the loss of
his fee. It has been divided into general and special j
general, that which is to be performed by every sub¬
ject to his prince; and special, required only of such
81 ] F E A
as, in respect of their fee, are tied by oath to their Fealty
lords. To all manner of tenures, except tenancy at [)
will, and frank^almoign, fealty is incident, though it teast-
chiefly belongs to copyhold estates held in fee and for *
life. The form of this oath, by stat. 17 Edw. II. is to
run as follows: “I A. B. will be to you, my lord D.
true and faithful, and bear to you faith for the lands
and tenements which I hold of you; and I will truly
do and perform the customs and services that 1 ought
to do to you. So help me God.”
I EAR, one of the passions of the human mind:
(see Passion). It is defined, an apprehension of im¬
pending evil, attended with a desire of avoiding it.
Fear in the extreme is called fright or terror. See
Fright.
Fear, in Scripture, is used in various senses.
The yew of God is either filial or servile. The filial
fear is a holy affection or gracious habit in the soul,
whereby it is inclined to obey all God’s command¬
ments, and to hate and avoid evil. Slavish or servile
fear is the consequence of guilt; it is a judicial im¬
pression from the sad thoughts of the provoked ma¬
jesty of heaven; it is an alarm within that disturbs
the rest of a sinner. Though this fear be in wicked
men, yet it often proves preparative to faitl? and re¬
pentance.
Fear is likewise used for the object of fear. Thus it
is said, “ ihefear of Isaac,” to describe the God whom
Isaac feared; (Gen.xxxi. 24.), and in Prov. i. 16. “ I
will mock when your fear cometh;” that is, the
calamity you feared. God says, that he will sen<J his
fear before his people; that is, a dread wrought by
him, in order to terrify and destroy the inhabitants of
Canaan.
Fear (Metus, Favor, or Timor), was deified by the
Pagans. Tullius Hostilius brought the worship of this
deity to Rome. The Ephori of Sparta erected a tem¬
ple to Fear, near their tribunal, to strike an awe into
those who approached it. Fear was likewise worship¬
ped at Corinth. The poets did not forget this ima¬
ginary deity. Virgil places her in the entrance of hell,
in company with diseases, old age, &c. AEn. vi. ,273.
Ovid places her in the retinue of Tisiphone one of the
furies, Met. iv. 483.
FEAST, or I estival, in a religious sense, is a ce¬
remony of feasting and thanksgiving. The word is
formed of the Latin festum, which some derive aferiari,
“ to keep holiday;” others from the Greek ” I:
feast or entertain,” of wx, “ hearth, fire.”
Feasts, and the ceremonies thereof, have made great
part ot the religion of almost all nations and sects ;
witness those of the Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, Chri¬
stians, and Mahometans.
The first feasts among the Greeks were celebrated in
solemn assemblies of the whole nation, on occasion of
their games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Isth¬
mian, and Nemaean : in process of time they had many
others, the principal of which are enumerated in the
course of this work.
The Romans also had abundance of- stated feasts in
honour of their deities and heroes; such were the Sa¬
turnalia, Cerealia, Lupercalia, Liberalia, Neptunalia,
Consualia, Portumnalia, Vulcanalia, Falilia, Divalia,
&c. See Saturnalia, &c.
They had also feasts instituted occasionally; as Car-
mentalia,.
F E A
[ 58
Feast, mentalla, Quirinalia, Terminalia, Floraha, Compitalia
 Lemiu ia, Vernalia, besideother moveable and occasional
ones: as to give thanks to the gods for benefits re¬
ceived •, to implore their assistance, or te appease their
wrath, &c.as the Paganalia, Feralia, Bacchanalia, Am-
barvalia, Amburbalia, Suovetaurilia, and divers others,
particularly denominated ; as Sementinae, Latinae,
&c. See each of these feasts, and fcrice in its proper
place. The feasts were divided into days of sacrifice,
and days of banqueting and feasting $ days ol games,
and days of rest or ferice.
There being but little history written, or at least
published in those days, one end of feasts was to keep
op the remembrance of past occurrences.
The principal feasts of the Jews were the feast of
trumpets, that of the expiation, of tabernacles, of the
dedication, of the passover, ot pentecost, and that of
purification. See Expiation. &c.
The modern Jews have other feasts marked in their
kalendar, of modern institution. The Mahometans,
besides their weekly feast or Sabbath, which is kept
on Friday, have two solemn feasts, the first of which
is called the Feast of Victims, and celebrated on the
tenth day of the last month of their year j and the
second called Buivam. The Chinese have twro solemn
feasts in the year, in the memory of Confucius, be¬
sides others of less note on the other days of the
year.
Feasts among us are either immoveable or moveable.
Immoveable Feasts are those constantly celebrated on
the same day of the year j the principal of these are
Christmas day or the Nativity, the Circumcision, Epi¬
phany, Candlemas or the Purification, Lady Day or
the Annunciation, called also the Incarnation and Con¬
ception, All Saints and All Souls j besides the days of
the several Apostles, St Thomas, St Paul, &c. which
with us are feasts, though not ferice. See each feast
under its proper article.
Moveable Feasts are those which are not confined to
the same day of the year. Of these the principal is
Easter, which gives law to all the rest, all of them fol-
low'ing, and keeping their proper distances from it;
such as Palm-Sunday, Good-Friday, Ash-Wednesday,
Sexagesima, Ascension Day, Pentecost, and Trinity-
Sunday. See Easter, Sexagesima, Pentecost,
Trinity, &c.
The four feasts which the English laws take special
notice of are, the Annunciation of the blessed Virgin
Mary or Lady Day, the 25th of March j the nativity
of St John the Baptist, held on the 24th of June j the
Feast of St Michael the Archangel, on the 29th of
September j and that of St Thomas the Apostle, on
the 21st of December: on which quarterly days rent
on leases is usually reserved to be paid (5 and 6 Edw.
VI. cap. 3. 3 Jac. I. cap. 1. 12 Car. II. cap. 30.).
Besides these feasts, which -Art general, and enjoined
by the church, there are others local and occasional,
enjoined by the magistrate, or voluntarily set on foot
by the people j such are the days of thanksgiving for
delivery from wars, plagues, &c. Such also are the
vigils or wakes in commemoration of the dedications
of particular churches. See Vigil, &c.
The prodigious increase of feast days in the Chri¬
stian church commenced towards the close of the
fourth century, and was occasioned by the discovery
2 ] F E A
that was then made of the remains of martyrs and other F'ean.
holy men, for the commemoration of whom they were v—
established. These, instead of being set apart for pious
exercises, were abused in indolence, voluptuousness, and
criminal practices. Many of them were instituted on a
pagan model, and perverted to similar purposes.
Feast of Death, or Feast of Souls, a solemn reli¬
gious ceremony in use among the savages of America ;
some of whom thus testify their respect for the deceased
every eight years 5 and others, as the Hurons and
Iroquois, every ten years.
The day of this ceremony is appointed by public
order •, and nothing is omitted, that it may be cele¬
brated with the utmost pomp and magnificence. The
neighbouring tribes are invited to be present, and to
join in the solemnity. At this time all who have died
since the last solemn occasion are taken out of their
graves; those who have been interred at the greatest
distance from the villages are diligently sought for, and
brought to this great rendezvous of carcases.
It is not difficult to conceive the horror of this ge¬
neral disinterment*, but it cannot be described in a
more lively manner than it is done by Lafitau, to
whom we are indebted for the most authentic account
of those nations.
“ Without question (says he), the opening of these
tombs displays one of the most striking scenes that can-
be conceived; this humbling portrait of human mi¬
sery, in so many images of death, wherein she seems
to take a pleasure to paint herself in a thousand va¬
rious shapes of horror, in the several carcases, accord¬
ing to the degree in which corruption has prevailed
over them, or the manner in which it has attacked
them. Some appear dry and withered ; others have a
sort of parchment upon their bones j some look as if
they were baked and smoked, without any appearance
of rottenness j some are just turning towards the point
of putrefaction j whilst others are all swimming with
worms, and drowned in corruption. I know not which
oucrht to strike us most, the horror of so shocking a
sight, or the tender piety and affection of these poor
people toward their departed friends*, for nothing de¬
serves our admiration more than that eager diligence
and attention with which they discharge this melan-
cholv duty of their tenderness; gathering up careful¬
ly even the smallest bones, handling the carcases,
disgustful as they are, with every thing loathsome,
cleansing them from the worms, and carrying them
upon their shoulders through tiresome journeys of se¬
veral days, without being discouraged from the offen¬
siveness of the smell, and without suffering any other
emotions to arise than those of regret, for having lost
persons who were so dear to them in their lives, and so
lamented in their death.
“ They bring them into their cottages, where they
prepare a feast in honour of the dead ; during which
their great actions are celebrated, and all the tender
intercourses which took place between them and their
friends are piously called to mind. The strangers, who
have come sometimes many hundred miles to be pre¬
sent on the occasion, join in the tender condolence;
and the women, by frightful shrieks, demonstrate that
they are pierced with the sharpest sorrow. Then the
dead bodies are carried from the cabins for the general
re-interment. A great pit is dug in the ground, and
thither.
F E A [ 5^3 ] F E A
Feast thither,, at a certain time, each person, attended by
‘■'-y——' his family and friends, marches in solemn silence, bear¬
ing the dead body of a son, a father, or a brother.
When they are all convened, the dead bodies, or the
dust of those which were quite corrupted, are deposited
in the pit: then the torrent of grief breaks out anew.
Whatever they possess most valuable is interred with
the dead. The strangers are not wanting in their ge¬
nerosity, and confer those presents which they have
brought along with them for the purpose. Then all
present go down into the pit, and every one takes a
little of the earth, which they afterwards preserve with
the most religious care. The bodies, ranged in order,
are covered with entire new furs, and over these with
bark, on which they throw stones, wood and earth.
Then taking their last farewell, they return each to his
own cabin.
“ We have mentioned, that in this ceremony the
savages offer, as presents to the dead, whatever they va¬
lue most highly. This custom, which is universal
among them, arises from a rude notion of the immor¬
tality of the soul. They believe this doctrine most
firmly, and it is the principal tenet of their religion.
When the soul is separated from the body of their friends,
they conceive that it still continues to hover around it,
and require and take delight in the same things with
which it formerly was pleased. After a certain time,
however, it forsakes this dreary mansion, and departs
far westward into the land of spirits. They have even
gone so far as to make a distinction between the inha¬
bitants of the other world } some, they imagine, parti¬
cularly those who in their lifetime have been fortunate
in war, possess a high degree of happiness, have a place
for hunting and fishing, which never fails, and enjoy
all sensual delights, without labouring hard in order to
procure them. The souls of those on the contrary,
who happen to be conquered or slain in war, are ex¬
tremely miserable after death.”
Feast is also used for a banquet, or a sumptuous
meal, without any immediate view to religion.
The use of the word, in this sense, arises hence ;
that a part of the ceremony of many of the ancient
festivals, both those of the heathens and the agapse of
the Christians, was good eating 5 though Mr Huet
chooses to derive the word homfestinare, which in an
ancient Latin version of Origen’s Comment on Mat¬
thew, signifies “ to feastUt veniens illuc Jesusfesti-
nct, cum diseipulis suis.
Social or civil feasts were also expressed by the words
convivium and compotatio or conccenatio. Cicero says
that in the Roman tongue, the word convivium, which
means “ people assembled at table,” is more signifi¬
cant than the Greek word compotatio or concocnatio:
the Roman, says he, expresses the conjunction of body
and mind which ought to take place at an entertain¬
ment } the Greek denotes what relates to the body
alone.
As food is necessary to our existence, it makes a
bond of association among mankind. People at a feast,
says one of the ancients, seem to form but one body,
one soul. All nations, whether savage or civiliz,ed, have
regarded the pleasure of the table as the occasion of
the most agreeable society. This species of enjoyment
(abstracting from its susceptibility of abuse) makes
but one family of all that it brings together. It levels
the distinctions introduced by policy or prejudice, and Feast,
disposes men to regard one another as brethren. It is v—
here that people feel the equality established by nature;
here they forget the evils of life,; they extinguish their
hatred, and make their enmities cease. For this reason
Aristotle considers as a breach of the social principle
that custom of the Egyptians of eating apart, and
praises the convivial repasts established by Minos and
Lycurgus.
The Persians generally deliberated on business at
table, but never determined or put their determina¬
tions in execution except in the morning before having
eaten.
When the Germans, says Tacitus, wanted to recon¬
cile enemies, to make alliances, to name chiefs, or to
treat ot war and peace, it was during the repast that
they took counsel; a time in which the mind is most
open to the impressions of simple truth, or most easily
animated to great attempts. These artless people du¬
ring the conviviality of the feast spoke without dis¬
guise. Next day they weighed the counsels of the for¬
mer evening ; they deliberated at a time when they
were not disposed to feign, and took their resolution
when they were least liable to be deceived.
People of rank among the Rhodians, by a funda¬
mental law of the state, were obliged to dine daily with
those who had the management of affairs, in order to
deliberate with them concerning such things as were
necessary or useful for the country j and on this ac¬
count the principal ministers of the kingdom were ob¬
liged to keep open table for all who could be of use to
the state.
Among the Romans, the place where they supped
was generally the vestibule, that a more retired part of
the house might not encourage licentiousness and dis¬
order. There were several laws that restricted their
meals to those vestibules.
When luxury reigned at Rome, they had superb
halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many,
each of which bore the name of some deity ; and this
name was a mark which indicated to the servants the
expence of the entertainment. The expence of a sup¬
per in Lucullus’s hall of Apollo amounted to 50,000
drachmas.
The hall in which Nero feasted, by the circular mo¬
tion of its walls and ceiling, imitated the revolutions of
the heavens, and represented the different seasons of
the year, changing at every course, and showering
down flowers and perfumes on the guests.
The Romans did not, as we do, use but one table
at their feasts ; they had generally two ; the first was
for the services of animal food, which was afterwards
removed, and another introduced with fruits; at this
last they sung, and poured out their libations. The
Greeks and eastern nations had the same custom, and
even the Jews in their solemn feasts and at sacrifices.
The Romans, in the time of Nero, had tables made
of citron wood brought from Mauritania ; they were
varnished with purple and gold, and were raised on
feet of carved ivory. It is said that they were more
precious than gold. Dion Cassius affirms that Seneca
had 500 of these, which he made use of one after ano¬
ther; and Tertullian tells us that Cicero had but one.
The Romans chose the king of the feast by a throw of
the dice.
We
F E A [ 584^] F E A
Peftst. Tffe learn from Herodotus, that the ancients had
^ ~—»|i neither cups nor bowls, but that they drank out of
little horns tipt with silver or gold.
Under the reign of Charles V. of France, the custom
of placing the lights upon the table was not yet intro¬
duced. A number of domestics held the candles in
their hands during the whole time of the repast.
The Greeks and Romans kept a domestic for the
purpose of reading during their meals and feasts.
Sometimes the chief of the family himself performed
the office of reader j and history informs us, that the
emperor Severus often read while his family ate. The
time of reading was generally at supper; and guests
were invited to a reading as they are now a-days to
play cards.
The Greeks, in their flourishing times, did not
profane, according to their own expression, the holi¬
ness of the table j but rather adorned it with inge¬
nious and elegant conversation : they proposed mo¬
ral topics, of which Plutarch has preserved a collec¬
tion.
Ancient philosophers remark, that heroes rarely as¬
sembled convivially without bringing affairs of conse¬
quence into discourse, or deliberating upon those that
regarded either present events or future contingencies.
The Scythians, while at meat, used to make the
strings of their bows resound, lest their warlike vir¬
tues might be enfeebled or lost in this season of plea¬
sure.
When Rome was corrupted with luxury, singers, dan¬
cers, musicians, stage-players, and people that told plea¬
sant tales, were brought into the hall to amuse the guests.
Plutarch informs us, that Caesar, after his triumphs,
treated the Roman people at 22,000 tables : and by
calculation it would seem that there were at these
tables upwards of 200,000 persons.
At the end of the feast the Romans drunk out of a
large cup as often as there were letters in the name of
their mistresses.
Feasting seems to have been the chief delight of the
Germans, Gauls, Britons, and all the other Celtic na¬
tions 5 in which they indulged themselves to the ut¬
most, as often as they had an opportunity. “ Among
these nations (says an author who had carefully stu¬
died their manners) there is no public assembly, either
for civil or religious purposes, duly held ; no birth¬
day, marriage, or funeral, properly celebrated ; no
treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented, without
a great feast.” It was by frequent entertainments of
this kind that the great men or chieftains gained the
affections and rewarded the services of their followers ;
and those who made the greatest feasts were sure to be
Pelloutier most popular, and to have the greatest retinue. These
Hist. Celt, feasts (in which plenty was more regarded than ele-
I ii. c. iz. gance) lasted commonly several days, and the guests
^3' seldom retired until they had consumed all the provi¬
sions and exhausted all the liquors. Athenaeus de¬
scribes an entertainment that was given by Arcamnes,
a very wealthy prince in Gaul, which continued a
whole year without interruption, and at which all the
people of Gaul, and even all strangers who passed
through that country, were made welcome. At these
feasts they sometimes consulted about the most import¬
ant affairs of state, and formed resolutions relating to
peace and war ; imagining that men spoke their real
3
sentiments with the greatest freedom, and were apt to
form the boldest designs, when their spirits were exhi-v——
larated with the pleasures of the table. The conversa¬
tion at these entertaiments very frequently turned on
the great exploits which the guests themselves or their
ancestors had performed in war; which sometimes oc¬
casioned quarrels and even bloodshed. It was at a feast
that the two illustrious British princes, Cairbar and
Oscar, quarrelled about their own bravery, and that of
their ancestors, and fell by mutual wounds, (Ossian,
vol. ii. p. 8, &c.).
As to the drink used at those feasts, particularly in
Britain, it seems probable, that before the introduction
of agriculture into the island, mead, or honey diluted
with water, was the only strong liquor known to its in¬
habitants, as it was to many other ancient nations in
the same circumstances. This continued to be a fa¬
vourite beverage among the ancient Britons and their
posterity long after they had become acquainted with
other liquors. The mead-maker was the eleventh per¬
son in dignity in the courts of the ancient princes of
Wales, and took place of the physician. The follow¬
ing ancient law of that principality shows how much
this liquor was esteemed by the British princes.—
“ There are three things in the court which must be
communicated to the king before they are made known
to any other person : 1. Every sentence of the judge ;
2. Every new song; and, 3. Every cask of mead.”
This was perhaps the liquor which is called by Ossian
the joy and strength of shells, with which his heroes
were so much delighted.—After the introduction of
agriculture, ale or bear became the most general drink
of all the British nations who practised that art, as it
had long been of all the Celtic people on the conti¬
nent (see Ale). If the Phoenicians or Greeks im¬
ported any wine into Britain, it was only in very smali
quantities ; that most generous liquor being very little
known in this island before it was conquered by the
Romanss The drinking vessels of the Gauls, Britons,
and other Celtic nations, were, for the most part, made
of the horns of oxen and other animals; but those of
the Caledonians consisted of large shells, which are still
used by some of their posterity in the Highlands of
Scotland.
The dishes in which the meat was served up were
either of wood or earthen ware, or a kind of baskets
made of osiers. These last were most used by the Bri¬
tons, as they very much excelled in the art of making
them both for their own use and for exportation. The
guests sat in a circle upon the ground, with a little
hay, grass, or the skin of some animal under them. A
low table or stool was set before each person, with the
portion of meat allotted to him upon it. In this distri¬
bution, they never neglected to set the largest and
best pieces before those who were most distinguished
for their rank, their exploits, or their riches. Every
guest took the meat set before him in his hands, and
tearing it with his teeth, fed upon it in the best man¬
ner he could. If any one found difficulty in separating
any part of his meat with his hands and teeth, he made
use of a large knife, that lay in a particular place for
the benefit of the whole company. Servants, or young
boys and girls, the children of the family, stood be¬
hind the guests, ready to help them to drink or any
thing they wanted.
II . F E A [ 585
’'cast. ^ ancient Britons greatly excelled and very
1 .-v——' much delighted in music, all their feasts were accom-
rkoriipn with tnp invc fK  _ _T 1  
]
F E A
ol ii.
1 1
i ;?•
: v.d.
panied with the joys of song, and the music of harps.
In the words of Ossian f, “ whenever the feast of shells
is prepared, the songs of bards arise. The voice of
sprightly mirth is heard. The trembling harps of joy
are strung. They sing the battles of heroes, or the
heaving breasts of love.” Some of the poems of that
illustrious British bard appear to have been composed
in order to be sung by the hundred bards of Fingal J
at the feast of Selma. Many of the songs of the bards
! 7- S0P- which were sung and played at the feasts of the ancient
Britons, were ot a grave and solemn strain, celebrating
the brave actions of the guests, or of the heroes of other
times ; but these were sometimes intermixed with more
sprightly and cheerful airs, to which the youth of
both sexes danced, for the entertainment of the com¬
pany.
If has been often observed by authors, that there is
no nation in the world comes near the English in the
magnificence of their feasts. Those made at our co¬
ronations, instalments, consecrations, &c. transcend the
belief of all foreigners ; and yet it is doubted whether
those now in use are comparable to those of our fore¬
fathers.
William the Conqueror, after he was peaceably
settled on the throne of England, sent agents into dif¬
ferent countries, to collect the most admired and rare
dishes for his table $ by which means, says John of
Salisbury, this island, which is naturally productive of
plenty and variety of provisions, was overflowed with
every thing that could inflame a luxurious appetite.
The same writer tells us, that he was present at an en¬
tertainment which lasted from three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon to midnight; at which delicacies were served
up, which had been brought from Constantinople, Ba¬
bylon, Alexandria, Palestine, Tripoli, Syria, and Phoe¬
nicia. These delicacies, we may presume, were very
expensive. Thomas Beckei, if we may believe his his¬
torian, Fitz-Stephen, gave 5I. equivalent to 75I. at pre¬
sent, for one dish of eels. The sumptuous entertain¬
ments which the kings of England, and of other coun¬
tries, gave to their nobles and prelates, at the festi¬
vals of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, in which
they spent a great part of their revenues, contributed
very much to diffuse a taste for profuse and expensive
banqueting. It was natural for a proud and wealthy
baron to imitate in his own castle the entertainments
he had seen in the palace of his prince. Many of the
clergy too, both seculars and regulars, being very rich,
kept excellent tables. The monks of St Swithins, at
Winchester, made a formal complaint to Henry II.
against their abbot, for taking away three of the 13
dishes they used to have every day at dinner. The
monks of Canterbury were still more luxurious : for
they had at least 17 dishes every day, besides a dessert 5
and these dishes were dressed with spices and sauces 5
which excited the appetite as well as pleased the
taste.
Creat men had some kinds of provisions at their
tables that are not now to be found in Britain. When
Henry II. entertained his own court, the great officers
of his army, with all the kings and great men of Ire¬
land, in Dublin, at the feast of Christmas A. D. 1171,
the Irish princes and chieftains were quite astonished
Vol. VIII. Part II.
at the profusion and variety of provisions which they
beheld, and were with difficulty prevailed upon by
Henry to eat the flesh of cranes, a kind of food to
which they had not been accustomed. In the remain¬
ing monuments of this period, we meet with the
names of several dishes, as dellegrout, maupigyrnun,
karumpie, &c. the composition of which is now un¬
known.
The coronation feast of Edward III. cost 2835I.
18s. 2d.^equivalent to about qOjOOcl. of our money.
At the installation of lialph abbot of St Augustine,
Canterbury, A. D. 1309, 6000 guests were entertain¬
ed with a dinner, consisting of 3000 dishes, which
cost 287I. 53. equal in efficacy to 4300I. in our
times. “ It would require a long treatise (says Mat¬
thew Paris) to describe the astonishing splendour, mag¬
nificence, and festivity with which the nuptials of
Richard earl of Cornwall, and Cincia daughter of Rei-
mund earl of Provence, were celebrated at London,
A. D. 1243. To give the reader some idea of it, in
a few words, above 30,000 dishes were served up at
the marriage dinner.” The nuptials of Alexander III.
of Scotland, and the princess Margaret of England,
were solemnized at York, A. D. 1251, with still great¬
er pomp and profusion. “ If I attempted (says the
same historian) to display all the grandeur of this so¬
lemnity,—the numbers of the noble and illustrious
guests,—the richness and variety of the dresses, the
sumptuousness of the feasts,—the multitudes of the
minstrels, mimicks, and others whose business it was
to amuse and divert the company, those of my readers
who were not present would imagine that I was im¬
posing upon their credulity.” The following particular
will enable them to form a judgment of the whole. The
archbishop of York made the king of England a pre¬
sent of 60 fat oxen, which made only one article of pro¬
vision for the marriage feast, and were all consumed at
that entertainment.
The marriage feast of Henry IV. and his queen
Jane of Navarre, consisted of six courses $ three of
flesh and fowls, and three of fish. All these courses
were accompanied and adorned with suttleties, as they
were called. "Ihese sutllcties were figures in pastry,
of men, women, beasts, birds, &c. placed on the table’
to be admired, but not touched. Each figure had a
label affixed to it j containing some wise or witty say¬
ing, suited to the occasion of the feast, which was the
reason they were called suttleties. The installation feast
of George Neville, archbishop of York and chancel¬
lor of England, exceeded all others in splendour and
expence, and in the number and quality of the guests.
The reader may form some idea of this enormous feast
from the following list of provisions prepared for it.
In wheat, quarters, 300 j in ale, tuns, 3^0 j in wine,
tuns, 100 j in ipocrasse, pipes, 1 ; in oxen, 104; in
wild bulls, 6 ; in muttons, 1000; in veals, 304 j in
porkes, 304} in swanns, 4005 in geese, 2000; in
cappons, 1000 ; in pigs, 2000; in plovers, 400 } in
quailes, I200>; in fowls, called rees, 2400 ; in pea¬
cocks, 1045 in mallards and teals, 4000 j in cranes,
204; in kids, '204 ; in chickens, 2000 j in pigeons,
2000; in connies, 40005 in bittors, 204 5 in heron-
shaws, 400 j in pheasants, 200 j in partridges, 500 ;
in woodcocks, 400 j in curliews, 100 ; in egrits, 1000 ;
in staggs, bucks, and roes, 500 and more; in pasties
4 E of
Feast.
F E A
[
EEC
Feast,
Feather.
of venison, cold, 4000; in parted dishes of jellies,
IOOO J in plain dishes of jellies, 30005 m cold tarts,
baked, 4000 5 in cold custards, baked, 3000 5 in hot
pasties of venison, I5°0j in custards, 2000 5 in
pikes and breams, 308 ; in porpoises and seals, 12;
spices,sugared delicates, and waters, plenty. No tuikeys
are mentioned in this enormous bill ot fare, because they
were not then known in England. Cranes, heron-
shaws, porpoises, and seals, are seldom seen at modern
entertainments.
One of the most expensive singularities attending
the royal feasts in those days consisted in what they
called intermeats. These were representations of battles,
sieges, &c. introduced between the courses for the
amusement of the guests. The French excelled in
exhibitions of this kind. At a dinner given by
Charles V. of France to the emperor Charles IV.
A. D. 1378, the following intermeat was exhibited:
A ship with masts, sails, and rigging, was seen first :
she had for colours the arms of the city of Jerusalem :
Godfrey de Bouillon appeared upon deck, accompanied
by several knights armed cap-a-pee: the ship advanced
into the middle of the hall, without the machine which
moved it being perceptible. Then the city of Jerusa¬
lem appeared, with all its towers lined with Saracens.
The ship approached the city 5 the Christians landed,
and began the assault 5 the besieged made a good
defence : several scaling ladders were thrown down 5
but at length the city was taken. Intermeats at
ordinary banquets consisted of certain delicate dishes
introduced between the courses, and designed rather for
gratifying the taste than for satisfying hunger.
At those feasts, besides the ordinary drinks, ale and
cyder, there were great quantities of wines of various
kinds. Of these last, the following lines of a poet
who wrote in the fourth century, contain an ample enu¬
meration.
* See the
•iticle
Down.
Ye shall have rumney and malespine,
Both ypocrasse and vernage wyne 5
Mountresse and wyne of Greke,
Both algrade and despice eke,
Antioche and bastarde,
Pyment also, and garnarde,
Wyne of Greke and Muscadell,
Both clare, pyment, and Rochell.
Some of these liquors, as ypocrasse, pyment, and claret,
were compounded of wine, honey, and spices of different
kinds, and in different proportions.
FEATHER, in Physiology, a general name for the
covering of birds 5 it being common to all the animals
of this class to have their whole body, or at least the
greatest part of it, covered with feathers or plumage.
See Ornithology Index.
Feathers make a considerable article in commerce,
particularly those of the ostrich, heron, swan, peacock,
goose, &c. for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of
beds, writing pens, &c.
Geese are plucked in some parts of Great Britain
five times in the year 5 and in cold seasons many of
them die by this barbarous custom. Those feathers
that are brought from Somersetshire are esteemed the
best, and those from Ireland the worst.
Eider down* is imported from Denmark j the docks
586 ]
that supply it being inhabitants of Hudson*s Bay,
Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. Our own islands
west of Scotland breed numbers of these birds, which
turn out a profitable branch ot trade to the poor
inhabitants. Hudson’s Bay also furnishes very fine
feathers, supposed to be of the goose kind. The down
of the swan is brought from Dantzic. T. he same place
also sends us great quantities of the feathers of the cock
and hen. The London poulterers sell a great quantity
of the feathers of those birds, and of ducks and turkeys:
those of ducks being a weaker feather, are inferior
to those of the goose j and turkeys feathers are the worst
of any. The best method of curing feathers is to lay
them in a room, in an exposure to the sun 5 and when
dried to put them in bags, and beat them well with
poles to get the dirt off.
FEBRIFUGE, an appellation given to such medi¬
cines as mitigate or remove a fever.
FEBRUARY, in Chronology, the second month of
Numa’s year, and under the protection of the god
Neptune. This month is not found in the kalendar of
Romulus, but was added to the year by Numa. It had
its name from Februa, Februaca, or Februahs, all names
of Juno, who presided over the purifications of women 5
and in this month the Lupercalia were held in honour
of Juno, and women were purified by the priests of Pan
Lyceus at that festival. See Lupercalia.
February, in a common year, consists only of 28
days 5 but in the bissextile year it has 29, on account
of the intercalary day added that year.
FECI ALES, or FoECIALES, an order of priests or
officers, consisting of 20 persons, among the ancient
Romans, appointed to proclaim war, negotiate peace,
&c.
Festus derives the word from Jerio, tf I strike 5” as
ferirefadus signifies “ to conclude a treaty 5” and ac¬
cordingly, instead of feciales, he would have it written
feriales. Others derive it from fcedus, which was an¬
ciently written fedus; or from fides, “ faith.” Others
from facio, feci, “ I make,” &c. because they made
war and peace. Vossius chooses to derive it from
Jatu, of the verb fari, “ to speak”: in which sense
the feciales should be the same with oratores; which
sentiment is also confirmed by the authority of Varro,
who says they were called indifferently feciales and
oratores.
The feciales were a sort of heralds, who, when the
Romans had any dispute with their neighbours, were
sent first to demand the thing intended to be usurped,
or require satisfaction for the injury alleged to be done.
If an answer was not returned by them that was satis¬
factory to the people and the senate, they were despatch¬
ed again to declare war, and the like in treating for
peace 5 the feciales being the only persons appointed to
negotiate between the senate, &c. and the enemy.
Plutarch in the life of Numa, and Halicarnasseus
(lib. ii.), observes, that they were first instituted by
that prince. The latter adds, that they were first cho¬
sen out of the best families in Rome 5 that their office,
which was reputed a sort of sacerdotium, or priesthood,
only ended with their life 5 that their persons were sa¬
cred and inviolable, as those of other priests 5 that they
were even charged to see the republic did not declare
war unjustly } that they were to receive the complaints
and
FEE
eciaie* &n<^ remonstrances of nations who pretemled to have
been any way injured by the Homans j that if those
complaints were found just, they were to seize the cri¬
minals, and deliver them up to those they had offended j
that they were invested with the rights and privileges
of ambassadors 5 that they concluded treaties of peace
and alliance, and took care they were executed 5 and,
lastly, abolished them, if they were found not to be
equitable. Livy, lib. i. cap. 24. ascribes their insti¬
tution to Ancus Martius, in the year of Home 114.—
Varro assures us, that in his time most of these func¬
tions of the feciales were set aside 5 though Plutarch
observes, that they had still some authority in his
time.
The feciales were crowned with verbena, “ ver¬
vain,” when they went to declare war. Their head
was covered with a veil, over which the crown was ap¬
plied. In this equipage they proceeded to the frontiers
of the new enemy’s country, and threw a bloody dart
or javelin into the ground within the same. In Livy
and other ancient authors we have the formula used in
such declarations.
FECUNDITY, the same with Fertility.
FEE, in Law, signifies a complete feudal property.
Hence, where the bare liferent of any feudal subject
is meant to be conveyed to A, and the absolute pro¬
perty to B, that meaning is expressed thus j “ to A
in liferent, and to B in fee.” See Law, N° fxix.
clxiv.
Fees are commonly divided into absolute, otherwise
called fees-simple; and limited, one species of which
we usually call fee-tail.
h?M. I. Tenant in fee-simple (or as he is frequently styled,
Lment' tenant in fee'), is he that hath lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments, to hold to him and his heirs for ever 5
generally, absolutely and simply ; without mention¬
ing what heirs, but referring that to his own pleasure,
or to the disposition of the law. The true meaning of
the word fee (feodum) is the same with that offeud or
*vw Feo-jieJ*, and in its original sense it is taken in contradi-
^ ^s<mStinCtion to allodium; which latter the writers on this
subject define to be every man’s own land, which he
possesseth merely in his own right, without owing any
rent or service to any superior. This is property in its
highest degree 5 and the owner thereof hath absolutum
et directum dominium, and therefore is said to be seized
thereof absolutely in dominico suo, in his own demesne.
But feodum or fee, is that which is held of some supe¬
rior, on condition of rendering him service $ in which
superior the ultimate property of the land resides. And
therefore Sir Henry Spelman defines a feud or fee to
be, The right which the vassal or tenant hath in lands
to use the same and take the profits thereof to him
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his due services ;
the mere allodial property of the soil always remain¬
ing in the lord. This allodial property no subject in
Britain has ; it being a received and now undeniable
principle in the law, that all the lands are holden me¬
diately or immediately of the king. The king there¬
fore only hath absolutum et directum dominium ; but all
subjects lands are in the nature oi feodum or fee, whe¬
ther derived to them by descent from their ancestors,
or purchased for a valuable consideration $ for they can¬
not come to any man by either of those ways, unless
accompanied with those feodal clogs which were laid
[ 587 ]
FEE
upon the first feudatory when it was originally granted.
A subject therefore hath only the usufruct, and not the
absolute property, of the soil $ or, as Sir Edward Coke
expresses it, he hath dominium utile, but not dominium
directum. And hence it is, that, in the most solemn
acts of law, we express the strongest and highest estate
that any subject can have, by these words, “ he is
seised thereof in his demesne, as of fee.” It is a man’s
demesne, dominium, or property, since it belongs to
him and his heirs for ever : yet this dominium, proper¬
ty, or demesne, is strictly not absolute or allodial, but
qualified or feodal: it is of his demesne, as of fee ; that
is, it is not purely and simply his own, since it is held
of a superior lord, in whom the ultimate property re¬
sides.
Tin's is the primary sense and acceptation of the
word /ec. But (as Sir Martin Wright very justly ob¬
serves) the doctrine, “ that all lands are holdenf hav¬
ing been for so many ages a fixed and undeniable axiom,
the English lawyers do very rarely (of late years espe¬
cially) use the word fee in this its primary original
sense, in contradistinction to allodium or absolute pro¬
perty, with which they have no concern $ but gene¬
rally use it to express the continuance or quantity of
estate. A fee therefore, in general, signifies an estate
of inheritance ; being the highest and most extensive
interest that a man can have in a feud : and when the
term is used simply, without any other adjunct, or has
the adjunct of simple annexed to it (as, a fee, or a fee-
simple), it is used in contradistinction to a fee-condi¬
tional at the common law, or a fee-tail by the statute j
importing an absolute inheritance, clear of any condi¬
tion, limitation, or restrictions to particular heirs, but
descendible to the heirs-general, whether male or fe¬
male, lineal, or collateral. And in no other sense than
this is the king said to be seised in fee, he being the
feudatory of no man.
Taking therefore fee in this its secondary sense, as a
state of inheritance, it is applicable to, and may be had
in, any kind of hereditaments either corporeal or incor¬
poreal. Bnt there is this distinction between the two
species of hereditaments ; that of a corporeal inheri¬
tance a man shall he said to be seised in his demesne, as
of fee ; of an incorporeal one he shall only be said to be
seised as of fee, and not in his demesne. For as incor¬
poreal hereditaments are in their nature collateral to,
and issue out of, lands and houses, their owner hath no
property, dominium, or demesne, in the f/tfAg itself, but
hath only something derived out of it j resembling the
servitutes, or services, of the civil law. The dominium,
or property, is frequently in one man, while the ap¬
pendage or service is in another. Thus Gaius may be
seised as of fee, of a way going over the land, of which
Titius is seised in his demesne as of fee.
The fee-simple or inheritance ©f lands and tenements
is generally vested and resides in some person or other j
though divers inferior estates may be carved out of it.
As if one grants a lease for 21 years, or for one or two
lives, the fee-simple remains vested in him and his heirs j
and after the determination of those years or lives, the
land reverts to the granter or his heirs, who shall hold
it again in fee-simple. Yet sometimes the fee may be
in abeyance, that is (as the word signifies) in expecta¬
tion, remembrance, and contemplation in law j there
being no person in esse, in whom it can vest and abide,
4 E 2 though
Fee.
FEE [5&8] FEE
though the law considers it as always potentially exist¬
ing, and ready to vest whenever a proper owner appears.
Thus, in a grant to Juhn for life, and afterwards to
the heirs of Richard, the inheritance is plainly neither
granted to John nor Richard, nor can it vest in the heirs
of Richard till his death, nam nemo esl hares viventis z
it remains therefore in waking, or abeyance, during the
life of Richard. This is likewise always the case of a
parson of a church, who hath only an estate therein
for the term of his life*, and the inheritance remains in
abeyance. And not only the fee, but the freehold al¬
so, may be in abeyance j as, when a parson dies, the
freehold of his glebe is in abeyance until a successor be
named, and then it vests in the successor.
The word heirs is necessary in the grant or donation,
in order to make a fee or inheritance. For if land be
given to a man for ever, or to him and his assigns for
ever, this vests in him but an estate for life. This very
great nicety about the insertion of the word heirs in all
feoffments and grants, in order to vest a fee, is plainly
a relick of the feodal strictness : by which it was requir¬
ed, that the form of the donation should be punctually
pursued: or that, as Craig expresses it in the words of
Baldus, donationes sint strictijuris, ne quisplus dondsse
prcesumatur quam in donations expressent. And there¬
fore, as the personal abilities of the donee were original¬
ly supposed to be the only inducements to the gift, the
donee’s estate in the land extended only to his own per¬
son, and subsisted no longer than his lifej unless the
donor, by an express provision in the grant, gave it
a longer continuance, and extended it also to his
heirs. But this rule is now softened by many excep*
tions.
For, l. It does not extend to devises by will j in
which, as they were introduced at the time when the
feodal rigour was apace wearing out, a more liberal
construction is allowed: and therefore by a devise to a
man for ever, or to one and his assigns for ever, or to
one in fee-simple, the devisee hath an estate of inherit¬
ance ; for the intention of the devisor is sufficiently
plain from the words of perpetuity annexed, though he
hath omitted the legal words of inheritance. But if
the devise be to a man and his assigns, without an¬
nexing words of perpetuity, there the devisee shall
take only an estate for life; for it does not appear that
the devisor intended any more. 2. Neither does this
rule extend to fines or recoveries, considered as a spe¬
cies of conveyance ; for thereby an estate in fee passes
by act and operation of law without the word heirs;
as it does also for particular reasons, by certain other
methods of conveyance, which have relation to a for¬
mer grant or estate, wherein the word heirs was ex¬
pressed. 5. In creations of nobility by writ, the peer
so created hath an inheritance in his title, without ex¬
pressing the word heirs for they are implied in the
creation, unless it be otherwise specially provided : but
in creations by patent, which are strictijuris, the word
heirs must be inserted, otherwise there is no inherit¬
ance. 4. In grants of lands to sole corporations and
their successors, the word successors supplies the place
of heirs; for as heirs take from the ancestor, so doth
the successor from the predecessor. Nay, in a grant
to a bishop, or other sole spiritual corporation, in
frankalmoign, the word frankalmoign supplies the place
aisuccessors (as the word wccwwrj supplies the place of
heirs')'ex vi termini; and in all these cases a fee-simple
vests in such sole corporation. But, in a grant of lands >—
to a corporation aggregate, the word successors is not
necessary, though usually inserted : for, albeit such sim¬
ple grant be strictly only an estate for life, yet as that
corporation never dies, such estate for life is perpetual,
or equivalent to a fee-simple, and therefore the law al¬
lows it to be one. Lastly, In the case of the king, a
fee-simple will vest in him, without the words heirs or
successors in the grant; partly from prerogative royal,
and partly from a reason similar to the last, because the
king, in judgment of law, never dies. But the gene¬
ral rule is, that the word heir sis necessary to create an
estate of inheritance.
II. We are next to consider limited fees, or such
estates of inheritance as are clogged and confined with
conditions or qualifications of any sort. And these we
may divide into two sorts : 1. Qualifed or base fees 4
and, 2..Fees conditional, so called at the common law;
and afterwards fees-taf/, in consequence of the statute
de donis.
1. A base or qualified fee, is such a one as has a
qualification subjoined thereto, and which must be de¬
termined whenever the qualification annexed to it is at
an end. As, in the case of a grant to A and his heirs,
tenants in the manor of Dale ; in this instance, when¬
ever the heirs of A cease to be tenants of that manor,
the grant is entirely defeated. So, when Henry VI.
granted to John Talbot, lord of the manor of King¬
ston Lisle in Berks, that he and his heirs, lords of the
said manor, should be peers of the realm, by the title
oi Barons of Lisle ; here John Talbot had a base or qua¬
lified fee in that dignity; and the instant he or his
heirs quitted the seigniory of this manor, the dignity
was at an end. This estate is a fee, because by possi¬
bility it may endure for ever in a man and his heirs ;
yet as that duration depends upon the concurrence of
collateral circumstances, which qualify and debase the
purity of the donation, it is therefore a qualified or base
fee.
2. As to kz&-conditional, or fee-tail, see the article
Tail.
Fee also signifies a certain allowance to physicians,
barristers, attorneys, and other officers, as a reward for
their pains and labour.
If a person refuse to pay an officer his due fees, the
court will grant an attachment against him, to be com¬
mitted till the fees are paid; and an attorney may
bring an action of the case for his fees against the cli¬
ent that retained him in his cause.
Fee also denotes a settled perquisiteof publicofficers,
payable by those who employ them.
The fees due to the officers of the custom-house are
expressly mentioned in a schedule, or table, which is
hung up in public view in the said office, and in all other
places where the said fees are to be paid or received.
And if any officer shall offend, by acting contrary to
the regulations therein contained, he shall forfeit his
office and place, and be for ever after incapable of any
office in the custom-house.
The other public offices have likewise their settled
fees, for the several branches of business transacted in
t*iem‘
Ytt-Farm, a kind of tenure without homage, feal¬
ty, or other service, except that mentioned in the feoff¬
ment;
F E L
Fee
IFellrng
leges
'allicie,
5».
ment j which is usually the full rent, or at least a fourth
part of it.
. The nature of this tenure is, that if the rent be be-
* hind, and unpaid for two years, then the feoffer and
his heirs may have an action for the recovery of the
lands.
FEELERS, in Natural History, a name used by
some for the horns of insects.
FEELING, one of the five external senses, by
which we obtain the ideas of solid, hard, soft, rough,
hot, cold, wet, dry, and other tangible qualities. See
Anatomy Index.
FEET. See Foot.
FEET-Bearer, the name of an officer in the courts of
the ancient Anglo-Saxon and Welsh kings. He was
a young gentleman whose duty it was to sit on the floor,
with his back towards the fire, and hold the king’s
feet in his bosom all the time he sat at table, to keep
them warm and comfortable f: a piece of state and
luxury unknown in modern times.
FEINT, in fencing, a show of making a thrust at
one part, in order to deceive the enemy, that you may
really strike him in another.
A simple feint is a mere motion of the wrist, without
stirring the foot.
FELAPTON, in Logie, one of the six first modes
of the third figure of syllogisms j whereof the first pro¬
position is an universal negative, the second an univer¬
sal affirmative, and the third a particular negative.
IELIBIEN, Andre, was born at Chartres in
1619, and went secretary under the Marquis de Fonte-
nay Mareuil ambassador to the court of Rome in 1647.
On his return, M. Colbert procured him the place of
historiographer to the king, superintendant of his build-
ings, and of the arts and manufactures in France. He
became afterwards deputy comptroller general of the
bridges and dykes in that kingdom j and died in 1695.
He wrote several pieces relating to the fine arts: the
principal of which is his “ Dialogues on the Lives and
Works of the most eminent Painters.”
FELICITAS, (Felicity, or Happiness'); was dei¬
fied by the ancient Pagans. Lucullus built a temple
to her. She had another erected by Lepidus. The
Greeks paid divine worship to Macaria, daughter of
Hercules, the same with Felicitas. This deity is often
pictured upon medals, and generally with a cornucopise
in one hand, and a caduceus in the other. The inscrip¬
tions are, Felicitas Temporum, Felicitas Augusti, Felici¬
tas Publiea, &c.
FELIS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the or¬
der of fersi* and cla&s mammalia. See Mammalia
Index.
FELLING of Timber.Many circumstances are
well known and constantly observed in the felling of
timber for building, which, though to a hasty observer
they might appear trifling, yet prove, on experi¬
ence, to be of tire utmost consequence. One thing ob¬
served by M. de Buffon, which very greatly increases
[ 589 ]
F E L
Felling
wood has been proved, by many experiments, to be
greatly increased by it : nor is this a practice of any u
detriment to the proprietor, since the remaining stumps, Ddony-
of these trees send up their young shoots as vigorously as ^ ,u"
if they had been cut down in their natural condition.
When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the first
thing to be taken care of is a skilful disbranching of
such limbs as may endanger it in its fall: many trees are
utterly spoiled for want of a previous care of this kind.
In arms of timber that are very great, it is always ne¬
cessary to chop or sink in them close to the bole, and
then meeting it with downright strobes, it will be se¬
vered from the tree without splitting. In felling the
tree, take care always to cut it as close to the ground
as possible, unless it is intended to be grubbed up: and <
the doing this is of advantage both to the timber and*
to the wood : tor timber is never so much valued, if it
be known to grow out of old stocks.
FELLOYVSHIP, Company, or Distributive Pro¬
portion, in Arithmetic. See Arithmetic.
FELO DE SE, in Law, a person that lays deliberate¬
ly violent hands on himself, and is the occasion of his
untimely death, whether by hanging, drowning, stab¬
bing, shooting, or any other way.
FELON, in Law, a person guilty of felony. See '
FELONY'.
FELONY, in the general acceptation of the law,
comprises every species of crime, which occasions at
common law the forfeiture of lands or goods, This
most frequently happens in those crimes for which a
capital punishment either is or was to be inflicted : for
those felonies that are called clergyable, or to which the
benefit of clergy extends, were anciently punished with
death in all lay or unlearned ofl'enders j though now,
by the statute law, that punishment is for the first'
offence universally remitted. Treason itself, says Sir
Edward Coke, was anciently comprised under the name
of felony; and in confirmation of this we may observe,
that the statute of treasons, 25 Edw. III. c. 2. speaking
of some dubious crimes, directs a reference to parliament j
that it may be there adjudged, « whether they be
treason or oLfor felony.” All treasons, therefore, strict¬
ly speaking, are felonies j though all felonies are not
treason. And to this also we may add, that all offences,
now capital, are in some degree or other felony 5 but
this is likewise the case with some other offences, which
are not punished with death ; as suicide, where the
party is already dead ; homicide by chance-medley, or
in self-defence 5 and petit-larceny, or pilfering j alii
which are (strictly speaking) felonies, as they subject
the committers of them to forfeitures. So that, upon .
the whole, the only adequate definition of felony seems
to be that which is before laid down; viz. an offence
which occasions a total forfeiture of either lands or goods,,
or both, at the common law j and to which capital or ■
other punishment may be superadded, according to the
degree of guilt.
To explain this matter a little farther : The word
.... , ^   , * uu.iC xaruier : xne word
the solidity and strength of timber, is, that the trees or/e/omb, is of undoubted feodal Original, being
intended to he felled for service should first he **,^4. v..r*L • *1 ^ 1 1 rr 1 °
intended to be felled for service should first be stripped
of their bark, and suffered to stand and die upon the
spot before the cutting. The sappy part or blea of
the oak becomes by this means as hard and firm as
the heart j and the real strength and density of the
frequently to be met with in the books of feuds, &c.
but the derivation of-it has much puzzled the juridical
lexicographers, Pfatseus, Calvinus, and the rest: some
deriving it from the Greek, “ an impostor or de¬
ceiver j” others from the Latin, follo^fefelli, to counte¬
nance ;
F E L [ 59° ] F E L
nance which they would have it called /e/Zottifl. See Ed¬
ward Coke, as his manner is, has given us a still stranger
etymology ; that it is crimen animofelleo perpetratum,
“ with a bitter or gallish inclination.” But all ol them
agree in the description, that it is such a crime as
works a forfeiture of all the offender’s lands or goods.
And this gives great probability to Sir Henry Spel-
man’s Teutonic or German derivation ot it: in which
language, indeed, as the word is clearly ot feodal ori¬
ginal, we ought rather to look for its signification, than
among the Greeks and Romans. Fe-lon then, accord¬
ing to him, is derived from two northern words : FEE,
which signifies (we well know) the fief, feud, or bene¬
ficiary estate ; and LON, which signifies price or value.
Felony is therefore the same as pretium feudi, the con¬
sideration for which a man gives up his fief; as we
say in common speech, such an act is as much as your
life or estate is worth. In this sense it will clearly sig¬
nify the feodal forfeiture, or act by which an estate is
forfeited, or escheats to the lord.
To confirm this, we may observe, that it is in this
sense of forfeiture to the lord, that the foedal writers
constantly use it. For all those acts, whether of a cri¬
minal nature or not, which at this day are generally
forfeitures of copyhold estates, are styXeA felonies in the
feodal law : “ scilicet, per quas feudum amittitur.” As
si domino deservire noluent;—si per annum et diem
cessavent tn petenda investitura j si dominum cjui ci*
vit, i. e. negavit se a domino feudum habere ;—si a domi¬
no in jus eum vacante, ter citatus non comparuerit—
all these, with many others, are still causes of forfeiture
in our copyhold estates, and were'denominated/e/ort/es
by the feodal constitutions. So likewise injuries of a
more substantial or criminal nature were denominatedyi?-
lonies, that is, forfeitures: as assaulting or beating the
lord; vitiating his wife or daughter, “ si dominum cucur-
bitaverit, i. e. cum uxore ejus concubuerit; all these are
esteemed felonies, and the latter is expressly so deno¬
minated, “ si fecerit fcloniam, dominum forte cucurbi-
tando.” And as these contempts or smaller offences, were
felonies or acts of forfeiture, of course greater crimes,
as murder and robbery, fell under the same denomina¬
tion. On the other hand, the lord might be guilty of
felony, or forfeit his seignory to the vassal, by the same
act as the vassal would have forfeited^ his feud to the
lord. “ Si dominus commisit feloniam, per quam va-
sallus amitteret feudum si earn commiserit in dominum,
feudiproprietatem etiam dominus perdere debet.” One
instance given of this sort of felony in the lord is beat¬
ing the servant of his vassal, so as that he loses his ser¬
vice ; which seems merely in the nature of a civil in¬
jury, so far as it respects the vassal. And all these fe¬
lonies were to be determined, per laudamentum sive
judicium parium suorum,” in the lord’s court; as with
us forfeitures of copyhold lands are presentable by the
homage in the court-baron.
Felony, and the act of forfeiture to the lord, being
thus synonymous terms in the feodal law, we may easi¬
ly trace the reason why, upon the introduction of that
law into England, those crimes which induced such
forfeiture or escheat of lands (and, by a small deflection
from the original sense, such as induced the forfeiture
of goods also) were denominatedye/oTMes. Thus it was
that suicide, robbery, and rape, were felonies j that is,
the consequence of such crimes was forfeiture; till by
long use we began to signify by the term of felony,
the actual crime committed, and not the penal conse¬
quence. And upon this system only can we account
for the cause, why treason in ancient times was held to
be a species of felony ; viz. because it induced a forfei¬
ture.
Hence it follows, that equal punishment does by no
means enter into the true idea and definition of felony.
Felony may be without inflicting capital punishment,
as in the cases instanced of self-murder, excusable ho¬
micide, and petit-larceny : and it is possible that capi¬
tal punishments may be inflicted, and yet the offence
be no felony ; as in case of heresy by the common
law, which, though capital, never worked any forfei¬
ture of lands or goods, an inseparable incident to fe¬
lony. And of the same nature was the punishment of
standing mute, without pleading to an indictment ;
which at the common law was capital, but without any
forfeiture, therefore such standing mute was no felony.
In short, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture : for,
as Sir Edward Coke justly observes, in all felonies
which are punishable with death, the offender loses all
his lands in fee simple, and also his goods and chattels ;
in such as are not punishable, his goods and chattels
only.
The idea of felony is indeed so generally connected
with that of capital punishment, that we find it hard
to separate them ; and to this usage the interpretations
of the law do now conform. And therefore, if a statute
makes any new offence felony, the law implies that it
shall be punished with death, viz. by hanging, as well
as with forfeiture: unless the ofl’ender prays the be¬
nefit of clergy ; which all felons are entitled once
to have, unless the same is expressly taken away by
statute.
Felonies by statute are very numerous ; and as this
work will not admit of a proper enumeration, we must
refer to the table of the quarto edition of the Statutes,
where they are set forth in alphabetical order.
FELT, in Commerce, a sort of stuff deriving all
its consistence merely from being fulled, or wrought
with lees and size, without either spinning or weav¬
ing. Felt is made either of wool alone or of wool and
hair.
FELTING, the method of working up hair or wool
into a species of cloth, independent of either spinning
or weaving. Felting in Britain is not much practised,
excepting in the manufacturing of hats ; and as the gene-
rality even of those who are employed in making them,
are unacquainted with the principles on which they act,
a few observations on the method of felting, may, to
such, be both useful and agreeable.
If wool, the hair of a rabbit, hare, beaver, or human
hair, be examined with a microscope of the greatest
magnifying power, the surface of each hair appears per¬
fectly smooth, or if any inequalities are observed, they
do not appear so much to arise from an irregular surface,
as from some peculiar difference in the colour and trans¬
parency of the substances examined ; for if their image
be viewed by a solar microscope, it terminates in even
lines, without the smallest vestige of any roughness. Yet
nothing is more evident than that the surfaces of hair*
are not perfectly smooth, but either composed of lamel¬
lae covering each other from the root to the point, re¬
sembling the scales of fishes; or, what some have deemed
more
F E L [ S9i ] F ' E M
eltin?. more Pro^a^e» zones placed over each other, simi-
J lar to the structure of horns j and to this texture hair,
wool, &c. owe their disposition for what is denominated
felting.
Let a person take hold of a hair hy the root with one
hand, and draw it between two fingers of the other,
from the root towards the point, he will scarcely per¬
ceive any friction, or hear any sound ; hut should he
hold the hair by the point, and draw it between his
fingers from the point towards the root, he will feel a
sensible opposition or( resistance which could not be felt
before. A sort of tremulous motion is likewise produced,
which can be distinguished by the ear. From this simple
experiment it is obvious that the texture of the surface
of a hair is not the same from the point to the root, as
it is from the root to the point. If a hair is taken hold
of by the fore-finger and thumb, and rubbed in a longi¬
tudinal direction, a progressive motion is the result,
which is invariably towards the root. This is wholly
independent of the texture or nature of the skin of the
fingers ; for if the hair be turned, and the point of it
placed where the root formerly was, the movement be¬
comes contrary, or, in other words, it is still directed
towards the root.
It is found a very difficult task to unite a knot made
in the middle of a hair, on account of its extreme thin¬
ness ; but if the hair is placed in the bend of the hand,
the knot being in a line with the little finger, and if the
hair is grasped by closing the hand, and the fist struck
several times against the knee, the knot is thereby open¬
ed, because the asperities of one end of the hair are in a
contrary direction to those of the other, by which means
each end of it recedes a little. By the introduction of a-
pin into the eye thus formed at the knot, it is easily un¬
tied. Although these observations have a direct refer¬
ence to long hair ; yet they are equally applicable to
wool, furs, and almost every species of animal hair. The
surface of all these consists of hard lamellce, placed upon
each other like tiles, in the direction from the root to
the point.
By attending to these remarks, it is easy to see why
the contact of woollen stuffs is rough to the skin. The
asperities on the surface of the fibres of wool produce a
disagreeable sensation, by fixing themselves in the skin,
which can only be endured by being accustomed to feel
it frequently. The injury done to wounds by the ap¬
plication of wool, is not the result of any chemical pro¬
perty, but is entirely occasioned by the asperities of its
surface.
A hatter separates the hairs from each other, by
striking the wool with the string of his bow, causing
them to spring up in the air, which fall on the table
in every possible direction, forming a layer of a particu¬
lar thickness, which is covered by the workmen with a
cloth, pressing it with his hands, and moving the hairs
backwards and forwards in different directions. In this
manner the hairs are brought against each other, and
tbeir points of contact considerably multiplied, and the
agitation gives each hair a progressive motion towards
the root, in consequence of which the hairs become
twisted together. As the mass becomes compact, the
pressure ought to be increased, in order to keep up the
progressive motion and twisting of the hairs, which is
then performed with greater difficulty.
The hair designed for the manufacturing of hats is al¬
ways cut off with a sharp instrument, and not pulled Fekin-
out by the roots, because the bulb of the hair which Femiuihc.
would come out with it in the latter case, would render '■"““"V"-—'
the end which was fixed in the skin very obtuse, and
nearly destroy its disposition to unite with the adjacent
hairs. But in addition to the tendency of hairs to move
progressively towards the root, theyshouldnotbe straight
like needles, for in this case they could not produce any
compactness in the stuff. The fibres of wool having
naturally a crooked form, that substance is well adapted
to the operation of felting. rJ he hair of beavers, rabbits,
hares, &c. being straight, it cannot be employed in
felting by itself, till it has been subjected to a previous
preparation, viz. rubbing and combing on the skin, the
brush being dipped in a solution of mercury in nitric
acid. This substance, by acting only on one side of the
hair, gives them the disposition to felting which is na¬
tural to wool.
When it is not intended that the hairs shall enter in¬
to the body of the mass, but serve only as an external
coating, which is sometimes given to the outer surface
of hats, the operation with the nitric acid need not be
performed. They must be uniformly spread upon the
surface to which the coating is to be applied, and being
covered with a cloth, it is pressed with the bands, and
agitated for some time. They receive a particular di-
lection afterwards by means of a brush, and are enabled
to keep it by having a hot iron passed over them.
Woollen cloth is thickened by fulling, on the same
principles that wool and hair become capable of felt¬
ing.
FELT-Spar, FELD-Spar, or Fel-Spar, a mineral
substance. See Mineralogy Index.
FELTRIA, in Ancient Geography, a town on the
borders of Rhaetia towards Italy. Now Felitri, in the
territory of Venice, on the Piava. E. Long. 12. 16.
N. Lat. 46. o.
FELUCCA, in sea affairs, a little vessel rowed with
six oars, frequent in the Mediterranean j which has this
peculiarity, that its helm may be applied either in the
head or stern, as occasion requires.
FEMALE, (foemina), a term peculiar to ani-
mals, signifying that sex which conceives and gene¬
rates its young within kself. See Sex and Genera-
' TION.
Female is also applied, figuratively, to things with¬
out life, from the resemblance they bear to the females
of animals. Thus we say a
Female Screw. See Screw.
Female Flower. See Focmineus Flos.
Female Plant. See Fctminea Planta.
FEMME covert, in Law, a married woman. See
Coverture.
Femme Sole, an unmarried woman, whose debts, con¬
tracted before marriage, become those of her husband
after it.
A femme sole merchant, is where a woman, in Lon¬
don, uses a trade alone, without her husband j on which
account she shall be charged without him.
FEMININE, in Grammar, one of the genders of
nouns. See Gender.
The feminine gender is that which denotes the nouns
or name to belong to a female. In the Latin, the fe¬
minine gender is formed of the masculine, by altering
its termination j particularly by changing us into a.
Thus,
F E N [ 592 1 FEN
Feminine Thus, of the mvLsevWnQ bonus equus, “ a good horse, is
|| formed the feminine bona equa, “ a good mare j so, ot
Fen- parvus homo, “ a little man,” is formed parvo/oemmo,
“ a little woman,” &c.
In French, the feminine gender is expressed, not by
a different termination, but by a different article : thus,
le is joined to a male, and la to a female.
In English, we are generally more strict, and ex¬
press the difference of sex, not by different termina¬
tions, nor by different particles, but different words j
as boar and sow, boy and girl, brother and sister, &c.
 though sometimes the feminine is formed by vary¬
ing the termination of the male into cw; as in abbot,
abbess, &c.
FEMUR, os femoris, the thigh bone. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
FEN, a place overflowed with water, or abounding
with bogs. See Bog and Draining, in Agriculture
Index.
Fens are either made up of a congeries of bogs j or
consist of a multitude of pools or lakes, with dry spots
of land intermixed, like so many little islands.
Several statutes have been made for the draining of
fens, chiefly in Kent, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire,
and Lincolnshire j and by a late act, II Geo. II. com¬
missioners shall be appointed for the effectually draining
and preserving of the fens in the isle of Ely, who are
authorized to make drains, dams, and proper works
thereon j and they may charge the landholders therein
with a yearly acreitax, and in default of payment, sell
the defender’s lands.
The wet grounds called fens, in Lincolnshire and
elsewhere in England, bring many advantages to the
inhabitants of those counties. Fowl and fish are very
plentiful in them. The pike and eels are large and
easily caught, but they are usually coarse. The duck,
mallard, and teal, are in such plenty as is scarce to be
conceived. They are taken by DECOYS in prodigious
flocks at a time. They send these fowl from Lincoln¬
shire to London, twice a-week, on horseback, from
Michaelmas to Lady-day; and one decoy will furnish
20 dozen, or more, twice a-week, for the whole season
in this manner. The decoy-men contract with the
people, who bring them to London at a certain rate,
and they are obliged to take off their hands the whole
number that is catched. Two teal are usually reckon¬
ed equal to one duck; and six ducks and twelve teal are
accounted a dozen of wild fowl} and the usual mar¬
ket price is about 9s. for such a dozen. About mid¬
summer, during the moulting season, a great number
also are destroyed by the people in the neighbour¬
hood. The poor birds at this season are neither able
to swim nor fly well ; and the people going in with
boats among the reeds where they lie, knock them
down with long poles. A little before Michaelmas,
vast flights of these birds arrive at the decoys from
other places; they soon grow fat in them, and continue
there a prey to the masters or owners, as long as the
decoys are unfrozen 5 but, when they are iced over,
they fly away again, and go to the neighbouring seas
for food.
The fens also abound in a sort of herbage that is
very nourishing to cattle. Sheep and horses always
grow fat upon it. The fens are common, and the
owners of cattle mark them that they may be known.
3
It is remarkable, that, though all is open, the cattle Fen,
used to one particular spot of ground seldom leave it, Fence,
but the owner may always -find them in or near the * ~~
same place. The fens have many large and deep
drains. In these the pike and eel grow to a vast size:
and they are full of geese which feed on the grass ;
but these eat rank and muddy, and may even be smelt
as soon as a person comes into the room where they are
roasting. But the people have another very great ad¬
vantage from these birds besides the eating of them,
namely, their feathers and quills; and the produce of
these is so great, that the customhouse books in the
town of Boston show, that there are frequently sent
away in one year 300 bags of feathers, each containing
a hundred and a half weight. Each pound of feathers
brings in the owner twopence; and it may be thought
strange by people unacquainted with these things, but
it is a certain truth, that the owners pull them five or
six times a year for the feathers, and three times for
the quills. Each pulling comes to about a pound,
and many people have 1000 geese at a time, or
more. They are kept at no charge, except in deep
snowy weather, when they are obliged to feed them
with corn.
Oats also grow very well in many of the fen coun¬
tries, and in good seasons bring great increase and
advantage to the owners. There is also another ve¬
getable of great profit to them. This is the raputn
silvestre} the seed of which they call cole-seed} and
they make an oil from it of great use in trade. They
grind the seed between two large stones, the’one stand-
mg perpendicularly on the other. The stones are made
of a sort of black marble, and are brought from Ger¬
many. They sometimes turn them by sails, and some¬
times by the drains which carry off the water from the
fen lands.
The fens lying low, and being of a vast extent, are
very subject to be overflowed by waters from the neigh¬
bouring high countries j and though great care and ex¬
pence is used to keep them dry, they are often like a
sea ; and the sheep are obliged to be carried ofl' in boats,
and the people to live in their upper rooms, and to be
supplied with provisions also with boats.
FENCE, in Gardening and Husbandry, a hedge,
wall, ditch, bank, or other enclosure, made round gar¬
dens, fields, woods, &c.
In hot climates, where they have not occasion for
walls to ripen their fruit, their gardens lie open, where
they can have a water fence, and prospects j or else
they bound their gardens with groves, in which are
fountains, walks, &c. which are much more pleasing
to the sight than a dead Avail: but, in colder countries,
we are obliged to have walls to shelter and ripen our
fruit, although they take aAvay much from the plea¬
sant prospect of the garden. Brick walls are account¬
ed the best and warmest for fruit: and these walls, be¬
ing built pannelwise, with pillars at equal distances,
will save a great deal of charge, in that the walls may
be built thinner than if they were made plane without
these pannels, for then it would be necessary to build
them thicker everywhere ; and, besides, these pannels
make the Avails look the handsomer. Stone Avails,
hoAvever, on account of their durability, are to be pre¬
ferred to those of brick, especially those of square
hewn stones. Those that are made of rough stones,
though
FEN
tnce.
.|y—
*r’i
■i-tier's
though they are very dry and warm, yet, by reason of
i their unevenness, are inconvenient to nail up trees to,
except pieces of timber be laid in them here and there
for that purpose.
But, in large gardens, it is better to have the pro¬
spect open to the pleasure garden ; which should be
surrounded with a fosse, that from the garden the ad¬
jacent country may be viewed. But this must depend
on the situation of the place: for, if the prospect from
the garden is not good, it had better be shut out from
the sight than be open. As also, when a garden lies
near a populous town, and the adjoining grounds are
open to the inhabitants ; if the garden is open, there
will be no walking there in good weather, without be¬
ing exposed to the view of all passengers, which is very
disagreeable.
Where the fosses are made round a garden which is
situated in a park, they are extremely proper} because
hereby the prospect of the park will be obtained in the
garden, which renders those gardens much more agree¬
able than those that are confined.—In the making
these fosses there have been many inventions } but, up¬
on the whole, none seem preferable to those which
have an upright wall next the garden, which, (where
the soil will admit of a deep trench) should be five or
six feet high ; and, from the foot of this wall, the
ground on the outside should rise with a gradual easy
slope, to the distance of 18 or 20 feet} and where it
can be allowed, if it slopes much farther it will be ea¬
sier, and less perceptible as a ditch, to the eye, when
viewed at a distance j but, if the ground is naturally
wet, so as not to admit a deep fosse, then, in order to
make a fence against cattle, if the wall be four feet
high, and slight posts of three feet high are placed just
behind the wall, with a small chain carried on from
post to post, no cattle or deer will ever attempt to
jump against it; therefore it will be a secure fence
against them } and if these are painted green, they will
not be discerned at a distance, and at the same time
the chain will secure persons walking in the garden
from tumbling over.
In places where there are no good prospects to be
obtained from a garden, it is common to make the en¬
closure of park paling } which, if well performed, will
last many years, and has a much better appearance than
a wall} and this pale may be hid from the sight within,
by plantations of shrubs and evergreens 5 or there may
be a quick hedge planted within the pale, which may
be trained up, so as to be an excellent fence by the
time the pales begin to decay.
Fences round parks are generally of paling; which,
if well made of winter-fallen oak, will last many years.
But a principal thing to be observed, in making these
pales, is not to make them too heavy: for, when they
are so, their own weight will cause them to decay:
therefore the pales should be cleft thin; and the rails
should be cut triangular, to prevent the wet lodging
upon them ; and the posts should be good, and not
placed too tar asunder. If these things are observed,
one of these pales will last, with a little care, up-
foagds of 40 years very well. The common way of
making these fences is, to have every other pale nine
or ten inches above the intermediate ones ; so that the
ence may be six feet and a half high, which is enough
tor fallow deer; but where there are red deer, the
VoL. VIII. Part II. ’ f
[ 593 ]
FEN
fence should be one .foot higher, otherwise they will
leap over.
Some enclose their parks with brick walls; and in ,
countries, where stone is cheap, the walls are built
with this material; some with, and others without,
mortar.
A kitchen garden, if rightly contrived, will contain
walling enough to afford a supply of such fruits as re¬
quire the assistance of walls, for any family; and this
garden, being situated on one side, and quite out of
sight of the house, may be surrounded with walls
which will screen the kitchen garden from the sight of
persons in the pleasure garden ; and, being locked up,
the fruit will be much better preserved than it can be
in the public garden ; and the having too great a quan¬
tity of walling is often the occasion that so many ill
managed trees are frequently to be seen in large gar¬
dens.
The height of garden avails should be 12 feet, which
is a moderate proportion ; and, if the soil be good, it
may in time be well furnished with bearing wood in
every part, especially that part planted with pears, not¬
withstanding of the branches being trained horizontally
from the bottom of the walls.
With regard to the different kinds of fences, see
Agriculture Index.
IENCE-Month, the month wherein deer begin to fawn,
during which it is unlawful to hunt in the forest.
It commences 15 days before Midsummer, and ends
15 days after it. This month, by ancient foresters, is
called defence-month.
FENCING, the art of making a proper use of the
sword, as well for attacking an enemy as for defending
one’s self.
Ibis art is acquired by practising with foils, called
in Latin rudes; whence fencing is also denominated
gladiatura rudiaria.—It is one of the exercises learnt
in the academies (see Exercise and Academy) ; and
is an accomplishment both agreeable and useful: A-
greeable, as it affords gentlemen a noble and distin¬
guished amusement:—Useful, as it forms their body*
and furnishes them with the faculty of defence, whe¬
ther it be of their honour or their life, when the one
or the other is attacked by those turbulent and dan¬
gerous persons whose correction is of service to society
in general.
Pyrard assures us, that the art of fencing is so high¬
ly esteemed in the East Indies, that none but princes
and noblemen are allowed to teach it. They wear a
badge or cognizance on their right arms, called in
their language esaru; which is put on with great ce¬
remony, like the badges of our orders of knighthood,
by the kings themselves.
Fencing is divided into two parts, simple and com¬
pound.
Simple is that performed directly and nimbly, on the
same line; and is either offensive or defensive.—The
principal object of the first, is whatever may be at¬
tempted, in pushing or making passes from this or
that point, to the most uncovered part of the enemy.
The second consists in parrying and repelling the
thrusts aimed by the enemy.
The compound includes all the possible arts and in¬
ventions to deceive the enemy, and make him leave that
part we have a tfesign on bare and unguarded, upon
4 F finding
Fence-
Month.
FencJng.
Feficing
n
Fenton.
FEN [
finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by tbe agi-
]Jty of tlie simple play. The principal means hereof are,
on the offensive side, feints, appeals, clashmgs and en-
' tanylings of swords, half thrusts, &c. and, on the defen¬
sive, to push in parrying. Of all which a detail would
be here useless, as they are only to be understood and
acquired from personal instructions conjoined with
practice.
FENELON, Francis de Salignac de laMotte,
was of an ancient and illustrious family, and born at
the castle of Fenelon in Perigord in 1651. In 1689,
he was appointed tutor to the dukes of Burgundy and
Anjou •, and in 1655 was consecrated archbishop of
Cambray. After this preferment, a storm arose against
him, that obliged him to leave the court for ever, oc¬
casioned by his performance entitled, An Explication of
the Maxims of the Saints concerning the Interior Eifej
in which he was supposed to favour the extravagant no¬
tions of Madame Guyon, and the principles of Quiet¬
ism. A controversy on this occasion was for some time
carried on between him and M. Bossuet, bishop of
Meaux : which terminated in an appeal to the pope 5
when his holiness condemned the archbishop’s book,
by a brief dated March 12. 1699. Some friends in¬
deed pretend, that tiiere was more of court policy than
religious zeal in this affair : but be this as it n]ay>>
archbishop submitted patiently to this determination •,
and, retiring to his diocese of Cambray, acquitted
himself punctually in all the duties of his station, and
led a most exemplary life. The work that gained him
the greatest reputation, and which will render his me¬
mory immortal, is his Adventures of Telemaclius j the
style of which is natural, the fictions well contrived, the
moral sublime, and the political maxims^ tending all to
the happiness of mankind. Hence it is thought, as
the printing of this work was stopped at Paris, that
the prelate’s heresy was in politics instead of religion j
FEN
Ftntoii
Feodal
Sysujw
59+ 1 ...
Cambridge, he became disqualified for entering into
holy orders. After he quitted the university, he was
secretary to the earl of Orrery ; but seems to have
spent the most of his life amongst his friends and rela-,
tions, and used to pay an annual visit to his elder bro¬
ther who enjoyed an estate of 1000I. a-year. He
was a man of great tenderness and humanity, enjoyed
the fairest reputation, and was much esteemed by Mr
Pope j who, when he died in 1730, paid him the
tribute of a very elegant epitaph. He published a
volume of poems in the year 1717 ; and in 1723 was
acted his tragedy of Mariamne, built upon her story
collected from Josephus in the third volume of the
Spectator.
FENUGREEK. SccTrigonella, Botany Index.
FEOD, or Feud, is defined to be a right which a
vassal hath in lands or some immoveable thing of his
lord’s, to use the same, and take the profits thereof
hereditarily, rendering unto the lord such feodal du¬
ties and services as belong to military tenure, &c. and
the property of the soil always remaining to the lord.
EEODAL, of or belonging to a Feud or Fee.
Feodal System, the constitution of Fiefs or I euds.
About 12 centuries ago, this system was so univer¬
sally received in Europe, that Sir Henry Spelman calls
it the law of nations in our western world. Hence it
deserves our attention in a particular manner. a know¬
ledge of the different feuds being indispensably requi¬
site for a proper understanding either of the civil go¬
vernment of our own country, or of the laws by which
its landed property is regulated. . 1
The military policy of the Celtic or northern na-Origin«1
tions, known by the names of Goths, Vandals, Franks,^
Hunns, and Lombards, furnished the original constitu¬
tion or system of feuds. These people pouring out in
vast multitudes from the same qfficina gentium or “ store¬
house of nations,” overran all the European countries
on the declension of the Roman empire. They brought
li 4
and though his disgrace was prior to this work, he ‘‘7”" with them from the'countries
had, while he was tutor to the young princes, taught the teudal sysiem am g SUD it to be
,he; tile same principles asserted nnd exemplified m out of'vb.eh ey en grated > S“Xir 8 ew Lm
Telemachus. Fenelon died in 17*5 '•> ant^ a co^ec*;,'on
of all his religious works was afterwards printed at
Rotterdam, under the care of the marquis de Fene¬
lon his grand-nephew, when ambassador to the States-
General.
FENNEL. See Anethum, Botany Index.
FENTON, Sir Geoffroy, privy counsellor and se¬
cretary in Ireland during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth
and King James I. is well known for his translation-of
Guicciardini’s History of the Wars of Italy, dedicated
to Queen Elizabeth in 1579* Ue a*
1608 •, after having married his daughter to Mr Boyle,
afterward the great earl of Corke.
Fenton, Elijah, descended from an ancient fami¬
ly, was born at Shelton near Newcastle, but in what
year is uncertain. He was the youngest of 12 chil¬
dren, and was intended for the ministry ; but embra¬
cing principles contrary to the government, while at
the most proper'method of securing their new con
quests, they introduced it into their more southerly
colonies. ,
According to this system, the victorious general al¬
lotted considerable tracts of land to his principal om-
while they, in like manner, divided their posses-
cers
sions among the inferior officers, and even those com¬
mon soldiers who were thought to be the most deserving.
Allotments of this kind were named feoda, fifs,fees,
or feuds, from a combination of words, in the language
of these barbarians, signifying a reward or stipend be¬
stowed on certain conditions (a). I he condition up¬
on which these rewards were given was, that the pos¬
sessors should faithfully serve the person from whom
they were received, both at home and abroad, in the
military way. To this they engaged themselves by a
juramentumfidelitatis, or oath of fealty f : m the event + See tin
of a breach of which, either by not performing theartic^
service
nuu.
(a) We were informed by Pontopiddan, that ODH in these northern languages is the same with Pf0Pfcietaf.f^
• . I t . * _ A. I- — T A ? 1—I r\r\ n n *■» f Ii 1
t See Mae-
tlowaU's AL^ Tfith totum in the Latin. Hence among the northern nations,
hutAut. lience we raay conjecture that the UDAL right in Finland is derived J.
part
he tells us, that ODHALL signifies right;
By transposing these two northern
J * syllables,
F E O [ 595 ] F E O
service agreed upon, by deserting their lord in time of
litem, battle, &c. the lands were to return to their original
u-v——' possessor.
* Thus the possessors of feodal allotments became in-
vreTof terested in the defence of them ; and not only the re-
t,i'eodal ceivers but those who gave them; were equally and
ijffliation. mutually bound to defend their possessions, none of
them being able to pretend any right but that of con¬
quest. For this purpose government and subordina¬
tion were absolutely necessary ; it being impossible to
conduct any system of defence where every thing was
tumultuous and irregular. Every person, therefore,
who was a feudatory, i. e. who had received lands, was
bound to do every thing in his power to defend the lord
of his fee •, while, on the other hand, the latter was no
less'subordinate to his immediate superior; and so on to
the prince himself. In like manner a reciprocal bond
of defence existed down from the prince to the lowest
feodists.
Such were the foundations on which the feodal sys¬
tem was properly established ; and the natural conse¬
quence was, a military subjection throughout the whole
community. The prince could always collect an army
of feudatories ready to defend not only the kingdom in
general, but the particular possessions of each person ;
and the propriety of this constitution was soon apparent
in the strength which these newly erected kingdoms
acquired, and the valour with which their conquests
j were defended.
Oi !odi- Besides these feodal grants, however, which were
»li held only on the terms of military service above men¬
tioned, there were others called allodial, which were
given upon more enlarged principles. To these everv
free man had a title ; and could not only claim his
territory as well as the rest, but dispose of it at his
pleasure (b) ; and this freedom was denominated alio- Feodal
diality. These allodials, however, were not exempted System,
from military service. A part of their freedom con- » ' ' IL^
sisted in liberty to go to the wars ; for this, in the bar¬
barous times we speak of, was the only way to acquire
any degree of renown. Only the slaves were destined
to follow the arts of peace ; while every free person
was not only at liberty to defend his country, but
under an obligation to do it in case of any urgent ne¬
cessity. 4
Thus there was a feodal and a national militia. The^co^fti and
free people only were allowed to possess property ; the
feudal vassals constituted the army, properly so called ; a'
while the national militia was composed of the allodial
proprietors. This allodiality, however, was not con¬
fined to landed property, but included likewise move-
able estates or money ; so that proprietors of the lat¬
ter kind were obliged also in times of danger to bear $
arms and appear in the field. Between the feodal and Diflerent
allodial proprietors, however, there was this farther*ltuatlons
difference, that the latter had no concern with any dal ruid^of
private quarrels which might take place among the the allodial
lords themselves; so that they were never obliged toproprktor.
appear in the field unless when called forth by the so¬
vereign against the enemies of the nation at large.
This circumstance we might suppose to be an advan¬
tage, but it ultimately operated otherwise ; becoming
the means of changing the allodial right into a feodal
tenure. For some time the holders of fiefs had an
eminent advantage over the allodial proprietors. This
was owing to the imperfection of government in those
days ; so that the nobles had it in their power to re¬
venge their own quarrels, while the weak were equally
exposed to the insults of both parties. The lord and
his vassals therefore were always formidable ; but the
allodial
syllables, we form the word aixodh ; whence we have the etymology of the allodium or absolute property, claim¬
ed by the holders of fiefs or feuds ; and combining odh, signifying “ property,” with the word fee, signifying
“ a conditional stipend or reward,” we have the word FEODH, signifying “a property given by way of stipend or
reward upon a certain condition.”
(b) The author of A View of Society in Europe, has traced the remote sources of the feodal laws in an ele¬
gant and spirited manner (book i. chap. ii. sect. i.). Tacitus informs us, that the individuals of each of
the German nations cultivated by turns a tract of land proportionable to their number, for the use of the
whole; after which each individual received such an allotment of the cultivated tract as his dignity seemed to
require. These nations had not altered their political principles at the time they overran the Roman empire ;
and hence the provinces of it were then divided after the same manner. The most considerable allotment
was bestowed on the king, as being the most dignified person in the community, and this allotment was styled
his domain; while the shares of citizens and warriors, which were likewise in proportion to the merit or
dignity of each, constituted what was called allodiality. But as it often happened that all the land was not
exhausted by these partitions, what remained was considered as the property of the community, and in the
barbaric codes was called the lands of the fisc. In such German nations as had thus obtained a settlement, it was
necessary that there should be a more close connexion betwixt the sovereign and the chiefs, as well as between
the chiefs and the people, than in others. This was effected by means of the lands of the fisc ; for of these the
sovereign took possession, dealing them out to the chiefs under the burden of appearing in arms whenever he
should please to call; while the chiefs in like manner dealt out lands to those called their refazWr.?, who were
also obliged to supply them with military assistance in cases of necessity. Hence a political system was
founded, which had a prodigious effect on society in all those countries where it prevailed. The intention and
tendency of this system was to render the nation independent both at home and abroad ; for, while the people
were all armed in their common defence, individuals were also properly guarded against the attacks of despo¬
tism. The power of the chiefs, who formed a regular nobility, was a counterpoise to that of the sovereign ;
while the number of the retainers and vassals, constituting the greatness and power of the nobility, was a pro¬
per barrier against aristocratical oppression; for a chief who oppressed his vassals evidently acted against his
own interest.
4 F a
F E O ' [ 596 1 F E O
Feodil allodial proprietors had scarce any means of defending
System, themselves. The reason of this was, in the first place,
—-V——'that the law did not allow them to commit any hosti¬
lities *, and in the next, they were too distant and un¬
connected to form any proper league for mutual de¬
fence j and hence proceeded the necessity already hint¬
ed at, of converting allodial property into feudal te¬
nure. This was indeed owing in a great measure to
the absurdity and violence of the times, by which gifts
of property, burdened with service, and which might
return to the person who granted them, were render¬
ed superior in value to the absolute and unconditional
possession of a subject. Other considerations, how¬
ever, besides that just mentioned^ contributed to pro¬
duce the same effect. As in those dark ages no right
existed but what had its origin in conquest, it thence
followed, that the greatest conqueror or warrior was
the most honourable person. The king, in whom the
whole exploits of the community centered, as being
their head, was the most honourable person : all others
derived from him that portion of honour which they
enjoyed, and which was most nicely adjusted in propor¬
tion as they approached him.. Allodial proprietors,
therefore, having no pretensions of this kind, rvere
treated with contempt as a kind of poltroons. From
this disagreeable situation they wished to free them¬
selves, by converting their allodial property into feodal Feodal
tenures j while the princes, supposing it their interest System,,
to extencLthose tenures as much as possible, discouraged '—-v-*.
the allodial possessions. As the feodists supported the _ 6
importance of the nation and dignity of the monarch, 0fa]y;°
it was not thought proper to allow the allodial pro- into temu
prietors any greater compensations than what were
given to vassals in similar cases. Thus they were ex¬
posed to continual mortifications in the courts of jus¬
tice 5 they were neglected by the king ; denied suffi¬
cient protection from the laws ; exposed not only to
continual insults •, but to have their property on all oc¬
casions destroyed by the great: so that they were with¬
out resource except from the feodal tenures, and were
obliged even to solicit the privileges which were be¬
stowed in other cases on vassals. In these unhappy
circumstances, they were glad to yield up their lands
to any superior whom they thought most agreeable, and
to receive them back from him as a feudal gift. Thus
the landed property was everywhere changed into feu¬
dal tenures, and fiefs became universal (c).
For some time the feodal system was not only useful
in itself, but honourable in its principles ; but this
continued no longer than while the importers of it
into Europe adhered to their original simple and noble
maxims. During that period, the lord exercised his
bounty
(c) It has been an object of inquiry to the learned, in what nation of barbarians fiefs had their origin ? But
it is probable, that they took place in all these nations nearly about the same time, on the same principles ; and
were continued by reason of a similarity of manners, conquests, &c. so that w’e cannot ascribe the prevalence ol
them to imitation. „ ^ . m. • . j 1 • .
In France, we find mention made of fiefs as early as the age of Cluldebert. They were introduced into
Italy by the Lombards ; amongst whom the customs and laws relating to fiefs seem very early to have made
* t,Wionerapid advances*. They were introduced into Spain before the invasion of the Moors and Saracens in the year
Hift. 0f 7I0. Lands were granted for service and attachment among the Goths j among whom also the person who
'Naples, received the gift was the retainer of him who granted it. If he refused his service, the grant was ioifeited,
book iv. ant| wag sa|(j receive it in patrocinio ; he also swore fealty to his lord j and on this footing the national
+7W- militia was regulated f. There can be very little doubt that the feodal law was known in England in the
goth?lib*””Saxon times, as is mentioned in the text*. In Scotland, however, the history of fiefs is still more uncertain
tit. 3. than anywhere else j which has been ascribed partly to the mutilated state of the Scottish records, and partly
lib. iv tit. t0 the Vvant of able antiquaries in the nation. But, according to a late writer §, allodiality and feudality have
existed ever since the foundation of the Scottish monarchy, and have most probably arisen from a similarity ot
the manners and customs in Scotland to those of other nations. It has indeed been supposed that these cus¬
toms were introduced from some foreign model by Malcolm II. According to some, they were introduced
directly from England ; and the policy of Malcolm in establishing them has been highly extolled : but, ac¬
cording to our author there is no foundation for any notion of that kind. Both the opinions just mentioned
either directly assert or imply, that the feudal maxims were introduced into this country upon the principle
on the Law of imitation; but it is very improbable that they could be imported from one people to another, on account
(tnd Consti- of their excessive contrariety to the common usages and precepts of government among mankind. It must
tution of undoubtedly have been very absurd, if not altogether impracticable, to transplant the feudal tenures when the
grants of land were precarious, or depending entirely on the will of the prince, to a country which had never
known superiority or vassalage. This would have required an alteration ol all the orders of society fiom the
king to the peasant; while the whole chain of customs, as well as the jurisdiction of the kingdom, both high
and low, must have sustained a corresponding alteration, in order to conform them to the new system. It is
likewise obvious, that no conquest could he made on purpose to obtain a settlement by any nation who had
already received the knowledge of fiefs. The establishment of them implied, that the people bad already a
fixed and settled residence ; and accordingly history does not furnish us with an account of a nation among
whom fiefs were known, who ever migrated from the country they already possessed, to seek for one in which
they might settle. Feudal institutions must have originated wherever they have been observed to flourish.—-
Scotland was formerly a feudal kingdom, and we know pretty nearly the time when the fie-fs were hereditary
there ; hut in that form they could not be introduced by the sovereign ; and there was not any nation among
whom fiefs were already known who conquered, or made an establishment by conquest, in Scotland. Fiefs
therefore must have gradually advanced to such a state of perfection. The progress they made may be likewise
easily
7. I. XX.
j See also
Whitaker's
Hist, of
Manches¬
ter.
§ Stuart's
Observat.
Scotland.
F E O
laeoJal
iiystem.
lie feodal
iiideiits.
I! (iiness
o lie feo-
d issocia<
bounty to the vassal, which the latter repaid by acts of
gratitude ; so that the intercourse betwixt them was of
the most tender and affectionate kind ; and this gave
rise to what are called the feodal incidents.
The expectants of fiefs were educated in the hall of
the superior, while the tenures were precarious or only
for life: and even when they became hereditary, the
lord took care of the son and estate of his deceased
vassal j not only protecting his person, but taking
charge of his education, and directing the manage¬
ment of his affairs. He took pleasure in observing his
approach to maturity ; and when he came of age, never
failed to deliver to him the lands, with the care of
which he had been entrusted, and which he had been
careful to improve. This was called the incident of
UHirdship.
The incident of relief was founded upon the gratitude
of the vassal; who, upon entering on his fief, brought a
present to his lord, as an acknowledgement of his care
of him during the early part of his life, and in order to
conciliate his future regard.
The incident of marriage proceeded also upon the
principle of gratitude on the part of the vassal. The
latter, conscious of the favours he had received, did
not choose to ally himself with a family inimical to
his chief; while the superior himself, ambitious to
aggrandize and augment the importance of his family,
sought how to find the most advantageous match for
his vassal.
Sometimes the superior himself was reduced in his
circumstances by war or other accident: but from
whatever cause his distress proceeded, even though it
had arisen from his own extravagance or prodigality, or
when only destitute of means to support his ambition or
grandeur, his vassals were bound to support and relieve
him according to their circumstances ; and this was cal¬
led the incident of aid.
The incident of escheat took place on the part of the
vassal, when, through cowardice, treachery, or any re¬
markable misbehaviour, he rendered himself unworthy
of his fief. In that case, the taking it from him, and
giving it to one more worthy, was called an escheat.
While the lords and vassals thus vied with one
another in mutual acts of friendship and benevolence,
universal happiness, liberty, and activity, were diffused
through the society. The vassals behaved courteously
towards the retainers, who were immediately below
them ; while they again were courted by the lords as
constituting their importance and strength ; the lords,
lastly, giving a like importance and dignity to the so¬
vereign himself. Thus a regular, powerful, and com¬
pact system of government took place; an unanimity
and attention pervaded the various departments of state ;
so that, while the subjects were free, the nation at large
was formidable.
During this happy state of affairs, the members of
f 597 1
F E O
Feoda.1
System.
"Its deckn-
the national assembly in every country in Europe ap¬
peared there in arms, whether they came personally or
by their representatives. Such particularly was the case
under the Anglo-Saxon government; and the liaPpi*ils ^
ness they at that time enjoyed made the oppression andsjon<
tyranny of the Normans appear the more intolerable.
In process of time, however, the state of society began
to suffer a remarkable alteration. The high and disin¬
terested notions, from which the happiness above men¬
tioned took its origin, declined : the romantic ideas of
chivalry f ceased ; and much more interested notions off Sec Chi*
property came in their stead. The separation of the valry and
interests of the lords from their vassals was the first step^rt^is*
towards the destruction of the feodal system. Thu3TheI0r
the incidents, which, as has just now been mentioned, version of
promoted their happiness, did the very reverse. Pro-itsinci-
perty being now looked upon as a distinction superiorllenls-
to personal merit, naturally introduced the most mer¬
cenary views. In consequence of these the infant
ward, the care of whom was wont to be considered as a
sacred and honorary trust, was now only looked upon
as a mean of procuring emolument to the superior.
The latter now regarded the profits of his vassals as so
many diminutions of his own wealth. Instead of taking
care to improve the estate of his ward as formerly,
he impoverished it ; not only neglecting the education
of the heir, but offering insults to himself; insomuch
that the relations of the unfortunate vassal were fre¬
quently obliged to ransom from the avaricious superior
both his person and effects. By merchandise of this
kind the coffers of princes were filled, and wardships
let out to strangers, who might exercise their rapacity
with greater freedom. When the vassal at last attained
the years of maturity, he came to the possession of his
land without any of that joy and festivity which usually
took place on the occasion. He received an inheri¬
tance wasted and destroyed, while new grievances daily
presented themselves to augment the horrors of his
situation. All the incidents, which in former times Oppressed
were so many expressions of gratitude on the part of the situation of
vassal, were now changed into taxes which might be^ va!saIs*
exacted at the pleasure of the lord. Before the vassal
was invested in his land, the superior exacted from him
a certain sum or other gift, to be measured only by his
own rapacity ; and in case of delay or inability to
pay this demand, the superior continued in possession
of the estate. Such scandalous oppression could not
but produce the greatest discontent and clamour. Ap¬
plications were made to the law without success ; nor
were even the laws regarded which were fabricated on
purpose for their relief. The incident of marriage now
proved a source of the most dreadful oppression. The
lord assumed a right of marrying his vassal to whom he
pleased ; and he not only exerted this right himself, but
would sell it to a stranger, or allow the vassal to buy it
himself; while the penalty annexed to a marriage with-
out
easily pointed out. At first they were precarious, or at the pleasure of the lord ; afterwards they were granted
for life; then for a course of years longer than the natural life of a man ; and, lastly, they became hereditary,
which was their most perfect stage. J his progress has been observed in every country where feudal tenures
exist; and the same must have been known in Scotland, though, in considering it, we are necessarily carried
back to periods of remote antiquity; for as fiefs were hereditary as early as the time of Malcolm II. they must
have been in their precarious state several centuries before.
F E O
[ 598 ]
F E O
Fcodn.1 out the consent of the superior involved no less pumsh-
Sy.tem. ment than the loss of the estate itself, or some grievous
   infliction as for a crime of the first magnitude. Ihe
case was still worse with the temale ward j whose beauty
and accomplishments became a source of gain to the su¬
perior, or were sacrificed to please his whim or caprice j
so tha't her relations were frequently obliged to buy
from him the privilege of marrying her to the person
she or they thought most proper. In like manner the
aid, which was formerly a voluntary gift from the vas¬
sal in cases of distress happening to his lord, now be¬
came an unavoidable tax. An aid formerly was de¬
manded when the eldest daughter of the superior was
married, when his eldest sou was knighted, or when
the superior himself was taken prisoner in battle. These
were the only legal causes of making a demand of this
kind ; but in the subsequent times of degeneracy, the
most frivolous pretences were every day made use of
by the prince to oppress the lords, and by the lords to
oppress their vassals •, demanding subsidies at pleasure,
which their inferiors were always obliged to comply
with. Lastly, The escheat, which in former times took
place only in cases of cowardice, treachery, or some
other heinous crime, was now inflicted on the most
trifling occasions. If the vassal happened to be too long
in attending the court of his superior to take the oath
of fealty *, if he committed any action which could in
the least be construed an infringement of the oath •, if
he neglected to give his lord warning of any misfortune
which he might suppose was about to befal him j re¬
vealed any thing concerning him; made love to Ins
sister or daughter, &c.; or even if he should grant a
tenure of land to another person in form different from
that in which he held his own; all these, nay others
still more ridiculous, were judged sufficient reasons for
the superior to seize on the estate of the vassal, and in-
11 volve him and his family m rum.
Consequent Notwithstanding these oppressions, however, the vas-
degeueraejr gai was still obliged to submit to his lord ; to own him
of the feo- &g |)is SUperJor j and even, in appearance, to pay him
dal militia. ^ same regpect a9 formerly when the greatest unanimi¬
ty and cordial affection subsisted between them. Still
he was obliged to perform the same military service ;
because a failure in that respect would have subjected
him to a forfeiture of lands according to the original
agreement. A vast difference, however, now took
place in the valour and activity which inspired the ar¬
ray The vassals, forced into the field with despond¬
ing hearts, were indifferent as to the success of the
cause in which they were engaged, and frequently ob¬
structed instead of forwarding the operations of the
field. Hence the sovereign found himself embarrassed;
and, though nominally at the head of a martial and
powerful people, was frequently unable to effect any
thing, by reason of the mutual hatred and dissension
which everywhere prevailed.
Thus the feodal states of Europe became unnaturally
weak : a remedy was necessary ; and it is remarkable
Feodal
System.
13
Expedient
for its re-
auverjr.
that the same remedy was applied all over the continent.
This was, in short, the making fiefs hereditary, which
till now had only been granted for a long term of
years ; and, in return, burdening the lands with a cer¬
tain number of soldiers, which were not to be refused
under any pretence whatever. Hence was derived the ^
tenure of knight-service. A certain portion of land, tnTentj0B
burdened with the service of one soldier or knight, was of knight
called a knight''s-fee ; and thus an estate, furnishing any ^ndee.
number of soldiers, was said to contain as many knight’s
fees ; so that now the manors, baronies, &c. became
powerful according to the number of soldiers they were
bound to furnish. In the grants from the crown, the
nobility were obliged to furnish a certain number of sol¬
diers for the service of the sovereign ; and in those from
the nobility to their vassals, the like service was re¬
quired. Even the commons who had grants from the
crown furnished a certain proportion of knights. The
force of the nation was called into action by grants
in capite, or from the sovereign and nobility. A nu¬
merous and powerful army was instantly assembled,
and at once ready for action. Of this army the king
was the general, the nobility the officers, and the vas¬
sals soldiers; the whole being exactly arranged, and
capable of entering upon any expedition without the
least delay.
Thus a remedy was found in some measure for the
weakness of the feodal sovereigns : .but though the
knights tenure could accomplish this, it could not bring
back the former affection and cordiality which subsisted
between the various ranks of people. On the contrary,
by uniting them more firmly to one another by legal
ties, it rendered matters rather worse. The oppression
originating from the operation of the feodal incidents,
still continued with unremitting violence. The grants
of knights tenure were attended with the same oaths
of homage and fealty ; the same incidents of relief,
wardship, marriage, aid, and escheat, with the feodal
tenures. The princes promised to abate somewhat of
their rigour in demanding the feodal perquisites, but
did not keep their word. Laws were occasionally pro¬
mulgated, and for some time had an effect; but pal-
liatives soon became ineftectualj and a new state of
weakness began to commence. 15
The two remarkable eras in the feodal history are,Twoem
the time before the invention of knight-service (d), and in vbeW-
that during which it continued. Fiefs were in a state^ #
of fluctuation from the destruction of the Roman em¬
pire till the ninth century; but they were rendered
perpetual in France about the year 877, and were ge¬
nerally become so in every country of Europe about the
beginning of the tenth. Du Cange, voce Militia, gives
us an example of a knight fee in the year 880. By the
year 987, when Hugh Capet was raised to the throne Doubt*
of France, knight service was become general all
Europe, and was introduced into England after baving dBCtien of
made its appearance in other countries (e). In Eng-the fe0(W
land however, there have been several doubts and in-law* is10
* quiriesBDgla“d’
(D) For the difference between the knights produced b, this service and the more ancient ones, or knights of
i0 wVrSttrtlntm^Th'at it appears from the records of Malcolm IV. in I.S3. knights-servic.
2
F E O
[ 599 ]
F E O
l^codal
i y stem.
quiries among the learned concerning the introduction
of the feodal laws. Many are of opinion, that they
were first introduced by William the Conqueror j and,
consequently, that they were entirely unknown to the
Anglo-Saxons : but others think, that they existed
among the latter in the same form under which they
were continued by the Normans. Dr Stuart is of
opinion that the Saxons who settled in England could
not be strangers to fiefs. He supposes the conformity
of manners, which undoubtedly prevailed between the
Saxons and other barbarians, a sufficient proof that the
hereditary grant of land, as well as the fluctuating state
of feodal tenures which preceded it, were known to the
former. Collateral proofs are derived from the spirit
and tenure of the Anglo-Saxon laws, but especially
from the grants of hereditary estates on condition of
military service (f). The condition of fiefs under the
Anglo-Saxons was very different from what it was af¬
terwards. In their times we find no mention made of
these oppressions of which so much notice has already
been taken ; and this may be easily accounted for from
the alteration of the feodal spirit in different ages. Du¬
ring the time that a warm and generous affection sub¬
sisted between the feodal superiors and vassals, the in¬
cidents were marks of generosity on the one part, and
gratitude on the other; but as soon as a variance had
taken place, by reason of the interested disposition
which the introduction of luxury produced, the same
incidents became sources of the most flagrant oppres¬
sion. This was remarkably the case in the time of
William the Conqueror $ and during the reign of
King John, matters were come to such a crisis, that
the people everywhere complained loudly, and de¬
manded the restoration of the laws of Edward the Con¬
fessor (g). “ What these laws of Edward the Confessor
were (says Mr Hume), which the English every reign
during a century and a half desired so passionately to Feodal
have restored, is much disputed by antiquarians ; and System,
our ignorance of them seems one of the greatest defects
of the ancient English history.” Dr Stuart has offered
an explanation j but this is in fact no more than a con-soh^o,, of
jecture, that “ by the laws or customs of the Confessor, them by
that condition of felicity was expressed which had been Dr Stuart,
enjoyed during the fortunate state of-the feodal asso¬
ciation. The cordiality, equality, and independence,
which then prevailed among all ranks in society, con¬
tinued to be remembered in less prosperous times, and
occasioned an ardent desire for the revival of those laws
and usages which were the sources of so much happi-
, • • • • lS
Besides the great distinction (of which an account Distinction
has already been given) between the state of fiefs under c011cerning
the Anglo-Saxons and under the Normans, they were
no less distinguished by the introduction of kmght-on®
service. Hitherto the refinement of the English had Anglo-
been obstructed by the invasion of the Danes, and the Norman
insular situation of the kingdom j but after the Nor-th,ie3*
man conquest the fiefs were made perpetual. Still,
however, the knight-fee and knight-service were al¬
together unknown. William, the sixth prince who
enjoyed the duchy of Normandy, was well acquainted
with every thing relating to fiefs ; for that duchy had
experienced all the variety ^incidental to them from
the time of its being granted to Hollo by Charles the
Simple in the year 912, to the year 1066, when Wil¬
liam was put in possession of England by the battle of
Hastings.
On his accession to the throne, a number of forfei¬
tures took place among those who had followed the
fortune of Harold. Their estates were to be disposed
of at the pleasure of the conqueror; and it was natural
to suppose that he would follow the method practised
Was known in Scotland, and that it was not a novelty at that time. The same author thinks it even probable
that it was known in the time of David I.
(f) The use of entails was known to the Anglo-Saxons; and this practice, as well as the succession to al¬
lodial estates, must have contributed very much to establish hereditary fiefs. This opinion seems also to be con¬
firmed by the accounts we have of the great power of many of the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons, and the
natural tendency that fiefs must have, in the course of things, to become perpetual, though analogical argu¬
ments cannot entirely be depended upon in this case. There is indeed positive evidence that the territory
which anciently constituted the kingdom of Mercland belonged to Ethelred as an hereditary fief and earldom.
The grant was given him by Alfred when he married his daughter Ethelfleda: and it is likewise attested bv
Camden, that in the time of Ethelred the earldom of Leicester was an inheritance, and the regular succession
of its earls is still known. We are informed also by creditable historians, that Bernicia and Deireland
were feodal and inheritable earldoms among the Saxons. The same was true of the county of Cumberland
when possessed by the Scottish monarchs. This last appears from the Saxon Chronicle : in which the grant was
conveyed by Edmund king of England to Malcolm of Scotland in the following terms: “ Edmundus rex totam
Cumberland praedavit, et contrivit, et commendavit earn Malcolmo regi Scotiae ; hoc pacto, quod in auxilio sibi
foret terra et mari.” From the use of the word commendavit, indeed, Spelman takes occasion to say, that a
feodal homage was not intended ; but the contrary may be proved by the original Saxon from which the fore¬
going is a Latin translation ; and the word, according to several learned critics, signifies feodal homage with the
most strict propriety. Thus Du Cange informs us, that commendare se alicui was the general expression for
faire Phommage a u?i suferain.
(g) The laws which are now extant under the name of Edward, are generally allowed to be of doubtful au¬
thenticity ; nor are they, even supposing them to be genuine, of any use in answering the present question.
They determine indeed the existence of fiefs among the Anglo-Saxons : and Dr Stuart is of opinion, that the
compilation whicWgoes under the name of this prince, though posterior to the date it bears, nevertheless merits
greater attention than has usually been bestowed upon it. M. Honard, a foreign lawyer, is the latest writer who
has made it bis study ; but he is better acquainted with the Norman than the Anglo-Saxon customs.
Feodal
System.
19
Introduo-
tion of
knight,
service
into Eng¬
land.
to
Idea of the
I'eoda! mi¬
litia.
F E O [ 600 ]
in his own country. Hence the origin of knight ser- with these
vice in England. A grant of land, to any person
whatever, was estimated at a certain number of knights
fees; and each of these required the service of a
knight. The grants of lands were even renewed to
the old tenants under this tenure j so that by degrees
the whole military people in the kingdom acquiesced m
it. To accomplish this, Domesday Book is supposed
to have been compiled, which contained an exact ac¬
count of all the landed property of the kingdom.—
Hence it is to be concluded, not that William introdu¬
ced fiefs into England, as some have imagined, but
that he brought them to their ultimate state of perfection
by the introduction of knight-service. This is evident
from the laws enacted during his reign. In these it is
not only mentioned that knight-service was enacted, but
that it was done expressly with the consent of the com¬
mon council of the nation j which at that time was
equivalent to an act of parliament (h).
The invention of knight-service proved generally
agreeable : for, as only a few of the Anglo-Saxon fiefs
were hereditary, the advancement of the rest to per¬
petuity, under the tenure of knight-service, must
have been accounted an acquisition of some import¬
ance j as not only augmenting the grandeur and dig¬
nity of the sovereign, but securing the independence
of the subject, and improving his property. In the
happy state of the feodal association, there was indeed
no necessity for the knight’s fee $ but when the dis¬
cordance and oppression so often mentioned began to
take place, it became then necessary to point out par¬
ticularly every duty of the vassal, as well as of the
lord; and this was fully done by the invention of
knight-service. The nobles possessed duchies, baronies,
and earldoms ; which extensive possessions were divided
into as many fees, each of them to furnish a knight
for the service of the king, or of the superior ; so that
every feudal state could command a numerous army
and militia to support and defend it in case of any
emergency. The knights were also bound to assemble
in complete armour whenever the superior thought
proper to call, and to hold themselves in readiness for
action whenever the king or superior found it conve¬
nient to take the field : so that thus the militia might
be marched at the shortest notice to defend or support
the honour of the nation.
The knights were usually armed with a helmet,
sword, lance, and shield; and each was besides obliged
to keep a horse. This last requisite was owing to the
contempt into which the infantry had fallen through
the prevalence of tournaments and luxuries of various
kinds, though it was by means of the infantry that the
barbarians had originally distinguished themselves in
their wars with the Romans, and became able to cope
Feudal
System,
F E O
celebrated warriors. All proprietors of
fees or tenants by knight-service fought on foot: the
cavalry were distinguished by the name of battle ; and
the success of every encounter was supposed to depend
on them alone. They only were completely armed ;
the infantry, being furnished by the villages under the
jurisdiction of the barons, had at first only bows and
slings; though afterwards they were found worthy of
much greater attention. _ _ ji
While'the feodal association remained in perfection, Us ineffica
the superior could at any time command the military0? a.nd cor
service of his vassals ; but in the subsequent degeneracy,rui,llon-
this service could neither be depended upon when
wanted, nor was it of the same advantage when obtain¬
ed as formerly. The invention of knight-service
tended in a great degree to remedy this inconvenience.
Those who were possessed of knights fees were now
obliged to remain 40 days in the field at their own
expence ; and this without exception, from the great
crown vassals to the smallest feudatories ; but if longer
service was required, the prince was obliged to pay
his troops. In those times, however, when the fate of
nations was frequently decided by a single battle, a
continuance in the field for 40 days was sufficient for
ordinary occasions.
Thus matters seemed once more to be restored near¬
ly to their former state. It was now, as much as ever,
the interest of the nation to act with unanimity in its
defence, not only against foreign enemies, but against
the tyranny of the prince over his subjects, or of one
part of the subjects over the other. New inconveni¬
ences, however, soon began to take place, owing to
the gradual improvements in life and the refinement
of manners/ From the first institution of military ser¬
vice, a fine had been accepted instead of actual appear¬
ance in the field. In the times of barbarity, however,
when men accounted rapine and bloodshed their only
glory, there were but few who made an offer of this
compensation ; but as wealth and luxury increased,
and the manners of people became softer, a general
unwillingness of following the army into the field be¬
came also prevalent. A new tenure, called escuage,
was therefore introduced, by which the vassal was only
obliged to pay his superior a sum of money annually, in¬
stead of attending him into the field *. Hence ongi-* See lh«
nated taxes and their misapplication ; for as the king particular
was lord paramount of the whole kingdom, it thence0™5^
happened that the whole escuage money collected
throughout the nation centred in him. The piincesaitic|c
then, instead of recruiting their armies, frequently fill-A'mg/ii-
ed their coffers with the money, or dissipated it other-Service,
wise, hiring mercenaries to defend their territories^.^
when threatened with any danger. These being com-8lan(jing
posed of the dregs of the people, and disbanded at the armies,
end
(H) The following law of William the Conqueror not only makes express mention of the knight’s fee and ser¬
vice, but alludes to a former law of William and his parliament, by which this tenure was actually estabhshed.
“ fltatuimus etiam et firmiter praecipimus, ut omnes comites, et barones, et milites, et servientes, et universi 1-
« beri homines totius regni nostri praedicti, habeant et teneant se semper bene in armis et in eqms^ ut decet et
« oportet, et quod sint semper prompti et bene parati ad servitium suuvi integrum nobis explendum, et peragen-
“ dum, cum semper opus adfuerit, secundum quod NOBIS debent Aefeodis et tenementis suis de*jure facere, et si-
« cut illis statuimus per commune consilium totius regni nostri praedicti, et dedimus et concessimus in teodo jure
“ hcereditaria.” LL, GuilL c. .58=
S
F E R [ 601 ] F E R
eodal en^ every campaign, filled all Europe with a dis-
,stem orderly banditti, who frequently proved very danger-
H ous to society. To avoid such inconveniences, stand-
1'alia‘, xng armies were introduced, and taxations began to be
raised in every European kingdom. New inconveni¬
ences arose. The sovereigns in most of these king¬
doms, having acquired the right of taxation, as well as
the command of the military power, became complete-
fy despotic : but in England the sovereign was de¬
prived of this right by Magna Charta, which was ex¬
torted from him, as related under the article England,
5 80 that, though allowed to command his
armies, he could only pay them by the voluntary con¬
tributions of the people, or their submitting to such
taxations as were virtually imposed by themselves.
FEOFFMENT, inZaw, (from the verb Jeoffare ov
infeudare, “ to give one a feud”) ; the gift or grant of
any corporeal hereditament to another. He that so
gives, or enfeoffs, is called the feoffert and the person
enfeoffed is denominated the feoffee.
This is plainly derived from, or is indeed itself the
very mode of, the ancient feodal donation j for though
it may be performed by the word “ enfeoff,” or
“ grant,” yet the aptest word of feoffment is do or
dedi. And it is still directed and governed by the
same feodal rules ; insomuch that the principal rule
relating to the extent and effect of the feodal grant,
tenor est qui legem dot feudo, is in other words become
the maxim of our law with relation to feoffments mo¬
dus legem dat donationi. And therefore, as in pure feo¬
dal donations, the lord, from whom the feud moved,
must expressly limit and declare the continuance or
quantity of estate which lie meant to confer, ne quis
plus donasseprcesumatur, quam in donatione exprcsserit;
so if one grants by feoffment lands or tenements to
another, and limits or expresses no estate, the grantee
(due ceremonies of law being performed) hath barely
an estate for life. For, as the personal abilities of the
feoffee were originally presumed to be the immediate
or principal inducements to the feoffment, the feoffee’s
estate ought to be confined to his person, and subsist
only for his life ; unless the feoffer, by express provision
in the creation and constitution of the estate, hath
given it a longer continuance. These express provi¬
sions are indeed generally made } for this was for ages
the only conveyance, whereby our ancestors were wont
to create an estate in fee-simple, by giving the land to
the feoffee, to hold to him and his heirs for ever;
though it serves equally well to convey any other estate
of freehold.
But by the mere words of the deed the feoffment is
by no means perfected : there remains a very material
ceremony to be performed, called livery of seisin, with¬
out which the feoffee has but a mere estate at will. See
Seisin.
FER/E, an order of quadrupeds, belonging to the
class Mammalia. See Mammalia Index.
FERALIA, in antiquity, a festival observed among
the Romans on February 2ist, or, according to Ovid,
on the 17th of that month, in honour of the manes of
their deceased friends and relations.
^ arro derives the word from inferi, or from fero; on
account of a repast carried to the sepulchres of such as
the last offices were that day rendered to. Festus de¬
rives it from ferio, on account of the victims sacrificed.
Vol. VUE Part II. +
Vossius observes, that the Romans called death fera, Ferali*
“ cruel,” and that the word feralia might arise thence. U
—Macrobius, Saturn, lib. i. cap. 13. refers the origin Ferff-
of the ceremony to Numa Pompilius. Ovid, in his “■'v—-
Fasti, goes back as far as AEneas for its institution. He
adds, that on the same day a sacrifice was performed
to the goddess Muta, or Dumb ; and that the persons
who officiated were an old woman attended with a num¬
ber of young girls.
During the continuance of this festival, which lasted
eleven days, presents were made at the graves of the
deceased, marriages were forbidden, and the temples
of the gods shut up. While the ceremonies continued,
they imagined that the ghosts suffered no punishments
in hell, but that their tormentors allowed them to
wander round their tombs, and feast upon the meats
which their surviving friends had prepared for them.—
For a more particular account of the offerings and sa¬
crifices and feasts for the dead, see Inferije and Sili-
CERNIUM.
Sometimes at the feralia public feasts were given to
the people, at the tombs of the rich and great, by their
heirs or particular friends.
FER de Fourchette in Heraldry, a cross having
at each end a forked iron, like that formerly used by
soldiers to rest their muskets on. It differs from the
cross-fourche, the ends of which turn forked j whereas
this has that sort of fork fixed upon the square end.
See Heraldry.
Fer de Moulin, MUrinde, Inke de Moulin, in He¬
raldry, is a bearing supposed to represent the iron ink,
or ink of a mill, which sustains the moving millstone.
FERDINAND V. king of Spain, called the Ca¬
tholic, which title was continued to his successors. He
married Isabella of Castile, by which that kingdom was
united to the Spanish crown. This illustrious couple
laid the foundation of the future glory and power of
Spain. The conquest of Granada, and the discoveries
of Christopher Columbus, made this reign a celebrated
era in the history of Spain. He died in 1516, aged 63.
See (History of) Spain.
FERENTARII, in Roihan antiquity, were auxiliary
troops, lightly armed j their weapons being a sword,
bow, arrows, and a sling.
FERENTINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Hernici in Latium, which the Romans, after subdu¬
ing that nation, allowed to be governed by its own laws.
Now Feretino, an episcopal city in the Campagna di
Roma. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 41. 45.
FERENTUM or FoRENTUM, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of Apulia in Italy. Now Forenxa, in the
Basilicata of Naples.
FERETRIUS, a surname of Jupiter, a ferendo, be¬
cause he had assisted the Romans : or hferiendo, because
he had conquered their enemies under Romulus. He
had a temple at Rome built by Romulus. It was there
that the spoils called opima were always carried.
FERETRUM, among the Romans, the bier used
in carrying out the bodies of the dead, which duty
was performed by the nearest male relations of the de¬
ceased : thus, sons carried out their parents, brothers
their sisters, <5cc.
FERG, or Fergue, Francis Paul, a charming
landscape-painter, was born at Vienna in 1689, and
there learned the first principles of his art. He suc-
4 G cessively
FEB, [ 602 ] FEB
Fei-!’- cessively practised under Hans Graf, Orient, and 11-
ii* ele. This last, who was painter to the court ot bax-
Ferguson. invited him to Dresden to insert small figures in
' y   his ’landscapes. Ferg thence went into Lower Saxo¬
ny, and painted for the duke of Brunswick and for
the gallery of Salzdahl. From Germany he went to
London, where he might have lived in the highest
esteem and affluence, if, by an indiscreet marriage, he
had not been so effectually depressed, that he was ever
after involved in difficulties. The necessities which arose
from his domestic troubles compelled him to diminish
the prices of his paintings in order to procure an imme¬
diate support j and as those necessities increased, his
pictures were still more sunk in their price, though not
in their intrinsic value. By a series of misfortunes he
was overrun with debts, and to avoid the puisuit of
his creditors, he was constrained to secrete himself in
different parts of London. He died suddenly in the
street one night as he was returning from some friends,
about the year 173^? before he had attained his j^th
year; and left four children. This pleasing artist,
Mr Walpole observes, had formed a manner of his
own from various Flemish painters, though resembling
Poelemburg most in the enamelled softness and mellow¬
ness of his colouring; but his figures are greatly su¬
perior ; every part of them is sufficiently finished,
every action expressive. He painted small landscapes,
fairs, and rural meetings, with the most agreeable
truth ; his horses and cattle are not inferior to Wou-
vermans ; and his buildings and distances seem to owe
their respective softness to the intervening air, not to
the pencil. More faithful to nature than Denner, he
knew how to omit exactness, when the result of the
whole demands a less precision in parts. The greatest
part of his works are in London and Germany ; and
the price they now bear is the best proof of their real
merit. He also etched well with aquafortis ; and his
prints of that kind are generally esteemed by the cu¬
rious.
FERGUS, the name of three kings of Scotland.
See ( History of) Scotland.
FERGUSON, James, an eminent experimental
philosopher and mechanic, was born in Scotland, of
very poor parents. At an early age his extraordi¬
nary genius began to exert itself. He first learned to
read by overhearing his father teach his elder brother .
and he had made this acquisition before any one su¬
spected it. He soon discovered a peculiar taste for
mechanics, which first arose on seeing bis father use a
lever. He pursued this study a considerable length,
even while very young; and made a watch in wood¬
work, from having once seen one. As he had no in¬
structor, nor any help from books, every thing he
Earned had all the merit of an original discovery ; and
such, with infinite joy, he believed it to be. As soon
as his age would permit he went to service ; in which
he met with hardships which rendered his constitution
feeble through life. Whilst he was servant to a farmer
(whose goodness he acknowledges in the modest and
humble account of himself which he prefixed to his last
publication), he frequently contemplated the stars;
and began the study of astronomy, by laying down,
from his own observations only, a celestial globe. His
kind master, observing these marks of his ingenuity,
procured him the countenance and assistance ol his su-
2
periors. By their help and instructions, he went on Fcrpson,
gaining farther knowledge, and was sent to Edin-
burgh. There he began to take portraits; an em¬
ployment by which he supported himself and family
for several years, both in Scotland and England, whilst
he was pursuing more serious studies. In London he
first published some curious astronomical tables and cal¬
culations ; and afterwards gave public lectures in ex¬
perimental philosophy, which he repeated (by sub¬
scription) in most ot the principal towns in England,
with the highest marks of general approbation. He
was elected a fellow of the Royral Society, without pay¬
ing for admission (an honour scarcely ever conferred
on a native) ; and had a pension of 50I. per ann. given
him, unsolicited, by our gracious king, at his acces¬
sion, who had heard lectures from him, and frequent¬
ly sent for and conversed with him on curious topics.
He also received several presents from his majesty, the
patron of real merit. lo what a degree of considera¬
tion Mr Ferguson mounted by the strength of his na¬
tural genius, almost every one knows. He was uni¬
versally considered as at the head of astronomy and me¬
chanics in this nation of philosophers. And he might
justly be stiled self-taught, or rather heaven-taught;
for in his whole life he had not above half a-year’s in¬
struction at school. He was a man of the clearest
judgment and the most unwearied application to study ;
benevolent, meek, and innocent in his manners as a
child ; humble, courteous, and communicative ^instead
of pedantry, philosophy seemed to produce in him only
diffidence and urbanity,—a love for mankind and for
his Maker. His whole life was an example of resigna¬
tion and Christian piety. He might be said to be an
enthusiast in his. love of God, if religion, founded on
such substantial and enlightened grounds as his was,
could be styled enthusiasm. He died in 177^*
FERGUSON, Robert, a Scottish poet, who acquired a
considerable share of celebrity at a very early period of
life, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September
of which we are assured from unquestionable au¬
thority, although some have placed it in 1751. His
father’s name was William, who, as well as the son,
likewise paid court to the muses : but he wisely relin¬
quished the study of poetry for the more certain emolu¬
ments of trade and commerce, being employed in dif¬
ferent mercantile houses both in Edinburgh and Aber¬
deen. He was an accountant in the Linen Hall when
he died, but never acquired any thing like an indepen¬
dent fortune. .
The subject of the present sketch was of a weak anil
delicate constitution during infancy,—-indeed to such a
degree, that small hopes were entertained of his ever-
reaching the vears of manhood. Yet such were the
care and attention of his parents, that he was able to
attend an English school by the time he was six years
of age, when his progress was considered as very extra¬
ordinary. It was no less rapid at the high school of
Edinburgh, which he attended four years, acquiring a
competent knowledge of the Latin tongue with very
little labour or exertion. From that he went to the
grammar school of Dundee, and in two years after to
the university of St Andrews, which place his father
preferred to Edinburgh, because a gentleman of the
name of Ferguson had left two bursaries for the educa¬
tion of two boys of the same name.
F E R C 603 ] F E R
i > usoR. health was never impaired at any time by severe
.'study ; yet he kept alive at the university the opinion
which had been entertained of him while at school, and
he was decidedly the first mathematician of the same
standing. He was patronized by Dr Wilkie, professor
of natural philosophy, who was perhaps as much attach¬
ed to him for his poetical as his mathematical talents,
the doctor himself being a poet, and author of the Epi-
goniad. This kindness was repaid by Ferguson, on the
death of Dr Wilkie, by a beautiful eclogue to his me¬
mory, written in the Scottish dialect. A little before
he left the university, Ferguson had conceived the idea
of writing a tragedy on the death of Sir William Wal¬
lace, for which he had collected materials ; but as he
afterwards met with a work on the same subject, he
abandoned the design, after he had completed two acts.
His own reason fordoing so he thus expressed : “ What¬
ever I publish shall be original, and this tragedy might
be considered as a copy.”
He returned to Edinburgh when he had finished his
studies, without having fixed on any particular employ¬
ment; for although he was destined for the church by
his father, on his death he paid little attention to the
expostulations of his mother. He declined also the
study of physic, assigning this as a reason, that when
he read the description of diseases, he believed that
he felt the symptoms of them all in himself. He was
then induced to attempt the study of the law, in which,
as was natural to expect, he made no proficiency. He
seems to have turned a wishful eye to some sinecure
place, to obtain which he paid a visit to an uncle who
resided at Aberdeen, a man of literature and opulence,
hoping that through his influence he might be settled
in some place suited to his merit. In this rational hope
he was completely disappointed ; for although his uncle
shewed him every mark of attachment, his fondness de¬
cayed by degrees, and in six months he desired him in
an abrupt manner to leave his house, without attempt¬
ing to procure for him any kind of living. It would
perhaps be rash and uncandid to reprobate this conduct
of his uncle, whose penetration probably beheld, if not
the actual commission, at least the germinating seeds of
these too fashionable vices and follies into which he af¬
terwards plunged. We only give this as a conjecture
of our own ; but it seems to derive considerable counte¬
nance from the contrast between the manner in which
his uncle received him, and the nature 01 their sepaia-
tion. Be this as it may, the conduct of his uncle ope¬
rated powerfully on the mind of Ferguson, which, with
the fatigue of his journey back to Edinburgh, brought
on him a severe illness, on his recovery from which he
composed two elegies; one on the decay of friendship,
and the other against repining at fortune ; both which
were suggested by this adventure at Aberdeen. The
disappointment of his hopes, and the effect it produced
on his mind, are very evident from the following stanzas.
But, ah ! these youthful sportive hours are fled,
The scenes of jocund mirth are now no more ;
No healing slumbers ’tend my humble bed,
No friends condole the sorrows of the poor.
And what avail the thoughts of former joy ?
What comfort bring they in the adverse hour ?
Can they the canker-worm of care destroy,
Or brighten fortune’s discontented lour ?
So great were his necessities at this period, that he Ferguson,
copied papers in the commissary clerk’s office for so
much per sheet, which employment he soon left in dis¬
gust. So boundless was his wit, which was only equalled
by his good nature, modesty, and goodness of heart, that
all who knew him received him with affection : but his
powers of song and talents for mimicry often led him
into the company of the dissipated, whose example could
not fail of doing him essential injury, but who had nei¬
ther the power nor inclination to provide for him
through life. The irregularities into which he was thus
frequently led, often awakened upon him the dictates
of conscience; and the conversation of a minister who
understood his manner of life, made a deep impression
on his mind. In short, his remorse soon after assumed
the appearance of absolute despair. His sprightliness
entirely forsook him : but he gradually recovered from
his despondency, and his health was fully restored.
Soon after he cut his head so dreadfully in conse¬
quence of a fall, that from the loss of blood he became
delirious, in which condition he remained for some
months, till the want of sleep and perpetual talking put
a period to his existence on the 16th of October 1774.
He was buried in the Canongate churchyard. Over
his grave his admirer Robert Burns has since erected a
monument. Had he joined prudence to his bright ge¬
nius and good heart, he w'ould have no doubt risen to
distinguished eminence in the literary world. Elis
poems in the Scottish dialect have been universally ad¬
mired by his countrymen ; and when we reflect that
they were composed in a round of dissipation, they must
he considered as unequivocal evidences of his genius
and taste.
Ferguson, Adam, LL. D. a late Scottish philoso¬
pher and historian. See Supplement.
FERINE, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days
upon which they abstained from wrork. Proclamation
was generally made by the herald, by command of the
Hex Sacrorum or Flaniines, that all should abstain from
business; and whoever transgressed the order was se¬
verely fined.—The ferise were of two kinds, public and
private.
The public feriae were fourfold. 1. Stativce, which
were kept as public feasts by the whole city upon cer¬
tain immoveable days appointed by their kalendar ;—
such were the Compitalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, Sfc.
2. Ferice Conceptivce, which were moveable feasts, the
days for the celebration of which were fixed by the
magistrates or priests ; of this sort were the Ferice La-
tince, Paganalia, Compitalia, &c. which happened every
year, but the days for keeping them were left to the
discretion of the magistrates or priests. 3. Ferice Im-
perativee, which were fixed and instituted by the mere
command of consuls, praetors, dictators, upon the gain¬
ing of some victory or other fortunate event. 4. Is[un-
dince. See the articles NundiNjE, Agonalia, Car¬
mentalia, &c.
Feri
The private feriae were holidays observed by parti¬
cular persons or families on several accounts, as birth¬
days, funerals, &c. The feriae belonged to, and were
one division of the dies festi. See Festi.
Feriie Latince, a festival at which a white bull was
sacrificed, and the Latin and Roman towns provided
each a set quantity of meat, wine, and fruits; and du¬
ring the celebration, the Romans and Latins swore
4 G 2 ternal
F E R
[ 604 ]
FEE
eternal fiiendsliip to each other, taking home apiece
of the victim to every town. The festival was insti¬
tuted by Tarquinius Superbus when he overcame the
Tuscans and made a league with the Latins, propos¬
ing to build a common temple to Jupiter Latialis, at
which both nations might meet and offer sacrifices for
their common safety. At first the solemnity lasted but
one day, but it was at different times extended to ten.
It was held on the Alban mount, and celebrated with
chariot races at the Capitol, where the victor was treat¬
ed with a large draught of wormwood drink.
FERIA, in the Romish breviary, is applied to the
several days of the week; thus Monday is iheferia se-
cuncla, Tuesday the feria tertia; though these days are
not working days, but holidays. The occasion of this
was, that the first Christians were used to keep the
Easter week holy, calling Sunday the prima feria, &c.
whence the term feria was given to the days of every
week. But besides these, they have extraordinary
ferise, viz. the three last days of Passion week, the
two following Easter day, and the second feriae of Ro-
gation. _ ...
FERIANA, the ancient city of Thala in Africa,
taken and destroyed by Metellus in the war with Ju-
gurtha. It was visited by Mr Bruce in his late travels
through Africa, who expected to have found many
magnificent ruins in the place, but was disappointed.
The only remarkable objects he met with were the baths,
which are excessively warm. These are without the
town, and flow from a fountain named El Tarmid.
Notwithstanding the excessive heat of its water, the
fountain is not destitute of fishes. They are of the
shape of a gudgeon, about four inches in length ; and
lie supposed that there might have been about five or
six dozen of them in the pool. On trying the water
with a thermometer, he found the heat so great, that
he was surprised the fish were not boiled in it. That
fish should exist in this degree of heat, is very surpris¬
ing ; but it seems no less wonderful that Mr Bruce,
while standing naked in such water, should leisurely
make observations on its heat, without suspecting that
he himself would be boiled by continuing there. We
have to regret that the accidental wetting of the leaf
on which he wrote down his remarks has deprived the
public of the knowledge of the precise degree to which
the thermometer is raised by this water. The fish are
said to go down the stream to some distance during the
day, and to return to the spring or warmest part at night.
FERMANAGH, a connty of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Ulster ; bounded by Cavan on the south, Tir-
Oen on the north and north-east, by Tyrconnel on
the north-west, Leitrim on the south-west, and Mona¬
ghan on the west. It is 38 miles long, and 24 broad.
A great part of it is taken up with bogs j and the
great lake called Lough-Earne, which is near 20 miles I’ernia.
in length and in some places 14 in breadth, diversified nagtt
with upwards of 300 islands, most of them well wood- perrJ|nta
ed, inhabited, and covered with cattle. It abounds tion '
also with great variety of fish, such as huge pike, large v.
bream, roach, eels, trout, and salmon. The water of
the lake in some places is said to have a particular soft¬
ness and sliminess, that bleaches linen much sooner
than could be done by other water. In one part of the
country are marble rocks 50 or 60 feet high. This
county sends three members to parliament, viz. two for
the shire, and one for Inniskillen the capital. See
Fermanagh, Supplement.
FERMAT, Petek de, an eminent French mathe¬
matician. See Supplement.
FERMENT, any body which being applied to an¬
other, produces fermentation.
Ferments are either matters already in the act of fer¬
mentation, or that soon run into this act. Of the first
kind are the flowers of wine, yeast, fermenting beer,
or fermenting wine, &c. and of the second are the new
expressed vegetable juices of summer fruit.
Among distillers, ferments are all those bodies which,
when added to the liquor, only correct some fault,
therein, and, by removing some obstacle to fermenta¬
tion, forward it by secondary means : as also such as,
being added in time of fermentation, make the liquor
yield a larger proportion of spirit, and give it a finer
flavour.
FERMENTATION, maybe defined a sensible in¬
ternal motion of the constituent particles of a moist,
fluid, mixed or compound body ; by the continuance
of which motion, these particles are gradually removed
from their former situation or combination, and again,
after some visible separation is made, joined together
in a different order and arrangement, so that a new
compound is formed, having qualities very sensibly dif¬
ferent from those of the original fluid.
Fermentation, properly so called, is confined to the
vegetable and animal kingdoms $ for the effervescences
between acids and alkalies, however much they may
resemble the fermentation of vinous liquors, are never¬
theless exceedingly different. It is divided into three
kinds; or rather, there are three different stages of it,
viz. the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefactive. To
these has been added a fourth, the panary, or the fer¬
mentation of bread. Of the first, vegetables alone are
‘ susceptible $ the flesh of young animals is in some
slight degree susceptible of the second (a) 5 but animal
substances are particularly susceptible of the third, which
vegetables do not so easily fall into without previously
undergoing the first and second. The produce of the
first stage is wine, or some other vinous liquor ; of the
second, vinegar; and of the third, ammonia or volatile al-
(a) Under the article China, N° 115. a fact is mentioned which seems to show that animal substances are
likewise capable of the vinous fermentation ; viz. that the Chinese make use of a certain liquor called lamb wtne,
and likewise that they use a kind of spirit distilled from sheep's fesh. This is related on the credit of M. Grosiei.
bpt as he does not mention the particulars of the process, we are at liberty to suppose that the flesh of these
animals has been mixed with rice, or some other ingredients naturally capable of producing a vinous liquor; so
that instead of contributing any thing to the fermentation in question, they may in reality be detrimental, and
furnish only that strong and disagreeable smell complained of in the liquid.
FEE, [ 605 ] FEE
amenta- kali. For the explanation of this process, according
tion to the principles of modern chemistry, see Chemistry
11 , Index ; and for the more general details of the process,
Ftrnelius. see £REW1NGj Malting, and VlNEGAR-;w«&mg.
FERN, Filix. See Filices, Botany Index.
Fern is very common in dry and barren places. It
is one of the worst weeds for lands, and very hard to
destroy where it has any thing of a deep soil to root in.
In some grounds, the roots of it are found to the depth
of eight feet. One of the most effectual ways to de¬
stroy it is often mowing the grass j and if the field is
ploughed up, plentifully dunging thereof is very good :
but the most certain remedy for it is urine. However,
fern, cut while the sap is in it, and left to rot upon the
ground, is a very great improver of land.
In some places of the north, the inhabitants mow it
green ; and, burning it to ashes, make those ashes up
into balls, with a little water. They then dry them
in the sun, and make use of them to clean their linen
with} looking upon it to be near as good as soap for
that purpose.
Male Fern. See Polypodium, Botany Index.
Female Fern. See Pteris, Botany Index.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an island in the
Pacific ocean. See Juan Fernandes.
FERNELIUS, John, physician to Henry II. king
of France, was born in Picardy, in the latter end of
the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century.
Being sent to Paris to study rhetoric and philosophy,
he applied himself in a most intense manner. All
other pleasure was insipid to him. He cared neither
for play nor for walking, nor for entertainments, nor
even for conversation. He read Cicero, Plato, and
Aristotle. The reading of Cicero procured him this
advantage, that the lectures he read on philosophical
subjects were as eloquent as those of the other masters
were barbarous at that time. He also applied himself
very earnestly to the mathematics. This continual
study drew upon him a long fit of sickness, which
obliged him to leave Paris. On his recovery, he return¬
ed thither with a design to study physic ; but before he
applied himself entirely to it, he taught philosophy in
the college of St Barbara. After this, he spent four
years in the study of physic; and taking a doctor’s de¬
gree, confined himself to his closet, in order to read
the best authors, and to improve himself in the mathe¬
matics $ that is, as far as the business of his profession
would sufi’er him. Never was a man more diligent than
Fernel. He used to rise at four o’clock in the morn¬
ing, and studied till it was time either to read lectures
or to visit patients. He then examined the. urine that
was brought him j for this was the method of those
times, with regard to the poor people, who did not send
for the physician. Coming home to dine, he shut him¬
self up among his books till they called him down to
table. Rising from table, he returned to his study,
which he did not leave without necessary occasions.
Coming home at night, he did just as at noon : he staid
among his books till they called him to supper ; re¬
turned to them the moment he had supped ; and did
not leave them till II o’clock, when he went to bed.
In the course of these studies he contrived mathema¬
tical instruments, and was at great charges in making
them. But his wife murmuring at the expence, he
dismissed his instrument-makers, and applied himself in
good earnest to practise physic. But as visiting pa- I'cmeliut,
tients did not employ his whole time, he read public Ferrara,
lectures upon Hippocrates and Galen. This soon gain- '» -J
ed him a great reputation through Fiance and in fo¬
reign countries. His business increasing, he left olF
reading lectures $ but as nothing could make him cease
to study in private, he spent all the hours he could
spare in composing a work of physic, entitled Pfnjsio-
logia, which was soon after published. He W'as pre¬
vailed with to read lectures upon this new work, which
he did for three years : and undertaking another work
which he published, De vence sect lone, he laid himself
under the necessity of reading lectures some years
longer, in order to explain this new book to the youth.
While he was thus employed, he was sent for to court,
in order to try whether he could cure a lady, whose
recovery was despaired of. He was so happy as to cure
her j which was the first cause of that esteem which
Henry II. who was then but dauphin, and was in love
with that lady, conceived for him. This prince offered
him, even then, the place of first physician to him j but
Fernel, who infinitely preferred his studies to the hurry
of a court, would not accept the employment. When
Henry came to the throne, he renewed his entreaties:
but Fernel represented that the honour which was of¬
fered him was due, for several reasons, and as an he¬
reditary right, to the late king’s physician $ and that,
as for himself, he wanted some time to make experi¬
ments concerning several discoveries he had made
relating to physic. The king admitted this: but as
soon as Francis I’s. physician died, Fernel was obliged
to go and fill his place at Henry II.’s court. And
here just the contrary of what he dreaded came to pass^j
for he enjoyed more rest and more leisure at court than
he had done at Paris ; and he might have considered
the court as an agreeable retirement, had it not been
for the journey which the new civil war obliged the
king to take. He died in 155&, leaving behind him
a great many works, besides what have been mention¬
ed j as, De abdilis rerum causis, seven books on Pa¬
thology, a book on Remedies, &c. They have been
printed several times, with his life prefixed, written by
William Plantius his disciple.
FERONIA, the Pagan goddess of woods and orch¬
ards. This deity took her name from the town Fero
nia, situated at the foot of Mount Soracte in Italy,
where was a wood and temple consecrated to her.
That town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in the
catalogue of Turnus’s forces. Strabo relates, that
those who sacrificed to this goddess, walked barefoot
upon burning coals, without being hurt. She was
the guardian deity of freed men, who receive their cap
of liberty at her temple.
FERRARA, a city of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, capital of a duchy of the same name. It is seated
in an agreeable and fertile plain j watered by the river
Po, which is a defence on one side j and on the other
is encompassed by a strong wall and deep broad ditches
full of water, as well as by a good citadel, finished by
Pope Paul. In the middle of the city is a magnificent
castle, which was formerly the palace of the dukes, and
is now not the least ornament of Ferrara. It is quite
surrounded with water j and the arsenal, which is near
it, deserves the observation of travellers. Over against
the palace is the duke’s garden j with a park, called
Belvidere
FEB,
[ 606 ]
FEB
Ferrara Bcfvidere on account of its beauty. _ Beliincl tbe gai-
I! den there is a palace, built with white marble, called
Ferrars. t!ie pa/uCC of diamonds, because all the stonesare cut
 ' diamond fashion. Ferrara had formerly a considerable
trade ; but it is now much deserted. It is said to con¬
tain 24,000 inhabitants. The fortifications are now
neglected, and the ancient university is dwindled into a
wretched college of the Jesuits. However, in 1755, it
was advanced to an archbishopric by 1 ope Clement 5vII.
The country about it is so marshy,.that a shower or two
of rain renders the roads almost impassable. It is 24
miles north-east of Bologna, 38 north-west of Kavenna,
70 north-by-west of Florence, and 190 north of Rome.
Murat’s army was defeated here in 1815 by the Au¬
strians. E. Long. 12. 14. N. Eat. 44. 36.
Ferrara, the duchy of 5 a province in the pope’s
territory, bounded on the north by the Austrian terri¬
tories, on the west by the duchies of Mantua and Mi-
randola, on the south by the Bolognese and by Ro¬
magna, of which it was formerly a part, and on the
east by the gulf of Venice. It is 50 miles in length,
and 43 in breadth along the coast *, hut grows narrower
and narrower towards the Mantuan. This country is
•almost surrounded by the branches of the Po, which
often overflow the country, and form the great morass
of Comachio, which has a bad effect on the an. It is
entire satisfaction of the court. This is all we know
of Mr Ferrars 5 except that he died in 1579, at Flam'
stead in Hertfordshire, and was buried in the parish
church. He is not less celebrated for his valour in the
field, than for his other accomplishments as a gentle¬
man and a scholar. He wrote, 1. History of the Reign
of Queen Mary j published in Grafton’s chronicle,
1569, fol. 2. Six tragedies, or dramatic poems j pub¬
lished in a book called the Mirror for Magistrates,
first printed in 1559, afterwards in 1587, and again
in 1610.
FERRET. See Mustela; Mammalia Index.
Ferrets, among glassmakers, the iron with which
the workmen try the melted metal, to see if it be fit to
work.—It is also used for those irons which make the
rings at the mouth of the bottles.
FERRETTO, in glass-making, a substance which
serves to colour glass.
This is made by a simple calcination of copper, but
it serves for several colours : there are two ways of ma¬
king it. The first is this. Take thin plates of copper,
and lay them on a layer of powdered brimstone, in the
bottom of a crucible •, over these lay more brimstone,
and over that another layer of the plates, and so on al¬
ternately till the pot is full. Cover the pot, lute it well,
place it in a wind furnace, and make a strong fire about
Fcrrars
Ferro.
thin of people, and indifferently cultivated, though fit it for two hours. When it is taken out and cooled, the
for corn pulse and hemp. The Po and the lake of copper will be found so calcined, that it may be crumb-
Comachio yield a large quantity of fish. Ferrara is the led to pieces between the fingers like a friable earth,
capital town • besides which there are Arano, Coma- It will be of a reddish, and, in some parts, of a blackish
chio. Magnavacca, Belriguardo, Cento, Buendeno, and colour. This must be powdered and sifted fine for use.
Fidierola This duchy was formerly possessed by the Another way of making ferretto is as follows. Make
house of Este But the pope took possession of it in a number of stratifications of plates of copper and white
j ho8 The part of it beyond the Po was annexed to vitriol alternately in a crucible j which place on the
Lombardv in 181 c. tb6 fl00r °f fbe glass furnace near the eye 5 and let it
FERRARI A a genus of plants, belonging to the stand there three days j then take it out, and make a
gynandria class- and in the natural method ranking new stratification with more fresh vitriol ; calcine again
under the sixth order, Ensatce. See Botany Index.
FERRARS, George, a lawyer, poet, historian, and
accomplished gentleman, was descended from an an¬
cient family in Hertfordshire, and born about the year
1310, in a village near St Alban's. He was educat¬
ed at Oxford, and thence removed to Lincoln’s Inn j
as before. Repeat this operation six times, and a most
valuable ferretto will be obtained.
FERRO, (W. Long. 19. N. Lat. 28.), the most
westerly of the Canary islands, near the African coast,
where the first meridian was lately fixed in most maps *,
but now, the geographers of almost every kingdom make
where applying with uncommon diligence to the study thqir respective capitals the first meiidian, as we do Lon
of the law, he was soon distinguished for his elocutioh don. It is a dry and barren spot, affording no water
at the bar. Cromwell, earl of Essex, the great minister
of Henry VIII. introduced him to the king, who em¬
ployed him as his menial servant, and in I535> gave
him a grant of tbe manor of Flamstead, in his native
county. This is supposed to have been a profitable
estate ; nevertheless, Mr Ferrars being a gay courtier,
and probably an expensive man, about seven years af¬
ter was taken to execution by a sherifi’s officer for a
debt of 200 merks, and lodged in the compter. Be¬
ing at this time member for Plymouth, the house of
commons immediately interfered,|and he soon obtained
his liberty. He continued in favour with the king to
the end of his reign, and in that of Edward VI. he
attended the lord protector Somerset as a commission¬
er of the army in his expedition to Scotland in 1548.
In the same reign, the young king being then at
Greenwich, Mr Ferrars was proclaimed lord of misrule,
that is, prince of sports and pastimes ; which office he
discharged during 12 days, in Christmas holidays, to the
except what is supplied in a very surprising manner by
a tree which grows in these islands, called the Foun¬
tain-2V<?e.j
Ferro, Faro, or Feroe Islands; a cluster of little
islands lying in the Northern ocean, between 6i° 15',
and 62° 21' N. Lat. and between 50 and 8° W.
Long. They belong to Denmark. There are 17 which
are habitable; each of which is a lofty mountain aris¬
ing out-of the waves, divided from tbe others by deep
and rapid currents. Some of them are deeply indented
with secure harbours j Providence seeming to have fa¬
voured mankind with the safest retreats in the most
boisterous seas. All are very steep, and most of them
faced with most tremendous precipices. The surface of
the mountains consists of a shallow soil of remarkable
fertility; for barley, the only corn sown here, yields
above 20 for one j and the grass affords abundant pas¬
turage for sheep. The exports are, salted mutton and
tallow, goose quills, feathers, and eider down j and,
by
F E R [ 607 ] F E R
Ferro. V ^,e 'n<^ustI'y the inhabitants, knit woollen waist-
j coats, caps, and stockings. No trees beyond the size
of juniper or stunted willows will grow here, nor are any
wild quadrupeds to be met with except rats and mice,
originally escaped from the shipping. Vast quantities
of sea fowl frequent the rocks 5 and the taking of them
furnishes a very perilous employment to the natives, as
described under the article BiRD-Catching.
The sea which surrounds these islands is extremely
turbulent. The tides vary greatly on the western and
eastern sides. On the first, where is received the un¬
interrupted flood of the ocean from the remote Green¬
land, the tide rises seven fathoms ; on the eastern side
it rises only three. Dreadful whirlwinds, called by the
Danes oes, agitate the sea to a strange degree j catch
up a vast quantity of water, so as to leave a great tem¬
porary chasm in the spot on which it falls, and carries
away with it, to an amazing distance, any fishes which
may happen to be within the reach of its fury. Thus
great shoals of herrings have been found on the highest
mountains of Feroe. It is equally resistless on land j
tearing up trees, stones, and animals, and carrying them
to very distant places.
Among the numerous whirlpools of these seas, that
of Suderoe, near the island of the same name, is the
most noted. It is occasioned by a crater 61 fathoms
in depth in the centre, and from 50 to 55 on the sides.
The water forms four fierce circumgirations. The
point they begin at is on the side of a large bason,
where commences a range of rocks running spirally
and terminating at the verge of the crater. This range
is extremely rugged, and covered with water from the
depth of 12 to 8 fathoms only. It forms four equi¬
distant wreaths with a channel from 35 to 20 fathoms
in depth between each. On the outside beyond that
depth, the sea suddenly sinks to 80 and 90. On the
south border of the bason is a lofty rock, called Sumboe
Mutik, noted for the multitude of birds which frequent
it. On one side, the water is only 3 or 4 fathoms deep;
on the other 15. The danger at most times, especially
in storms, is very great. Ships are irresistibly drawn
in ; the rudder loses its power; and the waves beat as
high as the masts ; so that an escape is almost miracu¬
lous ; yet at the reflux, and in very still weather, the
inhabitants will venture in boats for the sake of fishing.
Innumerable flocks of aquatic birds are continualiy
to be seen perched on the extremities of the rocks,
which make their nests in the clefts above the preci¬
pices ; and vast numbers of them may be killed by the
discharge of a single musket, and the rest will not stir,
so little are they accustomed to be disturbed. One of
the islands contains but a single habitation, which can
be visited by the curate only in summer. In the
southern parts of these islands coal-mines were discover¬
ed about the beginning of the eighteenth century, and
trials of the coals were only made in 1777, when
it was judged that working them would be of sufficient
interest and consequence. The quarry was determined
by a commissary to be about 12,000 feet long, 4000
broad on a medium, and five feet deep ; but so great
did the difficulty of working it appear, that the idea
was abandoned. The coals were analyzed by the cele¬
brated professor Kratzenstein of Copenhagen, who
found that they were superior to those of England, as
burning longer, and giving a more intense heat, but
not so easily kindled. A trial of them has been made Ferro
in Scotland, and they are allowed to be of a superior []
quality. It is a favourable circumstance to the expor- Fertility,
tation of the produce of those islands, that their liar- v—-—'
hours are never frozen, and navigation of consequence
could meet with no interruption during the winter.
The measles and smallpox never attack the inhabi¬
tants but when they are brought there by strangers,
when the ravages they make are almost as terrible
as those of the pestilence ; but for 70 years back they
have not been subjected to this dreadful visitation. The
air is temperate, and neither too hot in summer, nor
extremely cold in winter. There are frequent mists on
these islands, but they do not seem to be injurious to
the health of the inhabitants. The wind often blows
with such violence, that the people on horseback are
obliged to dismount at its approach, which is announced
by a whistling across the rocks ; and persons on foot
must throw themselves flat on their face, to avoid the
dreadful consequences of the irresistible hurricane.
So sudden is its approach at some times, that a burning
candle might be carried in the open air but a few se¬
conds before it. There is seldom any thunder on these
islands; hut when the phenomenon does happen, its
awful and incessant roar among the rocks is truly alarm¬
ing. Potatoes, the cultivation of which is rapidly ad¬
vancing, thrive well, and the same is the case with ra¬
dishes and turnips. Corn is not much cultivated, which
would require excessive labour in a country so moun¬
tainous, and the spring fishery requires all the hands
that can be spared. Trees cannot be made to grow
upon them, and of consequence there is no wood.
The number of inhabitants amounted to 5209 in 1812,
and they are in general well made, with fair complexions,
and their whiteness is very seldom impaired by the in¬
fluence of the sun. They are not deficient in under¬
standing; and although phlegmatic, yet they are benevo¬
lent and hospitable, and are seldom known to quarrel.
They are fond of brandy, and yet it is said that they
are very rarely seen in a state of intoxication. They
are frugal and upright, yet extremely credulous, and
much addicted to superstitious practices. There are no
schools among them, as parents educate their own chil¬
dren, and their knowledge of consequence is very cir¬
cumscribed. They abound in skilful players at chess,
but are wholly unacquainted with instruments of music,
and dance to the sound of the voice. See Faroe,
Supplement.
FERIIOL, a sea port town in Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Gallicia, seated on a bay of the Atlantic
ocean. It has a good harbour, and is frequented by
the Spanish fleet in time of war. W. Long. 8. 46.
N. Lat. 43. 26.
FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron,
or which contains particles of that metal.
FERRUGO, Rust, or oxide of iron. See Iron,
Oxide of. Chemistry Index.
FERRUM, Iron. See Iron, Chemistry Index.
FERRY, a liberty by prescription, or by the king’s
grant, to have a boat for passage, on a frith or river,
for carrying passengers, horses, &c. over the same for
a reasonable toll.
FERTILITY, that quality which denominates a
thing fruitful or prolific.
Nothing can produce fertility in either sex, but what
promotes
verses.
FES [
Fertility promotes perhaps health ; nothing but good hlopd, spi-
|1 rits, and perfect animal functions, that is, high health,
Fcsceuiune can beget perfect fecundity j and therefore, all means
an(l medicines, all nostrums-and specifics, to procure
' fertility, different from those which procure good blood
and spirits, are arrant quackery. Dr Cheyne says, that
ivater-diinking males are very rarely infertile ; and
that, if any thing in nature can prevent infertility, and
bring fine children, it is a milk and seed diet persever¬
ed in by both parents.
To increase the fertility of vegetables, says Lord Ba¬
con, we must not only increase the vigour of the earth
and of the plant, but also preserve what would other¬
wise be lost: whence he infers that there is much
saved by setting, in comparison of sowing. It is re¬
ported, continues he, that if nitre be mixed with water
to the thickness of honey, and after a vine is cut, the
bud be anointed therewith, it will sprout within eight
days. If the experiment be true, the cause may be in
the opening of the bud, and contiguous parts, by the
spirit of the nitre ; for nitre is the life of vegetables.
‘ How far this may be true, is not perhaps sufficiently
shown, notwithstanding the experiments of Sir Kenelm
Bieby and M. Homberg. Consult Mr Evelyn’s Syl-
vy,~ the Philosophical Transactions, the French Me¬
moirs, and Dr Stahl’s Philosophical Principles of Che¬
mistry ; but a proper set of accurate experiments seems
still wanting in this view.
FERULA, a little wooden pallet or slice, reputed
the schoolmaster’s sceptre, wherewith he chastises the
boys by striking them on the palms of the hand. The
word is Latin, and has also been used to denote the
prelate’s crosier and staff. It is supposed to be formed
of the Latin ferire, “ to strike.” Under the eastern
empire, the ferula was the emperor’s sceptre, as is seen
on divers medals: it consists of a long stem or shank,
and a iiat square head. The use of the ferula is very
ancient among the Greeks, who used to call their prin¬
ces q. d. “ ferula-bearers.”
In the ancient eastern church, ferula or narthex sig¬
nified a place separated from the church; wherein
the penitents or the catechumens of the second order,
called auseultantes, u>t(>oct/u.6iTM6i, were kept, as not being
allowed to enter the church j whence the name of the
place, the persons therein being under penance or dis¬
cipline : sub ferula erant ecclesia.
Ferula, Fennel-giant, a genus of plants belonging
to the pentandria class, and in the natural method
ranking under the 45th order, Unibellatce. See Bota¬
ny Index. The drug assaloetida is obtained from a spe¬
cies of ferula.
FESCENNIA, or Fescennium, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of Etruria, above Falerii j where the
Fescennine verses were first invented. Now Galese, in
the Ecclesiastical State, near the Tiber.
FESCENNINE verses, in antiquity, were a kind
of satirical verses, full of wanton and obscene expres¬
sions, sung or rehearsed by the company, with many
indecent gestures and dances, at'the solemnization of a
marriage among the Romans ; (Hor. lib. v. ep. i. 145.).
The word is borrowed, according to Macrobius, from
facinum, “ a charm 5” the people taking such songs
to be proper to drive away witches, or prevent their
effect; but its more probable origin is from Fescen-
3
608 ]
F E T
mum, a city of Campania, where such verses were firstTescennlti
used.
FESSE, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable
ordinaries. See Heraldry.  
Fesse Point, is the exact centre of the escutcheon.
See Point.
Fesse Ways, or in Fesse, denotes any thing borne
after the manner of a fesse; that is, in a rank across
the middle of the shield.
Party per Fesse, implies a parting across the middle
of the shield, from side to side, through the fesse point.
FESTI DIES, in Roman antiquity, certain days in
the year devoted to the honour of the gods.
Numa, when he distributed the year into 12 months,
divided the same into the dies festi, dies profesti, and
dies intercisi.
The festi were again divided into days of sacrifices,
banquets, games, and feriae. See Ferine.
The profesti were those days allowed to men for the
administration of their affairs, whether of a public or
private nature: these are divided into fasti, comitia-
les, &c. See Fasti, Comitiales, &c.
The intercisi were days common both to gods and
men, some parts of which were allotted to the service
of the one, and some to that of the other.
FESTINO, in Logic, the third mood of the second
figure of the syllogism, the first proposition whereof is
an universal negative, the second a particular affirma¬
tive, and the third a particular negative ; as in the fol¬
lowing example:
FES No bad man can be happy.
TI Some rich men are bad men.
NO Ergo, Some rich men are not happy.
FESTIVAL, a time of feasting. See Feast.—
The term is particularly applied to anniversary days of
civil or religious joy.
FESTOON, in Architecture and Sculpture, &c. an
ornament in form of a garland of flowers, fruits, and
leaves, intermixed or twisted together.
It is in the form of a string or collar, somewhat big¬
ger in the middle, where it falls down in an arch; be¬
ing extended by the two ends, the extremities of which
hang down perpendicularly.
Festoons are now chiefly used in friezes, and other
vacant places which want to be filled up and adorned ;
being done in imitation of the long clusters of flowers,
which the ancients placed on the doors of their temples
and houses on festival occasions.
FESTUCA, Fescue Grass, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria class, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 34th order, Gramina. See
Botany and Agriculture Index.
FESTUS PompEIUS, a celebrated grammarian of
antiquity, who abridged a work of Verrius Flaccus, De
Significatione Verborum; but took such liberties in ca¬
stration and criticising, as, Gerard Vossius observes, are
not favourable to the reputation of his author. A com¬
plete edition of his Fragments was published by M.
Dacier in 1681, for the use of the Dauphin. Scaliger
says, that Festus is an author of great use to those who
would attain the Latin tongue with accuracy.
FETLOCK, in the manege, a tuft of hair growing
behind the pastern joint of many horses ; for those of a
low size have scarce anv such tuft.
FETTI,
verses
Fetlock,
F E V [ 609 ] FEZ
|.elt2 FETTI, Domenico, an eminent painter in the
j| style of Julio Romano, was born at Rome in 1589,
|-JeTersliam. and educated under Ludovico Civoli of Florence. He
’ painted but little for churches, but excelled in history :
his pictures are much sought after, and are scarce.—
He abandoned himself to disorderly courses 5 and put
an end to his life by excesses, in the 35th year of
his age.
FETUS. See Foetus.
FEUD, in our ancient customs is used for a capital
quarrel or enmity, not to be satisfied but with the death
of the enemy : and thence usually called deadly feud.—
Feud, called also feida, and faida, in the original Ger¬
man, signifies guerran, i. e. helium, “ war.” Lambert
writes it feeth, and saith it signifies capitalis inimicitia,
or “ implacable hatred.”
In Scotland, and the north of England, feud is par¬
ticularly used for a combination of kindred, to revenge
the death of any of their blood, against the killer and
all his race, or any other great enemy.
Feud fFeoda'), the same with Fief, or Fee. See
Feodal System.
FEUDAL, or Feodal, of or belonging to a feud
or fee. See Feodal.
FEUDATORY, or Feodatory, a tenant who for¬
merly held his estate by feodal service. See Feodal
Tenure.
FEU-duty, in Scots Law, is the annual rent or duty
which a vassal, by the tenor of his right, becomes bound
to pay his superior.
FEU~Holding, in Scots Law, is that particular tenure
by which a vassal is taken bound to pay an annual rent
or feu-duty to his superior.
FEVER. See Medicine Index.
The ancients deified the diseases, as well as the
passions and affections of men. Virgil places them in
the entrance into hell, JEn. vi. 273. Among these
Fever had a temple on Mount Palatine, and two o-
ther parts of ancient Rome ; and there is still extant
an inscription to this goddess. FEBRI. DIV^F,.
FEBRI. SANCTtE:. FEBRI. MAGN^E. CA¬
MILLA. AMATA. PRO. FILIO. MALE. AF-
FECTO.
Fever, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
FEVERFEW. See Matricaria, Botany In¬
dex.
FEVERSHAM, a town of the county of Kent in
England, situated on a branch of the river Thames,
which is navigable for hoys. It was a royal demesne
A. D. 811, and called in Kenulf’s charter the King's
little Town, though it is now a large one. It was inha¬
bited by the Britons long before the invasion of Cae¬
sar. In 903, King Athelstan held a great council
here. King Stephen erected a stately abbey, 1147,
whose abbots sat in parliament j and he was buried in
it, together with Maud his queen, and Eustace his
son j but of this building, two mean gate-houses are
all that now remain. The town was first incorporated
by the name of the barons of Feversham 5 afterwards
by Henry VIII. with the title of the mayor and com¬
monalty ; and lastly, by that of the mayor and jurats
and commonalty. It contained 3655 inhabitants in 1811,
and consists chiefly of two long broad streets, with a
market-house in the centre, built 1574. Its ancient
church was rebuilt in I7;4, at the expence of 2300I.
Vol. VIII. Part IL f
but was originally built in Edward IPs reign. There Feversham
is a free grammar school in this place, built and en- H
dowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1582; also two charity Fez
schools. It is a member of the cinque-port of Dover, v
and has a manufactory of gunpowder. The London
markets are supplied from hence with abundance of
apples and cherries, and the best oysters for stewing.
These last were at one time carried away in such quan¬
tities by the Dutch, that many men and boats were
employed in the winter to dredge for them ; and it is
said they carried home as many as amounted to above
2000I. a-year. The fishermen admit none to take up
their freedom but married men.
FEMLDEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia class, and in the natural method ranking under
the 54th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany Index.
FEVRE, Tanegui le, of Caen in Normandy, born
in 1615, was an excellent scholar in Greek and Roman
learning. Cardinal de Richelieu gave him a pension of
2000 livres to inspect all the works published at the
Louvre, and designed to have made him principal of
a college he was about to erect at Richelieu. But the
cardinal’s death cut off his hopes j and Cardinal Ma¬
zarine having no great relish for learning, his pension
was ill paid. Some time after the marquis de Fran-
cier, governor of Langres, took him along with him
to his government, and there he embraced the Prote¬
stant religion ; after which he was invited to Saumur,
where he was chosen Greek professor. He there
taught with extraordinary reputation. Young men
were sent to him from all the provinces in the king¬
dom, and even from foreign countries, while divines
and professors themselves gloried in attending his lec¬
tures. He was preparing to go to Heidelberg, whi¬
ther he was invited by the prince Palatine, when he
died, aged 57. He wrote, 1. Notes on Anacreon,
Lucretius, Longinus, Phaedrus, Justin, Terence, Vir¬
gil, Horace, &c. 2. A short account of the lives of
the Greek poets. 3. Two volumes of letters : and
many other works.
Fevre, Claud le, an eminent French painter, was
born at Fountainbleau in 1633, and studied ingbe pa¬
lace there, and then at Paris under Le Sueur and Le
Brun 5 the latter of whom advised him to adhere to
portraits, for which he had a particular talent, and in
his style equalled the best masters of that country. He
died in England in 1675, aged 42.
FEZ, the capital of a kingdom of the same name in
Barbary, in Africa. It is described as a very large place,
surrounded with high walls, within which there are hills
and valleys, only the middle being level and flat. The
river which runs through the city, is divided into two
streams, from which canals are cut into every part of
the town : so that the mosques, colleges, palaces, and
the houses ol great men, are amply supplied with wa¬
ter. They have generally square marble basons in the
middle of the court ol their houses, which are supplied
with water by marble pipes that pass through the
walls. They constantly run over, and the stream returns
back into the street, and so into the river. The houses
are built with brick or stone ; and are adorned on the
outside with fine mosaic work, or tiles like those of
Holland. The wood work aud ceilings are carved,
painted and gilt. The roofs are flat; for they sleep
on the tops of the houses in summer. Most of the
4 H houses
FEZ [ 61
houses are two stories high, and some three. There are
piazzas and galleries running all round the court on the
inside, so that you may go under cover, trom one apart¬
ment to another. The pillars are of bnck, covered
with glazed tiles, or of marble, with arches between.
The timber work is carved and painted with gay co¬
lours, and most of the rooms have marble cisterns of
water. Some of the great men build towers over their
houses several stories high, and spare no expence to ren¬
der them beautiful j from hence they have a fine pros¬
pect all over the city.
There are in this city 700 mosques, great arm small,
50 of which are magnificent, and supported with mar¬
ble pillars and other ornaments. The floors are covered
with mats, as well as the walls to the height of a man.
Every mosque has a tower or minaret, like those in
Turkey, with a gallery on the top, from whence they
call the people to prayers. The principal mosque is
near a mile and a half in circumference. The middle
building is 150 yards in length, and 80 in breadth,
with a tower proportionably high. Round this to the
east, west, and north, there are great colonnades 30 or
40 yards long. There are 900 lamps lighted every
night*, and in the middle of the mosque are large
branches, which are capable ol holding 500 lamps
each. Along the walls are seven pulpits, from which
the doctors of the law teach the people. The busi¬
ness of the priest is only to read prayers, and distribute
alms to the people; to support which, there are large
revenues. .
Besides the mosques, there are two colleges built in
the Moorish manner, and adorned with marble and
paintings. In one of them there are 100 rooms, be¬
sides a magnificent hall. In this there is a great marble
vase full of water, adorned with marble pillars of various
colours, and finely polished. The capitals are gilt, and
the roof shines with gold, azure, and purple. The walls
are adorned with Arabic verses in gold characters. The
other colleges are not near so beautiful, or rather are all
gone to ruin since the neglect of learning.
There are hospitals in the city, where formerly all
strangers were maintained three days gratis. But the
estates belonging to them have been confiscated for the
emperor’s use. There are above 100 public baths, many
of which are stately buildings. People of the same trade
Ov busiriess live in streets by themselves.
Though the country about Fez is pleasant and fer¬
tile, and in many places abounding with corn and cat¬
tle, yet a great part of it lies waste and uncultivated,
tiot so much for want of inhabitants as from the oppres¬
sion of the governors *, which makes the people choose
to live at some distance from the high roads, where they
cultivate just as much land as is necessary lor their own
subsistence.
Round the city there are fine marble tombs, monu¬
ments, and gardens full of all manner of fruit trees.
Such are the common accounts of this city. The
following are given by M. Chenier, in his Jiecherches
Historiques sur les Maures.
Fez was built in the end of the eighth century by
Edris, a descendant of Mahomet and of Ali; whose fa¬
ther, in order to avoid the proscriptions of the caliph
Abdalla, retired to the extremity of Africa, and was
proclaimed sovereign by the Moors. Sidy Edris, hav¬
ing succeeded to the throne of his father, built the
o ] FEZ
city of Fez in the year 793. He caused a mosque to p
be erected, in which his body was interred, and the >—
city ever afterwards became an asylum for the Moors,
and a place of devotion. In the first moments of fer¬
vour, which a new worship inspires, another mosque was
built, called carubin, which is perhaps one of the largest
and most beautiful edifices in Africa. Several others
were successively built, besides colleges and hospitals j
and the city was held in such veneration, that When
the pilgrimage to Mecca was interrupted in the fourth
century of the Hegira, the western Mahometans sub¬
stituted that of Fez in its stead, while the eastern people
went to Jerusalem.
When the Arabs had overspread Asia, Africa, and
Europe, they brought to Fez the little knowledge they
had acquired in the sciences and arts $ and that capital
conjoined, with the schools of religion, academies where
philosophy was taught, together with medicine and
astronomy. This last gradually degenerated *, igno¬
rance brought astrology into repute, and this quickly
engendered the arts of magic and divination.
Fez soon became the common resort of all Africa.
The Mahometans went thither for the purposes of de¬
votion j the affluence of strangers introduced a taste for
pleasure j libertinism quickly followed j and as its pro¬
gress is most rapid in warm countries, Fez, which had
been the nurse of sciences and arts, became a harbour
for every kind of vice. rIhe public baths, which health,
cleanliness, and custom, had rendered necessary, and
which were everywhere respected as sacred places, be¬
came scenes of debauchery j where men introduced
themselves in the habits of women: youths in the same
disguise, with a distaff in their hands, walked the streets
at sunset in order to entice strangers to their inns,
which were less a place ol repose than a convenience
for prostitution.
The usurpers who disputed the kingdom of Fez after
the 16th century overlooked these abuses, and content¬
ed themselves with subjecting the masters of the inns to
furnish a certain number of cooks for the army. It is
to this laxity of discipline that Fez owed its first splen¬
dour. As the inhabitants are beautiful, the Africans
flocked thither in crowds *, the laws were overturned,
morals despised, and vice itself turned into an engine
of political resource. The same spirit, the same incli¬
nations, the same depravity, still exist in the hearts of
all the Moors. But libertinism is not now encouraged >
it wears there, as in other places, the mask of hypo¬
crisy j and dares not venture to show itself in the face
of day. >
The Mahometans of Andalusia, those of Granada
and Cordova, migrated to Fez during the different re¬
volutions that agitated Spain j they carried with them
new customs and new arts , and perhaps some slight
degree of civilization. The Spanish Moors carried
from Cordova to Fez the art of staining goat and sheep
skins with a red colour, which were then called Cor¬
dova leather, and now Morocco leather, from that city
where the art is less perfect. They manufacture gauzes
at Fez, silk stuffs, and girdles elegantly embroider¬
ed with gold and silk, which show how far their in¬
genuity might be carried if industry were more en¬
couraged.
There is still some taste for study preserved at rez,
and the Arabic language is spoken there in greater
purity
t
FEZ, [ 611 ] FEZ
1^, purity than In any other part of the empire. The the natives, but those also who visit it from nortLern
Feazan. rich Moors send their children to the schools at Fez, reo-ions.
where they are better instructed than they could be
elsewhere.
Leo Africanus, in the 16th century, gave a magni¬
ficent description of this city, from which most of those
that have been afterwards made are copied} but its
situation, its schools, and the industry and great urba¬
nity ol its inhabitants, are the only circumstances that
give it any preference to the other cities of the em¬
pire. There are some pretty convenient inns here,
consisting of two or three stories. The houses have no
elegance externally : the streets are ill paved, and so
strait that two persons riding abreast can hardly pass.
The shops are like stalls; and have no more room in
them than is sufficient to serve for the owner, who is
always seated with his wares around him, which he
shows to the passengers. But though the Moors of
Fez are more civilized than the rest, they are vain, su¬
perstitious, and intolerant; and an order must be ob¬
tained from the emperor before a Christian or a Jew
can be allowed to enter the city.
The situation of Fez is exceeding singular. It lies
in the bottom of a valley surrounded by little hills in
the shape of a funnel; the declivities are divided into
gardens planted with tall trees, orange shrubs, and all
sorts of fruit trees ; a river meanders along the decli¬
vity, and turns a number of mills, which disperse the
water abundantly to all the gardens, and almost to every
house. The descent to the city, which stands in the
centre, is long, and the road lies through these gar¬
dens, which it traverses in a serpentine direction.
The gardens, seen from the city, form a most de¬
lightful amphitheatre. Formerly each garden had a
house in which the inhabitants spent the summer. These
houses were destroyed in the times of the civil wars,
and in the revolutions to which Fez has been subject,
and few individuals have restored them. Ali Bey esti¬
mates the population of Fez at 100,000 ; and Mr
Jackson at 380,000. But the latter estimate, though
founded on public documents, is most probably an ex¬
aggeration.
On the height above Fez, in a plain susceptible of rich
cultivation, stands New Fez, finely situated, and en¬
joying excellent air, containing some old palaces, in
which the children of the emperor live, and where he
sometimes resides himself. New Fez is inhabited by
some Moorish families, but by a greater number of Jews.
Fez is seated on the river Cebu. W. Loner. 4. 2?.
N.Lat.33.58. S4 5
FEZZAN, a kingdom of Africa, about 300 miles
long from north to south, and 200 broad from east to
west. It is bounded on the east by the Harutsch and
line of the deserts; by the country of the Tibboes on
the south and south-east; by that of the Nomadic Tua-
ricks on the south-west; and the country which forms
the western boundary is inhabited by Arabs. It con¬
tains 101 towns and villages, of which Mourzouk is the
metropolis. The climate of this kingdom is neither
temperate nor agreeable at any season whatever; for
the heat of summer is almost intolerable, even to the
inhabitants, especially when the wind blows from the
south ; and the prevalence of the north wind during
winter makes the cold so intense, as not only to chill
Bain falls but seldom in this country, and in very
small quantities. Thunder is also a rare phenomenon:
Mr Horneman assures us that there was not a single
storm from November 1798 to June 1799; apd that
on the last day of January 1799 there were some faint
flashes of lightning, unaccompanied by any claps of
thunder. Winds, however, blow very frequently, both
from the north and south, whirling up the dust and sand
in such a manner as to give the atmosphere a yellowish
appearance. There is neither river nor rivulet of any
consequence in the whole country, according to Mr
Horneman, who informs us that the soil is a deep sand,
beneath which is found calcareous rock or earth, and
sometimes a stratum of an argillaceous substance.
Date trees may be considered as the natural produc¬
tion of I ezzan, in the western parts of which some sen¬
na grows, of a superior quality to that which is import¬
ed from the country of the Tibboes. Culinary plants,
and almost every vegetable peculiar to the garden, are
met with in abundance. Wheat and barley seem well
adapted to the nature of the soil, as well as to the cli¬
mate ; yet corn is not raised in sufficient quantity for
home consumpt, which is brought from thoge parts of
Africa bordering on the northern parts of the king¬
dom. This is most probably owing to the native indp-
lence of the people, the despotism of their government,
and the difficulties inseparable from their peculiar mode
of tillage.
They bestow little attention on the rearing of cattjp,
which are only found in the most fertile parts of the
country, and even in these their numbers are but small.
They are made use of to draw water from the wpUs,
and are never killed but in cases of absolute necessity.
The common domestic animal is the goat; and although
sheep are reared in the southern parts of the country,
the most abundant supply is furnished by the Arabs
on the borders. They make coarse cloths of the wool,
which constitute the apparel of the inhabitants in gene¬
ral. Their horses are not numerous, as they make
most use of asses, either for carriage, draught, or bur¬
then. Camels bear a most extravagant price, being
only made use of by the higher ranks, or by opulent
merchants ; and the common food of all these animals
is the fruit of the date tree.
Although the trade of Fezzan consists entirely of
foreign articles, it is nevertheless considerable. Mour¬
zouk is the great market and place of general resort for
different caravans from Cairo, Bengasi, Tripoli, and
other places, between the months of October and Fe¬
bruary. The caravans which come to Mourzouk from
the west or south, deal in ostrich feathers, tiger skins,
gold dust, and also in slaves of both sexes as articles of
commerce. Tobacco and snuff, with other articles
manufactured in Turkey, are brought to the capital by
the merchants from Bengasi; and paper, fire-arms,
sabres, knives, and woollen cloth, are conveyed to it
from Tripoli.
Fezzan is governed by a sultan, a descendant of the
family of the Shereefs ; and according to the tradition
of the country, his ancestors came from the western
parts of Africa, invaded and made a conquest of it about
500 years ago. He reigns over his dominions with ab-
4 H 2 solpte
Fezzan.
fez [6
Fe^zan. sol ate power, but is at the same time tributary to the
"Z^^ipoli;^ annually receives from him the
sum of 4000 dollars by the hands ot an oflicer appoint¬
ed for Lt purpose. The sultan who was upon the
throne when Mr Horneman in 1798 visited the coun¬
try, assumed the title of “ Sultan Muhammed ben Sul¬
tan Mansur,” engraved on a seal which is applied to
all public acts, and also to correspondence within his
dominions •, but he makes use of a smaller seal when he
writes to the bashaw of Tripoli. The crown is heredr-
tarv • vet it descends not in all cases from father to son,
for when the heir apparent dies, a nephew may succeed
in preference to a second son, which is frequently the
occasion of much bloodshed, when the right of succes¬
sion comes to be warmly contested. The pa ace of t
sultan is within the walls of the fortress ot the capital,
where he leads a life of retirement attended by his
eunuchs. The harem is near the palace, into which
he never enters, as the female whom he inclines to see
is conducted to his apartment. The harem consists of
the sultana and about 40 female slaves, which last he
frequently disposes of, and replaces them by others, un¬
less they bear him children, or become the objects of
his ardent attachment, either by their personal beauty
or other accomplishments. _
Those who wish for an audience with the sultan, ap¬
proach the throne, which is an old elbow chair raised a
few steps from the ground, kiss his hand, and raise it so
as to touch their forehead, and then kneel before him to
give a statement of their business in common language,
taking care, however, to intermix it with such excla¬
mations as these : “ God prolong thy life, God protect
thy country,” and to offer him some small present.. I he
court of the sultan consists of a first and second minister,
the general of his forces, a number of black and a few
white slaves. Some of the black slaves who are pur¬
chased while boys, and educated according to their dis¬
tinctions and talents, often acquire considerable influ¬
ence with the sultan.
The dress of the sultan, when he appears in state,
consists of a white frock of stuff, ornamented with gold
andsilver,and sometimes of satin interwoven with silver.
The appearance of his turban is remarkable, which
measures not less than three feet from the fore to the
hinder part, and two feet in breadth. His revenue
arises from certain taxes on all gardens and cultivated
lands, and from fines and requisitions imposed in an ar¬
bitrary manner. The slaves who are employed m col¬
lecting these are often rigorous in the extreme, but it is
often possible to procure their lenity by means of a bribe.
The expenditure of this revenue is chiefly confined to
the support of the sultan, his court and palace j fcr the
cadi and department of justice, the religious order, and
principal officers of government, are supported by the
produce of date-tree woods and gardens.
The administration of justice is vested in the hands of
a cadi, whose decisions are guided by the Mohammedan
law, by antiquated customs, and established practice J
but judgment in all criminal cases is puiely arbitiaij,
or is referred to the sultan. The office of cadi has been
hereditary in one family, ever since the conquest of the
country by the ancestors of the present sultan j and
when he dies, his place is filled by one who is the most
eminent for learning, or who can best read and write,
which is all the learning that he is ever possessed of.
12 ] FIB
It is difficult to ascertain any thing like an accurate
statement of the population of Fezzan 5 but Mr Horne¬
man conjectures that they may amount to about   
75,000, all of them professing the religion of Maho¬
met. The complexion of the people varies consider¬
ably ; those in the northern parts bearing in this respect
a striking resemblance to the Arabians, while those in
the southern districts are very much like the Tibboes
and Tuaricks. Those who are strictly indigenous are
of ordinary stature, and their limbs far from being mus¬
cular j of a deep brown colour, short black hair, with
their face formed like the people of Europe, and their
nose not so flat as that of the negro. Their walk, mien,
and gesture, indicate a total want of energy, either of
body or mind.
The women of this country are in general fond of
dancing, and the wanton manners and public freedoms
in which they are permitted to indulge, are frequently
astonishing, even to Mahometans from other countries •,
and the men are very much addicted to the vice ot
drunkenness, using the juice of the date-tree, or a
drink that is called buna, which is of an intoxicating
nature. , .
Different species of the venereal disease prevail m
this country, but that which is brought from Soudan
is reckoned the most inveterate. The common lues ve¬
nerea is called fran%i, for the cure of which they make
use of salts and colocynth as powerful cathartics, heal¬
ing the sores with natron water or dissolved soda.
They are sometimes afflicted with haemorrhoids, the cure
of which is no doubt rendered more difficult by the too
liberal use of red pepper ; and a fever and ague which
are very pernicious to foreigners. They are entirely
unacquainted with phlebotomy, yet they sometimes draw
blood bv means of cupping ; and some are as much ac¬
quainted with surgery as to be able to cure a simple
fracture.
Their houses are miserable structures, composed ot
stones or bricks mixed with clay, and dried in the sun,
and the hands of the labourer are all the tools which
are employed in building. W hen the walls are finish¬
ed, they are covered over with mortar made of calca¬
reous earth, which is also done with the hand. Their
houses are extremely low, and there is no other entrance
for the light but by the door. They are uncommonly
abstemious in respect of diet. Indeed they can never
abstain from butcher meat when it is placed before
them ; but this is not an article of food with the gene¬
rality, and their expression for a rich man is, “ that
he eats bread and meat every day.”
FEWEL. See Fuel.
FIASCONE, a town of Italy, in the territories of
the pope, remarkable for its good wine. E. Long.
13. 12. N. Lat. 42. 20.
FIAT, in Law, a short order or warrant signed by
a judge, for making out and allowing certain processes.
FIBKARIiE, an old term applied to minerals of a
fibrous structure.
FIBRE, in Anatomy, a perfectly simple body, or at
least as simple as any thing in the human structure j
being fine and slender like a thread, and serving to
form other parts. Hence some fibres are hard, as the
bony ones $ and others soft, as those destined for tha
formation of all the other parts. ...
The fibres are divided also, according to their position
Ftantan
11
Fibre.
Fibre
ic;nus,
F I C [613.I
and direction, into such as are straight, oblique, trans- folio at Venice
verse, annular, and spiral; as they are arranged in these
directions in different parts of the body'.
|J Fibre is also used to denote the slender Filaments
which compose other bodies, whether animal, vegetable,
or mineral; but more especially the capillary roots of
plants.
FIBROSE, or Fibrous, something consisting of
fibres, as the roots of plants. See Root.
FIBULA, in Anatomy 1 the outer and smaller of the
of the bones of the leg. See Anatomy Index.
Fibula, in Surgery, an instrument in use among
the ancients for the closing of gaping wounds.—Celsus
speaks of the fibula as to be used when the wound
was so patent as not easily to admit of being sewed.
(0/7. lib. vii. cap. 25. apudJin.').
Fibula, in Antiquity, was a sort of button, buckle,
or clasp, made use of by the Greeks and Romans for
keeping close or tying up some part of their clothes.
They are of various forms, and often adorned with
precious stones. Men and women wore them in their
hair and at their shoes. Players and musicians, by way
of preserving the voices of children put under their
care to learn their arts, used to keep close the prepuce
with a fibula, lest they should have commerce with
women.
FICHTE, John Theophilus, a late eminent Ger¬
man metaphysician. See Supplement.
FICINUS, Marsilius, a celebrated Italian, was
born at Florence in 1433, and educated at the expence
of Lawrence de Medicis. He attained a perfect know¬
ledge of the Greek and Latin tongues, and became a
great philosopher, a great physician, and a great divine.
He was in the highest favour with Laurence and Cosmo
de Medicis, who made him a canon of the cathedral
church of Florence. He applied himself intensely to
the study of philosophy 5 and while others were striving
who should be the deepest read in Aristotle, who was
then the philosopher in fashion, he devoted himself
wholly to Plato. He was indeed the first who restored
the Platonic philosophy in the west j for the better ef¬
fecting of which, he translated into Latin the whole
works of Plato. There goes a story, that his friend Mar¬
cus Musurus disliking the translation, he did it all over
again. He next translated Plotinus $ and afterwards
the works, or part of them at least, of Proclus, Jam-
blicus, Porphyrius, and other celebrated Platonists.—
In his younger years, Ficinus lived like a philoso¬
pher 5 and too much so, as is said, to the neglect of
piety. However, Savonarola coming to Florence, Fi¬
cinus went with every body else to hear his sermons ;
and while he attended them for the sake of the preach¬
er’s eloquence, he imbibed a strong sense of religion,
and devoted himself henceforward more especially to
the duties of it. He died at Correggio in 1499 ; and
as Boronius assures us upon the testimony of what he
calls credible authors, appeared immediately after his
death to his friend Michael Mereatus : to whom, it
seems, he had promised to appear, in order to confirm
what he had taught concerning the immortality of the
soul. His writings, sacred and profane, which are
very numerous, were collected and printed at Venice,
in 1516, at Basil in 1561 and 1576, and at Paris 1641,
in two vols folio. Twelve books of his Epistles, among
which are many treatises, were printed separately in
4to.
F I C
1495, and at Nuremberg, 1497,
FICOIDES, the specific name given to several
plants as the mesembryanthemum, musa, and opuntia.
See Mesembryanthemum, &c. Botany Index.
FICTION. See Fable and Poetry.
11CUS, the Fig-tree 5 a genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the polygamia class •, and in the natural method
ranking under the 53d order, Scabridce. See Botany
Index.
1 he ficus religiosa, or Banian tree, is a native of se¬
veral parts of the East Indies. It has a woody stem,
branching to a.great height and vast extent, with heart-
shaped entire leaves ending in acute points. Of this
tree the following lines of Milton contain a description
equally beautiful and just:
-There soon they chose
The fig-tree : not that tree for fruit renown’d ;
But such as, at this day to Indians known
In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,
Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
Hie bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
About the mother tree, a pillar’d shade,
High overarch’d, and echoing walks between ;
There oft’ the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,
Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds
At loop-holes cut through thickest shade.
Par. Lost, Book. ix. 1. 1100.
The Banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most
beautiful of Nature’s productions in that genial cli¬
mate, where she sports with the greatest profusion and
variety. Some of these trees are of amazing size and
great extent, as they are continually increasing, and,
contrary to most other things in animal and vegetable
life, they seem to be exertipted from decay. Every
branch from the main body throws out its own roots j
at first, in small tender fibres, several yards from the
ground : these continually grow thicker until they
reach the surface $ and then striking in, they increase
to large trunks, and become parent trees, shooting out
new branches from the top : these in time suspend
their roots, which, swelling into trunks, produce other
branches ; thus continuing in a state of progression as
long as the earth, the first parent of them all, contri¬
butes her sustenance. The Hindoos are particularly fond
of the Banian tree ; they look upon it as an emblem of
the Deity, from its long duration, its outstretching
arms, and overshadowing beneficence ; they almost pay
it divine honours, and
Find a fane in every sacred grove.
Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are general¬
ly erected j under their shade the Brahmins spend their
lives in religious solitude j and the natives of all casts
and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool recesses,
beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous
canopy, impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical
sun.
A remarkable large tree of this kind grows on an
island in the river Nerbudda, ten miles from the city of
Baroche in the province of Guzerat j a flourishing
settlement lately in possession of the East India Com¬
pany, but ceded by the government of Bengal, at the
treaty of peace concluded with the Mahrattas in 1783,
to,
FID [614] FIE
fiats to Mahdajee Scindia a Mahratta chief. It is distin- FIDEI-COMMISSUM, in Roman antiquity, an estate fidei-eom.
|| ,rUished by the name of Cubbeer Burr, which was given left in trust with any person, for the use of another, missum
ride-jussor.ft ;n honour of a famous saint. It was once much See Trustee. 11
  y 'larger than at present-, but high floods have carried FIDENA, or FlDENTE, in Ancient Geography, a , iel°ul^
away the banks of the island where it grows, and with town of the Sabines, five miles to the north of Rome, 'r"j
t'-em such parts of the tree as had thus far extended where traces of it are still to be seen. Fidenates, the
their roots : vet what remains is about 2000 feet in people (Livy).
circumference, measured round the principal stems5 the FIDES, Faith or Fidelity, one of the virtues
overhanging branches, not yet struck down, cover a deified by the Pagans. She had a temple near the Ca-
much larger space. The chief trunks of this single pitol, founded by Numa. Pompilius j but no animals
tree (which in size greatly exceed our English elms and were offered, or blood spilt, in her sacrifices. During
oaks), amount to 350 $ the smaller stems, forming (he performance of her rites, her priests appeared in
into sU-onger supporters, are more than 3000 ; and white vestments, with their heads and hands covered
every one of these is casting out new branches, and with linen, to show that fidelity ought to be sacred,
hanging roots, in time to form trunks, and become the FIDIUS, in Pagan worship, a god who presided over
parents of a future progeny. Cubbeer Burr is famed alliances and promises. This deity, which the Romans
throughout Hindostan for its great extent and sur- borrowed from the Sabines, was also called Sanctus,
passing beauty : the Indian armies generally encamp Semon, and Setni-Pater.
around it j and, atstatedseasons,solemn jatarras, or Hin- FIELD, in Agriculture, a piece of ground enclosed,
doo festivals, are held there, to which thousands of vo- whether for tillage or pasture.
taries repair from various parts of the Mogul empire.— ' Field, in Heraldry, is the whole surface of the
It is said that 7000 persons find ample room to repose shield or the continent, so called because it containeth
under its shade. The English gentlemen, on their hunt- those achievements anciently acquired in the field of
ing and shooting parties, used to form extensive en- battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bear-
campments, and spend weeks together under this de- ing, metals, furs, charges, &c. are represented. A-
lightful pavilion, which is generally filled with green mong the modern heralds, field is less frequently used
wood pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of feathered in blazoning than shield or escutcheon. See Shield,
songsters ; crowded with families of monkeys perform- &c.
ing their antic tricks ; and shaded by bats of a large size, FiELD-Book, in Surveying, a book in which the an-
many of them measuring upwards of six feet from the gles, stations, distances, See. are set down,
extremity of one wing to the other. This tree not only FiELD-Colaurs, or Camp-Colours, 'in War, are small
affords shelter, but sustenance, to all its inhabitants, flags of about a foot and a half square, which are car¬
being covered amid its bright foliage with small figs of ried along with the quartermaster general, for marking
a rich scarlet, on which they regale with as much de- out the ground for the squadrons and battalions,
light, as the lords of creation on their more costly fare FiELn-Fare, in Ornithology. See Turdus, Orni-
in their parties. THOLOGY Index.
F1DD, an iron pin used at sea to splice or fasten ropes Field-0fficers, in the art of war. See Officer.
together j it is made tapering and sharp at one end. Field-Pieces, small cannons, from^ three to twelve
There are also fidds of wood, which are much larger pounders, carried along with an army in the field,
than the iron ones. FiELD-Staff, a weapon carried by the gunners, about
The pin also in the heel of the topmast, which bears the length of a halbert, with a spear at one end having
it upon the chess-tree, is called njidd. on each side ears screwed on, like the cock of a match-
FiDD-Hammer, is used for a hammer, the handle of lock, where the gunners screw in lighted matches when
which is a fidd, or made tapering into that form. they are upon command j and then the field-staffs are
FIDDES, Richard, a learned divine and polite said to be armed,
writer, was born in 1671, and educated at Oxford. He FiELD-Works, in Fortification, are those thrown up
was presented to the living of Halsham in Yorkshire, by an army in besieging a fortress, or by the besieged
where he was so admired for the sweetness of his voice to defend the place. Such are the fortifications of
and the gracefulness of his delivery, that the people camps, highways, &c.
for several miles round flocked to his sermons. Coming Elysian Fields. See Elysian.
to London in 1711, he was by the favour of Dean FIELDING, Henry, a well-known writer of the
Swift, introduced to the earl of Oxford, who made him present age, son of Lieutenant-general Fielding who
one of his chaplains, and the queen soon after appointed served under the duke of Marlborough, was born in
him chaplain to the garrison at Hull: but losing his I707* ■^■e ^our s*s*;ers 1 whom Sarah is well
patrons upon the change of the ministry, he lost his known, as writer of The Adventures of David Simple,
chaplainship ; and being obliged to apply himself to On the death of his mother, his father married again $
writing, composed, 1. A body of Divinity j 2. The and Sir John Fielding, who succeeded him in the com-
Life of Cardinal Wolsey j 3. A Treatise of Morality, mission of the peace for Middlesex, is his brother by
&c. He died in 1725. this marriage. Henry was sent to study at Leyden 5
FIDDLE. See Violin. but a failure in his remittances obliged him to return in
FiDDLE-Wood. See Citharexylon, Botany/«</<?»:. two years, when his own propensity to gaiety and pro-
FIDE-jussores Assidui. See Assiduus. fusion drove him to write for the stage at 20 years os
FlDE-Jussor, in the Civil Law, is a surety, or one that age. His first dramatic piece, Love in several Masques,
obliges himself in the same contract with a principal, which was well received, appeared in 1727 5 an^
for the greater security of the creditor or stipulator. plays and farces, to the amount of 18, were written
2 before
F I F [6
ielding befol-e the year 1737, and many of them are still acted
ll, with applause. While he was thus employed, he mar-
‘f^llire', ried a young lady with 1500!. fortune, and inherited an
estate ot 200I. a-year irom his mother; all which,
though on the plan of retiring into the country, he
contrived to dissipate in three years ; and then applied
himself to the study of the law for a maintenance. In
losing his fortune, he acquired the gout; which, render¬
ing it impossible for him to attend the bar, he with a
shattered constitution had recourse to many extempore
applications of his pen for immediate supplies ; until,
soon after the rebellion in 1745, he accepted the office
of acting justice for Middlesex, an employment much
more profitable than honourable in the public esteem.
Reduced at length by the fatigues of this office, and by
a complication of disorders, he, by the advice of his phy¬
sicians, went to Lisbon, where he died in 1754. He
wrote a great number of fugitive pamphlets and perio¬
dical essays; but is chiefly distinguished by his Adven¬
tures of Joseph Andrews, and History of Tom Jones.
His works have been collected and published, with his
life prefixed, by Mr Murphy.
FIENDS, Thomas, an ingenious and learned phy¬
sician, born at Antwerp in 1566. He went into Italy
to study physic under Mercurialis and Aldrovandus;
and on his return distinguished himself so much in the
university of Louvain, that he was there chosen pro¬
fessor of physic, and was afterwards made physician to
the duke of Bavaria. He wrote several works, among
which were, De viribus imaginationis ; and De forma'
tionefcchcs. He died at Louvain in 1631.
FIERI facias, in Law, a writ that lies where a
person has recovered judgment for debt or damages
in the king’s court against one, by which the sheriff is
commanded to l&vy the debt and damages on the de¬
fendant’s goods and chattels.
FIFL, in Music, is a sort of wind instrument, being
a small pipe. See Pipe.
FIIESHIRE, a county of Scotland, lying between
the friths of Tay and Forth ; bounded on the north and
north-east by the Frith of Tay, which divides it from
Perth and Angus ; on the south by the frith of Forth,
which separates it from the Lothians; the German
ocean bounds it on the east; and on the west it borders
with the counties of Perth and Kinross, and a small
corner of Clackmannan. It extends about 60 miles in
length from CulrOss to Fifeness, and is about 18 in
breadth ; comprehending a superficies of nearly 504
square miles. The face of the country is agreeably
diversified; towards the west it is mountainous, and
a ridge of hills extends eastward almost its whole length,
occupying the central district; towards the north and
south the surface gradually descends to the friths, ex¬
hibiting the most beautiful and enlivening prospect of
fertile and well cultivated fields. It is watered by se¬
veral streams, none of which deserve the name of ri¬
vers, except the Eden and Leven; the former empties
itself into the ocean at St Andrews, and the latter at
the village of Leven : both these rivers abound with
trout and salmon ; and on no coast of Scotland is the
white fishing more productive than on the Fife coast.
From its situation, it appears to have been very early
inhabited ; the fishings, coal-mines, harbours, and other
advantages for navigation, attracted settlers, and the
coast was first peopled and best cultivated : this appears
15 ] F I F
to have been the case, when King James VI. compared Fjfeihh-c.
the county to a gray mantle with a gold fringe. The —y——
whole coast is covered with small burghs, which that
monarch regarded with particular attention, and very
early in his reign endeavoured to render them subser¬
vient to his wishes, of raising Scotland high in the world
as a commercial nation ; he granted them many privi¬
leges and immunities, and encouraged the inhabitants,
by every means in his power, to prosecute the advanta¬
ges which, by their local situation, they possessed; in¬
deed the municipal privileges which they received from
tha.t monarch, though rendered unimportant by the
union with England, will long remain a monument of
his political sagacity and discernment. The county can
boast of possessing several ancient seats of royalty : at
Hunfermline, at Falkland, at Kinghorn, and at St An¬
drews, vestiges of royal splendour are still to be seen.
It contains ij royal boroughs, which possess parliamen¬
tary representation, and several which have lost that
privilege from their being unable to defray the expence
which attended the sending a commissioner to the Scot¬
tish parliament. To the county also belong the small
island of May, on which there is a lighthouse, and
Inchgarvie. Fifeshire is divided into 60 parishes,
and contains, by the enumeration in 1811, 101,272
inhabitants, being nearly 208 to the square mile ; a
much greater proportion than is to be found in any
other county in Scotland. It was anciently an earldom
in the Macduff family, created by Malcolm III. for
the services performed by the thane of Fife, in restor¬
ing him. to the throne of Scotland, when usurped by
Macbeth. That title having expired, it was lately re¬
vived in the Duffs of Braco, lateral descendants of the
ancient family : the ruins of the residences of that power¬
ful nobleman are still evident in many parts of the
county. The whole of the south side lies upon coal,
and many pits are wrought on every part of the coast :
in many places is excellent limestone ; and some marl
is found in the county. Ironstone, of excellent quality,
is found in the western and middle quarters, and much
is forged in the county, or exported to the Carron
works. Lead ore is found in the Eastern Lomond, one
of the two conical hills which rise nearly in the middle
of the county, and are seen at a great distance: in
Kemback parish also, lead ore has been wrought. The
county of life sends one member to parliament. Cu¬
par is the county town.
The following account of the population of Fifeshire
at two different periods, is taken from the Statist. Hist,
of Scotland.
Parishes.
1 Abbotshall
Abdie
Aberdour
Anstruther
5 Anstruther, Wester
Auchterderran
Auchtermuchty
Auchtertool
Ballingry
10 Balmerino
Beath
Burntisland
Population
in
1348
§22
II98
1100
385
1J43
1308
389
464
J65
1099
1390
Population
in 1790—9S
2136
494
1280
1000
370
1200
J439
334
220
7°3
45°
1210
Cameron
F I G
Fifeshiie
n
Figwbrt.
Parishes.
20
25
3°
Cameron
Carnbee
15 Carnock
Ceres
Colessie
Crail
Creich
Cult
Cupar
Dairsie
Dalgety
Denbog
Denlno
Dunfermline
Dysart
Elie
Falkland
Ferrie
Flisk
Forgan
Inverkeithing
Kemback
35 Kennoway
Kettle
Kilconquhar
Kilmeney
Kilrenny
40 Kinghorn
Kinglassie
Kingsbarns
Kirkaldy
Largo
45 Lesly
Leuchars
Logie
Markinch
Monimail
30 Moonsie
Newburgh
Newburn
Pittenweem
St Andrew’s and St
Leonard’s
cc StMonance
Saline
Scoonie
Strathmiglo
Torryburn
60 Wemyss
}
Population
in 1755-
1295
1293
583
2540
989
2173
375
449
2192
469
761
255
598
8552
2369
642
1795
621
318
751
1694
420
1240
1621
2131
781
1348
2389
998
871
2296
1396
1130
1691
4i3
2x88
884
249
1347
438
939
49I3
780
1285
1528
1695
1634
3°4l
[ 6l6
Population
in 1790—98.
1165
IO41
970
2320
949
1710
306
534
37°2
540
869
235
383
9550
4862
620
2108
805
371
825
2210
588
1500
1759
2013
869
1086
1768
1200
807
2673
19I3
1212
1620
425
2790
1101
171
1664
45^
”57,
4335
832
95o
1675
980
1600
3° 25
Population in 1801,
in 1811,
93.743
See Fifeshire,
•101,272
Supplement.
Total 81,570 87,250
FiFE-Rails, in a ship, are those that are placed on
banisters, on each side of the top of the poop, and so
along with haunces or falls. They reach down to the
quarter deck, and to the stair of the gangway.
FIFTH, in Mtisic. See Interval.
FIG, or Fig-tree. See Ficus, Botany Index.
FIGWORT. See Scrophularia, BqtaNX Index,
3
] FIG
FIGURAL, FlGURATE, or Figurative, a term ap¬
plied to whatever is expressed by obscure resemblances.
The word is chiefly applied to the types and mysteries
of the Mosaic law *, as also to any expression which is
not taken in its primary and literal sense.
Figurate Numbers. See Numbers, Figurate.
FIGURE, in Physics, expresses the surface or ter¬
minating extremities of any body.
Figures, in Arithmetic, are certain characters
whereby we denote any number which may be ex¬
pressed by any combination of the nine digits, &c.
See Arithmetic.
Figure, among divines, is used for the mysteries
represented under certain types.
Figure, in Dancing, denotes the several steps which
the dancer makes in order and cadence, considered as
they mark certain figures on the floor. See Dancing.
Figure, in Painting and Designing, denotes the
lines and colours which form the representation of any
animal, but more particularly of a human personage.
See Painting.
Figure, in the manufactures, is applied to the va¬
rious designs represented or wrought on velvets, da¬
masks, taffeties, satins, and other stuff's and cloths.
The most usual figures for such designs are flowers
imitated from the life *, or grotesques, and comparti-
ments of pure fancy. Representations of men, beasts,
birds, and landscapes, have only bees introduced since
the taste for the Chinese stuffs, particularly those called
furees, began to prevail among us. It is the woof of
the stuff that forms the figures; the warp only serves
for the ground. In working figured stuffs there is re¬
quired a person to show the workman how far he must
raise the threads of the warp, to represent the figure of
the design with the woof, which is to be passed across
between the threads thus raised. This some call read¬
ing the design. , , „ „
For the figures on tapestry, brocade, &c. see 1A-
PESTRY, &c.
For those given by the calenders, printers, &c. see
Calender, &c. t
Figure, in Logic, denotes a certain order and dis¬
position of the middle term in any syllogism.
Figures are fourfold. 1. When the middle term is
the subject of the major proposition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the first figure.
2. When the middle term is the predicate of both the
premises, the syllogism is said to be in the second figure.
3. If the middle term is the subject of the two premi¬
ses, the syllogism is in the third figure : and lastly, by
making it the predicate of the major, and subject ot
the minor, we obtain syllogisms in the. fourth figure.
Each of these figures has a determinate number of
moods, including all the possible ways in which propo¬
sitions differing in quantity or quality can be combined,
according to any disposition of the middle term, in or¬
der to arrive at a just conclusion. See Logic.
Figure, in composition. See Oratory •, also Al¬
legory, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor,
Personification, &c.
A Figure, the means or instrument conceived to be
the agent. When we survey a number of connected
objects, that which makes the greatest figure employs
chiefly our attention j and the emotion it raises, u
lively, prompts us even to exceed nature in the con¬
ceptions we form of it. Take the following examples.
FIG [ 6r7 ]
F I G
Figure.
For Neleus’ son Alcides’ rage had slain.
A broken rock the force of Pirns threw.
In these instances, the rage of Hercules and the force
of Pirns being the capital circumstances, are so far
exalted as to be conceived the agents that produce the
effects.
In the first of the following instances, hunger being
the chief circumstance in the description, is itself ima¬
gined to be the patient.
Whose hunger has not tasted food these three days.
Jane Shore.
man who listens, to the passion with which he is moved.
In the expression bold deed, or audax facinus, we ex¬
tend to the effect what properly belongs to the cause.
But not to waste time by making a commentary upon
every expression of this kind, the best way to give a
complete view of the subject, is to exhibit a table of the
different relations that may give occasion to this figure.
And in viewing the table it will be observed, that the
figure can never have any grace but where the relations
are of the most intimate kind.
i. An attribute of the cause expressed as an attribute
of the effect.
Figure.
■ ■ ■ As when the force
Of subterranean wind transports a hill.
Paradise Lost.
■   As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s son, in Egypt’s evil day,
Wav’d round the coast, upcall’d a pitchy cloud
Of locusts. Paradise Lost.
A Figure, which, among related objects, extends the
properties of one to another. This figure is not dignified
with a proper name, because it has been overlooked by
writers. Giddy brink, jovial wine, daring wound, are
examples of this figure. Here are adjectives that can¬
not be made to signify any quality of the substantives
to which they are joined; a brink, for example, can-
' not be termed giddy in a sense, either proper or figu¬
rative, that can signify any of its qualities or attributes.
When we examine attentively the expression, we dis¬
cover that a brink is termed giddy ivonx producing that
effect on those who stand on it: in the same manner, a
wound is said to be daring, not with i-espect to itself,
but with respect to the boldness of the person who in¬
flicts it: and wine is said to be jovial, as inspiring
mirth and jollity. Thus the attributes of one subject
are extended to another with which it is connected $
and the expression of such a thought must be considered
as a figure, because the attribute is not applicable to
the subject in any proper sense.
How are we to account for this figure, which we
see lies in the thought, and to what principle shall we
refer it ? Have poets a privilege to alter the nature of
things, and at pleasure to bestow attributes upon a
id. subject to which they do not belong ? It is observed f,
0/ that the mind passeth easily and sweetly along a train
ticmi, 0f connected objects ; and where the objects are inti-
^ mately connected, that it is disposed to carry along the
good or bad properties of one to another } especially
when it is in any degree inflamed with these proper¬
ties. From this principle is derived the figure under
consideration. Language, invented for the communi¬
cation of thought, would be imperfect, if it were not
expressive even of the slighter propensities and more
delicate feelings : but language cannot remain so im¬
perfect among a people who have received any polish ;
because language is regulated by internal feeling, and
is gradually improved to express whatever passes in
the mind. Thus, for example, when a sword in the
hand of a coward is termed a coward sword, the ex¬
pression is significative of an internal operation j for the
mind, in passing from the agent to its instrument, is
disposed to extend to the latter the properties of the
former. Governed by the same principle, we say list¬
ening fear, by extending the attribute listening of the
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
Audax facinus.
Of yonder fleet a bold discovery make.
An impious mortal gave the daring wound.
—   'To my advent'1 rous song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar.
Paradise Lost. *
2. An attribute of the effect expressed as an attri¬
bute of the cause.
Quos periisse ambos misero censebam in mari.
Plautus.
No wonder, fallen such a pernicious height.
Paradise Lost.
3. An effect expressed as an attribute of the cause.
Jovial wine, Giddy brink, Drowsy night, Musing
midnight, Panting height, Astonish’d thought, Mourn¬
ful gloom.
Casting a dim religious light. MlLTON, Comus.
And the merry bells ring round,
And theyocaflcfrebecks sound. Milton, Allegro.
4. An attribute of a subject bestowed upon one of
its parts or members,
Longing arms.
It was the nightingale, and not the lark,
That pierc’d the fearful hollow of thine ear.
Romeo and Juliet, act. iii. sc. 7.
— Oh, lay by
Those most ungentle looks and angry weapons:
Unless you mean my griefs and killing fears
Should stretch me out at your relentless feet.
Fair Penitent, act iii.
"■ ■ " And ready now
To stoop with wearied wing and willing feet,
On the bare outside of this world.
Paradise Lost, book iii.
5. A quality of the agent given to the instrument
with which it operates.
Why peep your coward swords half out their shells ?
6. An attribute of the agent given to the subject '
upon which it operates.
High-climbing hill, Milton.
7. A quality of one subject given to another.
Icci, beatis nunc Arabum invides
Gazis. Horat. Garni, lib. i. ode 29.
When sapless age, and weak unable limbs,
Shall bring thy father to his drooping chair.
Shakespeare. ‘
41 %
FIG [ 61
r;-tr(. By art, the pilot through the hoihng ileep, _
v And howling tempest, steers \\\eje*rless ship.
Iliad, book xxiii. 1. 385.
Then, nothing loth, th’ enamour’d fair he led,
And sunk transported on the conscious bed.
Odyssey, book viii. 1. 337.
A stupid moment motionless she stood.
Summer, 1. 1336.
8. A circumstance connected with a subject, ex¬
pressed as a quality of the subject.
Breezy summit.
’Tis ours the chance of fighting fields to try.
Iliad, book v. 1. 301,
Oh ! had I dy’d before that well-fought wall.
Odyssey, book v. 1. 395*
From this table it appears, that the adorning a cause
with an attribute of the effect, is not so agreeable as
the opposite expression. The progress from cause to
effect is natural and easy : the opposite progress resem-
* See Per- hies retrograde motion * j and therefore panting height,
ception astonish'd thought, are strain’d and uncouth expressions,
tmd Ideas w|jjc|] a writer ot taste will avoid.
JJI a Tram. jg nflt jegs stra;ned, to apply to a subject in its
present state, an epithet that may belong to it in some
future state :
Submersasque obrue puppes. JEneid, book i. 1. 73*
And mighty ruins fall. Iliad, book v. 1. 411.
Impious sons their mangled fathers wound.
Another rule regards this figure, That the property
of one subject ought not to be bestowed upon another
with which the property is incongruous.
K. Rich. How dare thy joints forget
To pay their awful duty to our presence ?
Richard II. act iii. sc. 6.
The connexion between an awful superior and his sub¬
missive dependent is to intimate, that an attribute may
readily be transferred from the one to the other : but
awfulness cannot be so transferred, because it is incon¬
sistent with submission.
Figure of Speech, as peculiarly distinguished from
the above and from those first referred to]. Under
the article Metaphor and Allegory, a figure of speech
is defined, “ The using a word in a sense diflerent
from what is proper to it and the new or uncommon
sense of the word is termed the figurative sense. The
figurative sense must have a relation to that which is
proper •, and the more intimate the relation is, the fi-
T.km of %are *s tb® more happy. How ornamental this figure
Criticism, is to language, will not be readily imagined by any one
who hath not given peculiar attention j and therefore
we shall endeavour to unfold its capital beauties and
advantages. In the first place, a word used figuratively,
or in a new sense, suggests at the same time the sense
it commonly bears : and thus it has the effect to pre¬
sent two objects; one signified by the figurative sense,
which may be termed the principal object $ and one sig¬
nified by the proper sense, which may be termed acces¬
sory: the principal makes a part of the thought > the
accessory is merely ornamental. In this respect, a fi¬
gure of speech is precisely similar to concordant sounds
2
8 ] FIG
in music, which, without contributing to the melody, Tignrc,
make it harmonious.
To explain the matter by examples. Youth, by a
figure of speech, is termed the morning of life: This
expression signifies youth, the principal object which
enters into the thought •, it suggests, at the same time,
the proper sense of morning; and this accessory object,
being in itself beautiful, and connected by resemblance
to the principal object, is not a little ornamental. Im¬
perious ocean, is an example of a diflerent kind, where
an attribute is expressed figuratively : Together with
stormy, the figurative meaning of the epithet imperious,
there is suggested its proper meaning, viz. the stern
authority of a despotic prince *, and these two are
strongly connected by resemblance. Upon this figu¬
rative power of words, Vida descants with elegance,
Poet. lib. iii. 1. 44.
In the next place, this figure possesses a signal power
of aggrandizing an object, by the following means.—
Words, which have no original beauty but what arises
from their sound, acquire an adventitious beauty from
their meaning: a word signifying any thing that is
agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable j for the
agreeableness of the object is communicated to its name.
This acquired beauty, by the force of custom, adheres
to the word, even when used figuratively 5 and the
beauty received from the thing it properly signifies, is
communicated to the thing which it is made to signify
figuratively. Consider the foregoing expression Impe¬
rious ocean, how much more elevated it is than Stormy
ocean.
Thirdly, This figure hath a happy effect by pre¬
venting the familiarity of proper names. The familia¬
rity of a proper name is communicated to the thing
it signifies by means of their intimate connexion ; and
the thing is thereby brought down in our. feeling.
This bad effect is prevented by using a figurative word
instead of one that is proper: as, for example, when we
express the sky by terming it the blue vault of heaven ;
for though no work of art can compare with the sky
in grandeur, the expression however is relished, because
it prevents the object from being brought down by the
familiarity of its proper name. With respect to the
degrading the familiarity of proper names, Vida has the
following passage :
Hinc si dura mihi passus dicendus Ulysses,
Non ilium vero memorabo nomine, sed qui
Et mores hominum multorum vidit, et urbes,
Naufragus eversse post sseva incendia Trojse.
Poet. lib. ii. 1. 460.
Lastly, By this figure, language is enriched, and
rendered more copious 5 in which respect, w^ere there
no other, a figure of speech is a happy invention.
This property is finely touched by ^ ida j Poet. lib.
iii. 1. 90.
The beauties we have mentioned belong to every
figure of speech. Several other beauties, peculiar to
one or other sort, we shall have occasion to remark af¬
terwards. # #
Not only subjects, but qualities, actions, effects, may
he expressed figuratively. Thus, as to subjects, gates
of breath for the lips, the ivatery kingdom for the ocean.
As to qualities, fierce for stormy, in the expression
Fierce winter; Altus for profundus, Altusputeus, Altum
marc';
i Figure.
t (m. of
&
F I G [ 6
mare } breathing for perspiring, Breathing plants. A-
J gain, as to actions, The sea j'ages, Time will melt her
frozen thoughts, Time kills grief. An effect is put
for the cause, as lux for the sun $ and a cause for the
effect, as bourn labores for corn. The relation of re¬
semblance is one plentiful source of figures of speech ;
and nothing is more common than to apply to one ob¬
ject the name of another that resembles it in any re¬
spect : Height, size, and worldly greatness, resemble
not each other; but the emotions they produce re¬
semble each other, and, prompted by this resemblance,
we naturally express worldly greatness by height or
size : One feels a certain uneasiness in seeing a great
depth ; and, hence depth is made to express any thing
disagreeable by excess, as depth of grief, depth of de¬
spair : Again, Height of place, and time long past,
produce similar feelings; and hence the expression, Ut
ultius repetam! Distance in time past, producing a
strong feeling, is put for any strong feeling; Nihil mihi
antiquius nostra amicitia : Shortness with relation to
space, for shortness with relation to time ; Brevis esse
laboro, obscurusjio: Suffering a punishment resembles
paying a debt; hence pendere pccnas. In the same
manner, light may be put for glory, sunshine for pros¬
perity, and weight for importance.
Many words, originally figurative, having, by long
and constant use, lost their figurative power, are de¬
graded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the
words that express the operations of the mind, have in
all languages been originally figurative ; the reason
holds in all, that when these operations came first un¬
der consideration, there was no other way of describing
them but by what they resembled : it was not practi¬
cable to give them proper names, as may be done to
objects that can be ascertained by sight and touch. A
soft nature, jarring tempers, weight of woe, pompous
phrase, beget compassion, assuage grief, break a vow,
bend the eye downward, shower down curses, drowning
in tears, wrapt in joy, warm'd with eloquence, loaded
with spoils, and a thousand other expressions of the
like nature, have lost their figurative sense. Some
terms there are that cannot be said to be altogether
figurative or altogether proper: originally figurative,
they are tending to simplicity, without having lost al¬
together their figurative power. Virgil’s Regina saucia
cura, is perhaps one of these expressions : with ordinary
readers, saucia will be considered as expressing simply
the effect of grief; but one of a lively imagination will
exalt the phrase into a figure.
For epitomizing this subject, and at the same time
for giving a clear view of it, Lord Karnes f gives a list
of the several relations upon which figures of speech
are commonly founded. This list he divides into two
tables ; one of subjects expressed figuratively, and one
of attributes.
Tab. I. Subjects expressed figuratively.
i. A word proper to one subject employed figura¬
tively to express a resembling subject.
There is no figure of speech so frequent, as what is
derived from the relation of resembling. Youth, for
example, is signified figuratively by the morning of life.
The life of a man resembles a natural day in several
particulars: the morning is the beginning of a day,
19 ] FIG
youth the beginning of life; the morning is cheerful,
so is youth, &c. By another resemblance, a bold war¬
rior is termed the thunderbolt of war; a multitude of
troubles, a sea of troubles.
This figure, above all others, affords pleasure to the
mind by variety of beauties. Besides the beauties
above mentioned, common to all sorts, it possesses in
particular the beauty of a metaphor or a simile : a
figure of speech built upon resemblance, suggests al¬
ways a comparison between the principal subject and
the accessory ; whereby every good effect of a meta¬
phor or simile may, in a short and lively manner, bs
produced by this figure of speech.
2. A word proper to the effect employed figurative¬
ly to express the cause.
Lux for the sun ; Shadow for cloud. A helmet i*
signified by the expression glittering terror ; a tree by
shadoiv or umbrage. Hence the expression,
Nec habet Pel ion umbras. Ovid.
Where the dun umbrage hangs. Spring, 1. 1023.
A wound is made to signify an arrow :
Vulnere non pedibus te consequar. Ovid.
There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure:
the word which signifies figuratively the principal
subject, denotes it to be a cause by suggesting the
effect.
3. A word proper to the cause employed figuratively
to express the effect.
Boumque labores for corn. Sorrow or grief for tears.
Again Ulysses veil’d his pensive head ;
Again unmann’d, a shower of sorrow shed.
Streaming his faded cheek bedew’d.
Blindness for darkness :
Ctecis erramus in undis. JEneid. iii. 200.
There is a peculiar energy in this figure, similar to
that in the former : the figurative name denotes the
subject to be an effect by suggesting its cause.
4. Two things being intimately connected, the pro¬
per name of the one employed figuratively to signify
the other.
Day for light. Night for darkness ; and hence, A
sudden night. Winter for a storm at sea :
Interea magno misceri murmure pontuna,
Emissamque Hyemem sensit Neptunus.
JEneid. i. 128.
This last figure would be too bold for a British writer,
as a storm at sea is not inseparably connected with
winter in this climate.
5. A word proper to an attribute, employed figura¬
tively to denote the subject.
Youth and beauty for those who arfe young and beau¬
tiful :
Youth and beauty shall he laid in dust.
Majesty for the king :
What art thou, that usurp’st this time of night,
Together with that fair and warlike form
In which the Majesty of buried Denmark
Did sometimes march ? Hamlet, act i. sc. 1.
4 I 2 — Or
Fi>; are.
FIG [620
  Of have ye chosen this place,
\fter the toils of battle to repose
Your weary’d virtue ? Paradise Lost.
Verdure for a green field. Summer, 1. 301.
Speaking of cranes,
The pigmy nations, wounds and death they bring,
And all the 'tear descends upon the wing,
Iliad, book iii. 1. 10.
] FIG
13. The names of the Heathen deities, employed
figuratively to signify what they patronize. ^
Jove for the air, Mars for war, Venus for beauty,
Cupid for love, Ceres for corn, Neptune for the sea,
Vulcan for fire.
This figure bestows great elevation upon the subject;
and therefore ought to be confined to the higher strains
of poetry.
Tab. II. Attributes expressed figuratively.
Figure
Cool age advances venerably wise.
Iliad, book iii. 1. I49’
The peculiar beauty of this figure arises from sug¬
gesting an attribute that embellishes the subject, or puts
it in a stronger light.
6. A complex term employed figuratively to denote
one of the component parts.
Funus for a dead body. Burial for a grave..
7. The name of one of the component parts instead
of the complex term.
Tceda for a marriage. The East for a country situ¬
ated east from us. Jovis vestigia servat, for imitating
Jupiter in general.
8. A word signifying time or place, employed figu¬
ratively to denote what is connected with it.
Clime for a nation, or for a constitution of govern¬
ment: hence the expression, Merciful clime. Fleecy win¬
ter, for snow, Seeulum felix.
9. A part for the whole.
The pole for the earth. The head for the person.
Triginta minas pro capite tuo dedi. Plautus.
Ter gum for the man :
Fugiens tergum. OviD.
Vultus for the man :
Jam fulgor armorum fugaces
Terret equos, equitumque vultus. HoRAT.
Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus
Tam chari capitis? HoRAT.
Dumque virent gettMa £ HoRAT.
Thy growing virtues justify’d my cares,
And promis’d comfort to my silver hairs.
Iliad, ix. 1. 616.
  ... -—Forthwith from the pool he rears
His mighty stature. Paradise Lost.
The silent heart which grief assails. Parnel.
The peculiar beauty of this figure consists in marking
that part which makes the greatest figure.
10. The name of the container, employed figurative¬
ly to signify what is contained. »
Grove for the birds in it; Vocal grove. Ships for the
seamen ; Agonizing ships. Mountains for the sheep
pasturing upon them ; Bleating w.oz/nfafws. Xacynthus,
Ithaca, &c. for the inhabitants ; Ex mocstis domibus.
Livy.
11. The name of the sustainer, employed figurative¬
ly to signify what is sustained.
Altar for the sacrifice. Field for the battle fought
upon it; Well-fought feld.
12. The name of the materials, employed figurative¬
ly to signify the things made of them.
Ferrum for gladius.
1. When two attributes are connected, the name of
the one may be employed figuratively to express the
other.
Purity and virginity are attributes of the same per¬
son : hence the expression Virgin snow, for pure snow.
2. A word signifying properly an attribute of one
subject, employed figuratively to express a resembling
attribute of another subject.
Tottering state. Imperious ocean. Angry flood.
Paging tempest. Shallow fears.
My sure divinity shall bear the shield,
And edge thy sword to reap the glorious field.
Odyssey, book xx. 1. 61.
Black omen, for an omen that portends bad fortune.
A ter omen. Virgil.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arises from suggest¬
ing a comparison.
3. A word proper to the subject, employed to express
one of its attributes.
Mens for intellectus. Mens for a resolution :
Islam, oro, exue, mentem.
4. When two subjects have a resemblance by a com¬
mon quality, the name of the one subject may be em¬
ployed figuratively to denote that quality in the other :
Summer life for agreeable life.
5. The name of the instrument made to signify the
power of employing it :
 Melpomene, cui liquidam pater
Vocem cum cithara dedit.
The ample field of figurative expression displayed in
these tables, affords great scope for reasoning. Several
of the observations relating to metaphor*, are appli-*See
cable to figures of speech : these shall be slightly re-^P 0
touched, with some additions peculiarly adapted to the
present subjects.
i. As the figure under consideration is built upon
relation, we find from experience, and it must be ob¬
vious from reason, that the beauty of it depends on the
intimacy of the relation between the figurative and
proper sense of the word. A slight resemblance, in
particular, will never make this figure agreeable : the
expression, for example, Drink down a secret, tor list¬
ening to a secret with attention, is harsh and uncouth,
because there is scarce any resemblance between listen¬
ing and drinking. The expression weighty crack, used
by Ben Johnson for loud crack, is worse if possible ; a
loud sound has not the slightest resemblance to a piece
of matter that is weighty.
Phemius ! let acts of gods, and heroes old,
What ancient bards in hall and bow’r have told,-
AttempeiVL
FIG [ 621 ] FIG
Figure. Attemper’d to the lyre, your voice employ,
Such the pleas’d ear will drink with silent joy.
Odyssey, book i. 1. 433.
Strepitumque exterritus hausit.
JEneid, book vi. 1. 559.
 Wri te, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you send.
Cymbeline, act i. sc. 2.
As thus th’ effulgence tremulous I drink.
Summer, 1. 1684.
Neque audit currus habenas.
Georg, book i. 1. 514.
O prince ! (Lycaon’s valiant son reply’d),
As thine the steeds, be thine the task to guide.
The horses practis’d to their lord’s command,
Shall hear the rein, and answer to thy hand.
Iliad, book v. 1. 288.
The following figures of speech seem altogether wild
and extravagant, the figurative and proper meaning
having no connexion whatever. Moving softness,
Freshness breathes. Breathing prospect, Flowing
spring, Dewy light, Lucid coolness, and many others
of this false coin, may be found in Thomson’s Seasons.
2. The proper sense of the word ought to bear
some proportion to the figurative sense, and not soar
much above it, nor sink much below it. This rule, as
well as the foregoing, is finely illustrated by Vida,
Poet, book iii. 1. 148.
3. In a figure of speech, every circumstance ought
to be avoided that agrees with the proper sense only,
not with the figurative sense : for it is the latter that
expresses the thought, and the former serves for no
other purpose but to make harmony :
Zacynthus green with ever-sbady groves,
And Ithaca, presumptuous boast their loves j
Obtruding on my choice a second lord,
They press the Hymenean rite abhorr’d.
Odyssey, book xix. 1. 152.
Zacynthus here standing figuratively for the inhabi¬
tants, the description of the island is quite out of place :
it puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether
the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative
sense.
 ■— ■  Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you send,
Though ink be made of gall.
Cymbeline, act i. sc. 2.
The disgust one has to drink ink in reality, is not to
the purpose where the subject is drinking ink figura¬
tively.
4. To draw consequences from a figure of speech, as
if the word were to be understood literally, is a gross
absurdity $ for it is confounding truth with fiction :
Be Moubray’s sins so heavy in bis bosom,
That they may break his foaming courser’s back,
And throw the rider headlong in the lists,
A caitifi’ recreant to my cousin Hereford.
Richard II. act i. sc. 3.
Sin may be imagined heavy in a figurative sense : but
weight in a pi oper sense belongs to the accessory only j
and therefore to describe the effects of weight, is to Figure,
desert the principal subject, and to convert the acces- y—,
sory into a principal :
Cromwell. How does your Grace ?
Wolsey. Why well ;
Never so truly happy, my good Cromwell.
I know myself now, and I feel within me
A peace above all earthly dignities,
A still and quiet conscience. The king has cur’d me,
I humbly thank bis Grace : and, from these shoulders,
These ruin’d pillars, out of pity, taken
A load would sink a navy, too much honour.
Henry VIII. act iii. sc. 6.
Ulysses speaking of Hector—
I wonder now how yonder city stands,
When we have here the base and pillar by us.
Troilus and Cressida, act iv. sc, 9.
Othello. No ; my heart is turned to stone : I strike
it, and it hurts my hand. Othello, act iv. sc. 5.
Not less, even in this despicable now,
Than when my name fill’d Afric with affrights,
And froze your hearts beneath your torrid zone.
Don Sebastian King of Portugal, act i.
How long a space, since first I lov’d, it is !
To look into a glass I fear,
And am surpris’d with wonder, when I miss
Gray hairs and wrinkles there.
Cowley, vol. i. p. 86.
I chose the flourishing’st tree in all the park,
With freshest boughs and fairest head $
I cut my love into its gentle bark,
And in three days behold ’tis dead 5
My very written flames so violent bej •
They’ve burnt and wither’d up the tree.
Cowley, vol. i. p. 136.
Ah, mighty Love, that it were inward heat
Which made this precious limbeck sweat !
But what, alas ! ah, what does it avail,
That she weeps tears so wond’rous cold,
As scarce the ass’s hoof can hold,
So cold, that I admire they fall not hail !
Cowley, vol. i. p. 132.'
Such a play of words is pleasant in a ludicrous poem.
Almeria. O Alphonso, Alphonso !
Devouring seas have wash’d thee from my sight,
No time shall raze thee from my memory:
No, I will live to be thy monument:
The cruel ocean is no more thy tomb ;
But in my heart thou art interr’d.
Mourning Bride, act i. sc. 1.
This would be very right, if there were any inconsist-
ence in being interred in one place really, and in an¬
other place figuratively.
From considering that a word used in a figurative
sense suggests at the same time its proper meaning, we
discover a fifth rule, That we ought not to employ a
word in a figurative sense, the proper sense of which is
inconsistent or incongruous with the subject: for every
inconsistency, and even incongruity, though in the ex¬
pression only and not real, is unpleasant:
Interea \
FIG [ 622
Interea genitor Tyberini ad flnimms nndam,
Vulnera siccabat lymphis •
JEncid, book x. 1. 833.
Tres adeo incertos cseca caligine soles
Erramus pelago, totidem sine sidere noctes.
JEneid, book iii. 1. 203.
The foregoing rule may be extended to form a
sixth, That no epithet ought to be given to the figu¬
rative sense of a word that agrees not also with its pro¬
per sense:
     - ..—Dicat Qpuntia:
Frater Megillse, quo beatus
Vtildere. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 27.
Parcus deorum cultor, et infreque,ns,
Jnsanientis dum sapiential
Consultos erro. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 54.
Seventhly, The crowding into one period or thought
different figures of speech, is not less faulty than crowd¬
ing metaphors in that manner : the mind is distracted
in the quick transition from one image to another, and
is puzzled instead of being pleased :
I am of ladies most deject and wretched,
That suck’d the honey of his music vows. Hamlet.
My bleeding bosom sickens at the sound.
Odysseij, book i. 1. 439.
.   —  Ah miser,
Quanta laboras in Charybdi !
Digne puer meliore Jlamma.
Quae saga, quis te solvere Thessalis
Magus venenis, qua poterit Deus:
Vix illigatum tetriformi
Pegasus expediet Chimera.
Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 27.
Eighthly, If crowded figures be bad, it is still worse
to graft one figure upon another: For instance,
■While his keen falchion drinks the warriors lives.
Iliads book xi. 1. 2U.
A falchion drinking the warriors blood, is a figure built
upon resemblance, which is passable. But then in the
expression, lives is again put for blood; and by thus
grafting one figure upon another, the expression is ren¬
dered obscure and unpleasant.
Ninthly, Intricate and involved figures, that can
scarce be analyzed, or reduced to plain language, are
least of all tolerable :
Votis incendimus aras. JEneid, book iii. 1. 279.
. .— Onerentque canistris
Dona laboratoe Cereris. JEneid, book viii. 1. 180.
Vulcan to the Cyclops :
Arma acri facienda viro : nunc viribus usus,
Nunc manibus rapidis, omni nunc arte magistra:
Prcecipitate moras. JEneid) book viii. 1. 441.
      -Huic gladio, perque serea scuta,
Per tunicam squalentem auro, latus haurit apertum.
/Encid, book x. 1. 313.
Scriberis Vario fortis, et hostium
Victor, Mseonii carminis alite.
Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 6.
] F; I G
Else shall our fates be number’d with the dead,
Iliad) book v. 1. 294.
Commutual death the fate of war confounds.
Iliad) book viii. 1. 85. and book xi. 1. 117.
Speaking of Proteus.
Instant he wears, elusive of the rape,
The mimic force of every savage shape.
Odyssey, book iv. 1. 563.
Rolling convulsive on the floor, is seen
The piteous object of a prostrate queen.
Ibid, book iv. 1. 652.
The mingling tempest weaves its gloom.
Autumn, 1. 337.
A various sweetness swells the gentle race.
Ibid. 1. 640.
The distant waterfall swells in the breeze.
Winter, 1. 738.
In the tenth place, When a subject is introduced by
its proper name, it is absurd to attribute to it the pro¬
perties of a different subject to which the word is some¬
times applied in a figurative sense :
Hear me, Oh Neptune ! thou whose arms are hurl’d
From shore to shore, and gird the solid world.
Odyssey, book ix. 1. 617*
Neptune is here introduced personally, and not figu¬
ratively, for the ocean : the description, therefore,
which is only applicable to the latter, is altogether im¬
proper.
It is not sufficient that a figure of speech be regu¬
larly constructed, and be free from blemish : it re¬
quires taste to discern when it is proper, when impro¬
per j and taste perhaps is our only guide. One, however,
may gather from reflection and experience, that orna¬
ments and graces suit not any of the dispiriting pas¬
sions, nor are proper for expressing any thing grave and
important. In familiar conversation, they are in soro«
measure ridiculous : Prospero, in the Tempest, speak¬
ing to his daughter Miranda, says,
The fringed curtains of thine eyes advance,
And say what thou seest yond.
No exception can be taken to the justness of the fi¬
gure *, and circumstances may be imagined to make it
proper j but it is certainly not proper in familiar con¬
versation.
In the last place, Though figures of speech have a
charming effect when accurately constructed and pro¬
perly introduced, they ought, however, to be scattered
with a sparing hand ; nothing is more luscious, and no¬
thing consequently more satiating, than redundant or¬
naments of any kind.
Figure is used, in Theology, for the mysteries re¬
presented or delivered obscurely to us under certain
types, or actions in the Old Testament. Thus manna
is held a figure or type of the eucharist j and the death
of Abel, a figure of the suffering of Christ.
Many divines and critics contend, that all the a«-
tions, histories, ceremonies, &c. of the Old Testament,
are only figures, types, and prophecies, of what was
to happen under the New. The Jews are supposed
to
F I L [ 623 ] F I L
to have had the figures or shadows, and we the sub*
0 stance.
ilaments. Figure is also applied in a like sense to profane
matters 5 as the emblems, enigmas, fables, symbols,
and hieroglyphics, of the ancients.
FIGURED, in general, something marked with
figures.
The term figured is chiefly applied to stuffs, where¬
on the figures of flowers, and the like, are either wrought
or stamped.
Figured, in Music, is applied either to simple notes
or to harmony : to simple notes, as in these words figure
ed bass, to express a bass whose notes carrying chords
are subdivided into many other notes of lesser value :
to harmony, when by supposition and in a diatonic
procedure, other notes than those which form the chord
are employed. See Supposition.
To figure is to pass several notes for one ; to form
runnings or variations 5 to add some notes to the air,
in whatever manner it be done ; in short, it is to give
to harmonious sounds a figure of melody, by connecting
them with other intermediate sounds.
FILAGO, a genus of plants, belonging to the syn-
genesia class 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Composites. See Botany Index.
FILAMENT, in Anatomy, Natural History, &c. a
term used in the same sense with fibre, for those fine
threads whereof the flesh, nerves, skin, plants, roots,
&c. are composed. See Fibre.
Vegetable Filaments form a substance of great use
in the arts and manufactures j furnishing thread, cloth,
cordage, &c.
For these purposes the filamentous parts of the Can¬
nabis and Linum, or hemp and flax, are employed
lee Hemp among us f. But different vegetables have been em-
d f/ax. ployed in different countries for the same uses. Putre¬
faction destroys the pulpy or fleshy matter, and leaves
the tough filaments entire : By putrefying the leaf of
a plant in water, we obtain the fine flexible fibres, which
constituted the basis of the ribs and minute veins, and
which now form as it were a skeleton of the leaf.
Alkaline lixivia, in some degree, produce similar effects
to putrefaction.
The Sieur de Flacourt, in his history of Madagas¬
car, relates, that different kinds of cloth are prepared
in that island from the filaments of the bark of certain
trees boiled in strong lye ; that some of these cloths
are very fine, and approach to the softness of silk, but
in durability come short of cotton 5 that others are
coarser and stronger, and last thrice as long as cotton;
and that of these the sails and cordage of his vessel were
made. See also the article Bark.
The same author informs us, that the stalks of nettles
are used for the like purposes in his own country,
France. And Sir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his
letters to Mr Ray, that he has been informed by seve¬
ral, that muslin and callico, and most of the Indian li¬
nens, are made of nettles.
In some of the Swedish provinces, a strong kind of
cloth is said to be prepared from hop stalks : and in
the Transactions of the Swedish Academy for the year
1750, there is an account of an experiment made in
consequence of that report. Of the stalks, gathered
in autumn, about as many were taken as equalled in
bulk a quantity of flax that would have produced a
pound after preparation. The stalks were put into Eiiameius.
water, and kept covered therewith during the winter. y ’
In March they were taken out, dried in a stove, and
dressed as flax. The prepared filaments weighed near¬
ly a pound, and proved fine, soft, and white : They
were spun and woven into six ells of fine strong cloth.
1 he author, Mr Shisler, observes, that hop stalks take
much longer time to rot than flax ; and that, if not
fully rotted, the woody part will not separate, and the
cloth will neither prove white nor fine.
Hemp, flax, and all other vegetable filaments, and
thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably
from wool, hair, silk, and other animal productions,
not only in the principles into which they are resoluble
by fire, but likewise in some of their more interesting
properties, particularly in their disposition to imbibe
colouring matters ; sundry liquors, which give a beau¬
tiful and durable dye to those of the animal, giving no
stain at all to those of the vegetable kingdom.
A solution of copper in aquafortis, which had been
changed blue by an addition of volatile spirit, on being
mixed with a little solution of tin, became turbid and
greenish. Pieces of white silk and flannel boiled, with¬
out any previous preparation, in this mixture, received
a bright deep yellow dye ; whilst pieces of linen, pre¬
pared and unprepared, came out as colourless as they
were put in.
Fishing nets are usually boiled with oak bark or
other like astringents, which render them more lasting.
Those made of flax receive from this decoction a brown¬
ish colour, which, by the repeated alternations of wa¬
ter and air, is in a little time discharged, whilst the fine
glossy brown, communicated by the same means to
silken nets, permanently resists both the air and water,
and stands as long as the animal filaments themselves.
In like manner the stain of ink, or the black dye from
solutions of iron, mixed with vegetable astringents,
proves durable in silk and woollen ; but from linen,
the astringent matter is extracted by washing, and only
the yellow iron mould remains.
The red decoction of cochineal, which, heightened
with a little solution ol tin, gives the fiery scarlet dye
to wool or silk that have been previously impregnated
with solution of tartar, makes no impression upon linen
or cotton prepared in the same manner. M. du Fay
informs us, in the Memoirs of the French Academy for
the year I737> having prepared a mixed cloth
whose warp was of wool and the woof of cotton, and
thoroughly blended the two together by fulling, he still
found the cotton to resist the action of the scarlet liquor,
and the wool to receive the same colour from it as wool
by itself, the stuff’ coming out all over marbled fiery
and white.
Many other instances of this kind are known too
well to the callico printer ; whose grand desideratum it
is, to find means of making linen receive the same co¬
lours that wool does. The physical cause of the dif¬
ference is wholly unknown ; and indeed, of the theory
of dyes in general, we know as yet extremely little.
(See Dyeing). Are animal filaments tubular, and the
colouring atoms received within them P Are vegetable
filaments solid, and the colour deposited on the surface ?
Oi1, does not their different susceptibility of colour de¬
pend rather on the different intrinsic properties of the
two ? There are many instances of a like diversity, even
in
F I L [6s
in the metallic kingdom, where a mechanical difference
in texture can scarcely be presumed to be the cause :
Thus silver receives a deep stain from sulphureous or
putrid vapours, which have no effect upon tin.
Filaments, among botanists. See Botany Index.
FILANDERS, in falconry, a disease in hawks,&c.
consisting of filaments or strings of blood coagulated j
and occasioned by a violent rupture of some vein, by
which the blood extravasating, hardens into these fi¬
gures, and incommodes the reins, hips, &c.
jTjj are also worms as small as thread, and
about an inch long, that lie wrapt up in a thin skin or
net, near the reins of a hawk, apart from either gut or
Corge. This malady is known by the hawk’s poverty ;
by ruffling her tail ; by her straining the fist or perch,
with her pounces j and lastly, by croaking in the mg it,
when the filanders prick her. The disease proceeds
from bad food j and must be remedied in time, to pre¬
vent its spreading over the whole body, and destroying
the bird. These must not be killed as other worms are,
for fear of imposthumes from their corruption, being
incapable of passing away with the hawk’s _ meat.
They must only be stupified, to prevent their being ot-
fensive j and this is done by giving the hawk a clove
of garlic, after which she will feel nothing of the filan¬
ders for 40 days. It will be prudent in the falconer,
when he observes the hawk poor and low, to give
her a clove of garlic once a month by way of pre¬
vention. . _
FILANGIERI, Gaetan, an eminent Italian wri¬
ter on legislation. See Supplement.
FILBERT, or Filberd, the fruit of the corylus,
or hazel. See Corylus, Botany Index.
FILE, among mechanics, a tool used in metal, &c.
in order to smooth, polish, or cut.
This instrument is of iron or forged steel, cut in
little furrows, with chissels and a mallet, this and that
way, and of this or that depth, according to the gram
or touch required. After cutting the file, it must be
tempered with a composition of chimney soot, very
hard and dry, diluted and wrought up with urine,
vinegar, and salt, the whole being reduced to the con¬
sistence of mustard. Tempering the files consists in
rubbing them over with this composition, and covering
them in loam *, after which they are put in a charcoal
fire, and taken out by that time they have acquired a
cherry colour, which is known by a small rod of the
same steel put in along with them. Being taken out
of the fire, they are thrown into cold spring water •,
and when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a
rag} and being clean and dry, are kept from rust by
laying them up in wheat bran. Iron filings require
more heating than steel ones. Files are ot different
forms, sizes, cuts, and degrees of fineness, according to
the different uses and occasions for which they are made.
See Filing.
File, in the art of war, a row of soldiers, standing
one behind another, which is the depth of the battalion
or squadron. The files of a battalion of foot are gene¬
rally three deep ; as are sometimes those of a squadron
of horse. The files must be straight and parallel one
to another.
File, in Law, a thread, string, or wire, upon which
writs and other exhibits in courts and offices are fast¬
ened or filed, for the more safe keeping, and ready
3
4- ] F I L
turning to the same. A file is a record of the courtFj|e
and the filing of a process of a court makes it a re- Filial,
cord of it. An original writ may be filed after judg- V"*
ment given in the cause, issued forth before $ declara¬
tions, &c. are to be filed, and affidavits must be
filed, some before they are read in court, and some
presently when read in court. Before filing a record
removed by certiorari, the justices of B. R. may refuse
to receive it, if it appears to be for delay, &.c. ; and
remand it back for the expedition of justice : but if the
certiorari be once filed, the proceedings below cannot
be revived. An indictment, &c. cannot be amended
after it is filed.
FILIAL, something belonging to the relation of
son. See Son.
The divines usually distinguish between & servile and
i\ filial fear. The most abandoned may have a servile
fear of God, such as that of a slave to his master j but
not a filial fear, i. e. a fear resulting from love and re¬
spect. See Fear.
Filial Piety, the affectionate attachment of children
to their parents j including in it love, reverence, obedi¬
ence, and relief. These are duties prompted equally by
nature and by gratitude, independent of the injunctions
of religion. For where shall we find the person who
hath received from any one benefits so great or so
many, as children from their parents? And it may be
truly said, that if persons are undutiful to their pa¬
rents, they seldom prove good to any other relation.
Profane history furnishes many fine examples of this
amiable virtue ; a few of which we shall select, accord¬
ing to the plan observed in other similar articles.
1. The Roman dictator T. Manlius having exer¬
cised great cruelty over the citizens, was cited at the
expiration of his office to answer for his conduct.
Among other things that were laid to his charge, he
was accused of treating with barbarity one of his own
sons. Manlius, according to Livy, had no other cause
of complaint against this son than his having an impe¬
diment in his speech. For this reason he was banished
far from the city, from his home, and the company ot
those of his own age and fortune, and condemned to
servile works. All were highly exasperated against
such inhuman conduct, except the son himself, who,
under the greatest concern that he should furnish mat¬
ter of accusation against his father, resolved upon a
most extraordinary method to relieve him. One morn¬
ing, without apprising any body, he came to the city
armed with a dagger, and went directly to the house
of the tribune Pomponius, who had accused his fa¬
ther. Pomponius was yet in bed. Young Manlius
sent up his name, and was immediately admitted by
the tribune, who did not doubt but he was come to
discover to him some new instances of his father’s se¬
verity. But Manlius, as soon as he was left alone
with the tribune, drew out his dagger, and presented
it to his breast} declaring he would stab him that mo¬
ment if he did not swear in the form he should dic¬
tate, “ Never to hold the assembly of the people for
accusing his father.” Pomponius, who saw the dag¬
ger glittering at his breast, himself alone, without arms,
and attacked by a robust young man, full of a bold con¬
fidence in his own strength, took the oath demand¬
ed of him and afterwards confessed with a kind of
complacency in the thing, and a sincerity which suffi-
r J ciently
F I L
filial, ciently argued lie was not sorry for what he had done,
,-Y—^ that it was that violence which obliged him to desist
from his design.
2. Among the multitude of persons who were pro¬
scribed under the second triumvirate of Kome, were
the celebrated orator Cicero and his brother Quintus.
The fate of the former, in endeavouring to make his
escape, is related under the article Cicero. The lat¬
ter found means to conceal himself so effectually at
home, that the soldiers could not find him. Enraged
at their disappointment, they put his son to the torture,
in order to make him discover the place of his father’s
concealment j but filial affection was proof against the
most exquisite tortures. An involuntary sigh, and
sometimes a deep groan, was all that could be extorted
from the youth. His agonies were increased ; but
with amazing fortitude he still persisted in his resolu¬
tion of not betraying his father. Quintus was not far
oil} anti it may be imagined better than can be expres¬
sed, how his heart must have been affected with the
sighs and groans of a son expiring in tortures to save
his life. He could bear no longer ; but quitting
the place of his concealment, he presented himself to the
assassins, begging of them to put him to death, and
dismiss the innocent youth, whose generous behaviour
the triumvirs themselves, if informed of the fact, would
judge worthy of the highest approbation. But the in¬
human monsters, without being the least affected with
the tears either of the father or the son, answered, that
they both must die 5 the father because he was proscrib¬
ed, and the son because he had concealed his father.
Then a new contest of tenderness arose who should die
first i but this the assassins soon decided, by beheading
them both at the same time—This anecdote is related
by Appian, Dio, Plutarch, Valerius Maximus, and
other historians.
Z , in vita 3. Cinna, who scrupled no attempt, how atrocious
p' soever, which could serve his purpose, undertook to
get Pomponius Strabo murdered in his tent j but his
son saved his life, which was the first remarkable ac¬
tion of Pompey the Great. The treacherous Cinna,
by many alluring promises, had gained over one Te-
rentius, a confidant of IPompey’s, and prevailed on him
to assassinate the general, and seduce his troops. Young
Pompey being informed of this design a few hours be¬
fore it was to be put in execution, placed a faithful
guard round the prsetorium j so that none of the con-
spirators could come near it. He then watched all
the motions of the camp, and endeavoured to appease
the fury of the soldiers, who hated the general his
father, by such acts of prudence as were worthy of the
oldest commanders. However^ some of the mutineers
having forced open one of the gates of the camp, in
order to desert to Cinna, the general’s son threw him¬
self fiat on his back in their way, crying out, that they
should not break their oath and desert their command¬
er, without treading his body to death. By this
means he put a stop to their desertion, and afterwards
wrought so effectually upon them by his affecting
speeches and engaging carriage, that he reconciled
them to his father.
4. Olympias, Alexander’s own mother, was of such
an unhappy disposition, that he would never allow her
fu«. to have any concern in the affairs of the government.
She used frequently to make very severe complaints on
Vox,. VIII. Part II. f
[ 625 ]
F I L
that account ; but he always submitted to her ill’
humour with great mildness and patience. Antipater, '■
one of his friends, having one day written a long letter
against her to the king then absent, the latter, after
reading it, replied, “Antipater does not know that one
single tear shed by a mother will obliterate ten thou*
sand such letters as this.” A behaviour like this, and
such an answer, show at one and the same time, that
Alexander was both an affectionate son and an able
Filial.
politician.
5. Epaminondas is universally acknowledged to have
been one of the greatest generals and one of the best
men which Greece ever produced. Before him the
city of Thebes was not distinguished by any memorable
action, and after him it was not famous for its vir¬
tues, but its misfortunes, till it sunk into its original
obscurity; so that it saw its glory take birth and" ex¬
pire with this great man. The victory he obtained at
Eeuctra had drawn the eyes and admiration of all the
neighbouring people upon Epaminondas, who looked
upon him as the support of Thebes, as the triumphant
conqueror of Sparta, as the deliverer of Greece : in
a word, as the greatest man, and the most excellent
captain, that ever was in the world. In the midst of
this universal applause, so capable of making the gene¬
ral of an army forget the man for the victor, Epami-
nondas, little sensible to so aflecting and so deserved a
glory, “ My joy (said he) arises from my sense of that
which the news of my victory will give my father and
my mother.”
6. Among an incredible number of illustrious per¬
sons who were falsely accused and put to death by
Nero, was one Bareas Soranus ; a man, as Tacitus in¬
forms us, of singular vigilance and justice in the dis¬
charge of his duty. During his confinement, his
daughter Servilia was apprehended and brought into
the senate, and there arraigned. The crime laid to
her charge was, that she had turned into money all her
ornaments and jewels, and the most valuable part of her
dress, to defray the expence of consulting magicians,
lo this the young Servilia, with tears, replied, That
she had indeed consulted magicians, but the whole of
her inquiry was to know whether the emperor and se¬
nate would afford protection and safety to her dear
and indulgent parent against his accusers. “ With
this view (said she) I presented the diviners, men till
now utterly unknown to me, with my jewels, apparel,
and the other ornaments peculiar to my quality, as I
would have presented my blood and my life, could my
blood and life have procured my father’s liberty. But
whatever this my proceeding was, my unfortunate fa¬
ther was an utter stranger to it; and if it is a crime,
I alone am the delinquent.” She was, however, toge-
gether with her father, condemned to die ; but in what
manner, history is silent. [ Vid. Taciti Annales, lib. vi.
cap. 20.]. ;
7. Valerius Maximus j- likewise relates a very singu- f-T/b
lar fact upon this subject. A woman of illustrious Plinii.Hht
birth had been condemned to be strangled. The Bo- lib. vii. 36.'
man praetor delivered her up to the triumvir, who
caused her to be carried to prison, in order to her be¬
ing put to death. The gaoler, who was ordered to
execute her, was struck with compassion, and could not
resolve to kill her. He chose therefore to let her die
of hunger. Besides which, he suffered her daughter
4 K
Filial
II
Filinsr-
F I L [
to. see her m prison ; taking care, however, that she
brought her nothing to eat. As this continued many
days he was surprised that the prisoner lived so long
without eating; and suspecting the daughter, upon
watching her, he discovered that she nourished her
mother with her own milk. Amazed at so pious, and
at the same time so ingenious an invention, he told the
fact to the triumvir, and the triumvir to the prator,
who believed the thing merited relating in the assembly
of the people. The criminal was pardoned, and a de¬
cree was passed that the mother and daughter should
be subsisted for the rest of their lives at the expence of
the public. .... r cr i
The same author gives a similar instance ot tilial
626 ] F I L
The bastard toothed file is to take out too deep Filing
cuts and file strokes made by the rough file. The fine- ||
toothed file takes out the cuts or file-strokes the has-
tard file made ; and the smooth file those left by the
fine file.
In this order, the files of several cuts are to succeed
each other till the work is as smooth as it can be filed.
After which it may be made yet smoother with emery,
tripoli, &c. See Polishing.
FILIPENDULA, DropWORT, a species of spirtea.
See Spiraea, Botany Index.
FILIX, Fern. See Filices, Botany Index.
FILLAGREE, Filigree, or Filigrane, Work,
a kind of enrichment on gold or silver, wrought deh-
Ihe same aut mr gives a si ' . , r ^ cately, in manner of little threads or grains, or both in-
father Cimonusf who'was^kewise confined in prison, termixed. Tlie word is compounded oi fii o, film,,.
and which is universally known by the name of the Ro
pian Charity. Both these instances appeared so very
extraordinary and uncommon to that people, that they
could only account for them, by supposing that the
love of children to their parents was the first law of
nature. Putaret aliqnis (says our author) hoc contra
naturatn factum esse, nisi prima natures lex esset dih-
gere parentes.
In addition to the foregoing examples, we may re¬
fer to the article ALtNA, where a very noble instance of
filial piety is taken notice of. See also the article PlETAS.
FILIBEG, or Philibeg. See Philibeg.
FILICACIA, Vincent, a celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Florence in 1642. He was a member of
the Academy della Crusca and of that of the Arcadi,
and became secretary to the duke of Tuscany. He died
in 1707. His poems are much esteemed for the deli¬
cacy and nobleness of their sentiments. Scipio de Fi-
licacia, his son, had them all printed together, under
the title of Poesie Fosiano di Vicenza da Filicacia, in
1,707, 4to.
FILICES, (from filum, “ a thread,” quasi filatim
incisai), Ferns ; one of the seven tribes or families of
the vegetable kingdom, according to Linnaeus, by whom
it is thus characterized : “ having their fructification
on the back side of the frondes.” They constitute the
first order in the class cryptogamia; and consist of 16
genera, which are divided into fructificationes, spicatee,
frondosce, et radicates. This order comprehends the
entire 16th class of Tournefort, in whose system the
filices make only a single genus, in the first section of
the above-mentioned class.
Filices, is also an order of plants in fragmenta
methodi naturalis of Linnaeus. See Botany Index.
FILIGRANE, Filigree, or Fillagree, Work.
See Fillagrre.
FILING, one of the principal operations in smith-
ery, &c. succeeding to forging. See File.
The coarser cut files are always to be succeeded by
finer ; and in all the kinds the rule is, to lean heavy
on the file in thrusting it forwards, because the teeth of
the file are made to cut forwards. But in drawing the
file back again for a second stroke, it is to be lightly
lifted just above the work, by reason it cuts not coming
back.
The rough or coarse-toothed file (which, when large,
is called a rubber) serves to take off the unevennesses
of the work, left by the hammer in forging..
“ thread,” and granum, “ grain.” In Latin it is call
filatim elaboratum opus, argentum, aurum.
There is no manufacture in any part of the world,
that has been more admired and celebrated, than the
fine gold and silver fillagree of Sumatra. And what
renders it a matter of greater curiosity is the coarseness
of the tools employed in the workmanship, and which,
in the hands of an European, would not be thought
sufficiently perfect for the most ordinary purposes.-—
They are rudely and inartificially formed, by the gold¬
smith {pandi) from any old iron he can pick up.
When you engage one of them to execute a P|ece
of work, his first request is usually for a piece of iron p ,4I.
hoop, to make his wire-drawing instrument ; an old
hammer head, stuck in a block, serves for an anvil ;
and a pair of compasses is often composed of two old
nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted
in a piece of a preeoo or earthen rice-pot, or sometimes
in a crucible of their own make, of ordinary clay. In
general they use no bellows, but blow the fire with
their mouths, through a joint of bamboo ; and if the
quantity of metal to be melted is considerable, three or
four persons sit round their furnace, which is an old
broken quallee or iron pot, and blow together. At
Padang alone, where the manufacture is more consi¬
derable, they have adopted the Chinese bellows. Their
method of drawing the wire differs but little from that
used by European workmen. When drawn to a suf¬
ficient fineness, they flatten it by beating it on their
anvil ; and when flattened, they give it a twist like
that in the whalebone handle of a punch ladle, by rub¬
bing it on a block of wood with a flat stick. After
twisting they again beat it on the anvil, and by these
means it becomes flat wire with indented edges. With
a pair of nippers they fold down the end of the wire,
and thus form a leaf, or element of a flower in their
work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and
cut off, till they have got a sufficient number of leaves,
which are laid on singly. Patterns of the flowers or
foliage, in which there is not very much variety, are pre¬
pared on paper, of the size of the gold plate on which
the filagree is to be laid. According to this, they be¬
gin to dispose on the plate the larger compartments ot
the foliage, for which they use plain flat wire of a larger
size, and fill them up with the leaves before mentioned.
To fix the work, they employ a gelatinous substance,
made of the red-hot berry called boca sago, ground to
a pulp on trough stone. This pulp they place on a
r r young
f¥ l L [ 627 ] FI L
’illagree, young cocoa nut about the size of a walnut, the top and
Fillet, bottom being cut off. After the leaves have been all
1 v — J placed in order, and stuck on, bit by bit, a solder is pre¬
pared of gold filings and borax, moistened with water,
which they strew over the plate j and then putting it in
the fire for a short time, the whole becomes united.
This kind of work on a gold plate, they call carrangpa-
pan : when the work is open, they call it carrang (rouse.
In executing the latter, the foliage is laid out on a card,
or soft kind of wood, and stuck on, as before describ¬
ed, with the sago berry; and the work, when finish¬
ed, being strewed over with their solder, is put into
the fire, when the card or soft wood burning away, the
gold remains connected. If the piece be large, they
solder it at several times. In the manufacture of bad-
joo buttons, they first make the lower part flat, and
having a mould formed of a piece of buffalo’s horn, in¬
dented to several sizes, each like one half of a bullet
mould, they lay their work over one of these holes,
and with a horn punch they press it into the form of
the button. After this they complete the upper part.
When the filagree is finished, they cleanse it, by boil¬
ing it in water with common salt and alum, or some¬
times lime juice 5 and in order to give it that fine purple
colour which they call sapo, they boil it in water with
brimstone. The manner of making the little balls
with which their works are sometimes ornamented, is
as follows : They take a piece of charcoal, and having
cut it flat and smooth, they make in it a small hole,
which they fill with gold dust, and this melted in the
fire becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at
finishing and polishing the plain parts, hinges, screws,
and the like, being in this as much excelled by the
European artists, as these fall short of them in the fine¬
ness and minuteness of the foliage. The Chinese also
make fillagree mostly of silver, which looks elegant, but
wants likewise the extraordinary delicacy of the Malay
work. The price of the workmanship depends upon the
difficulty or uncommonness of the pattern. In some ar¬
ticles of usual demand, it does not exceed one-third of
the value of the gold j but in matters of fancy, it is ge¬
nerally equal to it.
FILLET, or Filet, in Architecture, denotes a
little square member or ornament used in divers places,
and on divers occasions, but generally as a sort of co-
Tona over a greater moulding.
The fillet is the same with what the French call
reglety bande, and bandelette; the Italians lista or lis-
tella.
Fillet, in Heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure,
containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth
of the common bordure. It is supposed to be with¬
drawn inwards, and is of a different colour from the
field. It runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace
over a cloak.
Fillet is also used for an ordinary drawn like the
bar from the sinister point of the chief across the shield,
in manner of a scarf; though it is sometimes also seen
in the situation of a bend, fesse, cross, &c.
According to Guillim, the fillet is a fourth part of
the chief, and is placed in the chief paint of the escut¬
cheon.
Fillet is also used among painters, gilders, 8cc.
for a little rule or reglet of leaf gold, drawn over cer¬
tain mouldings j or on the edges of frames, pannels,
&c. especially when painted white, by way of enrich- Fillets,
ment. Frltre.
Fillets, in the Manege, are the loins of a horse, » 1 ■
which begin at the place where the hinder part of the
saddle rests.
FILLY, a term among horse-dealers, to denote the
female colt.
FILM, a thin skin or pellicle. In plants, it is used
for that thin, woody skin, which separates the seeds in
the pods, and keeps them apart.
FILTER, or Filtre, in Chemistry, &c. a piece of
woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, some of
which are in the form of hollow inverted cones, used to
filtrate or strain liquors through. The filtre has the
same use and effect with regard to liquids that the sieve
or scarce has in dry matters.
Filtres are of two sorts. The first are simple pieces
of paper or cloth, through which the liquor is passed
without farther trouble. The second are twisted up
like a skain or wick, and first wetted, then squeezed,
and one end put in the vessel that contains the liquor
to be filtrated : the other end is to be out, and hang
down below the surface of the liquor ; by means hereof
the purest part of the liquor distils drop by drop out
of the vessel, leaving the coarser part behind. This
filter acts as a syphon.
Water is freed from various impurities by means of
basins made of porous stones, which vessels must be pe¬
culiarly beneficial in long voyages, and even upon land
they are of considerable benefit, when none but stag¬
nant waters are to be found, or springs issuing through
clay.
A patent was granted in 1790 to a female potter, for
inventing a composition to make filtering basins, as a
succedaueum for that porous stone which is not every
where to be found. She took four out of nine equal
parts of tobacco pipe-clay, and five out of nine equal
parts of sea, river, or pit sand, which she used for mak¬
ing small basins sufficient to contain one gallon of wa¬
ter. Her next proportions were equal parts of sea,
river, or pit sand, and tobacco-pipe clay $ her third
proportions were three out of nine equal parts of tobao-
co-pipe clay $ one out of nine equal parts of Stourbridge
clay, or one out of nine equal parts of Windsor or other
loam : and her fourth proportions were four out of eight
equal parts of the burnt ground clay of which crucibles
are made.
A patent was also granted to Mr Joshua Collier of
Southwark, for a most ingenious method of filtering
and sweetening water, oil, and every other liquid. The
following is the contrivance, which combines the appli¬
cation of machinery with the antiseptic properties of
charcoal.
Fish oil is one of the liquids which he had particular¬
ly in view, to free it from every thing disagreeable,
either in taste, smell, or colour j to accomplish which he
poured a quantity of oil into a convenient vessel, heated
to the temperature of 120* of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter, adding caustic mineral alkali of the specific gravity
of 1.25. He then agitated the mixture, afterwards al¬
lowing it to stand till the sediment subsided $ and then
drew it off into another vessel, with a sufficient quantity
of burnt charcoal finely powdered, and a small quantity
of diluted sulphuric acid, to decompose the sapona¬
ceous matter still suspended in the oil, when the oil be-
4 K 2 came
Filter.
Plate
CCXVII.
fig. I.
F I L [
came clear at the surface. He then agitated the contents
of this vessel, and left the coaly, saline, and aqueous
particles to subside ; afterwards passing it through pro¬
per strainers, when it became quite transparent and fit
for use.
The principle of the improved filtering machines
consists in combining hydrostatic pressure with the mode
of filtering per ascensum, which procures the peculiar
advantage of causing the fluid and its sediment take
opposite directions. The filtering surface remains the
same, while the dimensions of the chamber in which the
sediment is received may be varied. To adapt the ma¬
chines to every purpose for which they are intended,
chambers must be provided of various capacities, for
the precipitated matter. The space required is very
treat with respect to the oil trade, and as all dimen¬
sions will be required occasionally, no particular limits
can be fixed. For distilleries and breweries they may
be smaller in proportion •, and a very small chamber will
be sufficient for domestic economy. If water is to be
freed from noxious particles, it must be made to pass
through an iron box in its way to the filtering chamber,
and the box must contain charcoal finely powdered.
The water is received into this box and delivered by
two apertures, which are opened and closed by cocks.
Another part of the invention consists in filtering
machines in the form of stills, in which charcoal may
be repeatedly burnt after any fluid substances have pas¬
sed through it, for the purpose of freeing them from
noxious particles, or discharging their colouring mat¬
ter.
To the filtering apparatus of Mr Collier, instruments
are attached for discovering the comparative qualities
of oils, which depend in some measure on their specific
gravities; spermaceti oil, when compared with fish oils
being as 875 to 920. To do this, a glass vessel of any
shape most convenient is employed, with a glass bubble,
and a thermometer. If the oil is pure, the bubble
sinks, when the mercury rises to a particular standard.
When spermaceti oil is pure, the bubble floats, though
of the temperature required.
To determine the tendency of oils used for burning
to congeal in cold weather, a freezing mixture may be
put into a phial of thin glass, into which let a thermo¬
meter be immersed, and a single drop of the oil per¬
mitted to fall on the outside of the vessel, where it will
instantly congeal. As the cold produced by the mix¬
ture decreases, let the temperature be observed by the
thermometer at which the oil becomes fluid, and runs
down the side of the glass.
The following is a short description of the apparatus
contrived for this purpose. A (fig. 1. Plate CCXVII.)
is the cistern, into which the water or other liquor to be
filtered is put. B B, is a tube opening into the bottom
of the cistern A, and being put along the bottom of the
machine, conveying the fluid into C C C, the filtering
chamber, which is covered with leather bound down
ropnd its circular rim, and through which leather the
water is percolated. HD, The bason rising above the
level of the chamber, and receiving the filtered li¬
quor. E, The spout by which it runs off’ into a pitcher
or other vessel. F, Another spout furnished with a
cock to draw off the foul water from the chamber when
necessary. G G G, The air tube, which begins above
the level of the ^chamber, is covered with a button,
Filter.
628 ] F I L
which saves the leather from being cut, and has a small
lateral aperture for the air to be carried off. This. ,,
pipe passes along the bottom and up the side, and ri¬
sing above the level of the water in the cistern, is there
closed, except a small lateral aperture through which
the air escapes. H, A guard or rim with cross bars
put over the leather, to keep it from being forced up
by the water. It is fastened down by means of two
notches on opposite sides of the ground, by which it
locks into two staples rivetted into the bottom of the
bason. I, The lid sliding down to cover the water
from dust, and suspended at pleasure by means of
K K, two springs on each tube for that purpose. L M
N O, A cylindrical box containing charcoal, which
is connected with the above by means of the tube P,
and a continuation of the tube B. LM, The water
tube B continued below the charcoal apparatus, so that
the fluid may pass through the same into the cylinder,
from whence it enters the chambers at P, so as to be
filtered through the leather as before described. R K,
Collars which may be unscrewed at pleasure, so as to
detach the charcoal apparatus whenever the charcoal
requires to be purified by heat. S S, Two cocks to
direct the fluid through the charcoal cylinder or im¬
mediately into the filtering chamber.
Fig. 2. A, A. tub or cistern containing the oil to be Fig. a.
filtered, and supplying a tube of sufficient height for
the hydrostatic pressure to operate. B B, A main
tube of wood, tin, leather, or cloth, to which any num¬
ber of bags, C C, of the size and shape of corn sacks,
or any convenient size or shape, may be connected.
These are bound to D D D, straight double iron bars,
furnished with a hinge at one end and a screw at the
other, by opening which the bags may be emptied.
F, A trough underneath, made to receive the filtered
oil from the receivers E E E.
Fig. 3. A, A funnel, cask, or cistern into which the Fig, 3,
fluid is put which passes down. B, A tube fitted into
the same through which it enters. C, An iron still,
or still of any other substance capable of sustaining heat,
full of finely powdered and sifted charcoal, through
the head of which the fluid passes into any receiver.
D, A fire-place of any construction to drive over the
fluid remaining interspersed among the charcoal, and
also to purify the charcoal by an increase of tempera¬
ture when required. E, A cock to let water into the
flues to cool the apparatus for a subsequent operation.
Fig. 4. The trial glass with its thermometer.
Filter is also a charm, supposed to have a virtue Fig. 4,
of inspiring love. The word is derived from (p/X7g*»,
which signifies the same thing, of <ptAw, amo, “ I
love.”
The Greeks, when their love was without success,
had several arts toy procure the affections of their be¬
loved. The Thessalian women were famous for their
skill in this as well as other magical practices. The
means whereby it was effected were of divers sorts; it
was sometimes done by potions called tpi/lga, which are
frequently mentioned in authors of both languages.
Juvenal speaks thus :
Hie magicus affert cantus, hie Thessala vendit
Philtra, quibus valeant mentem vexare mariti.
Their operations were violent and dangerous, and com¬
monly deprived such as drank them of their reason.
Plutarch
Filtering Apparatus
pike PLACE jRLATE CCXVH.
F I N
Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos report that Lucullus
the Roman general first lost his reason, and afterwards
his life, by one of them. Lucretius the poet ended his
life by the same way ; and Cains Caligula, as Sueto¬
nius reports, was driven into a fit of madness by a fil¬
ter given him by his wile Cajsonia, which story is men¬
tioned by the same poet. Ovid likewise assures us, that
this was the usual etFect of such potions.
The ingredients they were made of were of various
sorts; several of which applied by themselves were
thought effectual.
FILTRATION, the act of passing any liquor
through a filter, called also colature, percolation^ and
transcolation. See Filter.
FIMBRliE, FYiragw. The extremities or borders
of the tubae Fallopianae were formerly so called $ the
word signifying n fringed border, which that part re¬
sembles.
FIMBRIATED, in Heraldry, an ordinary with a
narrow border or hem of another tincture.
FIN, in Natural History, a well known part of
fishes, consisting of a membrane supported by rays, or
little bony or cartilaginous ossicles.
The office of the fins has commonly been supposed to
be analogous to that of feathers in fowls 3 and to assist
the fish in its progressive motion, or swimming 3 but the
later naturalists find this a mistake.
The tail is the great instrument of swimming : the
fins only serve to keep the fish upright, and prevent
vacillation or wavering. See Ichthyology Index.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or con¬
cludes a thing 3 as^rtm? judgment, j'wzo/sentence, &c.
Final Cause, is the end for which the thing is done.
The final cause is the first thing in the intention of a
person who does a thing 3 and the last in the execution.
See Cause.
Final Letters, among the Hebrew grammarians,
five letters so called, because they have a different
figure at the end of words from what they have in any
other situation.
Final, in Geography, a port town of Italy, subject
to Genoa, and situated on the Mediterranean, about
37 miles south-west of that city. It was sold to the
Genoese in 1713, by the emperor Charles VI 
E. Long. 9. 12. N. Lat. 44. 30.
FINANCES, in political economy, denote the re¬
venues of a king or state : analogous to the treasury or
exchequer of the English, and the fiscus of the Ro-
mans. The word is derived from the German
“ scraping, usury.” Though Du Cange chooses rallied
to deduce it from the barbarous Latin financia, pres-
tatio pecuniaria.
Council of the Finances, under the former French
government, corresponds to our lords commissioners of
the treasury 3 the comptroller general of the finances,
to our lord high treasurer, &c.
The French had a peculiar kind of figures, or nu¬
merical characters, which they call chififre definance.
FINCH-kind, in Ornithology, a genus of bird?
known by the name of Fringilla. See Fringilla,
Ornithology Index.
Finch, Heneage, earl of Nottingham, the son of
Sir Heneage I inch, some time recorder of London,
and of a younger branch of the Winchelsea family, was
horn in 1621. By his good parts and diligence, he
[ 629 ]
FIN
became a noted proficient in the municipal laws ; was
made solicitor general by Charles II. on his restora¬
tion, and was very active in the prosecution of the re¬
gicides. In 1670 he was appointed attorney gene¬
ral 3 about three years after, lord keeper of the great
seal, on the removal of the earl of Shaftesbury 3 and
lord chancellor in 1675. He was created earl of Not¬
tingham in 16813 and died in the year following, be- Blackst.
mg quite worn out by the fatigues of business. He Comment.
published several speeches on the trials of the judges of
King Charles I. with some few other things 3 and left
behind him Chancery Reports in MS.
^ IINE, that which is pure and without mixture.
The term is particularly used in speaking of gold or
silver.
Fine, in Law, hath divers applications. Sometimes
it is used for a formal conveyance of lands or tenements,
or of any thing inheritable, being in esse temporis finis,
in order to cut olf all controversies. Others define it
to be a final agreement between persons, concerning
any lands or rents, &c. of which any suit or writ is de¬
pending between them in any court.
I ine, sometimes signifies a sum of money paid for
entering lands or tenements let by lease 3 and some¬
times a pecuniary mulct lor an offence committed a-
gainst the king and his laws, or against the lord of the
manor.
Fines for Alienation, in Feodal Law. One of the
attendants or consequences of tenure by vassalship,
KniGin-Service, was that of fines due to the lord for
every alienation, whenever the tenant had occasion to
make over his land to another. This depended on the
nature ol the feodal connection 3 it not being reason¬
able, nor allowed, that a feudatory should transfer his
lord’s gift to another, and substitute a new tenant to
do the service in his own stead, without the consent of
the lord : and, as the feodal obligation was considered
as reciprocal, the lord also could not alienate his seig-
nory without the consent of his tenant, which consent
of his was called an attornment. The restraint upon
the lord soon wore away; that upon the tenant conti¬
nued longer. For when every thing came in process
of time to he bought and sold, the lords would not
grant a license to their tenants to aliene, without a fine
being paid 3 apprehending that, if it was reasonable
for the heir to pay a fine or relief on the renovation of
his paternal estate, it was much more reasonable that
a stranger should make the same acknowledgment on
his admission to a newly purchased feud. In England,
these fines seem only to have been exacted from the
king’s tenants in capite, who were never able to aliene
without a license: but as to common persons, they
were at liberty by magna charta, and the statute of
quia emptores (if not earlier), to alienate the whole of
their estate, to be holden ol the same lord as they
themselves held it of before. But the king’s tenants
in capita, not being included under the general words
of these statutes, could not aliene without a license :
for if they did, it was in ancient strictness an absolute
forfeiture of the land ; though some have imagined
otherwise. But this severity was mitigated by the sta¬
tute 1 Edw. III. c. 12. which ordained, that in such
case the lands should not be forfeited, but a reasonable
fine he paid to the king. Upon one statute it was
settled, that one-third of the yearly value should be
paid
FIN [ 630 ]
Fines paid for a license of alienation; but, if tbe tenant
presumed to aliene without a license, a full year s va-
Fi'igal. lUe should be paid. These fines were at last totally
 'r—' taken away by statute 12 Car. II. c. 24. See Knight-
Service.
FiNE-Drawing, or Rentering, a dexterous sewing-up
or rejoining the parts of any cloth, stuff, or the like,
torn or rent in the dressing, wearing, &c. _
It is prohibited to fine-draw pieces of foreign manu¬
facture upon these of our own, as has formerly been
practised. Jee Rentering.
Fine-Stiller, in the distillery. That branch of the
art which is employed on the distilling^the spirit from
treacle or other preparations or recrements of sugar, is
C2l\\z& fine-stilling, by way of distinction from malt-still¬
ing ; and the person who exercises this part of the trade
is called a fine-stiller. < # .
The operation in procuring the spirit from sugar is
the same with that used in making the malt spirit $ a
wash of the saccharine matter being made with water
from treacle, &c. and fermented with yeast. It is usual
to add in this case, however, a considerable portion of
malt, and sometimes powdered jalap, to the ferment¬
ing backs. The malt accelerates the fermentation,
and makes the spirit come out the cheaper, and the
jalap prevents the rise of any musty head on the sur¬
face of the fermenting liquor, so as to leave a greater
opportunity for the free access of the air, and thus to
shorten tbe work, by turning the foamy into a hissing
fermentation.
FINERS o/'Gold and Silver, are those who pu-
rjfy and part those metals from other coarser ones by
fire and acids. They are also called parters in our old
law books, and sometimes departers.
FINERY, in the iron works, is one of the two
forges at which they hammer the sow or pig iron.
Into the finery they first put the pigs of iron, pla-
cjng three or four ot them together behind the fire,
with a little of one end thrust into it; where, soften¬
ing by degrees, they stir and work them with long
bars of iron, and expose at different times different
parts to the blast of the bellows, in order to refine it
as equally as possible, till the metal runs together with
a round mass or lump, which they call a half bhom.
They then take this out, and give it a few strokes with
their sledges ; afterwards they carry it to a great heavy
hammer, raised by the motion of a water wheel; where,
applying it dexterously to the blows, they presently
beat it out into a thick short square. This they put
into the finery again, and heating it red hot, they
work it under the same hammer till it comes to be in
the shape of a bar in the middle, hut with two square
knobs at the ends, which they call an ancony. It is
then carried into the other forge called the chaffry.
FINEERING. See Veneering.
FINESSE, a French term, of late current in Eng¬
lish. Literally, it is of no farther import than our
JLnefuh fineness ; but among us it is chiefly used to de¬
note that peculiar delicacy or subtility perceived in
works of the mind, and the nicest and most secret and
sublime parts of any science or art.
It is sometimes used to express that kind of subtility
made use for the purposes of deception.
FINGaL, king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia.
He flourished in the third century : and according to
3
the Irish histories died in the year 283, although there Fing»|,
is some reason from Ossian’s poems for placing his'" v*
death a few years later. Fingal was descended in all
probability from those Celtic tribes who were the first
inhabitants of Britain. Tradition, and the poems of
Ossian, give him a long line of royal ancestors, such as
Combal, Trenmor, Trathal, &c. who had all reigned
over the same territory. Whether this territory was
bounded by the Caledonian forest, or extended some¬
what farther to the south, towards the Roman pro¬
vince, is uncertain; but there is no doubt of its hav¬
ing extended over all the north and west Highlands,
comprehending the Hebrides, whose petty chiefs were
all subject to the king of Morven. His principal place
of residence was Selma, which was probably in the
neighbourhood of Glenco, supposed to be the Cona
of Ossian; though some imagine it to have been in
Strath-Conan in Moray. The truth seems to be,
that as Fingal and his people lived by hunting, they
often shifted their habitations. Hence, in all parts of
the Highlands we find, in the names of places, build¬
ings, &c. such monuments as justify their several
claims for the honour of Fingal’s residence. Fingal
acquired great fame by his prowess in arms. He made
many successful incursions into the Roman province,
from whence he carried away those spoils which his
son so often mentions under the names of the it'tne oj
the stranger, and the wax of the stranger. By sea we
find him frequently making voyages to Scandinavia,
the Orkneys, and Ireland ; called by Ossian Lochlin,
Innistore and Ullin. Several of these expeditions were
celebrated by his son in epic poems, of which two only
remain, Fingal and Temora. In the last of these
poems, we find Fingal fighting together with his
grandson Oscar. How long he lived afterwards is un¬
certain. He is Said to have died a natural death ; and
therefore none of his son’s poems relate to this event,
though it is occasionally mentioned in many of them.
w Did thy beauty last, O Ryno ? Stood the strength
of car-borne Oscar ? Fingal himself passed aw ay ; and
the halls of his fathers have forgot his steps. The blast
of the north opens thy gates, O king, and I behold
thee sitting on mist, dimly gleaming in all thine arms.
Thy form now is not the terror ot the valiant; but
like a watery cloud, when we see the stars behind it,
with their weeping eyes. Thy shield is like the aged
moon ; thy sword, vapour halt kindled with fire. Dim
and feeble is the chief who travelled in brightness be¬
fore. But thy steps are on the winds of the desert, and
the storms darken in thy hand. Thou takest the sun
in thy wrath, and hidest him in thy clouds. The sons
of little men are afraid, and a thousand showers de¬
scend.”—Berrathon. _ .
The character of Fingal (Dr Blair obser\6S, i>
perhaps the most perfect that ever was drawn by a
poet, for we may boldly defy all the writers of anti¬
quity to show us any hero equal to Fingal. Through¬
out the whole of Ossian’s Works, he is presented to us
in all that variety of lights which give the full display
of a character. In him concur almost all the qualities
that can ennoble human nature ; that can either make
us admire the hero, or love the man. He is not only
unconquerable in war, but he makes his people happy
by his wisdom in the days of peace. He is truly the
father of his people. He is known by the epithet of
‘ Fincal
FIN [ 631 ] FIR
nRal. * Fingal of the mildest look,’ and distinguished on
v—' every occasion by humanity and generosity. He is
merciful to his foes, full of affection to his children,
full of concern about his friends, and never mentions
Agandecca, his first love, without the utmost tender¬
ness. He is the universal protector of the distressed j
none ever went sad from Fingal.—* O Oscar ! bend
the strong in arms, but spare the feeble hand. Be
thou a stream of many tides against the foes of thy
people ; but like the gale that moves the grass to
those who ask thine aid : so Trenmor lived ; such Tra-
thal was ; and such has Fingal been. My arm was the
support of the injured ; the weak rested behind the
lightning of my steel.’ These were the maxims of
true heroism to which he formed his grandson. His
fame is represented as everywhere spread j the greatest
heroes acknowledge his superiority ; his enemies trem¬
ble at his name ; and the highest encomiums that can
be bestowed on one whom the poet would most exalt,
is to say, That his soul was like the soul of Fingal.
Wherever he appears, we behold the hero. The ob¬
jects he pursues are always great; to bend the proud,
to protect the injured, to defend his friends, to over¬
come his enemies bv generosity more than by force.
Some strokes of human imperfection and frailty are
what usually give us the most clear view and the most
sensible impression of a character, because they present
to us a man such as we have seen ; they recall known
features of human nature. When poets go beyond
this range, and attempt to describe a faultless hero,
they, for the most part, set before us a sort of vague
undistinguishable character, such as the imagination
cannot lay hold of, or realize to itself as the object of
affection. But Fingal, though exhibited without any
of the common human failings, is nevertheless a real
man ; a character which touches and interests every
reader.”
We may observe, that Fingal appears to have been
no less a poet than a warrior j at* least, in all those
passages ascribed to him in the poems of his son, there
is a grandeur and loftiness that elevates them above the
common style even of Ossian. The following passage
from the poem of Carthon may be taken as a speci¬
men of Fingal’s poetry.—-’ Raise, ye bards,’ said the
mighty Fingal, ‘ the praise of the unhappy Moina.
Gall her ghost, with your songs, to our hills j that she
may rest with the fair of Morven, the sunbeams of other
days, and the delight of the heroes of old.—I have seen
the walls of Balclutha, but they were desolate. The
fire had resounded in the halls ; and the voice of the
people is heard no more. The stream of Clutha was
removed from its place by the fall of the walls. The
thistle shook, there, its lonely head : the moss whistled
to the wind. The fox looked out from the windows ;
the rank grass of the wall waved round his head; De¬
solate is the dwelling of Moina: silence is in the house
of her fathers. Raise the song, of mourning, O bards,
over the land of strangers. They have but fallen be¬
fore us ; for, one day we must fall.—Why dost thou
build the hall, son of the winged days P Thou lookest
from thy towers to-day; yet a few years, and the blast
of the desert comes $ it bowls in thy empty court, and
whistles round thy half-worn shield.—And let the blast
of the desert come ! We shall be renowned in our day.
The mark of my arm shall be in the battle, and my
name in the song of bards. Raise the song*, send round Fingal
the shell: and let joy be heard in my hall. When {(
thou, sun of heaven, shalt fail ! if thou shall fail, thou , Fir€*
mighty light ! if thy brightness is for a season, like
Fingal $ our fame shall survive thy beams.’—Such was
the joy of Fingal in the day of his joy. His thousand
bards leaned forward from their seats, to hear the voice
of the king. It was like the music of the harp on the
gale of the spring. Lovely were thy thoughts, O
Fingal ! Why had not Ossian the strength of thy soul ?
But thou standest alone, my father j and who can equal
the king of Morven ?” See Ossian.
FINGERS, in Anatomy, the extreme part of the
hand, divided into five members. See Anatomy,
N° 56.
FINING 0/'Liquors. See Clarification.
FINISTERRE, the most westerly cape or promon¬
tory of Spain, in 10. 15. W. Long, and 43. N. Lat.
This cape is likewise the most westerly part of the
continent of Europe.
FINITE, something hounded or limited; in contra--
distinction to infinite.
FINLAND, the duchy of, is hounded on the west
by the gulf of Bothnia, on the east by Russia, on*
the south by the gulf of Finland and Ingria, and on
the north by Bothnia and Lapland. It is about 200
miles in length, and almost as much in breadth. It
contains many lakes; on which are several islands,
which are generally rocks or inaccessible mountains.
The inhabitants are small of stature, capable of endur¬
ing hardships, and good soldiers. The Russians con¬
quered the Swedish part of Finland in 1808, and now
possess the whole. The population of all Finland is
about 1,100,100. The Fins speak a language of their
own, quite different both from the Russian and the
Swedish. As to religion, the Fins are in general Lu¬
therans. The Russians have divided the country into
13 circles ; the capital of the whole province is Abo.
The climate of Finland is mild, compared with that
of Northern Russia. It is an agreeable country, di¬
versified with mountains, forests, lakes, meadows, and;
pleasant fields. The inhabitants salt the fish they do ■
not consume themselves, and send it into foreign,
countries.
FINNINGIA, or Fenninia, in Ancient Geographyi
the true reading for Ehingia in Pliny, which he makes
an island, but is more truly a peninsula. Now FlN-
LAND* a province of Sweden. Fenni, or Finni, the
people; whose ferocity was extraordinary, poverty ex¬
treme, herbs their food, skins their covering, and the
ground their couch : regardless of man and of gods,,
they attained to a very difficult thing, not to have a*
single wish to form, (Tacitus).
FIR-tree. See Pinus, Botany Index.
FIRE, in Physiology, signifies that subtile invisible
substance by which bodies are expanded or enlarged in.
bulk, and become hot to the touch ; fluids are rarefied
into vapour; solid bodies become fluid, and in like
manner are at last dissipated, or, if incapable of being
carried off in vapour, are at length melted into glass.
It seems likewise to be the chief agent in nature on
which animal and vegetable life have an immediate
dependence, and without which it does not appear that
nature itself could subsist a single moment. ^
The disputes concerning fire, which for a long time-
divided}
FIR [ 632 ] FIR
Fire. divided philosophers, have now in a great measure,
i"w' though not wholly, subsided. The celebrated philo¬
sophers of the last century, Bacon, Boyle, and Newton,
were of opinion that fire was no distinct substance from
other bodies, but that it consisted entirely in the vio¬
lent motion of the parts of any body. As no motion,
however, can be produced without a cause, they were
obliged to have recourse to a mechanical force or im¬
pulse as the ultimate cause of fire in all cases. Thus
Boyle tells us, that “ when a piece of iron becomes hot
by hammering, there is nothing to make it so, except
the forcible motion of the hammer impressing a vehement
and variously determined agitation on the small parts of
the iron.” Bacon defines heat, which he makes syno¬
nymous with fire, to be “an expansive undulatory mo¬
tion in the minute particles of a body, whereby they
tend with some rapidity from a centre towards a cir¬
cumference, and at the same time a little upwards.”
Sir Isaac Newton said nothing positive upon the sub¬
ject j but conjectured that gross bodies and light might
be convertible into one another ; and that great bodies
of the size of our earth, when violently heated, might
continue and increase their heat by the mutual action
and reaction of their parts.
But while the mechanical philosophers thus endea¬
voured to account for the phenomena of fire upon the
same principles which they judged sufficient to ex¬
plain those of the universe in general, the chemist as
strenuously asserted that fire was a fluid of a certain
kind, distinct from all others, and universally present
throughout the whole globe. Boerhaave particularly
maintained this doctrine ; and in support of it brought
the following argument, that steel and flint would strike
fire, and produce the very same degree of heat in Nova
Zembla, which they would do under the equator. Other
arguments were drawn from the increased weight of
metalline calces, which they supposed to proceed from
the fixing of the element of fire in the substance whose
weight was thus increased. By these experiments Mr
Boyle himself seems to have been staggered j as he pub¬
lished a treatise on the possibility of making fire and
flame ponderable j though this was directly contrary to
his own principles already quoted. For a long time,
however, the matter was most violently disputed ; and
the mechanical philosophers, though their arguments
were equally inconclusive with those of their adversa¬
ries, at last prevailed through the prejudice in favour
of Sir Isaac Newton, who indeed had scarce taken any
active part in the contest.
That the cause of fire cannot be any mechanical
motion which we can impress, is very evident \ because
on mechanical principles an effect must always be pro¬
portionable to the cause. In the case of fire, how¬
ever, the effect is beyond all calculation greater than the
cause, supposing the latter to be only a mechanical per¬
cussion, as in the case of hammering iron till it be red
hot. By a few strokes of a hammer, the particles of
a piece of iron, we shall allow, may be set in a violent
motion, and thus produce fire. If, however, we di¬
rect the motion of these particles upon another body
whose parts are at rest, and in some degree coherent,
it is plain that the latter will resist and diminish that
motion of the particles already moved, in proportion
to their vis inertice, as well as the cohesion of the parts
of the second body, if indeed we can suppose the vis
inertice of matter to be different from the effect of gra. pjre
vitation, cohesion, or some other power acting upon y—
it. By no argumentation whatever, then, can we show
upon mechanical principles, why fire should have such
a tendency to increase and multiply itself without end,
as we see it has, even abstracting from all considera¬
tion of the necessity of air for continuing the action of
fire.
The action of the air in augmenting and continu¬
ing the power of fire, seems scarce at all to have been
considered by those who first undertook an investiga¬
tion of the subject. It evidently gave rise to the
Hutchinsonian hypothesis, that fire, light, and air,
were convertible into one another. This, however, is
equally untenable with the mechanical hypothesis j for
later discoveries have shown, that our atmosphere is
composed of two distinct fluids, only one of which is
fit for supporting flame ; and if we should suppose this
to be the only proper air, it is in like manner demon¬
strated, that this pure fluid is not homogeneous, but
composed of a gravitating and non-gravitating sub¬
stance $ the latter of which only has the properties of
fire $ so that this element is still as invisible as ever j
nor can it be shown by any experiment that^ire pet' se
has ever been changed into a palpable or gravitating
substance.
The experiments which first seemed to bring this
dispute to a decision were those of Dr Black, concern¬
ing what he called latent heat; on which some other
names, such as absolute heat, specific fire, &c. have been
bestowed, very little to the advancement of science in
general. From these discoveries it appears, that fire
may exist in bodies in such a manner as not to discover
itself in any other way than by its action upon the
minute parts of the body; but that suddenly this
action may be changed in such a manner as no longer
to be directed upon the particles of the body itself,
but upon external objects : in which case we then per¬
ceive its action by our sense of feeling, or discover it
by the thermometer, and call it sensible heat. This ex¬
pression, it must he owned, is improper $ and the use of
the word heat, instead of fire, has produced some confu¬
sion, which it is not now easy to avoid in speaking on
these subjects. By the word heat, we ought always to
understand the effect of fire, or the fluid acting in a
certain manner, rather than the mere element itself,
which, it is certain, from the experiments just men¬
tioned, may exist in substances actually cold to the
touch.
From this discovery made by Dr Black, along with
many others in electricity, and recorded at length in
various articles of this work, it is now almost univer¬
sally allowed, that fire is a distinct fluid, capable of be¬
ing transferred from one body to another. But when
this wras discovered, another question no less perplex¬
ing occurred, viz. what kind of fluid it was •, or whe¬
ther it bears any anology to those with which we are
better acquainted ? Here we find two fluids, viz. the
solar light, and the electric matter, both of which oc¬
casionally act as fire, and which therefore seem like¬
ly to be all the same at bottom. By the vulgar, in¬
deed, the matter has long ago been determined ; and the
rays of the sun, as well as the electrical fluid, have been
promiscuously denominated elementary fire. Philoso¬
phers, indeed, have withheld their assent $ though
their
FIR [ 633 ] FIR
their reasons for so doing are by no means apparent.
j The most strange suppositions, however, have been
made concerning the nature of both those fluids ; and
on the most slender grounds imaginable, or rather on
no grounds at all, they have been supposed to be phlo¬
giston itself, or to contain a large proportion of it.
Mr Scheele went so far in this way as to form an hypo¬
thesis, which he endeavoured to support by some expe¬
riments, that fire is composed of dephlogisticated air
and phlogiston. But it is now ascertained beyond all
possibility of dispute, that the result of such a combina¬
tion is not fire, but fixed air; so that we need not take
any farther notice of this hypothesis than just to observe,
that it would have been altogether untenable, even
though this discovery had not been made ; because the
dephlogisticated air itself is not a simple but a com¬
pound substance, as has already been observed ; and
that in all cases of combustion the one part of the air
is separated from the other.
It was long ago observed by Sir Isaac Newton, that
heat was certainly conveyed by a medium more subtile
than the common air; because two thermometers, one
included in the vacuum of an air pump, the other
placed in the open air, at an equal distance from the
fire, would grow equally hot in near the same time.
The consequence of this, had he pursued the thought,
was, that fire itself was equally present in all places, and
as active where there was no terrestrial matter as where
there was. New improvements in the air pump have
enabled succeeding philosophers to make more perfect
vacuums, such as it has been supposed even the electric
matter cannot pass through. It is not to he doubted,
however, (hat, even there, the thermometer would be
heated by a fire as well as in the open air. Fire, there¬
fore, exists and acts where there is no other matter,
and of consequence is a fluid per se, independent of
every terrestrial substance, without being generated or
compounded of any thing we are yet acquainted with.
To determine the nature of the fluid, we have only to
consider whether any other can he discovered which
will pass through the perfect vacuum just mentioned,
and act there as fire. Such a fluid we find in the solar
light, which is well known to act even in vacuo as the
most violent fire. The solar light will likewise act in
the very same manner in the most intense cold ; for
M. de Saussure has found, that on the cold mountain
top the sunbeams are equally, nay, more powerful, than
on the plain below. It appears, therefore, that the
solar light will produce heat independent of any other
substance whatever ; that is, where no other body is
present, at least as far as we can judge, except the light
itself and the body to he acted upon. We cannot
therefore avoid conclbding, that a certain modification
of the light of the suh is the cause which produces hefet,
expansion, vapour, &c. and answers to the rest of tfie
characters given in our definition of fire, and that in¬
dependent of any other substance whatever.
For a further discussion of this subject, see Chemis-
trt and Electricity Index.
Wild Fire, a kind of artificial or factitious fire,
which burns even under water, and that with greater
violence than out of it.
It is composed of sulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum, and
bitumen ; and is only extinguishable by vinegar mixed
with sand and urine, or by raw hides.
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
Its motion or tendency is said to he contrary to that Fire
of natural fire, and always follows the direction in
which it is thrown ; whether it be downwards, side-
wise, or otherwise. The French call it Greek fire, 01
feu Grequois, because first used by the Greeks, about
the year 660 : as is observed by the Jesuit Petavius, on
the authority of Nicetas, Theophanes, Cedrenus, &c.
The inventor, according to the same Jesuit, was an
engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Calhnicus, who
first applied it in the sea-fight commanded by Constan¬
tine Pogonates, against the Saracens, near Cyzicus, in
the Hellespont; and with such effect, that he burnt
the whole fleet therewith wherein were 30,000 men.
But others will have it of a much older date, and hold
Marcus Gracchus the inventor : which opinion is sup¬
ported by several passages both in the Greek and Pio-
man writers, which shows it to have been anciently used
by both these nations in their wars.
Constantine’s successors used it on divers occasions
with equal advantage as himself: and what is remark¬
able enough is, that they ivere so happy as to keep the
secret of the composition to themselves, so that no other
nation knew it in the year 960.
Hugh king of Burgundy, demanding ships of the
emperor Leo, for the siege of Fresne, desired likewise
the Greek fire.
F. Daniel gives a good description of the Greek
fire, in his account of the siege of Damietta under St
Louis. Every body, says that author, was astonished
with the Greek fire, which the Turks then prepared ;
and the secret whereof is now lost. They threw it out
of a kind of mortar; and sometimes shot it with an
odd sort of cross-how, which was strongly bent by
means of a handle or winch, of much greater force than
the mere arm. That thrown with the mortar some¬
times appeared in the air of the size of a tun, with a
long tail, and a noise like that of thunder. The French
by degrees got the secret of extinguishing it, in which
they succeeded several times.
Machine for preserving from Fire. This machine Arm. fa*.
consists of a pole, a rope, and a basket. Jhe pole isxviii, uy-
of fir, or a common scaflold pole, of any convenient
length from 36 to 46 feet; the diameter at bottom, or
greatest end, about five inches ; and at the top, or smal¬
lest end, about three inches. At three feet from the
top is a mortoise through the pole, and a pulley fixed
to it of nearly the same diameter with the pole in that
part. The rope is about three quarters of an inch dia¬
meter, and twice the length of the pole, with a spring
hook at one end, to pass through the ring in the handle
of the basket when used : it is put through the mortise
over the pulley, and then drawn tight on each side to
near the bottom of the pole, and made fast there till
wanted. The basket should he of strong wicker-work,
three feet and a half long, two feet and a half wide,
rounded off at the corner, and four feet deep, round¬
ing every way at the bottom. To the top of the basket
is fixed a strong iron curve or handle, with an eye
or ring in the middle ; and to one side of the basket,
near the top, is fixed a small cord or guide-rope of
about the length of the pole. When the pole is raised,
and set against a house over the window from which
any persons are to escape, the manner of using it is so
plain And obvious, that it needs not be described. The
most Convenient distance from the house for the foot
4 L of
FIR
[ 634 ]
F 1 R
of the pole to stand, where practicable, is about 12 or
14 feet If two strong iron straps, about three teet
lone, rivetted to a bar across and spreading about x4
inches at the foot, were fixed at the bottom of the pole,
this would prevent its turning round or slipping on the
pavement. And if a strong iron hoop, or ferrule, ri¬
vetted (or welded) to a semicircular piece ot iron
spreading about 12 inches, and pointed at the ends,
were fixed on at the top of the pole, it would prevent
its sliding against the wall. . .
When these two last mentioned irons are nxed on,
they give the pole all the steadiness ot a ladder j and
because it is not easy, except to persons who have been
used to it, to raise and set upright a pole ot 40 feet or
more in length, it will be convenient to have two small
poles or spars of about two inches diameter, fixed to
the sides of the great pole at about two or three feet
above the middle of it, by iron eyes rivetted to two
plates so as to turn every way ; the lower end of these
spars to reach within a foot of the bottom ot the gieat
pole, and to have ferrules and short spikes to prevent
sliding on the pavement, when used occasionally to sup¬
port the great pole like a tripod. There should be
two strong ash trundles let through the pole, one at
four feet and one at five feet from the bottom, to stand
out about eight inches on each side, and to serve as
handles, or to twist the rope round in lowering a very
heavy weight. If a block and pulley were fixed at about
the middle of the rope, above the other pulley, and the
other part of the rope made to run double, it would di¬
minish any weight in the basket nearly one half, and be
top of the house, windows, &c. when he threw in one
of the barrejs containing the preparation, which imme- Wi
diately quenched the flames j a second barrel entirely
cleared the smoke away •, and the whole was executed
to the satisfaction of the spectators, and to the no small
satisfaction of the inventor, who was about to return
home, when unexpectedly the flames broke out again,
supposed to be occasioned by a small quantity of com¬
bustible matter being introduced and set on fire secretly
by some malicious person. Upon this the wrong-head¬
ed mob fell upon Mr Fuches, and beat him most un¬
mercifully, so that he narrowly escaped with his life.
He soon after left the country, and never could be
prevailed on (though strongly persuaded by some of
the most eminent citizens) to return. It is said, another
experiment of the same kind was tried in the year 1761
in Holland-, but rendered abortive through the per¬
verseness of the populace.
Attempts of a similar nature have met with a better
reception in England. Of these the most successful
was that of Mr Godfrey, whose contrivance is thus
described by Mr Ambrose Godfrey, grandson to the
inventor. “ The machine to be employed consists of a
small portion of gunpowder closely confined $ which,
when animated by fire, acts by its elastic force upon a
proper medium, and not only divideth it into the mi¬
nutest atoms, but dispersetb it also in every direction, so
as immediately to extinguish any fire within a certain
distance. This medium is a liquor strongly impregnated
with a preparation of antiphlogistic principles, which by
their action upon burning materials extinguish the flames
out of a chamber, which it might be dangerous to at¬
tempt by the stairs.
It has been proved by repeated trials, that such a
pole as we have been speaking of can be raised ft’0'™
the ground, and two or three persons taken out of the
upper windows of a house, and set down safely in the
street, in the space of 35 seconds, or a little more than
half a minute. Sick and infirm persons, women, chil¬
dren, and many others, who cannot make use ot a
ladder, may be safely and easily brought down from
any of the windows of a house on fire by this machine,
and, by putting a short pole through the handles of the
basket, may be removed to any distance without being
taken out of the basket. The pole must always have
the rope ready fixed to it, and may be conveniently
laid up upon two or three iron hooks under any shade
or gateway, and the basket should be kept at the
watch-house. When the pole is laid up, the two spars
should always be turned towards the head of it. The
basket should be made of peeled rods, and the pole and
spars painted of a light stone colour, to render it more
visible when used in the. night.
Machines for extinguishing Fire. In the year 1734,
the state of Sweden offered a premium of 20,000 crowns
for the best method of stopping the progress o£.;acci-
dental fires j when one Mr Fucbes, a German physician,
made a preparation for that end, and the experiment
was made on a house built on purpose of dry fir, at
Legard island. In the building were placed several
tubs of tar and pitch, and a great quantity of chips,
all which were set on fire ; flames issuing through the
sparks, notwithstanding the admission of the air, from
kindling the flames afresh. By this means, the great
point is obtained, in giving sufficient time for totally
extinguishing any remains of fire.
“ They who presume that water only will perform
this will find themselves greatly mistaken, as the draught
of air will certainly rekindle the neighbouring mate¬
rials, which are very fit to receive a fresh flame, the fire
not being extinguished by the quantity of water, but
rather by the expansion and rarefaction of its particles.
There are several sizes of these machines, from live to
fifty pounds weight, in a portable and rather small com¬
pass, and may generally be carried to any place where
a man can go himself. .
“ But though these machines will prevent great tires
by a timely application, they will not extinguish them
after they have reached a frightful height, and several
houses, perhaps near a whole street,are in flames. Ihe
floors must be standing, and access to the building
safe, otherwise no person can be supposed to approach
near enough to apply them in a proper manner. Every
fire has its beginning for the most part m some apart¬
ment : and, as soon as discovered, the family, instead 0
losing all presence of mind, should immediately app y
one or more of these machines, which will then fully
answer the intention, The proper time of applying
them, supposes that they are ready at hand. It win
be in vain to think of fetching them from any consider¬
able distance, as it will then be too late for them to
perform any important service : except indeed being the
probable means of saving some adjacent house, by ex-
1 tmeuishing
F I R
FIR [ 63S ]
tingulsliing the flames as often as they break out, till
1 the building first on fire is totally consumed, and, by-
falling into ruins, leaves the other in perfect safety.”
On the 19th of May 1761, at noon, Mr Godfrey’s
experiment for extinguishing fire, was tried in a house
erected for that purpose, near Mary-le-bone. Their
royal highnesses, the duke of York, Prince William
Henry, Prince Henry Frederick, a great number of
persons of rank and distinction, and many of the learn¬
ed world, gave their attendance on this singular occa¬
sion. The house, which was of brick, consisted of three
rooms one above another, a staircase, chimney, lath
and plaster ceilings, and a kind of wainscotting round
the rooms, of rough deal. Exactly at 12 o’clock the
ground room, and that up one pair of stairs, were set
on fire by lighting the faggots and shavings laid in
there for that purpose : in about 15 minutes the wain¬
scot of the under room was thought to be sufficiently
in flames, and three of the machines were thrown in
which, by almost immediate and sudden explosions, in¬
stantaneously extinguished the flames, and the very
smoke in that apartment in a few minutes totally dis¬
appeared. By this time, the firemen, &c. who had the
care of thowing in the machines, gave an alarm that
the staircase had taken fire, and that it was necessary
directly to go to work upon the next room $ which was
accordingly done, and with the same effect. The expe¬
riment, however, hitherto did not universally satisfy :
in the last instance especially it was thought to be too
hastily put in execution $ and the populace without side
the paling, who were supposed to amount to near
20,000, and whose curiosity, from the very nature of
their situation, remained much dissatisfied, began to
grow rather riotous, and talked of a second bottle con¬
juror. For the sake of the experiment, therefore, and
to remove all manner of doubt, Mr Godfrey consented
to a third experiment in the upper room, which was
entirely of wood. The flames were now suffered to get
to a considerable height, and even the window frames
destroyed, before the machines were thrown in : which,
however, answered exactly as the former had done j
and, being quite in sight of the outstanders, met with
universal approbation.
These machines of Mr Godfrey’s, it is evident, would
be of great use in extinguishing fires on shipboard j and
might be considered as a no less necessary part of a
ship’s lading, than her stores or ammunition.
The hint of these machines is said to have been ta¬
ken by Mr Godfrey from the invention of one Zachary
Greyl, who exhibited machines similar to those of Mr
Godfrey, before persons of the first rank, but without
meeting with any encouragement. His machines were
made of wood, and the liquor employed was only water,
and consequently inferior to Mr Godfrey’s in its power
of extinguishing fire. The latter is said to have mixed
his water with a certain quantity of oil of vitriol, or
with sal ammoniac. These machines, however, as al¬
ready observed, are found to be only serviceable in the
beginning of a fire. When the roof had fallen in, they
had no effect.
Composition for extinguishing Fire. For this pur¬
pose the following has been invented by M. Von Aken,
of which the account is taken from Nicholson's Jour¬
nal, vol. ii. 410.
Burnt alum 30 lbs. F;re.
Green vitriol powdered 40 —v—
Cinabrese or red ochre in powder 20
Potter’s clay, or other clay, also powdered 200
Water 630
With 40 measures of this mixture an artificial fire
was extinguished under the direction of the inventor
by three persons, which would have required the labour
of 20 men and 1500 measures of common w’ater. Sig.
Fabbroni was commissioned to examine the value of
this invention, and found in his comparative trials with
engines of equal power, worked by the same number of
men, that the mixture extinguished the materials in
combustion in one-sixth part less time, and three-eighths
less of fluid, than when common water was used. He
observed, as might indeed have been imagined from
the nature of the material, that the flame disappeared
wherever the mixture fell, and that the saline, metallic,
and earthy matters formed an impenetrable lute round
the hot combustible matter, which prevented the access
of the air, and consequently the renewal of the destruc¬
tive process.
It is scarcely probable that this practice in the large
way, with an engine throwing upwards of 200 gallons
(value about 3I. 10s.) each minute, would be thought
of or adopted, or that a sufficient store of the materials
would be kept in readiness j since at this rate the ex¬
penditure for an hour would demand a provision to the
amount of 210I. sterling. But in country places the
process, or some variation of it, might be applied with
sufficient profit in the result; more especially if it be
considered that common salt or alum, or such saline
matter as can be had and mixed with the water, toge¬
ther with clay, chalk, or lime, ochreous earth or com¬
mon mud, or even these last without any salt, may an¬
swer the purpose of the lute with more or less effect,
and extinguish an accidental fire with much greater
speed and certainty than clear water would do.
Water-Engine for extinguishing Fire. See Hy¬
drostatics.
In using this machine we have the following im¬
provement by Dr Hoffman, which promises to be of
great efficacy. As soon as the engine is in readiness
to work, stir into the water that immediately is to be
discharged, seven or eight pounds of pearl ashes in
powder, and continue to add it in this manner as occa¬
sion requires $ taking care that it be directed against
the timber or wainscot, &c. just beginning to burn,
and not wasted against the brick-work j or, where time
will admit, dissolve any quantity of pearl ashes in a
copper with water, and as fast as it dissolves, which
will be in few minutes, mix a pailful with the water
in the engine, pretty often j and whatever burning
wood it is played upon, will be extinguished as if it was
dipped in water, and will not burn afresh in the part
extinguished.
Easy method of Extinguishing Fire in Chimneys.
It is well known, that the inner parts of chimneys easily
take fire j the soot that kindles therein emits a greater
flame, according as the tunnel is more elevated, be¬
cause the inferior air feeds the fire. If this air could
therefore be suppressed, the fire would soon be extin¬
guished. In order to this, some discharge a pistol into
the chimney, which produces no effect j others lay
4 L 2 under
F I R
[ 636 ]
F I R
Fire.
under the chimney a copper full of water •, but the va¬
pours that rise from it, far from extinguishing the fire,
seem to give it new force. Water thrown into the
chimney at top is equally of no eflect, because it comes
down through the middle of the tunnel, and not along
the sides. It would be more adviseable to stop with
dung the upper orifices of the tunnel for quenching
the fire. But the surest and readiest method is, to take
a little gunpowder, and having humected it with spittle
for binding it, to form it into small masses, and so throw
it into the heart of the chimney. When it is burnt, and
has produced a considerable vapour, a second, after¬
wards a third, are thrown, and so on, as much as is
necessary. In a little time the fire is extinguished, and,
as it were, choked by this vapour ^ and cakes of in¬
flamed soot are seen to fall from the tunnel, till at last
not the least vestige of fire appears.
Securing buildings against Fire. Dr Hales proposes
to check the progress of fires by covering the floors of
the adjoining houses with earth. I he proposal is
founded on an experiment which he made with a fir
board half an inch thick, part of which he covered
with an inch depth of damp garden mould, and then
lighted a fire on the surface of the mould ; though the
fire was kept up by blowing, it was two hours before
the board was burnt through, and the earth prevented
it from flaming. The thicker the earth is laid on the
floors, the better •, however, Dr Hales apprehends that
the depth of an inch will generally be sufficient; and
he recommends to lay a deeper covering on the stairs,
because the fire commonly ascends by them with the
greatest velocity.
Mr Hartley made several trials in the years 1775
and 1776, in order to evince the efficacy of a method
which he had invented for restraining the spread of fire
in buildings. Tor this purpose thin iron plates are
well nailed to the tops of the joists, &c. the edges of
the sides and ends being lapped over, folded together,
and hammered close. Partitions, stairs, and floors, may
be defended in the same manner ; and plates applied
to one side have been found sufficient. The plates are
so thin as not to prevent the floor from being nailed on
the joists, in the same manner as if this preventive
were not used : they are kept from rust by bemg
painted or varnished with oil and turpentine. The
expence of this addition, when extending through a
whole building, is estimated at about five per cent.
Mr Hartley has a patent for this invention, and par¬
liament has voted a sum of money towards defray¬
ing the expence of his numerous experiments. The
same preservative may also be applied to ships, furni¬
ture, &c.
Lord Mahon has also discovered and published a very
simple and effectual method of securing every kind of
building against all danger of fire. This method he
has divided into three parts, viz. under-flooring, extra¬
lathing, and inter-securing.
The method of under-flooring, is either single or dou¬
ble. In single under-flooring, a common strong lath
of oak or fir, about one-fourth of an inch thick, should
he nailed against each side of every joist, and of every
mam timber, supporting the floor which is to be se¬
cured. Other similar laths are then to be nailed along
the whole length of the joists, with their ends butting
against each other. The top of each of these laths
or fillets ought to be at l\ inch below the top of the
joists or timbers against which they are nailed j and
they will thus form a sort of small ledge on each side
of all the joists. These fillets are to be well bedded in
a rough plaster hereafter mentioned, when they are
nailed on, so that there may be no interval between
them and the joists : and the same plaster ought to be
spread with a trowel upon the tops of all the fillets, and
along the sides of that part of the joists which is be¬
tween the top of the fillets and the upper edge of the
joists. In order to fill up the intervals between the joists
that support the floor, short pieces of common laths,
whose length is equal to the width ot these intervals,
should be laid in the contrary direction to the joists, and
close together in a row, so as to touch one another :
their ends must rest upon the fillets, and they ought to
be well bedded in the rough plaster, but are not to be
fastened with nails. They must then be covered with
one thick coat of the rough plaster, which is to be
spread over them to the level of the tops of the joists :
and in a day or two this plaster should be trowelled
over close to the sides of the joists, without covering
the tops of the joists with it.
In the method of double flooring, the fillets and
short pieces of laths are applied in the manner already
described ; but the coat of rough plaster ought to be
little more than half as thick as that in the foimer
method. Whilst this rough plaster is laid on, some
more of the short pieces of laths above mentioned must
be laid in the intervals between the joists upon the first
coat, and be dipped deep in it. They should be laid
as close as possible to each other, and in the same di¬
rection with the first layer of short laths. Over this
second layer of short laths there must be spread another
coat of rough plaster, which should be trowelled level
with the tops of the joists without rising above them.
The rough plaster may be made of coarse lime and
hair *, or^ instead of hair, hay chopped to about three
inches in length may be substituted with advantage.
One measure of common rough sand, two measures of
slaked lime, and three measures of chopped hay, will
form in general a very good proportion, when suffi¬
ciently beat up together in the manner of common
mortar. The hay should be put in after the two other
ingredients are well beat up together with water.
This plaster should be made stiff1 j and when the floor¬
ing boards are required to be laid down very soon, a
fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed
by dropping a small quantity of water on the limestone
a little while before it is used, and well mixed with
this rough plaster, will cause it to dry very fast. If any
cracks appear in the rough plaster work near the joists
when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be closed by
washing them over with a brush wet with mortar wash :
this wash may be prepared by putting two measures of
quicklime and one of common sand in a pail, and
stirring the mixture with water till it becomes of the
consistence of a thin jelly.
Before the flooring boards are laid, a small quantity
of very dry common sand should be strewed over the
plaster work, and struck smooth with a hollow rule,
moved in the direction of the joists, so that it may lie
rounding between each pair of joists. The plaster
work and sand should be perfectly dry before the
boards are laid, for fear of the dry rot. The method
ot
Fiie.
FIR [ 637 ] FIR
jfjte. of under-flooring may be successfully applied to a wood-
w-y—en staircase j but no sand is to be laid upon tbe rough
plaster work. The method of extra-lathing may be ap¬
plied to ceiling joists, to sloping roofs, and to wooden
partitions.
Tbe third method, which is that of inter-securing, is
very similar to that of under-flooring j but no sand is
afterwards to be laid upon it. Inter-securing is appli¬
cable to the same parts of a building as the method of
extra-lathing, but is seldom necessary.
Lord Mahon has made several experiments in order
to demonstrate the efficacy of these methods. In most
houses it is only necessary to secure the floors ; and the
extra expence of under-flooring, including all mate¬
rials, is only about ninepence per square yard, and
with the use of quicklime a little more. The extra
expence of extra-lathing is no more than sixpence
per square yard for the timber side walls and par¬
titions j but for the ceiling about ninepence per
square yard. But in most houses no extra-lathing is
necessary.
FiRE-Eater. We have a great number of mounte¬
banks who have procured the attention and tvonder of
the public by eating of fire, walking on fire, washing
their hands in melted lead, and the like tricks.
The most celebrated of these was our countryman
Richardson, much talked of abroad. His secret, as re¬
lated in the Journal dc Sfavans, of the year 1680,
consisted in a pure spirit of sulphur, wherewith he rub¬
bed bis hands, and the parts that were to touch the
fire; which burning and cauterizing the epidermis,
hardened and enabled the skin to resist the fire.
Indeed this is no new thing: Amb. Paree assures us
he has tried it on himself; that after washing the hands
in urine, and with unguentum aureum, one may safely
wash them in melted lead.
He adds also, that by washing his hands in the juice
of onions, he could bear a hot shovel on them while it
melted lead.
Fire, in Theology. See Hell.
We read of the sacred fire in the first temple of Je¬
rusalem, which came down from heaven : it was kept
with the utmost care, and they were forbidden to carry
any strange fire into the temple. This fire is one of
the five things which the Jews confess were wanting in
the second temple.
The Pagans had their sacred fires, which they kept
in their temples with the most religious care, and which
were never to be extinguished. Numa was the first
who built a temple to Fire as a goddess at Rome, and
instituted an order of priestesses for the preservation of
it. See Vestals.
Fire was the supreme god of the Chaldeans ; the
Magi were worshippers of fire ; and the Greeks and
Armenians still keep up a ceremony called tbe holy fire*,
upon a persuasion that every Easter day a miraculous
fire descends from heaven into the holy sepulchre, and
kindles all the lamps and candles there.
Fire kindled spontaneously in the Human Body. See
Extraordinary o/"Burning.
FiRE-Barrel. See Fire-»S#//>, Note (b).
FiRs-Bavins. Ibid. Note (d).
Fire-Arrow, in naval artillery, is a small iron dart
furnished with springs and bars, together with a match
impregnated with sulphur and powder, which is wound
about its shaft. It is intended to fire the sails of the Fire,
enemy, and is for this purpose discharged from a mus-—v—
quetoon or swivel gun. The match being kindled by
the explosion, communicates the flame to the sail against
which it is directed, where the arrow is fastened by
means of its bars and springs. The weapon is pecu¬
liar to hot climates, particularly the West Indies,
where the sails being extremely dry by reason of the
great heat, they instantly take fire, and of course set
fire to the masts and rigging, and lastly to the vessel
itself.
FiRE-Balls, in artillery, a composition of meal powder,
sulphur, saltpetre, pitch, &c. about the bigness of a
hand grenade, coated over with flax, and primed with
the slow composition of a fuze. This is to be thrown
into the enemy’s works in the night time, to discover
where they are, or to fire houses, galleries, or blinds
of the besiegers ; but they are then armed with spikes,
or hooks of iron, that they may not roll off, but stick
or hang where they are desired to have any effect. See
Fire-Balls, and Z/g///-Balls.
Balls of Fire, in Meteorology, a kind of luminous
bodies, generally appearing at a great height above the
earth, with a splendour surpassing that of.the moon;
and sometimes equalling her apparent size; They ge¬
nerally proceed in this hemisphere from north to south
with vast velocity, frequently breaking into several
smaller ones, sometimes vanishing with a report, some¬
times not.
These luminous appearances no doubt constitute on©
part of the ancient prodigies, blazing stars or comets,
which last they sometimes resemble in being attended
with a train ; but frequently they appear with a round
and well-defined disk. The first of these of which we
have any accurate account, was observed by Dr Halley
and some other philosophers at different places, in the
year ly1?* From the slight observations they could
take of its course among the stars, the perpendicular
height of this body was computed at about 70 miles
from the surface of the earth. The height of others
has also been computed, and found to be various ;
though in general it is supposed to be beyond the li¬
mits assigned to our atmosphere, or where it loses its
refractive power. The most remarkable of these on
record appeared on the 18th of August 1783, about
nine o’clock in the evening. It wras seen to the north¬
ward of Shetland, and took a southerly direction for
an immense space, being observed as far as the southern
provinces of France, and one account says that it was
seen at Rome also. During its course it appears fre¬
quently to have changed its shape ; sometimes appear¬
ing in the form of one ball, sometimes of two or more ;
sometimes with a train, sometimes without one. It pas¬
sed over Edinburgh nearly in the zenith, and had then
the appearance of a well-defined round body, extremely
luminous, and of a greenish colour; the light which it
diffused on the ground giving likewise a greenish cast
to objects. After passing the zenith it was attended by
a train of considerable length, which continually aug¬
menting, at last obliterated the head entirely; so that
it looked like a wedge, flying with the obtuse end fore¬
most. The motion Avas not apparently swift, by reason
of its great height; though in reality it must have mov¬
ed with great rapidity, on account of the vast space it
travelled over in a short time. In other places its ap^
pe&rance >
fir
[ 638 ]
FIR
Fire.
n,neance was very different. At Greenwich we are told, number of other objections which cannot be answered, Fire
pearance was V y   ^pr W the narticular v from the variations in their appearance ;
£ " two bright balls parallel to each other led the
way the diameter of which appeared to be about two
feet • and were followed by an expulsion of eight others,
not elliptical, seeming gradually to mutilate, for the last
was small. Between each two balls a luminous serra¬
ted body extended, and at the last a blaze issued which
terminated in a point. Minute particles dilated from
the whole. The balls were tinted dist oy a pure hiight
light, then followed a tender yellow, mixed with azure,
red, green, &c. $ which, with a coalition of bolder tints,
and a reflection from the other balls, gave the most
beautiful rotundity and variation of colours that the
human eye could be charmed with. Ihe sudden illu¬
mination of the atmosphere, and the form and singular
transition of this bright luminary, tended much to make
it awful : nevertheless, the amazing vivid appearance
of the different balls, and other rich connective parts
not very easy to delineate, gave an eftect equal to the
rainbow in the full zenith of its gloiy. t
Dr Biagden, in a paper on this subject in the 74th
volume of the Philosophical Transactions, has not only
given a particular account of this and other meteors
of the kind, but added several conjectures relating to
the probable causes of them. The first thing which
occurred to philosophers on this subject was, that the
meteors in question were burning bodies rising from
the surface of the earth, and flying along the atmo¬
sphere with great rapidity. But this hypothesis was
soon abandoned, on considering that there was no
power known by which such bodies could either be
raised to a sufficient height, or projected with the ve¬
locity of the meteors. The next hypothesis was, that
they do not consist of one single body, but of a train of
sulphureous vapours, extending a vast way through the
atmosphere, and being kindled at one end display the
luminous appearances in question by the fire, running
from one end of the train to the other. To this hypo¬
thesis, which was invented by Dr Halley, Dr Biagden
objects that no just explanation is given of the nature
of the vapours themselves, the manner in which they are
raised up, or in which they can be regularly arranged
in straight lines of such vast extent; or how they can
he supposed to burn in such rarefied air. “ Indeed,
(says he) it is very difficult to conceive how vapours
could be prevented, in those regions where there is in
a manner no pressure, from spreading out on all sides in
consequence of their natural elasticity, and instantly
losing that degree of density which seems necessary
for inflammation. Besides, it is to be expected, that
such trains would 'sol&fftimes vtake fire in the middle,
and thus present the* phStoofttienon of two meteors at
the same time, receding from^one another in a direct
line.” . , . riv
For these and other reasons this hypothesis of Ur
Halley was abandoned, and another substituted in its
place. This w'as, that the meteors we speak of are
permanent solid bodies, not rising from the earth, but
revolving round it in very eccentric orbits, and thus
in their perigeon moving with inconceivable rapidi¬
ty. But the doctor shows, that, even on this sup¬
position, the velocity of such bodies must scarce be
one third of that with which fire-balls move, and
which has been calculated at upwards of 1000 miles
per minute. The hypothesis is likewise liable to a
particularly from the variations in their appearance j
for it passible to show m wlmt manner one solid
and permanent body could assume the appearance of
eight or ten, as was the case with the meteor of
1783 : nor can it be shown why a body, which in
passing over Edinburgh appeared with a disk evident¬
ly less than that of the sun, should, in passing over
Greenwich, assume the appearance of two bodies, each
of which had a disk considerably larger than the ap¬
parent disk of that luminary. To obviate, in some
measure, objections of this kind, it has been supposed
that the revolving bodies are surrounded by a kind of
electrical atmosphere by which they are rendered lumi¬
nous j but (says the doctor) I think, whoever careful¬
ly peruses the various accounts of fire balls, and especi-
allv ours of the 18th of August, when it divided, will
perceive that their phenomena do not correspond with
the idea of a solid nucleus involved in a subtile fluid,
any more than with the idea of another learned gentle¬
man, that they become luminous by means of a con¬
tained fluid, which occasionally explodes through the
thick solid outer shell.”
Another hypothesis, which Dr Biagden has not men¬
tioned, is’ that the meteors in question are a kind of bo¬
dies which take fire as soon as they come within the at¬
mosphere of the earth. But this cannot be supposed,
without implying a previous knowledge of these bodies,
which it is altogether impossible we can have. The
only opportunity we have of seeing them is when they
are on fire. Before that time they are in an invisible
and unknown state j and it is surely improper to ar¬
gue concerning them in this state, or pretend to de¬
termine any one of their properties, when we have it
not in our power to see or investigate them in the
least. As the meteors therefore never manifest them¬
selves to our senses but when they are on fire, the on¬
ly rational conclusion we can draw from thence is, that
they have no existence in any other state j and conse¬
quently that their substance must be composed of that
fluid which, when acting after a certain manner, be¬
comes luminous and shows itself as fire ; remaining in¬
visible and eluding our researches in every other case.
On this hypothesis we must conclude that the fire-balls
are great bodies of electric matter, moving from one
part of the heavens where, to our conception, it
perabundant, to another where it is deficient. Ibis
opinion is adopted by Dr Biagden for the following
reasons^ ofthejr prodigious velocity, which is
not less than 1200 miles in a minute, and seems incom¬
patible with any other substance we know besides the
electric fluid. “ This (says he) is perhaps the only
case in which the course or direction of that fluid is
rendered perceptible to our senses, in consequence ot
the large scale on which these meteors move.
2. Various electrical phenomena have been observed
to attend them, such as lambent fires settling upon
men, horses, &c. 5 and sparks coming from them, or
the whole meteor itself (adds our author), it is said,
have damaged ships, houses, &c. after the manner of
lightning.” This last circumstance, however, we can
believe °only of another kind of fire-balls, of which we
shall afterwards treat, which keep at a small distance
from the earth, or run along its surface $ for the great
meteors
FIR [ 639 ] FIR
Fire. meteors of which we now speak, flying at the distance
—v of 50 or 60, or more miles from the surface of the
earth, cannot be less from their apparent size than a
mile or a mile and a half in diameter. Such an im¬
mense body of electric matter descending on the earth,
would by its explosion ruin a large tract of country ;
and there is no probability that when engendered in
such a rare atmosphere, it could break through the
whole body of gross and dense air which lies between
these regions and the earth, and which we know resists
the passage of the electric fluid very strongly. Not¬
withstanding this, there is no impossibility that the
atmosphere may be electrified to a great degree by
such a meteor passing over it j and thus electrical ap¬
pearances may attend these bodies, without any actual
emission of their substance, as Dr Elagden supposes.
“ If there be really (says he) any hissing noise heard
while the meteors are passing, it seems explicable on
no other supposition than that of streams of electric
matter issuing from them, and reaching the earth with
a velocity equal to that of the meteor, namely, in two
or three seconds. Accordingly, in one oFour late me¬
teors, the hissing was compared to that of electricity
issuing from a conductor. The sparks flying off so per¬
petually from the body of fire-balls may possibly have
some connexion with these streams. In the same man¬
ner the sound of explosions may perhaps be brought
to us quicker than if it were propagated to us by the
air alone. Should these ideas be well founded, the
change of direction, which meteors seem at times to
undergo, may possibly be influenced by the state of the
surface of the earth over which they are passing, and
to which the streams are supposed to reach. A similar
cause may occasion the apparent explosion, the opening
of new channels giving new vent and motion to the
electric fluid. May not the deviation and explosion
which appear to have taken place in the fire-ball of
the 18th of August over Lincolnshire, have been
determined by its approach towards the fens, and
an attraction produced by that large body of mois¬
ture ?
The explosion mentioned by our author over Lin¬
colnshire does not seem to have been the only one
which happened during the course of this meteor. Se¬
veral people heard reports after it had vanished $ and
these were sometimes single and sometimes double. At
Edinburgh two reports were heard, the one immediately
following the other, at the distance of six or seven mi¬
nutes after the meteor had passed. These reports no
doubt indicated a temporary dissolution of the body j
but it is by no means probable that the dissolution could
have taken place either on account of the state of the
earth or atmosphere. We must consider that both
earth and atmosphere are always full of electric fluid ;
and if there happens to be what is called ^ deficiency
in one of them, the other instantly supplies it. It is
impossible, therefore, that either the earth or atmo¬
sphere could receive such an immense additional quan¬
tity in one part without a vent being provided for it
somewhere else. In thunder-storms we naturally con¬
clude that a vast quantity of electrical matter is put in
motion ; but from the effects of lightning it appears
that this quantity must be very trifling in comparison
with what the meteor we now speak of contained. A
violent flash of lightning has been known to perforate
2
a looking-glass, and make only a hole of about an inch pile,
diameter. Now we have no reason to suppose that the v~-
flash, tremendous as it might appear to our eyes, was
any other than an electric spark of an inch in diame¬
ter. The meteor, on the other hand, appears not to
have been less than a mile in diameter } so that the
disproportion betwixt it and a single flash of lightning
appears almost beyond calculation ; and we may rea¬
sonably conclude that it could not have been equalled
by 10,000 thunder-storms. Had this amazing body
of electric fire descended through the atmosphere, and
dissipated itself on the fens of Lincolnshire, it must
have produced the most violent and unheard-of effects,
not only in that place, but probably throughout the
whole island. Its dissipation must therefore have been
in the higher regions, where there was ample space to
receive it; and where its explosion, whatever concus¬
sion it might make among the ethereal matter itself,
could not affect our earth or atmosphere in any re¬
markable degree. Its re-appearance was owing to the
same tendency in the fluid to circulate which had ori¬
ginally produced it ; and which probably was the vio¬
lent earthquake in Calabria, and the eruption in Ice¬
land.
3. Another argument adduced by Dr Blagden in
favour of the electrical origin of fire-balls, is their con¬
nexion with the aurora borealis, and the resemblance
they bear to this phenomenon, which is now almost
universally allowed to be electrical. “ Instances (says
he) are recorded, where northern lights have been seen
to join, and form luminous balls, darting about with
great velocity, and even leaving a train behind them
like the common fire-balls. This train I take to be
nothing else but the rarefied air left in such an electri¬
fied state as to be luminous; and some streams of the
northern lights are very much like it.” The aurora
borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher re¬
gion above the surfdfce of the earth, as may be judged
from the very distant countries to which it has been
visible at the same time ; indeed the great accumula¬
tion of electric matter seems to lie beyond the verge of
our atmosphere, as estimated by the cessation of twi¬
light. Also with the northern lights a hissing noise is
said to be heard in some very cold climates : Gmelin
speaks of it in the most pointed terms, as frequeht and
very loud in the north-eastern parts of Siberia; and
other travellers have related similar facts.”
4. Our author thinks that the strongest argument
for the electrical origin of these meteors is the direc¬
tion of their course, which is constantly either from
the north or north-west quarter of the heavens, or^to-
wards it; or, as our author thinks, nearly in the di¬
rection of the magnetical meridian. Such a course,
however, seems only to belong to the very large fire¬
balls of which we now speak; the smaller ones, called
Fulling Stars, being moved in all directions; “ per¬
haps (says the doctor), because they come further with¬
in the verge of our atmosphere, and are thereby expos¬
ed to the action of extraneous causes. That the smaller
sort of meteors, such as shooting stars, are really lower
down in the atmosphere, is rendered very probable by
their swifter apparent motion : perhaps it is this very
circumstance which occasions them to be smaller, the
electric fluid being more divided in more resisting air.
Eut as those masses of electric matter which move
where
fir
where there Is scarce any resistance, so generally affect
the direction of the magnetic meridian, the ideas which
have been entertained of some analogy between these
two obscure powers of nature seem not altogether
without foundation. It the foregoing conjectures be
just, distinct regions are allotted to the electrical pheno¬
mena of our atmosphere. Here below we have thun¬
der and lightning, from the unequal distribution of
the electric fluid among the clouds $ in the loftier re¬
gions, whither the clouds never reach, we have the
various gradations of falling stars j till, beyond the
limits of our corpuscular atmosphere, the fluid is put
into motion in sufficient masses to hold a determined
course, and exhibit the different appearances of what
we ca\\ fire-balls; and probably at a still greater ele¬
vation above the earth, the electricity accumulates in
a lighter and less condensed form, to produce the won¬
derfully diversified streams and coruscations of the au¬
rora borealis.”
The paper from whence these extracts are taken was
written before IVIr ^Morgan's account of the non-con¬
ducting power of a perfect vacuum made its appear¬
ance. The meteor in question, and others of the same
nature, afford a proof of the theory of the deficiency of
electric fluid proposed by some. Hr Halley, speaking
of the fire-ball of 1719, the height of which he calcu¬
lated at very little less than 70 miles, expresses his sur¬
prise that sound should be propagated through a me¬
dium near 200,000 times rarer than the common air,
and the next thing to a perfect vacuum. Now it re¬
mains, and for ever will remain, to be proved, that
Mr Morgan’s most perfect vacuum, formed by boiling
quicksilver in a tube ever so long, contains a medium
than 300,000 times rarer than the common atmo¬
sphere. From Mr Cavallo’s experiments it appears,
that when air is only rarefied 1000 times, the electric
light is excessively weak •, so that there is not the least
probability that in an aerial medium 300,000 times
rarer than the present, if indeed such a medium can
exist, there could be any light made visible in the ordi¬
nary experiments. We see, however, by the many ex¬
amples of meteors which have occurred at prodigious
heights in the atmosphere, that the electric light in
such a rarefied atmosphere is not only visible, but acts
as vigorously in every respect as if it were on the sur¬
face of the earth. This circumstance therefore affords
a complete demonstration of the fallacy of Mr Mor¬
gan’s argument, and a direct proof that the electric
fluid pervades space as completely divested of air as
the best artificial vacuum we can make ; nay, where it
is generally believed by mathematicians that the at¬
mosphere has ceased altogether. His other arguments
drawn a 'priori are still more inconclusive than that wre
have just mentioned. He tells us, that if a vacuum
was a conductor, the whole quantity of electric matter
contained in the earth and atmosphere would be per¬
petually flying off through the regions of infinite space,
as being surrounded by a boundless conductor. But
even this does not follow, though we should suppose
these regions to be an absolute vacuity *, for we know
that electricity does not fly to a conducting substance
merely because it is a conductor, but because it opens
a passage to some place whither it has a tendency to
go though the conductor was not there. Now, on
the present hypothesis, as the conductor would lead to
F I II
no place to which the electric matter had any previous Firt.
tendency, we cannot assign any reason why it should v*
acquire a tendency to fly off merely on account of the
neighbourhood of a conductor, even though boundless.
His other objection (that, on the supposition of a va¬
cuum being capable of conducting electricity, the whole
space in the universe would be filled with electric fluid)
may be admitted in its fullest extent, without any de¬
triment whatever to science $ and indeed, if we allow
the electric fluid to be only a modification of the light
of the sun, we must own that the whole universe is fil¬
led with it. The meteors in question then will be no
other than discharges of electricity from one part of the
celestial spaces to another, similar to the discharges be¬
tween the positive and negative side of an electrified
bottle; thus intimating, that a circulation has taken
place in the fluid, which the meteor at once completes
and puts an end to. See Meteorology.
Besides these already justmentionedof such vast mag¬
nitude, there are others much smaller and nearer the
surface of the earth, rolling upon it, or falling upon
it, exploding with violence, as is the case with those
which appear in the time of thunder, and frequently
producing mischievous effects. One of these is mention¬
ed by some authors as falling in a serene evening in the
island of Jamaica ; exploding as soon as it touched the
surface of the ground, and making a considerable hole
in it. Another is mentioned by Dr Priestley as rolling
along the surface of the sea, then rising and striking the
top-mast of a man of war, exploding, and damaging
the ship. In like manner, we hear of an electrified
cloud at Java, in the Fast Indies ; whence, without any
thunder storm, there issued a vast number of fire-balls
which did incredible mischief. This last phenomenon
points out to us the true origin of balls of this kind,
viz. an excessive accumulation of electricity in one part,
or a violent tendency to circulate, when at the same
time the place where the motion begins is at so great
a distance, or meets with other obstacles of such a na¬
ture, that it cannot easily get thither. Urged on, how¬
ever, by the vehement pressure from behind, it is for¬
ced to leave its place; but being equally unable to
displace the great quantity of the same fluid, which
has no inclination to move the same way with itself, it
is collected into balls, which run hither and thither, ac¬
cording as they meet with conductors capable of lead¬
ing them, into some part of the circle. This is even
confirmed by an experiment related at the end of Dr
Priestley’s fifth volume on Air. He relates, that a gen¬
tleman having charged, with a very powerful machine,
a jar, which had the wire supporting the knob of a
considerable length, and passed through the glass tube,
a globe of fire was seen to issue out of it. This globe
Gradually ascended up the glass tube till it came to the
fop of the knob, where it settled, turning swiftly on
its axis, and appearing like a-red-hot iron ball of three
quarters of an inch diameter. On continuing to turn
the machine, it gradually descended into the jar; which
it had no sooner done, than there ensued a most vio¬
lent explosion and flash, the jar being discharged and
broken at the same time. This experiment, however,
is singular in its kind; for neither the gentleman who
performed it, nor any other, has yet been able to re¬
peat it. Single as it is, however, we may yet gather
from it, that a fire-ball will be the consequence of a
very
[ 640 ]
F I E
Piie. very violent electrification of any substance, provided
'-y—J at the same time that the air be in a very non-conduct¬
ing state, so that the electricity may not evaporate
into it as fast as it is collected j for this would produce
only lucid streams and flashes, as in the common expe¬
riments with the Leyden phial ; and it is probably an
inattention to this circumstance which has hitherto
prevented the repetition of the experiment above men¬
tioned. The case is the same in thunder storms, where
an excessive accumulation of electric matter always
produces fire-balls, the most mischievous kind of light¬
ning, as is explained under that article.
With regard to the uses which fire-balls serve in the
system of nature, it is plain that they are the means
of preserving the equilibrium in the electric fluid in the
atmosphere, which would otherwise produce the most
dreadful tempests. As there must be a constant current
of electric matter through the bowels of the earth from
the equator to the poles, and from the poles to the equa¬
tor, through the atmosphere, the great meteors serve
for keeping up the equilibrium in this great atmosphe¬
rical current, while the smaller ones answer a like pur¬
pose in the general mass of electric matter dispersed
over the surface of the earth, and therefore are seen to
move in all directions, as the equilibrium happens to
require them in different parts. With regard to those
which are observed in the lower regions of the earth,
or rolling on the surface of the ground itself, they un¬
doubtedly answer purposes of a similar kind in these
lower regions j for as fire-balls in general are produced
by a great excess of electricity in one place, there must
of course be an equal deficiency in another 5 and to
restore the equilibrium, or, to speak more properly, to
prevent a dangerous commotion from taking place
throughout the whole mass of electric fluid, the fire¬
ball breaks forth, and either puts a stop at once to the
disturbance by an explosion, or by a silent and invisible
evaporation. From some accounts indeed it would
seem that even the large celestial meteors detached
part of their substance to accomplish this purpose $
though, for the reasons already given, it would seem
more probable that they operated by electrifying the
atmosphere, or setting the fluid contained in it in mo¬
tion, so as to produce small fire-balls of itself, rather
than by detaching any part of their own bodies to such
a distance. Dr Blagden, in the paper above quoted,
gives an account of an appearance of this kind. It was
described in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks from the
Abbe Mann, director of the academy at Brussels. “ It
happened (says the Abbe) at Mariekercke, a small vil¬
lage on the coast, about half a mile west of Ostend.
The curate of the village was sitting in the dusk of
the evening with a friend, when a sudden light sur¬
prised them, and immediately after, a small ball of
light-coloured flame came through a broken pane of
glass, crossed the room where they were sitting, and
fixed itself on the chink of a door opposite to the win¬
dow where it entered, and there died gradually away.
It appeared to be a kind of phosphoric light carried
along by the current of air. The curate and his friend,
greatly surprised at what they saw, apprehended fire in
the neighbourhood j but going out, found that the fire
which had come in through the window had been de¬
tached from a large meteor in its passage.”
FiRE-Cocks. Churchwardens in London and with-
Vol VIII. Part II. . t
F I E
in the bills of mortality, are to fix fire-cocks at proper
distances in streets, and keep a large engine and hand-
engine for extinguishing fire, under the penalty of 10I.
stat. 6 Ann. c. 31.
.On the breaking out of any fire in London or West¬
minster, the constables and beadles of parishes shall re¬
pair to the place with their staves, and assist in ex¬
tinguishing it, and cause the people to work for that
end, &c.
FiRE-Engine. See SrEAM-Engine.
FiRE-Flair, in Ichthyology. See Raja, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
FiRE-Flies, a species of flies common in Guiana, of
which there are two species. The largest is more than
an inch in length, having a very large head connected
with the body by a joint ol a particular structure, with
which at some times it makes a loud knock, particular¬
ly when laid on its back. The fly has two feelers or
horns, two wings, and six legs. Under its belly is a
circular patch, which, in the dark, shines like a candle \
and on each side of the head near the eyes is a promi¬
nent, globular, luminous body, in size about one-third
larger than a mustard seed. Each of these bodies is like
a living star, emitting a bright, and not small, light ;
since two or three of these animals, put into a glass
vessel, afford sufficient light to read without difficulty,
il placed close to the book. When the fly is dead,
these bodies will still afford considerable light, though
it is less vivid than before ; and if bruised, and rubbed
over the hands or face, they become luminous in
the dark, like a board smeared over with phospho¬
rus. They have a reddish brown or cbesnut colour;
and live in rotten trees in the day, but are always abroad
in the night. The other kind is not more than half as
large as the former: their light proceeds from under
their wings, and is seen only when they are elevated,
like sparks of fire appearing or disappearing at every
second. Of these the air is full in the night, though
they are never seen in the day. I hey are common not
only in the southern but in the northern parts of Ame¬
rica, during the summer.
FiRE-Iock, or Fusils a small gun which fires with a
flint. It is distinguished from the"old musket or match¬
lock, which was fired with a match. The firelock is
now in common use in the European armies.
Fire-Philosophers, orphi/osophiper tgnem, a fanati¬
cal sect of philosophers who appeared towards the close
of the .16th century, and made a figure in almost all the
countries of Europe. The distinguishing tenet from
which they derived this appellation was, that the inti¬
mate essences of natural things were only to he known
by the trying efforts of fire, directed in a chemical
process. They were also called Theosophists, from
their declaring against human reason as a dangerous
and deceitful guide, and representing a divine and su-
peinatural illumination as the only means of arriving
at truth; they were likewise denominated Paracelsists,
fiom the name of I aracelsus, the eminent physician and
chemist, who was the chief ornament and leader of this
extraordinary sect. It was patronized in England by
Robert Flood or Eludd, who endeavoured to illustrate
the philosophy of Paracelsus in a great number of trea¬
tises : in France it was zealously propagated by Ri-
vjer; in Denmark, by Severinus ; in Germany, by
Kunrath, an eminent physician of Dresden ; and in
4 ^ other
[ 641 ]
FIR [ 64
other countries by warm and successful votaries, who
assumed a striking air of piety and devotion, and pro¬
posed to themselves no other end than the advancement
of the divine glory, and the restoration of peace and
concord in a divided church : accordingly they were
joined by several persons eminent tor their piety, and
distinguished by their zeal for the advancement of true
religion. One of the most celebrated of these was Da¬
niel Hoffman, professor of divinity in the university of
Helmstadt, who, availing himself of some unguarded
passages in the writings of Luther, extravagantly main¬
tained, that philosophy was the mortal enemy of reli¬
gion ; that truth was divisible into two branches, the
philosophical and theological j and that what was true
in philosophy was false in theology. Hoffman was
afterwards obliged, by the interposition of Henrj Juli¬
us, duke of Brunswick, to retract his invectives against
philosophy, and to acknowledge in the most open man¬
ner the harmony and union of sound philosophy with
true and genuine theology.
FiRE-Places are contrivances for communicating heat
to rooms, and also for answering various purposes of
art and manufacture. See Chimney, Furnace, and
Stove.
The ingenious Dr Franklin, having recounted the
inconveniences and advantages of fire-places in com¬
mon use, proposes a new contrivance for this purpose,
called the Pennsylvania fire-place. I. This machine
consists of a bottom-plate, or hearth-piece, fig. T.
Plate CCXVII. with a rising moulding before for a
fender, two perforated ears F, G, for receiving two
screw-rods; a long air-hole a a, through which the
outward air passes into an air-box ; and three smoke-
holes, represented by dark squares in BC, through
which the smoke descends and passes away ; besides,
double ledges for receiving between them the lower
edges of the other plates. 2. A back-plate without
holes, and furnished with a pair of ledges to receive,
3. The two side-plates, each of which has a pair of
ledges to receive the side edges of the front plate, with
a shoulder on which it rests ; two pair of ledges to re¬
ceive the side edges of the two middle plates which
form the air-box, and an oblong air-hole near the top,
through which the air warmed in the box is discharged
into the room, and a wing or bracket as H, and a small
hole as B, for the axis of the register to turn in. See
fi<r. 2. which represents one of these plates. 4. An air-
box, composed of the two middle plates D.E and 1G,
fig.’3. and 4. The first has five thin ledges or parti¬
tions cast on it, the edges of which are received into
so many pair of ledges cast in the other: the tops of
all the cavities formed hy these thin deep ledges are also
covered by a ledge of the same form and depth cast with
them ; so that when the plates are put together, and
the joints luted, there is no communication between
the air-box and the smoke. In the winding passages
of this box, fresh air is warmed as it passes into the
room. 5. A front plate, which is arched on the under
side, and ornamented with foliages, &c. 6. A top
plate with a pair of ears, MN, (fig. 5.) answerable to
those in the bottom plate, and perforated for the same
purpose. It has also a pair of ledges running round
the under side to receive the top edges of the front,
hack, and side plates. The air-box does not reach up
to the top plate by 2^ inches.
; ] FIR
All these plates are of cast iron ; and when they are
all in their proper places, they are bound firmly toge-
ther by a pair of slender rods of wrought iron with
screws, and the machine appears as in fig. 5. There
are also two thin plates of wrought iron, viz. 7. The
shutter which is of such a length and breadth as to
close well the opening oi the fire-place, and serving to
blow up the fire, and to secure it in the night. It is
raised or depressed by means of two brass knobs, and
slides into a groove left between the foremost ledge of
the side plates and the face of the front plate. 8. The
register, which is placed between the back plate and
air-box, and furnished with a key ; so that it may he
turned on its axis, and made to lie in any position be¬
tween level and upright. The operation of this ma¬
chine, and the method of fixing it, may be understood
by observing the profile of the chimney and fire-places
in fig. 6. M is the mantle piece or breast of the
chimney ; C the funnel ; B the false back, made of
brick work in the chimney, four inches or more from
the true back, from the top of which a closing is to
be made over to the breast of the chimney, that no air
may pass into the chimney except that which goes un¬
der the false back, and up behind it : E the true back
of the chimney ; T the top of the fire-place ; F the
front of it; A the place where the fire is made; D
the air-box ; K the hole in the side plate, through which
the warmed air is discharged out of the air-box into
the room ; H the hollow, formed hy removing some
bricks from the hearth under the bottom plate filled
with fresh air, entering at the passage /, and ascend¬
ing into the air-box through the air-hole in the bot¬
tom plate near G, the partition in the hollow, design¬
ed to keep the air and smoke apart; P the passage un¬
der the false back, and part of the hearth, for the
smoke ; and the arrows in the figure show the coarse
of the smoke. The fire being made at A, the flame
and smoke will ascend, strike the top T, and give it
a considerable heat ; the smoke will turn over the air-
box, and descend between it and the back plate to the
holes near G in the bottom plate, heating in its pas¬
sage all the plates of the machine ; it will then proceed
urfder and behind the false back, and rise into the
chimney. The air of the room contiguous to the se¬
veral plates, and warmed by them, becomes specifical¬
ly lighter than the other air in the room, and is obli¬
ged to rise ; but being prevented by the closure over
the fire-place from going up the chimney, is forced
out into the room, and rising by the mantie-piece to
the ceiling, is again driven down gradually by the
steam of newly-warmed air that follows ; and thus the
whole room becomes in a little time, equally warmed.
The air also, warmed under the bottom plate and in
the air-box, rises and comes out of the holes in the
side plates, thus warming and continually changing
the air of the room. In the closing of the chimney,
a square opening for a trap-door should he left foi
the sweeper to go up : the door may be made of slate or
tin, and so placed, that by turning up against the back
of the chimney when open, it closes the vacancy be¬
hind the false back, and shoots the soot that falls in
sweeping out upon the hearth. It will also be conve¬
nient to have a small hole, about five or six inches
square, cut near the ceiling through into the funnel,
and provided with a shutter ; by occasionally opening
which,
FIR [ 643 ] FIR
Fire. which, the heated air of the room and smoke of tobac-
—y—**J co, &c. may be carried off without incommoding the
company. For a farther account of the manner of
using this fire-place, the advantages attending it, an¬
swers to objections, and directions to the' bricklayer in
fixing it, the curious reader may consult Franklin’s Let¬
ters and Papers on Philosophical Subjects, p. 284-—
318. edit. 1769.
Fire-Pots, in the military art, small earthen pots,
into which is put a charged grenade, and over that
powder enough till the grenade is covered ; then the
pot is covered with a piece of parchment, and ^wo
pieces of match across lighted : this pot being thrown
by a handle of matches where it is designed, it breaks
and fires the powder, and burns all that is near it,
and likewise fires the powder in the grenade, which
ought to have no fuse, to the end its operations may
be the quicker.
FiRE-Reeds. See the next article, Note (c).
FiRE-S/iip, an old vessel filled with combustible ma¬
terials, and fitted with grappling irons to hook, and
set fire to, the enemies ships in battle, &c.
As there is nothing particular in the construction of
this ship, except the apparatus by which the fire is in¬
stantly conveyed from one part to another, and from
thence to the enemy, it will be sufficient to describe
the fire-room, where these combustibles are enclosed,
together with the instruments necessary to grapple the
ship intended to be destroyed.
The fire-room is built between decks, and limited on
the after part by a bulk-head, L, behind the main¬
mast, from which it extends quite forward, as repre¬
sented in Plate CCXVII. The train enclosed in this
apartment is contained in a variety of wooden troughs,
F), G, which intersect each other in different parts of
the ship’s length ; being supported at proper distances FjrP>
by cross pieces and stanchions. On each side of the —v—"■ •>
ship are six or seven ports, H, about 18 inches broad
and 15 inches high j and having their lids to open
downward, contrary to the usual method.
Against every port is placed an iron chamber (a),
which, at the time of firing the ship, blows out the
port-lid, and opens a passage for the flame. Immedi¬
ately under the main and fore-shrouds is fixed a wood¬
en funnel M; whose lower end communicates with a
fire-barrel (b), by which the flame passing through
the funnel is conducted to the shrouds. Between the
funnels, which are likewise called jire-trunks, are twoFr^/rnwr’s
scuttles, or small holes, in the upper deck, serving also ^J/ur’pt‘
to let out the flames. Both funnels must be stopped
with plugs, and have sailcloth or canvas nailed close
over them, to prevent arty accident happening from
above to the combustibles laid below.
The ports, funnels, and scuttles, not only commu¬
nicate the flames to the outside and upper works of
the ship and her rigging ■, but likewise open a passage
for the inward air, confined in the fire-room, which is
thereby expanded so as to force impetuously through
these outlets, and prevent the blowing up of the decks,
which must of necessity happen from such a sudden
and violent rarefaction of the air as will then be produ¬
ced.
On each side of the bulk-head behind is cut a hole,
L, of sufficient size to admit a trough of the same di¬
mensions as the others. A leading trough, LI, whose
foremost end communicates with another trough with¬
in the fire-room, is laid close to this opening, from
whence it extends obliquely to a sally-port, I, cut
through the ship’s side. The decks and troughs are
well covered with melted rosin. At the time of the
firing
(a) 1 he iron chambers are 10 inches long and 3.3 in diameter. They are breeched against a piece of
wood fixed across the ports, and let into another a little higher. When loaded, they are almost filled with
Corn-powder, and have a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a small piece
of quick-match thrust through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out. When the ports
are blown open by means ol the iron chambers, the port-lids either fall downwards or are carried away by the
explosion.
(b) The fire-barrels ought to be of a cylindrical form, as most suitable to contain the reeds with which they are
filled, and more convenient for stowing them between the troughs in the fire-room. Their inside chambers should
not be less than 21 inches, and 30 inches is sufficient for their length. The bottom parts are first well stored
with short double-dipped reeds placed upright; and the remaining vacancy is filled with fire-barrel composition
well mixed and melted, and then poured over them. The composition used for this purpose is a mass of sulphur,
pitch, tar, and tallow.
There are five holes, of three-fourths of an inch in diameter and three inches deep, formed in the top of the
composition while it is yet warm ; one being in the centre, and the other four at equal distances round the sides
of the barrel. When the composition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by filling these holes with fuse
composition, which is firmly driven into them, so as to leave a little vacancy at the top to admit a strand of quick-
match twice doubled. The centre hole contains two strands at their whole length, and every strand must be
driven home with mealed powder. The loose ends of the quick-match being then laid within the barrel, the
whole is covered with a dipped curtain, fastened on with a hoop that slips over the head of the barrel, to which
it is nailed.
The barrels should be made very strong, not only to support the weight of the composition before firing, when
they are moved or carried from place to place, but to keep them together whilst burning : for if the staves are
too light and thin, so as to burn very soon, the remaining composition will tumble out and be dissipated, and the
intention of the barrels, to carry the flame aloft, will accordingly be frustrated.
The curtain is a piece of coarse canvas, nearly a yard in breadth and length, thickened with melted composi¬
tion, and covered with saw-dust on both sides.
4 M 2
FIR [ 644 ] FIR
firing either of the leading troughs, the flame is imme¬
diately conveyed to the opposite side of the ship, wheie-
by both sides burn together.
’ The spaces N, 0, behind the fire-room, represent the
cabins of the lieutenant and master, one of which is on
tiie starboard, and the other on the larboard side. 1 he
captain’s cabin, which is separated from these by a bull;-
head, is exhibited also by P.
Four of the eight fire-barrels are placed under the
four fire-trunks ; and the other four between them,
two on each side the fire-scuttles, where they are se¬
curely cleated to the deck. The longest reeds (c) are
put into the fore and aft trough, and tied down : the
shortest reeds are laid in the troughs athwart, and tied
down also. The bavins (d), dipped at one end, are
tied fast to the troughs over the reeds, and the curtains
are nailed up to the beams, in equal quantities, on each
side of the fire-room.
The remainder of the reeds are placed in a position
nearly upright, at all the angles of every square in the
fire-room, and there tied down. If any reeds are left,
they are to be put round the fire-barrels, and other
vacant places, and there tied fast.
Instructions to Prime.
Take up all your reeds, one after another, and
strewr a little composition at the bottom of all the
troughs under the reeds, and then tie them gently dovTn
again : next strew composition upon the upper part of
the reeds throughout the fire-room j and upon the said
composition lay double quick-match upon all the
reeds, in all the troughs : the remainder of the com¬
position strew over all the fire-room, and then lay your
bavins loose.
Cast oil’ all the covers of the fire-barrels, and hang
the quick-match loose over their sides, and place lead¬
ers of quick-match from the reeds into the barrels, and
from thence into the vent of the chambers, in such a
manner as to be certain of their blowing open the
pots, and setting fire to the barrels. Two troughs of
communication from each door of the fire-room to the
sally ports, must be laid with a strong leader of quick-
match, four or five times double : also a cross-piece to
go from the sally-port, when the ship is fired, to the
communication trough, laid with leaders of quick-
match, that the fire may be communicated in both sides
at once.
What quick-match is left place so that the fire may
be communicated to all parts of the room at once,
especially about the ports and fire-barrels, and see that
the chambers are well and fresh primed. [N. B. The
port-fire used for firing the ship, burns about 12 minutes. Fiie.
Great care must be taken to have no powder on board —v—
when the ship is fired.]
The sheer hooks (represented by A) are fitted so
as to fasten on the yard-arms of the fire-ship, where
they hook the enemy’s rigging. The fire-grapplings
(I?) are either fixed on the yard-arms, or thrown by
hand, having a chain to confine the ships together, or
fasten those instruments wherever necessary.
When the commanding officer of a fleet displays the
signal to prepare for action, the fire-ships fix their sheer
hooks, and dispose their grapplings in readiness. The
battle being begun, they proceed immediately to prime,
and prepare their fire-works. When they are ready
for grappling, they inform the admiral thereof by a
particular signal.
To avoid being disabled by the enemy’s cannon dur¬
ing a general engagement, the hre-ships continue suf¬
ficiently distant from their line of battle, either to wind¬
ward or to leeward.
They cautiously shun the openings or intervals of
the line, where they would be directly exposed to the
enemy’s fire, from which they are covered by lying on
the opposite side of their own ships. They are atten¬
tively to observe the signals of the admiral or his se¬
conds, in order to put their designs immediately in
execution.
Although no ship of the line should be previously
appointed to protect any fire-ship, except a few of the
smallest particularly destined to this service, yet the ship
before whom she passes in order to approach the ene¬
my, should escort her thither, and assist her with an
armed boat, or whatever succour may be necessary in
her situation.
The captain of the fire-ship should himself be parti¬
cularly attentive that the above instructions are punc¬
tually executed, and that the yards may be so braced
when he falls alongside of the ship intended to be de¬
stroyed, that the sheer-hooks and grapplings fastened
to the yard-arms, &c. may eflectually hook the enemy.
He is expected to be the last person who quits the ves¬
sel j and being furnished with every necessary assist¬
ance and support, his reputation will greatly depend on
the success of his enterprise.
Lambent Fires, as the shining of meat at certain
seasons, the luminousness of the sea, of insects, vapours,
&c. See Light, Chemistry Index; Fire-FUcs, En¬
tomology ImAv; GLOW-Worm, &c.
Port-FiRE. See PoRT-Firc.
Spur-Fire. See Spur-Fire.
FiRE-TForks, are preparations made of gunpowder,
sulphur,
(c) The reeds are made up in small bundles of about a loot in circumference, cut even at both ends, and
tied together in two places. They are distinguished into two kinds, viz. the long and short j the iormer 01
which are four feel, and the latter two feet five inches in length. One part of them are singly dipped, 1. e. at
one end : the rest are dipped at both ends in a kettle of melted composition. After being immersed about
seven or eight inches in this preparation, and then drained, they are sprinkled over with pulverized sulphur upon
(d] The bavins are made of bii’ch, heath, or other brush-wood, which is tough and readily kindled.. ^)€y
are usually two or three feet in length, and have all their brush-ends lying one way, the other ends being tied
too-ether with small cords. They are dipped in composition at the bush-ends, whose branches are afterwards
confined by the hand, to prevent them from breaking off by moving about: and. also to make them burn more
fiercely. After being dipped in the same manner as the reeds, they also are sprinkled with sulphur.
F I 'R [ 645 ] FIR
Fire,
sulphur, ami other Inflammable ami combustible ingre¬
dients, used on occasion of public rejoicings and other
solemnities.
The invention of fire-works is by M. Mahudel at¬
tributed to the Florentines and people of Sienna *, who
found out likewise the method of adding decorations
to them of statues, with fire issuing from their eyes and
mouths.
The art of preparing and managing these is called
pyrotechtu/. See Pyrotechny.
FIRING, in the military art, denotes the discharge
of the fire-arms \ and its object is to do the utmost ex¬
ecution to the enemy.
The method of firing by platoons is said to have
been invented by Gustavos Adolphus, and first used
about the year 1618 : the reason commonly given for
this method is, that a constant fire may be always
kept up. There are three difl’erent ways of platoon
firing •, viz. standing, advancing, and retreating. Rut
previous to every kind of firing, each regiment or bat¬
talion must be told off in grand divisions, subdivisions,
and platoons, exclusively of the grenadiers, which form
two subdivisions or four platoons of themselves. In
firing standing, either by divisions or platoons, the first
fire is from the division or platoon on the right j the
second fire from the left', the third from the right
again $ and so on alternately, till the firing comes to
the centre platoon, which is generally called the colour
platoon, and does not fire, remaining as a reserve for
the colours. Firing advancing is performed in the same
manner, with this addition, that before either division
or platoon fires, it advances three paces forward. Fir¬
ing retreating varies from either of the former me¬
thods ; for before either division or platoon fires, if
they are marching from the enemy, it must go to
the right about, and after firing, to the left about
again, and continue the retreat as slow and orderly as
possible.
In hedge firing the men are drawn up two deep, and
in that order both ranks are to fire standing. Oblique
firing is either to the right and left, or from the right
and left to the centre, according to the situation of
the object. The Prussians have a particular contri¬
vance for this purpose ; if they are to level to the
right, the rear ranks of every platoon make two quick>
hut small paces to the left, and the body of each sol¬
dier turns one-eighth of a circle, and vice versa. Pa¬
rapet firing depends on the nature of the parapet over
which the men are to fire, and also upon that of the
attack made to possess it. This method of firing is
sometimes performed by single ranks stepping on the
banquette and firing ; each man instantly handing his '
arms to the centre rank of the same file, and taking
his back in the room of it *, and the centre rank giv¬
ing it to the rear to load, and forwarding the arms
of the rear to the front rank ; by which means the
front rank men can fire six or seven rounds in a minute-
with exactness. Parapet firing may also be executed
two deep, when the banquette is three feet broad, or in
field works where no banquettes are made. Square
firing is performed by a regiment or body of men
drawn up in a hollow square, in which case each front,
is generally divided into four divisions or firings, and
the flanks of the square, being the weakest part, are
covered by four platoons of grenadiers. The first fire
is from the right division of each fitce; the second nrin <
from the left division of each face, &c, and the grena- (j f’
diers make the last fire. Street firing is practised in FirnuVus.
two ways ; either by making the division or platoon v~ '
that has fired to wheel by half-rank to the right and
lelt outwards from the centre, and to march in that
order by half divisions down the flanks on each side of
the column, and to draw up in the rear, and go on
with their priming and loading j or, to make the divi¬
sion or platoon, after firing, to face to the right and
left outwards from the centre, and one half rank to
fellow the other $ and in that order to march in one
centre file down on each side of the column into the
rear, and there draw up as before.
Fiking Iron, in Farriery, an instrument not unlike
the blade of a knife j which being made red hot is ap¬
plied to a horse’s hams, or other places standing in
need of it, as in preternatural swellings, farcy, knots,
&c. in order to discuss them.
FIRKIN, an English measure of capacity for things
liquid, being the fourth part of the barrel: it contains
eight gallons of ale, soap, or herrings 5 and nine gal-'
Ions of’beer.
FIRLOT, a dry measure used in Scotland. The -
oat firlot contains 2l^th pints of that country ; the
wheat firlot ccntains about 2211 cubical Indies ; and
the barley firlot, 31 standard pints. Hence it appears
that the Scotch wheat firlot exceeds the English bushel
by 33 cubical inches.
FIRMAMENT, in the ancient astronomy, the
eighth heaven or sphere ; being that wherein the fixed
stars were supposed to be placed. It is called the-
eighth, with respect to the seven heavens or spheres of
the planets which it surrounds.
It is supposed to have two motions j a diurnal mo¬
tion, given it by the primum mobile, from east to west,
about the poles of the ecliptic ; and another opposite
motion from west to east ; which last it finishes, accord¬
ing to Tycho, in 25,412 years j according to Ptolemy,
in 36,000; and according to Copernicus, in 258,000;
in which time the fixed stars return to the same precise
points wherein they were at the beginning. This
period is commonly called Plato’s year, or the great
year.
In various places of Scripture the word firmament is
used for the middle region of the air. Many of the
ancients allowed, with the moderns, that the firma¬
ment is a fluid matter ; though they, who give it the
denomination of firmament, must have taken it for a
solid one.
FIRMAN, is a passport or permit granted by the
Great Mogul to foreign vessels, to trade within the
territories of his jurisdiction.
FIRMICUS Maternus, Julius, an ecclesiastical
writer, who lived about the middle of the fourth centu¬
ry. Nothing is known with certainty respecting his
country, profession, or character, as we find no mention
made of him in the writings of ancient authors. Some
say that he was by birth a Sicilian, and practised in the
forum as a barrister for some time, becoming a convert
to Christianity when far advanced in years ; which ap¬
pears to derive considerable support from different pas¬
sages in his writings. He was author of a treatise F)e
errore profianarum religionum, which was dedicated to
the emperors Constantius and Constans. This work
must i
F I R
t 646 ]
F I S
Firmiout must have been written between 340 anti 350, in which
!! Constans was slain by Magnentius. It is allowed to be
First Fruits. a )earned, able, and well written performance, in which
' v   the reasonableness of the Christian religion is strongly
contrasted with the absurdity and immorality of the gen¬
tile creed. It must not be dissembled, however, that
he sometimes betrays such a spirit ot intolerance .as is
wholly incompatible with the genius ol the Christian
religion, which breathes nothing but benevolence to¬
wards the whole human race. The arguments em¬
ployed by him in its defence are disgraced by an ex¬
hortation to the civil power to propagate it by force of
arms, and to crush the advocates of error by severe
edicts. This work was first published at Strasburg in
1362, at Heidelberg in I559> an<^ 16io.
The greater part of critics ascribe to him a work en¬
titled Astronomicorum, scu de Mnt/iesi, lib. viii. In it
he treats of the power and influence of the stars, agree¬
ably to the doctrine of the Egyptians and Babylonians,
blending a considerable degree ol mathematical know¬
ledge with the unmeaning jargon of judicial astrology-
Those who imagine that so good a man as Firmicus
could not have been the author of such an absurd per¬
formance, should remember that it was probably com¬
posed prior to his conversion, when such absurdities
would constitute a part of his creed.
FIRMNESS, denotes the consistence of a body, or
that state wherein its sensible parts cohere in such a
manner, that the motion of one part induces a motion
in the rest.
FIRST-born. See Primogeniture, for the li¬
teral meaning of the term.
In Scripture it is also used often in a figurative sense
for that which is first, most excellent, most distinguish¬
ed in any thing. Thus it is sam of Christ (Col. i. 5,)>
that he is “ the first-born of every creature $” and in
Revelation (i. 5.) he is called “ The first-begotten of
the dead that is, according to the commentators,
begotten of the Father before any creature was pro¬
duced ; and the first who rose from the dead by his own
power. 44 rl he first-born of the poor, (Isa. xiv. 3®*)
signifies, The most miserable of all the poor ; and in
Job (xviii. 13.) “ The first-born of death that is,
The most terrible of all deaths.
First Fruits {primitice), among the Hebrews, were
oblations of part of the fruits of the harvest, offered
to God as an acknowledgment of his sovereign domi¬
nion. The first of these fruits was offered in the name
of the whole nation, being either two loaves of bread,
or a sheaf of barley which was thrashed in the court
of the temple. Every private person was obliged to
bring his first fruits to the temple and these consisted
of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and
dates.
There was another sort of first fruits which were
paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a family,
a portion of it was set apart and given to the priest
or Levite who dwelt in the place ; if there was no priest
or Levite there, it was cast into the oven, and consumed
by the fire. These offerings made a considerable part
of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood.
First Fruits are frequently mentioned in ancient Chri¬
stian writers as one part of the church revenue. One
of the councils of Carthage enjoins, that they should
Fish.
consist only of grapes and corn $ which shows, that this p;m
was the practice of the African church. n
First Fruits in the church of England, are the
profits of every spiritual benefice for the first year,
according to the valuation thereof in the king’s
books.
FISC, {Fisells'), in the Civil Law, the treasury of a
prince or state j or that to which all things due to the
public do fall. The word is derived from the Greek
<p«nso?, 44 a great basket,” used when they went to mar¬
ket. By the civil law, none but a sovereign prince
has a right to have a fisc or public treasury.
At Rome, under the emperors, the term cerarium
was used for the revenues destined for support of the
charges of the empire 5 the jiscus for those of the em¬
peror’s own family. Jhe treasury, in eflect belonged
to the people, and the fiscus to the prince. Hence the
goods of condemned persons, if appropriated to the
use of the public, were said publican i it to the support
of the emperor or prince, conjiscart.
FISCAL, in the Civil Law, something relating to
the pecuniary interest of the prince or people. The
officers appointed for the management of the fisc, were
called procuratores fisci, and advocatijisci; and among
the cases enumerated in the constitutions of the empire
where it was their business to plead, one is against
those who have been condemned to pay a fine to the
fisc on account of their litigiousness or frivolous ap¬
peals.
FISCUS. See Fisc.
Fish, in Natural History, an animal that lives in the
waters as the natural place of its abode.
Fishes form the fourth class of animals in the Lin-
ntean system. Their most general or popular division
is mio fresh and salt water ones. Some, however, are
of opinion, that all fishes naturally inhabit the. salt
waters, and that they have mounted up into rivers
only by accident. A few species only swim up into
the rivers to deposit their spawn ; but by far the great¬
est number keep in the sea, and would soon expn.e in
fresh water. There are about 400 species of fishes
(according to Linnccws) of which we icnow something .
but the unknown ones are supposed to be many more ;
and as they are thought to lie in great depths of the
sea remote from land, it is probable that many species
will remain for ever unknown.
For the subdivisions, characters, and natural history
of this class of animals, see Ichthyology Index.
Blowing of Fish, is a practice similar to that of
blowing flesh, poultry, and pigs, and adopted for the
same deceitful purposes. The method of blowing fish,
especially cod and whitings, is by placing the end of a
quill or tobacco-pipe at the vent, and pricking a hole
with a pin under the fin which is next the gillthere¬
by making the fish appear to the eye large and full,
which when dressed will be flabby, and little else than
skin and bones. But this imposition may be discover¬
ed by placing the finger and thumb on each side of the
vent, and squeezing it hard ; the wind may be perceiv¬
ed to go out, the skin will fall in, and the fish appear
lank, and of little value.
Breeding of Fishes may be turned to great advan¬
tage *, for, besides furnishing the table, obliging one’s
friends, and raising money, the land will be thereby
greatly
FIS [ 647 ] FIS
Fkk- greatly improved, so as to yield more this way than by
—v——' anv other employment whatever. See Fish Pond.
Castration oj Fish, is a method first practised by Mr
Tull in order to prevent the excessive increase of fish
in some of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit
any of them to grow to an advantageous size. But he
afterwards found, that the castrated fish grew much
larger than their utmal size, were more fat, and always
in season. This operation may be performed both on
male and female fish ; and the most eligible time for it
is when the ovaries of the female have their ova in
them, and when the vessels of the male, analogous to
these, have their seminal matter in them ; because, at
this time, these vessels are more easily distinguished
from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kid¬
neys into the bladder, and are situated near the seminal
vessels on each side of the spine ; which, without suffi¬
cient attention, may be mistaken for the ovaries, espe¬
cially when these last are empty. The time least pro¬
per for this operation, is just after they have spawned,
because the fish ai*e then too weak and languid to bear,
with success, so severe an operation ; however, with
skill and care, it may be performed almost at any time.
When a fish is to be castrated, it must be held in a wet
cloth with its belly upwards j then with a sharp pen¬
knife, having its point bent backwards, the operator
cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly,
taking cai-e not to wound any of the intestines. As
soon as a small aperture is made, he carefully inserts a
hooked pen-knife, and with this dilates the aperture
from between the two fore-fins almost to the anus. He
then, with two small blunt silver-hooks, five or six
inches long, and of this form P, by the help of an as¬
sistant, holds open the belly of the fish ; and with a
spoon or spatula, removes carefully the intestines from
one side. When these are removed, you see the ure¬
ter, a small vessel, nearly in the direction of the spine,
and also the ovary, a larger vessel, lying before it, nearer
the integuments of the belly. This last vessel is taken
up with a hook of the same kind with those before
mentioned, and, after detaching it from the side far
enough for the purpose, divided transversely with a pair
of sharp scissars, care being taken that the intestines
are not wounded or injured. After one of the ovaries
has been divided, the operator proceeds to divide the
other in the same manner; and then the divided inte¬
guments of the belly are sewed with silk, the stitches
being inserted at a small distance from one another.
Mr Tull observes farther, that the spawning time is
very various ; that trouts are full about Christmas ;
perch in February ; pikes in March, and carp and
tench in May ; and that allowance must be made for
climate and situation, with regard to the spawning of
fish. When the fish are castrated, they are put into
the water where they are intended to continue ; and
they take their chance in common with other fish, as
though they were not castrated. With tolerable care,
few die of the operation. Phil. Trans, vol. xlviii. Part
2. art. ic6.
Although we could not properly avoid inserting the
above detail, it is presumed that few will be pleased
with the invention. The operation is peculiarly cruel,
and the purpose of it only a detestable piece of Apioian
refinement.
Feeding of Fishes. When they are fed in large
2
pools or ponds, either malt boiled, or fresh grains, is
the best food ; thus carps may be raised and fed like  -v—
capons, and tenches will feed as well. The care of
feeding them is best committed to a gardener or the
butler, who should be always at hand. When fed in
a stew, any sort of grain boiled, especially pease, and
malt coarsely ground, are proper food ; also the grains
after brewing, while fresh and sweet; but one bushel
of malt not brewed will go as far as two of grains.
Stealing of Fish, by persons armed and disguised, is
felony without benefit of clergy, by 9 Geo. I. cap. 22.
See Black Act. And by 5 Geo. III. cap. 14. the pe¬
nalty of transportation for seven years is inflicted on
persons stealing or taking fish in any water, within a
park, paddock, orchard, or yard ; and on the receivers,
aiders, and abettors; and a forfeiture of five pounds
to the owner of the fishery is made payable by persons
taking or destroying (or attempting so to do) any fish
in any river or other water within any enclosed ground,
being private property.
P reserving of Fishfor Cabinets. Linnaeus’s method Amceti.
is, to expose them to the air; and when they acquire t°,n*
such a degree of putrefaction that the skin loses its co-*’1,
hesion to the body of the fish, it may be slid oft' almost
like a glove ; the two sides of this skin may then be
dried upon paper like a plant, or one of the sides may
be filled with plaster of Paris to give the subject a due
plumpness.
A fish may be prepared, after it has acquired this
degree of putrefaction, by making a longitudinal in¬
cision on the belly, and carefully dissecting the fleshy
part from the skin, which is but slightly attached to it
in consequence of the putrescency. The skin is then
to be filled with cotton and the antiseptic powder as
directed for birds ; and, lastly, to be sewed up where
the incision was made.
Gold Fish. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.
Gilding on Fish. In the posthumous papers of Mr
Hooke, a method is described of gilding live craw fish,
carps, &c. without injuring the fish. The cement for
this purpose is prepared, by putting some burgundy
pitch into a new earthen pot, and warming the vessel
till it receives so much of the pitch as will stick round
it; then strewing some finely powdered amber before
the pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three
pounds of linseed oil and one of oil of turpentine, co¬
vering the vessel, and boiling them for an hour over a
gentle fire, and grinding the mixture, as it is wanted,
with so much pumice-stone in fine powder as will re¬
duce it to the consistence of paint. The fish being
wiped dry, the mixture is spread upon it; and the gold-
leaf being then laid on, and gently pressed down, the
fish may be immediately put into water again, without
any danger of the gold coming off, for the matter quick¬
ly grows firm in water.
Fish, in a ship, a plank or piece of timber, fastened
to a ship’s mast or yard, to strengthen it; which is done
by nailing it on with iron spikes, and winding ropes
hard about them.
Fishes, in Heraldry, are the emblems of silence and
watchfulness ; and are borne either upright, imbowed,
extended, endorsed respecting each other, surmounting
one another, fretted, &c.
In blazoning fishes, those borne feeding, should be
deemed devouring ; all fishes borne upright and having
fins,
FIS [ 648 ] FIS
Yhh fins, should be blazoned hauriant; and those borne
Fisher, transverse the escutcheon, must be termed naiant. .
—v—Tmi Ponds, those made for the breeding or feeding
of fish.
Fish ponds are no small improvement of watery and
boggy lands, many of which are fit for no other use*
In making of a pond, its head should be at the lowest
part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate or
sluice, having a good fall, may not be too long in emp¬
tying. The best way of making the head secure, is to
drive in two or three rows of stakes above six feet long,
at above four feet distance from each other, the whole
length of the pond head, whereof the first row should
be rammed at least about four feet deep. If the bot¬
tom is false, the foundation may be laid with quick¬
lime ; which slaking, will make it as hard as a stone.
Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out
of the pond, among the piles and stakes j and when
these are well covered, drive in others as they see oc¬
casion, ramming in the earth as before, till the pond
head be of the height designed.
The dam should be made sloping on each side, leav¬
ing a waste to carry off the over abundance of water
in times of floods or rains ; and as to the depth of the
pond, the deepest part need not exceed six feet, rising
gradually in shoals towards the sides, for the fish to sun
themselves, and lay their spawn. Gravelly and sandy
bottoms, especially the latter, are best for breeding }
and a fat soil with a white fat water, as the washings
of hills, commons, streets, sinks, &c. is best for fat¬
tening all sort's of fish. For storing a pond, carp is to
be preferred for its goodness, quick growth, and great
increase, as breeding five or six times a-year. A pond
of an acre, if it be a feeding and not breeding one,
will every year feed 200 carps of three years old, 300
of two years old, and 400 of a year old. Carps de¬
light in ponds that have marl or clay bottoms,, with
plenty of weeds and grass, whereon they feed in the
hot months.
Ponds should be drained every three or four years,
and the fish sorted. In breeding ones, the smaller ones
are to be taken out, to store other ponds with j leav¬
ing a good *stock of females, at least eight or nine
years old, as they never breed before that age. In
feeding ponds, it is best to keep them pretty near of a
FISHER, John, bishop of Rochester, was born
at Beverly in Yorkshire, in the year I439> an<^ edu¬
cated in the collegiate church of that place. In 1484,
he removed to Michael house in Cambridge, of which
college he was elected master in the year .1495. Hav¬
ing applied himself to the study of divinity, he took
orders $ and, becoming eminent as a divine, attracted
the notice of Margaret countess of Richmond, mother
of Henry VII. who made him her chaplain and con¬
fessor. In 1501, he took the degree of doctor of di¬
vinity', and the same year was elected chancellor of the
university. In the year following, he was appointed
Lady Margaret’s first divinity professor ; and in 1504,
consecrated bishop of Rochester; which small bishopric
he would never resign, though he was offered both Ely
and Lincoln. It is generally allowed, that the foun¬
dation of the two colleges of Christ church and St
John’s, in Cambridge, was entirely owing to Bishop
Fisher’s persuasion and influence with the countess of
3
Richmond: he not only formed the design, but super-
intended the execution. On the promulgation of Mar- Fisherj’,
tin Luther’s doctrine, our bishop was the first to enter v“—v—-
the lists against him. On this occasion he exerted all
his influence, and is generally supposed to have written
the famous book by which Henry VIII. obtained the
title of Defender of the Faith. Hitherto he continued
in favour with the~kingbut in 1527, opposing his di¬
vorce, and denying his supremacy, the implacable
Harry determined, and finally effected, his destruction.
In 1543, the parliament found him guilty of mispri¬
sion of treason, for concealing certain prophetic speech¬
es of a fanatical impostor, called the Holy Maid of
Kent, relative to the king’s death ; and condemned
him, with five others, in loss of goods and imprisonment
during his majesty’s pleasure ; but he was released on
paying 300I. for the king’s use.
King Henry being now married to Anne Boleyn,
his obsequious parliament took an oath of allegiance
proper for the occasion. Bins oath the bishop of Ro¬
chester steadily refused 5 alleging, that his conscience
could not be convinced that the king’s first .marriage
was against the law of God. For refusing this oath of
succession, he was attainted by the parliament of 1534 5
and committed to the Tower, where he was cruelly
treated, and where he would probably have died a na¬
tural death, had not the pope created him a cardinal.
The king, now positively determined on his destruc¬
tion, sent Rich the solicitor general, under the pre¬
tence of consulting the bishop on a case of conscience,
but really with a design to draw him into a conver¬
sation concerning the supremacy. The honest old bi¬
shop spoke his mind without suspicion or reserve, and
an indictment and conviction of high treason was the
consequence. He was beheaded at Tower Hill on the
22d of June'1535, in the 77th year of his age.. Thus
died this good old prelate; who, notwithstanding his
inflexible enmity to the Reformation, was undoubtedly
a learned, pious, and honest man. He wrote several
treatises against Luther, and other works, which were
printed at Wurtzburg in I597> 0116 vo^ume folio.
FISHERY, a place where great numbers of fish are
caught.
The principal fisheries for salmon, herrings, mackrel,
pilchards, &c. are along the coasts of Scotland, Eng¬
land, and Ireland : for cod, on the banks of Newfound¬
land : for whales, about Greenland ; and for pearls, in
the East and West Indies.
Free-FmiERY, in Law, or an exclusive right of fish¬
ing in a public river, is a royal franchise ', and is con¬
sidered as such in all countries where the feoda! po¬
lity has prevailed: though the making such grants, and
by that means appropriating, what it seems unnatural to
restrain, the use of running water, was prohibited for
the future, by King John’s Great Charter } and the ri
vers that were fenced in his time were directed to be
laid open, as well as the lorests to be disforested. This
opening was extended by the second and third charters
of Henry HI. to those" also that were fenced under
Richard I. ; so that a franchise of free fishery ought now
to be as old at least as the reign of Henry II. This
differs from a several of piscary, because he that has a
several fishery must also be the owner of the soil, which
in a free fishery is not requisite. It differs also from a
common fishery in that the free fishery is an exclusive
*
FIS [ 649 ] FIS
,hety. r*gty> th® common fishery is not so : and therefore, in a
-y ■ n> free fishery, a man has property in the fish before they
are caught j in a common piscary, not till afterwards.
Some indeed have considered a free fishery not as a royal
franchise j but merely as a private grant of a liberty to
fish in the several fishery of the grant. But the consi¬
dering such right as originally a flower of the preroga¬
tive, till restrained by Magna Charta, and derived by
royal grant (previous to the reign of Richard I.) to
such as now claim it by prescription, may remove some
difficulties in respect to this matter with which our law
books are embarrassed.
Fishery, denotes also the commerce of fish, more
particularly the catching them for sale.
Were we to enter into a very minute and particular
consideration of fisheries, as at present established in
this kingdom, this article would swell beyond its pro¬
per bounds j because, to do justice to a subject of such
concernment to the British nation, requires a very am¬
ple and distinct discussion. We shall, however, ob¬
serve, that since the Divine Providence hath so emi¬
nently stored the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland
with the most valuable fish j and since fisheries, if suc¬
cessful, become permanent nurseries for breeding ex¬
pert seamen ; it is not only a duty we owe to the Su¬
preme Being, not to despise the wonderful plenty he
hath afforded us, by neglecting to extend this branch
of commerce to the utmost; but it is a duty we owe
to our country, for its natural security, which depends
upon the strength of our royal navy. No nation
can have a navy where there is not a fund of business
to breed and employ seamen without any expence to
the public, and no trade is so well calculated for
training up these useful members of society as fish¬
eries.
The situation of the British coasts is the most advan¬
tageous in the world for catching fish : the Scottish
islands, particularly those to the north and west, lie
most commodious for carrying on the fishing trade to
perfection ; for no country in Europe can pretend to
come up to Scotland in the abundance of the finest fish,
with which its various creeks, bays, rivers, lakes, and
coasts, are replenished. Of these advantages the Scots
seem indeed to have been abundantly sensible ; and their
traffic in herrings, the most valuable of all the fisheries,
is noticed in history so early as the ninth century.
The frequent laws which were enacted in the reigns of
James III. IV. and V. discover a steady determined
zeal for the benefit of the native subjects, and the full
restoration of the fisheries, which the Dutch had lat¬
terly found means to engross $ and do honour to the
memory of those patriots whom modern times affect to
call barbarians.
The expedition of James V. to the Hebrides and
western parts of the Highlands, and his assiduity in
exploring and sounding the harbours, discovered a fix¬
ed resolution in that active prince, to civilize the in¬
habitants, to promote the valuable fisheries at their
doors, «nd to introduce general industry. His death,
at an early period, and the subsequent religious and
civil commotions in the kingdom, frustrated those
wise designs, and the western fisheries remained in their
original state of neglect. At length, 1602, James VI.
resumed the national purposes which had been thus
chalked out by his grandfather. “ Three towns
VOL. VIII. Part II. i
(says Dr Robertson) which might serve as a retreat Fishery,
for the industrious, and a nursery for arts and com-
merce, were appointed to be built in different parts of
the Highlands j one in Cantire, another in Lochaber,
and a third in the isle of Lewis $ and in order to draw
the inhabitants thither, all the privileges of the royal
boroughs were to be conferred upon them. Finding
it, however, to be no easy matter to inspire the inhabi¬
tants of those countries with the love of industry, a
resolution was taken to plant amongst them colonies of
people from the more industrious counties. The first
experiment was made in the isle of Lewis ; and as it
was advantageously situated for the fishing trade (a
source from which Scotland ought naturally to derive
great wealth), the colony transported thither was drawn
out of Fife, the inhabitants of which were well skilled
in that branch of commerce. But before they had
remained there long enough to manifest the good ef¬
fects of this institution, the islanders, enraged at see¬
ing their country occupied by those intruders, took
arms, and surprising them in the night time, murdered
some of them, and compelled the rest to abandon the
settlement. The king’s attention being soon turned
to other objects, particularly to his succession to the
English crown, we hear no more of his salutary pro¬
ject.”
The Scottish fisheries were, however, resumed by
Charles I. who “ ordained an association of the three
kingdoms, for a general fishing within the hail seas
and coasts of his majesty’s said kingdoms ; and for
the government of the said association, ordained, that
there should be a standing committee chosen and no¬
minated by his majesty, and his successors from time
to time,” &c. &c. Several persons of distinction em¬
barked in the design, which the king honoured with
his patronage, and encouraged by his bounty. He also
ordered Lent to be more strictly observed ; prohibited
the importation of fish taken by foreigners; and agreed
to purchase from the company his naval stores and the
fish for his fleets. Thus the scheme of establishing a
fishery in the Hebrides began to assume a favourable
aspect; but all the hopes of the adventurers were frus¬
trated by the breaking out of the civil wars, and the
very tragical death of their benefactor.
In 1661, Charles II. the duke of York, Lord Claren¬
don, and other persons of rank and fortune, resumed the
business of the fisheries with greater vigour than any of
their predecessors. For this purpose the most salutary
laws were enacted by the parliaments of England and
Scotland ; in virtue of which, all materials used in, or
depending upon the fisheries, were exempted from all
duties, excises, or imposts whatever. In England, the
company were authorised to set up a lottery, and to
have a voluntary collection in all parish churches; houses
of entertainment, as taverns, inns, ale-houses, were
to take one or more bai’rels of herrings, at the stated
price of 30s. per barrel ; and 2s. 6d. per barrel was to
be paid to the stock of this company on all imported fish
taken by foreigners. Some Dutch families were also
invited, or permitted to settle in Stornaway. The her¬
rings cured by the Royal English company gave ge¬
neral satisfaction, and, as mentioned above, brought
a high price for those days. Every circumstance at¬
tending this new establishment seemed to be the result
of a judicious plan and thorough knowledge of the
4 N business,
FIS [ 65° ] FIS
Eisber^. business, when the necessities of the king obliged him
y-~~' to withdraw his subscription or bounty •, which gave
such umbrage to the parties concerned, that they soon
after dissolved.
In 167*/, a new royal company was established in
England, at the head of which was the duke oi \ork,
the earl of Derby, &c. Besides all the privileges which
former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this
new company a perpetuity, with power to purchase
lands 5 and also 20I. to be paid them annually, out
of the customs of the port of London, for every dog¬
ger or buss they should build and send out for seven
years to come. A stock of 10,980!. was immediately
advanced, and afterwards 1600I. more. This small
capital was soon exhausted in purchasing and fitting
out busses, with other incidental expences. rlhe com¬
pany made, however, a successful beginning ; and one
of their busses or doggers actually took and brought
home 32,000 cod fish } other vessels had also a favour¬
able fishery. Such favourable beginnings might have
excited fresh subscriptions, when an unforeseen event
ruined the whole design beyond the possibility of reco¬
very. Most of the busses had been built in Holland,
and manned with Dutchmen; on which pretence the
French, who were then at war with Holland, seized
six out of seven vessels, with their cargoes and fishing
tackle: and the company being now in debt, sold, in
1680, the remaining stores,-&c. A number of gen¬
tlemen and merchants raised a new subscription of
6o,oool. under the privileges and immunities of the
former charter. This attempt also came to nothing,
owing to the death of the king, and the troubles of the
subsequent reign.
Soon after the Revolution this business was again re¬
sumed, and upon a more extensive scale ; the proposed
capital being 300,000!. of which ioo,oool. was to
have been raised by the surviving patentees or their
successors, and 200,0001. by new subscribers. Copies
of the letters patent, the constitution of the company,
and terms of subscription, were lodged at sundry
places in London and Westminster, for the perusal of
the public, while the subscription was filling. It is
probable, that King William’s partiality to the Dutch
fisheries, the succeeding war, or both of these circum¬
stances, frustrated this new attempt ; of which we
have no farther account in the annals of that reign or
since.
The Scottish parliament had also, during the three
last reigns, passed sundry acts for erecting companies
and promoting the fisheries; but the intestine commo¬
tions of that country, and the great exertions which
were made for the Darien establishment, enfeebled all
other attempts, whether collectively or by individuals,
within that kingdom.
In 1749, his late majesty having, at the opening
of the parliament, warmly recommended the improve¬
ment of the fisheries, the house of commons appointed
a committee to inquire into the state of the herring
and white fisheries, and to consider of the most proba¬
ble means of extending the same. All ranks of men
were elevated with an idea of the boundless riches
that would flow into the kingdom from this source. A
subscription of 500,000!. was immediately filled in the
city, by a body of men who were incorporated for 21
years by the name of The Society of the Free British
Fishery. Every encouragement was held out by go¬
vernment, both to the society, and to individuals who ^
might embark in this national business. A bounty of
36s. per ton was to he paid annually out of the customs,
for 14 years, to the owners of all decked vessels or bus¬
ses, from 20 to 80 tons burden, which should be built
after the commencement of the act, for the use of, and
fitted out and employed in, the said fisheries, whether
by the society or any other persons. At the same time
numerous pamphlets and newspaper essays came forth ;
all pretending to elucidate the subject, and to convince
the public with what facility the herring fisheries might
he transferred from Dutch to British hands. This
proved, however, a more arduous task than had been
foreseen by superficial speculators. The Dutch were
frugal in their expenditures and living ; perfect masters
of the arts of fishing and curing, which they had carried
to the greatest height and perfection. They were in
full possession of the European markets ; and their fish,
whether deserving or otherwise, had the reputation of
superior qualities to all others taken in our seas. With
such advantages, the Dutch not only maintained their
ground against this formidable company, but had also
the pleasure of seeing the capital gradually sinking,
without having procured an adequate return to the ad¬
venturers ; notwithstanding various aids and efforts of
government from time to time in their favour, particu¬
larly in 1757, "’hen an advance of 20s. per ton was
added to the bounty.
In 1786 the public attention was again called to the
state of the British fisheries, by the suggestions of Mr
Dempster in the house of commons, and by different
publications that appeared upon the subject: in conse¬
quence of which the minister suffered a committee to
be named, to inquire into this great source of national
wealth. To that committee it appeared, that the best
way of improving the fisheries was to encourage the in¬
habitants living nearest to the seat ol them to become
fishers : And it being found that the north-western
coast of the kingdom, though abounding with fish and
with fine harbours, was utterly destitute of towns, an act
was passed for incorporating certain persons therein
named, by the style of “ The British Society for extend¬
ing of the fisheries and improving the sea coasts of the
kingdom ;” and to enable them to subscribe a joint
stock, and therewith to purchase lands, and build there¬
on free towns, villages, and fishing stations, in the
Jlighlands and islands in that part of Great Britain
called Scotland, and for other purposes. The isle of
Mull, Loch Broom, the isles of Sky and of Cannay,
have already been pitched upon as proper situations for
some of these towns. The progress of such an underta¬
king from its nature must be slow, but still slower when
carried on with a limited capital arising from the sub¬
scriptions of a few public-spirited individuals. But it is
not to be doubted hut that it will ultimately tend to
the increase of our fisheries, and to the improvement of
the Highland part of this kingdom. Its tendency is
also to lessen the emigration of a brave and industrious
race of inhabitants, too many of whom have already
removed with their families to America.
1. Anchovy Fishery. The anchovy is caught in the
months of May, June, and July, on the coasts of Cata¬
lonia, Provence, &.c. at which season it constantly re¬
pairs up the straits of Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean.
^ 1 Collins
F 1 s [ 651 ] FIS
Collins says they are also found in plenty on the west¬
ern coasts of England and Wales.
The fishing for them is chiefly in the night time j
when a light being put on the stern of their little fishing
vessels, the anchovies flock round, and are caught in the
nets. But then it is asserted to have been found by
experience, that anchovies taken thus by fire,,are nei¬
ther so good, so firm, nor so proper for keeping, as those
which are taken without fire.
When the fishery is over, they cut off the heads,
take out their gall and guts, and then lay them in bar¬
rels and salt them. JThe common way of eating an¬
chovies is with oil, vinegar, &c. in order to which they
are first boned, and the tails, fins, &c. slipped ofl‘.—
Being put on the fire, they dissolve almost in any liquor.
Or they are made into a sauce by mincing them with
pepper, &c. Some also pickle anchovies in small delft
or earthen pots, made on purpose, of two or three
pounds weight, more or less, which they cover with
plaster to keep them the better. Anchovies should be
chosen small, fresh pickled, white on the outside and
red within. They must have a round back ; for those
which are fat or large are often nothing but sardines.
Besides these qualities, the pickle, on opening the pots
or barrels, must be of a good taste, and not have lost
its flavour.
2. Cod Fishery. There are two kinds of cod fish j
the one green or white cod, and the other dried or cur¬
ed cod j though it is all the same fish, differently pre¬
pared 5 the former being sometimes salted and barrel¬
led, then taken out for use ; and the latter having lain
some competent time in salt, dried in the sun or smoke.
We shall therefore speak of each of these apaft ; and
first of the
Green. The chief fisheries for green cod are in
the bay of Canada, on the great bank of Newfound¬
land, and on the isle of St" Peter, and the isle of
Sable ; to which places vessels resort from divers parts
both of Europe and America. They are from 100
to 150 tons burden, and will catch between 30,000 and
40,000 cod each. The most essential part of the
fishery is, to have a master who knows how to cut up
the cod, one who is skilled to take off the head pro¬
perly, and above all a good salter, on which the pre¬
serving of them, and consequently the success of the
voyage depends. The best season is from the begin¬
ning of February to the end of April ; the fish, which
in the winter retire to the deepest water, coming then
on the banks and fattening extremely. What is
caught from March to June keeps well j but those
taken in July, August, and September, when it is warm
on the banks, are apt to spoil soon. Every fisher takes
but one at a time: the most expert will take from 330
to 400 in a day $ but that is the most 5 the weight of
the fish and the great coldness on the bank fatiguing
very much. As soon as the cod is caught, the head
is taken off; they are opened, gutted, and salted ; and
the salter stows them in the bottom of the hold, head
and tail, in beds a fathom or two square; laying layers
of salt and fish alternately, but never mixing fish caught
on different days. When they have lain thus three or
four days to drain off the water, they are replaced in
another part of the ship, and salted again ; where they
remain till the vessel is loaded. Sometimes they are cut
in thick pieces, and put in barrels for the conveniency
of carriage. - ‘ y
Fri/. Ihe principal fishery for this article is, from
Cape Rose to the Bay des Exports, along the coast of
Placentia, in which compass there are divers com¬
modious ports for the fish to be dried in. These,
though of the same kind with the fresli cod, are
much smaller, and therefore fitter to keep, as the salt
penetrates more easily into them. The fishery of both
is much alike ; only this latter is most expensive, as it
takes up more time and employs more hands, and yet
scarce half so much salt is spent in this as in the other.
I he bait is herrings, of which great quantities are
taken on the coast of Placentia. When several vessels
meet and intend to fish in the same part, he whose shal¬
lop first touches ground becomes entitled to the qua¬
lity and privileges of admiral: he has the choice of his
station, and the refusal of all the wood on the coast at
1,1S ariival. As fast as the masters arrive, they unrigg
a:l their vessels, leaving nothing but the shrouds to su¬
stain the mast ; and in the mean time the mates pro¬
vide a tent on shore, covered with branches of trees,
and sails over them, with a scaffold of great trunks of
pines, 12, 13, 16, and often 20 feet high, commonly
from 40 to 60 feet long, and about one-third as much,
in breadth. While the scaffold is preparing, the crew
are a-fishmg ; and as fast as they catch, they bring their
fish ashore, and open and salt them upon moveable
benches ; but the main salting is performed on the
scaffold. When the fish have taken salt, they wash and
hang them to drain on rails ; when drained, they are
laid on kinds of stages, which are small pieces of wood
laid across, and covered with branches of trees, having
the leaves stripped off for the passage of the air. On
these stages, they are disposed, a fish thick, head against
tail, with the back uppermost, and are turned carefully
four times every 24 hours. When they begin to dry,
they are laid in heaps 10 or 12 thick, in order to re¬
tain their warmth ; and every day the heaps are en¬
larged till they become double their first bulk ; then
two heaps are joined together, which they turn every
day as before : lastly, they are salted again, beginning
with those first salted ; and being laid in huge piles,
they remain in that situation till they are carried on
hoard the ships, where they are laid on the branches
of trees disposed for that purpose, upon the ballast, and
round the ship, with mats to prevent their contracting
any moisture.
There are four sorts of commodities drawn from cod,
viz. the sounds, the tongues, the roes, and the oil ex¬
tracted from the liver. The first is salted at the fishery
together with the fish, and put in barrels from 600 to’
700 pounds. The tongues are done in like manner, and
brought in barrels from 400 to 500 pounds. The roes
are also salted in barrels, and serve to cast into the sea
to draw fish together, and particularly pilchards. The ■■
oil comes in barrels, from 400 to 520 pounds, and is
used in dressing leather. In Scotland they catch a
small kind of cod on the coasts of Buchan and all along-
the Murray frith on both sides; as also in the friths of
lorth, Clyde, &c. which is much esteemed. Thev
salt and dry them in the sun upon rocks, and some¬
times in the chimney.
3. Coral Fishery. See Coral.
4 N 3
4. Herring
Fishery.
* Hisi. of
Commerce.
FIS [ 652 ] FIS
4. Herring Fishery. Our great stations for this
fishery are oft' the Shetland and Western isles, and off
the coast of Norfolk, in which the Dutch also share.
There are two seasons for fishing herring ; the first from
June to the end of August) and the second in autumn,
when the fogs become very favourable lor this kind of
fishing. The Dutch begin their herring fishing on the
24th of June, and employ a vast number of vessels
therein, called busses, being between 45 and 60 tons
burden each, and carrying three or four small cannon.
They never stir out of port, without a convoy, unless
there be enough together to make about 18 or 20 can¬
non among them, in which case they are allowed to go
in company. Before they go out they make a verbal
agreement, which has the same force as if it were in
writing. The regulations of the admiralty of Holland
are partly followed by the French and other nations,
and partly improved and augmented with new ones ;
as, that no fisher shall cast his net within 100 fathoms
of another boat : that while the nets are cast, a light
shall be kept on the hind part of the vessel : that when
a boat is by any accident obliged to leave oft fishing,
the light shall be cast into the sea) that when the
greater part of a fleet leaves oft fishing, and casts an*
chor, the rest shall do the same, &c.
Mr Anderson * gives to the Scots a knowledge of
great antiquity in the herring fishery. He says that
the Netherlanders resorted to these coasts as early as
A. D» 836, to purchases alted fish of the natives ; but,
imposing on the strangers, they learned the art, and
took up the trade, in after times of such immense emo¬
lument to the Dutch.
Sir Walter Raleigh’s observations on that head, ex¬
tracted from the same author, are extremely worthy
the attention of the curious, and excite reflections on
the vast strength resulting from the wisdom ot well ap¬
plied industry.
In 1603, he remarks, the Dutch sold to different
nations as many herrings as amounted to 1,759,000!.
sterling. In the year 1615, they at once sent out
2000 busses, and employed in them 37,000 fishermen.
In the year 1618, they sent out 3000 ships, with
50,000 men to take the herrings, and 9000 more ships
to transport and sell the fish *, which by sea and land
employed 150,000 men, besides those first mentioned.
All this wealth was gotten on our coasts, while our at¬
tention was taken up in a distant whale fishery.
The Scottish monarchs seemed for a long time to di¬
rect all their attention to the preservation of the salmon
fishery, probably because their subjects were such no¬
vices in sea affairs. At length James III. endeavoured
to stimulate his great men to these patriotic undertak¬
ings : for by an act of his third parliament, he com¬
pelled certain lords spiritual and temporal, and bur¬
rows, to make ships, busses and boats, with nets and
other pertinents, for fishing : that the same should be
made in each burgh ) in number according to the
substance of each burgh, and the least of them to
be of twenty tons : and that all idle men be com¬
pelled by the sheriffs in the country to go on board the
same.”
Numerous indeed have been the attempts made at
different periods to secure this treasure to ourselves, but
without success. In the late reign,-a very strong effort
was made, and bounties allowed, for the encouragement
of British adventurers : the first was of 30s. per ton to FUtwry,
every buss of 70 tons; and upwards. This bounty wasy*-
afterwards raised to 50s. per ton, to be paid to such
adventurers as were entitled to it by claiming it at the
places of rendezvous. The busses are from 20 to 90 tons
burden, but the best size is 8o. A vessel of 80 tons ought
to take ten lasts, or 120 barrels of herrings, to clear
expences, the price of the fish to he admitted to be a
guinea a barrel. A ship of this size ought to have 18
men, and three boats : one of 20 tons should have six
men, and every five tons above require an additional
hand. To every ton are 280 yards of nets ; so a vessel
of 80 tons carries 20,000 square yards : each net is
12 yards long, and 10 deep, and every boat takes out
from 20 to 30 nets, and puts them together so as to
form a long train ) they are sunk at each end of the
train by a stone, which weighs it down to the full ex¬
tent : the top is supported by buoys, made of sheeps-
skin, with a hollow stick at the mouth fastened tight:
through this the skin is blown up, and then stopped
with a peg, to prevent the escape of the air. Sometimes
these buoys are placed at the top of the nets : at other
times the nets are suffered to sink deeper, by the length¬
ening the cords fastened to them, every cord being
for that purpose 10 or 12 fathoms long. But the best
fisheries are generally in more shallow water.
Of the Scots fishery in the Western isles, the follow¬
ing account is given by Mr Pennant t. “ The fishing is t
always performed in the night, unless by accident. The^“*
busses remain at anchor, and send out their boats a little
before sunset: which continue out, in winter and sum¬
mer, till day-light; often taking up and emptying their
nets, which they do 10 or 12 times in a night, in case
of good success. During winter it is a most dangerous
and fatiguing employ, by reason of the greatness and
frequency of the gales in these seas, and in such gales
are the most successful captures : but by the Providence
of heaven the fishers are seldom lost; and, what is won¬
derful, few are visited with illness. They go out well
prepared, with a warm great coat, boots, and skin
aprons, and a good provision of beef and spirits. The
same good fortune attends the busses, which in the tem¬
pestuous season, and in the darkest nights, are conti¬
nually shifting in these narrow seas, from harbour to
harbour. Sometimes 80 barrels of herrings are taken
in a night by the boats of a single vessel. It once hap¬
pened in Loch Slappan, in Sky, that a buss of 80 tons
might have taken 200 barrels in one night, with
10,000 square yards of net; but the master was obliged
to desist, for want of a sufficient number of hands to
preserve the capture. The herrings are preserved by
salting, after the entrails are taken out. This last is
an operation performed by the country people, who get
three-halfpence per barrel for their trouble ) and some¬
times, even in the winter, can gain fifteen pence a-day.
This employs both women and children ) but the salt¬
ing is only intrusted to the crew of the busses. The
fish are laid on their backs in the barrels, and layers of
salt between them. The entrails are not lost, for they
are boiled into an oil 8000 fish will yield ten gal¬
lons, valued at one shilling the gallon. A vessel of
80 tons, takes out 144 barrels of salt ; a drawback of
2s. 8d. is allowed for each barrel used by the foreign
or Irish exportation of the fish ; but there is a duty of
is. per barrel for the home consumption, and the same
for
FIS [ 653 ] FIS
pislery. for those sent to Ireland. The barrels are made of oak
i staves chiefly from Virginia 5 the hoops from several
parts of our own island, and are either of oak, birch,
hazel or willow •, the last from Holland, liable to a du¬
ty. The barrels cost about 3s. each, they hold, from
500 to 800 fish, according to the size of the fish ; and
are made to contain 22 gallons. The barrels are in¬
spected by proper officers j a cooper examines if they
are statutable and good ; if faulty, he destroys them,
and obliges the maker to stand to the loss.
“ Loch Broom has been celebrated for three or four
centuries as the resort of herrings. They generally
appear here in July ; those that turn into this bay are
part of the brigade that detaches itself from the west-.
ern column of that great army which annually deserts
the vast depths of the arctic circle, and comes, heaven-
directed, to the seats of population, offered as a cheap
food to millions, whom wasteful luxury or iron-hearted
avarice bath deprived, by enhancing the price, of the
wonted supports of the poor. The migration of the
fish from their northern retreat is regular j their visits
to the Western isles and coasts certain j but their at¬
tachment to one particular loch extremely precari¬
ous. All have their turns $ that which swarmed with
fish one year, is totally deserted the following j yet
the next loch to it may be crowded with the shoals.
These changes of place give often full employ to
the busses, who are continually shifting their harbour
in quest of news respecting these important wanderers.
They commonly appear here in July ; the latter end
of August they go into deep water, and continue
there for some time, without any apparent cause :
in November, they return to the shallows, when a new
fishery commences, which continues till January : at
that time the herrings become full of roe, and are use¬
less as articles of commerce. Some doubt, whether
those herrings that appear in November are not part
of a new migration j for they are as fat, and make
the same appearance, as those that composed the first.
The signs of the arrival of the herrings are flocks of
gulls, who catch up the fish while they skim on the
surface, and of gannets who plunge and bring them,
up from considerable depths. Both these birds are
closely attended to by the fishers. Cod fish, haddocks,,
and dog fish, follow the herrings in vast multitudes
these voracious fish keep on the outsides of the co¬
lumns, and may be a concurrent reason of driving the
shoals into bays and creeks. In summer, they come
into the bays generally with the warmest weather,
and with easy gales. During winter, the hard gales
from north-west are supposed to assist in forcing them
into shelter. East winds are very unfavourable to the
fishery.”
Herrings are cured either white or pickled, or red.
Of thej^/'i^, those done by the Dutch are the most
esteemed, being distinguished, into four sorts, accord¬
ing to their sizes j and the best are those that are fat,
fleshy, firm, and white, salted the same day they are
taken, with good salt, and well barrelled. The Bri¬
tish cured herrings are little inferior, if not equal, to
the Dutch : for in spite of all their endeavours to con¬
ceal the secret, their method of curing,, lasting,, or
casking the herrings, has been discovered, and is as
follows. After they have hauled in their nets, which
they drag in the stern of their vessels backwards and
forwards in traversing the coast, they throw them upon Fishery,
the ship’s deck, which is cleared of every thing for ' ■' 1 v1""
that purpose : the crew is separated into sundry divi¬
sions, and each division has a peculiar task j one part
opens and guts the herrings, leaving the milts and
roes ; another cures and salts them, by lining or rub¬
bing their inside with salt; the next packs them, and
between each row and division they sprinkle handfuls
of salt; lastly, the cooper puts the finishing hand to all,
by heading the casks very tight, and stowing them in
the hold.
Red herrings must lie 24 hours in the brine, in¬
asmuch as they are to take all their salt there $ and
when they are taken out, they are spitted, that is, strung
by the head on little wooden spits, and then hung in a
chimney made for that purpose. After which, a fire
of brushwood, which yields a deal of smoke, but no
flame, being made under them, they remain there till
sufficiently smoked and dried, and are afterwards bar¬
relled up for keeping.
5. Lobster Fishery. Lobsters are taken along the
British channel, and on the coast of Norway, whence
they are brought to London for sale } and also in the
frith of Edinburgh, and on the coast of Northumber- -
land. By 10 and II W. III. cap. 24. no lobster is to
be taken under eight inches in length, from the peak
of the nose to the end of the middle fin of the tail $
and by 9 Geo. II. cap. 33. no lobsters are to be taken
on the coast of Scotland from the 1st of June to the
1st of September.
6. Mackerel Fishery. The mackerel is a summer fish
of passage, found in large shoals, in divers parts of the
ocean, not far north ; but especially on the French and
English coasts. The fishing is usually in the months
of April, May, and June, and even July, according to
the place. They enter the English channel in April,
and proceed up the straits of Dover as the summer
advances ; so that by June they are on the coasts of
Cornwall, Sussex, Normandy, Picardy, &c. where the
fishery is most considerable. They are an excellent
food .fresh ; and not to be despised, when well prepar¬
ed, pickled, and put up in barrels j a method of pre¬
serving them chiefly, used in Cornwall.
The fish is taken two ways; either with a line or
nets : the latter is the more considerable, and is usually
performed in. the night-time. The rules observed in,
the fishing for mackerel are much the same as those al- .
ready mentioned in the fishery of herrings.
There are two ways of pickling them : the first is,
by opening and gutting them, and filling the belly
with salt, crammed in as hard as possible, with a stick;,
which done, they range them in strata or rows, at the
bottom of the vessel, strewing salt between the layers.
In the second way, they put them immediately into
tubs full of brine, made of fresh water and salt; and
leave them.to steep, till they have imbibed salt enough
to make them keep; after which, they are taken,
out, and barrelled up, taking care to press them close
down.
Mackerel are not cured or exported as merchandise,
except a few by the Yarpiouth and Leostoff merchants, ,
but are generally consumed at home ; especially in
the city , of London, and the sea-ports between the
Thames and Yarmouth, east, and the Land’s End of
Cornwall, west,.. > dJir
7. Oyster r
Ftsbery.
IS [ 654. ]
This fishery Is principally car- bittern
| See Os-
trm. Con-
ehology
Index.
7. Oyster FisueryX „ ...
rled on at Colchester In Essex Feversham ami Milton
in Kent j the Isle of Wight; the Swales of the Med¬
way ; and Tenbv on the coast of Wales. From Fever-
sham, and adjacent parts, the Dutch have sometimes
loaded a hundred large hoys with oysters in a year.
They are also taken in great quantities near Portsmouth,
and in all the creeks and rivers between Southampton
and Chichester : many of which are carried about by
sea to London and to Colchester, to be fed in the pits
about Wavenhoe and other places.
8. Pearl Fishery. See Pearl, Conchology In¬
dex, and Ceylon.
9. Pilchard Fishery. The chief pilchard fisheries are
along the coasts of Dalmatia, on the coast of Bretagne,
and along the coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire. That
of Dalmatia is very plentiful: that on the coasts of
Bretagne employs annually about 300 ships. Of the
pilchard fishery on the coast of Cornwall the following
account is given by Dr Borlase : “ It employs a great
number of men on the sea, training them thereby to
naval affairs 5 employs men, women, and children, on
land, in salting, pressing, washing and cleaning j in
making boats, nets, ropes, casks, and all the trades
depending on their construction and sale. Ihe poor
are fed with the offals of the captures, the land with
the refuse of the fish and salt •, the merchant finds the
gains of commission and honest commerce, the fisher¬
man the gains of the fish. Ships are often freighted
hither with salt, and into foreign countries with the
fish, carrying off at the same time part of our tin. Of
the usual produce of the great number of hogsheads ex¬
ported each year for ten years, from 1747 to 1756 in¬
clusive, from the four ports of Fowey, lalmouth, Pen¬
zance, and St Ives, it appears that Fowey has exported
yearly 1732 hogsheads 5 Falmouth, 14,631 hogsheads
and two thirds; Penzance and Mounts-Bay 12,149
hogsheads and one-third; St Ives, 1280 hogsheads:
in all amounting to 29,795 hogsheads. Every hogshead
for ten years last past, together with the bounty allow¬
ed for each hogshead exported, and the oil made out of
each hogshead, has amounted, one year with another
at an average, to the price of ll. 13s. 3^* 5 80 that the
cash paid for pilchards exported has, at a medium, an¬
nually amounted to the sum of 49’532^*
numbers that are taken at one shooting out of the nets
are amazingly great. Mr Pennant says, that Dr Bor¬
lase assured him, that on the 5th of October I7^7»
there were at one time enclosed in St Ives’s Bay yooo
hogsheads, each hogshead containing 35,000 fish; in all
245 millions.
The pilchards naturally follow the light, which con¬
tributes much to the facility of the fishery ; the season
is from June to September. On the coasts of I ranee
they make use of the roes of the cod fish as a bait ;
which, thrown into the sea, makes them rise from the
bottom, and run into the nets. On our coasts there
are persons posted ashore, who, spying by the colour
of the water where the shoals are, make signs to the
boats to go among them to cast their nets. When
taken, they are brought on shore to a warehouse,
where they are laid up in broad piles, supported with
hacks and sides ; and as they are piled, they salt them
with bay salt; in which lying to soak for 30 or 40 days,
they run out a deal of blood with dirty pickle and
F I S
then they wrash them clean in sea water; and, Fi»hm.
when dry, barrel and press them hard down to squeeze '*1—* -J
out the oil, which issues out at a hole in the bottom of
tllG Ccislv#
10. Salmon Fishery \. The chief salmon fisheries
in Europe are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the0^o^ ^
rivers, and sea coasts adjoining to the river mouths.4^.
The most distinguished for salmon in Scotland are, the
river Tweed, the Clyde, the Tay, the Dee, the Don,
the Spey, the Ness, the Bewly, &c. in most of which
it is very common, about the height of summer, espe¬
cially if the weather happens to be very hot, to catch
four or five score salmon at a draught. Jbe chief ri¬
vers in England for salmon are, the Tyne, the Trent,
the Severn, and the Thames. rlhe fishing is performed
with nets, and sometimes with a kind of locks or wears
made on purpose, which in certain places have iron or
wooden grates so disposed, in an angle, that being im¬
pelled by any force in a contrary direction to the course
of the river, they may give way and open a little at the
point of contact, and immediately shut again, closing
the angle. The salmon, therefore, coming up into the
rivers, are admitted into these grates, which open, and
suffer them to pass through, but shut again, and pre¬
vent their return. The salmon is also caught with a
spear, which they dart into him when they see him
swimming near the surface of the water. It is custom¬
ary likewise to catch them with a candle and lanthorn,
or wisp of straw set on fire ; for the fish naturally fol¬
lowing the light, are struck with the spear, or taken in
a net spread for that purpose, and lifted with a sudden
jerk from the bottom.
“ The capture of salmon in the Tweed, about the
month of July (says Mr Pennant J) is prodigious. In
a good fishery, often a boatload, and sometimes near^0®
two, are taken in a tide : some few years ago there were
above 700 fish taken at one haul, but from 50 to 100
is very frequent. The coopers in Berwick then begin
to salt both salmon and grilses in pipes and other large
vessels, and afterwards barrel them to send abroad, ha¬
ving then far more than the London markets can take
off thei” hands.
“ Most of the salmon taken before April, or to the
settino' in of the warm weather, is sent Iresh to Lon¬
don in baskets: unless now and then the vessel is dis¬
appointed by contrary winds of sailing immediately ; in
which case the fish is brought ashore again to the coopers
offices, and boiled, pickled, and kitted, and sent to the
London markets by the same ship, and fresh salmon
put in the baskets in lieu of the stale ones. At the be¬
ginning of the season, when a ship is on the point of
sailing, a fresh clean salmon will sell from a shilling to
eighteen pence a pound ; and most of the time that this
part of the trade is carried on, the prices are from five
to nine shillings per stone ; the value rising and falling
according to the plenty of fish, or the prospect of a fair
or foul wind. Some fish are sent in this matter to Lon¬
don the latter end of September, when the weather
grows cool ; but then the fish are full of large roes,
grow very thin bellied, and are not esteemed either pa¬
latable or wholesome. _
“ The season for fishing in the Tweed begins No¬
vember 30th, but the fishermen work very little till af¬
ter Christmas : it ends on Michaelmas day ; yet the
corporation of Berwick (who are conservators of thd
river)
FIS [ 655 ] FIS
ithery. river) indulge the fisherwYen with a fortniglit past that
■-v—— * time, on account of the change of the style.
“ There are on the river 41 considerable fisheries,
extending upwards about 14 miles from the mouth
(the others above being of no great value), which are
rented for near 5400I. per annum : the expence at-
, tending the servants wages, nets, boats, &c. amount
to 5000I. more j which together makes up the sum
10,400!. Now, in consequence, the produce must
defray all, and no less than 20 times that sum of fish
will effect it 5 so that 208,000 salmon must be caught
there one year with another.
“ Scotland possesses great numbers of fine fisheries
on both sides of that kingdom. The Scotch in early
times had most severe laws against the killing of this
fish *, for the third offence was made capital, by a law
of Janies IV. Before that, the offender had power to
redeem his life. They were thought in the time of
Henry VI. a present worthy of a crowned head : for
in that reign the queen of Scotland sent to the duchess
of Clarence 10 casks of salted salmon; which Henry
directed to pass duty free. The salmon are cured in
the same manner as at Berwick, and a great quantity
is sent to London in the spring; but after that time,
the adventurers begin to barrel and export them to fo¬
reign countries ; but we believe that commerce is far
less lucrative than it was in former times, partly owing
to the great increase of the Newfoundland fishery, and
partly to the general relaxation of the discipline of ab¬
stinence in the Romish church.
“ Ireland (particularly the north) abounds with this
fish : the most considerable fishery is at Cranna, on the
river Ban, about a mile and a half from Coleraine.
When I made the tour of that hospitable kingdom in
1754, it was rented by a neighbouring gentleman for
6201. a-year ; who assured me, that the tenant, his
predecessor, gave 1600I. per annum, and was a much
greater gainer by the bargain, for the reasons before
mentioned, and on account of the number of poachers
who destroy the fish in the fence months.
“ The mouth of this river faces the north ; and is
finely situated to receive, the fish that roam along the
coast in search of an inlet into some fresh water, as
they do along that end of the kingdom which op¬
poses itself to the northern ocean. We have seen near
Ballicastle, nets placed in the sea at the foot of the
promontories that jut into it, which the salmon strike
into as they are wandering close to shore ; and numbers
are taken by that method.
“ In the Ban they fish with nets 18 score yards
long, and are continually drawing night and day the
whole season, which we think lasts about four months,
two sets of 16 men each alternately relieving one ano¬
ther. The best drawing is when the tide is coming
in : we were told, that at a single draught there were
once 840 fish taken.
“ A few miles higher up the river is a wear where
a considerable number of fish that escape the nets are
taken. We were lately informed, that, in the year
1760, about 320 tons were taken in the Cranna fish¬
ery.”
Curing Salmon. When the salmon are taken, they
open them along the back, take out the guts and gills,
and cut out the greatest part of the bones, endeavour¬
ing to make the inside as smooth as possible : they then
salt the fish in large tubs for the purpose, where they irj^cjr,
lie a considerable time soaking in brine ; and about w—
October they are packed close up in barrels, and sent
to London, or exported up the Mediterranean. They
have also in Scotland a great deal of salmon salted in
the common way, which after soaking in brine a com¬
petent time, is well pressed, and then dried in smoke :
this is called kipper, and is chiefly made for home con¬
sumption ; and if properly cured and prepared, is reck¬
oned very delicious.
Sturgeon f Fishery. The greatest sturgeon fishery f See Acci-
is in the mouth of the Volga, on the Caspian sea : VenS£r>
where the Muscovites employ a great number of hands,
and catch them in a kind of enclosure, formed by huge
stakes representing the letter Z repeated several times.
These fisheries are open on the side next the sea, and
close on the other ; by which means the fish ascending
in its season up the river, is embarrassed in these nar¬
row angular retreats, and so is easily killed with a
harping iron. Sturgeons, when fresh, eat deliciously ;
and in order to make them keep, they are salted or
pickled in large pieces, and put up in cags from 30 to
50 pounds. But the great object of this fishery is the
roe, of which the Muscovites are extremely fond, and
of which is made the cavear, or kavia, so much esteem¬
ed by the Italians. See Caveak.
Tunny Fishery. The tunny (a species of Scom¬
ber), was a fish well known to the ancients, and
made a great article of commerce : And there are still
very considerable tunny fisheries on the coasts of Sici¬
ly, as well as several other parts of the Mediterrrmean.
The nets are spread over a large space of sea by
means of cables fastened to anchors, and are divided
into several compartments. The entrance is always
directed, according to the season, towards that part of
the sea from which the fish are known to come. A
man placed upon the summit of a rock high above the
water, gives a signal of the fish being arrived ; for he
can discern from that elevation what passes under the
waters infinitely better than any person nearer the sur¬
face. As soon as notice is given that the shoal of fish
has penetrated as far as the inner compartment, or the
chamber of death, the passage is drawn close, and the
slaughter begins.
The undertakers of these fisheries pay an acknow¬
ledgment to the king, or the lord upon whose land
they fix the main stay or foot of the tonnara ; they
make the best bargain they can : and, till success has
crowned their endeavours, obtain this leave for a small
consideration ; but the rent is afterwards raised in pro¬
portion to their capture.
The tunny enters the Mediterranean about the vernal
equinox, travelling in a triangular phalanx, so as to cut
the waters with its point, and to present an extensive
base for the tides and currents to act against, and impel
forwards. These fish repair to the warm seas of Greece
to spawn, steering their course thither along the Euro¬
pean shores, but as they return, approach the African
coast; the young fry is placed in the van of the squadron
as they travel. They come back from the east in
May, and abound on the coast of Sicily and Calabria
about that time. In autumn they steer northward, and
frequent the neighbourhood of Amalfi and Naples ;
but during the whole season stragglers are occasionally
caught.
When
FIS
t 655 ]
F I S
Fishery. When taken in May, the usual time of their ap-
>■■■—y——> pearance in the Calabrian bays, they are full of spawn,
and their flesh is then esteemed unwholesome, apt to
occasion headachs and vapours } the milts and roes are
particularly so at that season. To prevent these bad
eft’ects, the natives fry them in oil, and afterwards salt
them. The quantity of this fish consumed annually
in the Two Sicilies almost exceeds the bounds of calcu¬
lation. From the beginning of May to the end of Oc¬
tober it is eaten fresh, and all the rest of the year it is
in use salted. The most delicate part is the muzzle.
The belly salted was called tarantallum^ and accounted
a great delicacy by the Romans 5 its present name is
Surra. The rest of the body is cut into slices, and
put into tubs.
Turbot Fishery, Turbot grows to a large size,
some of them weighing from 23 3° pounds. They
are taken chiefly off the north coast of England, and
others off the Dutch coast. The large turbot (as well
as several other kinds of flat fish) are taken by the hook
and line, for they lie in deep water j the method of
taking them in wears or staked nets being very preca¬
rious. When the fishermen go out to fish, each person
is provided with three lines, which are coiled on a flat
oblong piece of wicker work } the hooks being baited,
and placed regularly in the centre of the coil. Each
line is furnished with 14 score of hooks, at the distance
of six feet two inches from each other. The hooks are
fastened to the lines upon sneads of twisted horse hair
27 inches in length. Wben fishing, there are always
three men in each coble, and consequently nine, of
these lines are fastened together, and used in one.line,
extending in length near three miles, and furnished
with 2520 hooks. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at
the first end of the line, and one more of each at the
end of each man’s linesj in all four anchors, which
are common perforated stones, and four buoys made
of leather or cork. The line is always laid across the
current. The tides of flood and ebb continue an equal
time upon our coast, and, when undisturbed by winds,
run each way about six hours $ they are so rapid that
the fishermen can only shoot and haul their lines at the
turn of tide, and therefore the lines always, remain
upon the ground about six hours j during which time
the myxine glutinosa of Linnseus will frequently pene¬
trate the fish that are on the hooks, and entirely devour
them, leaving only the skin and bones. The same
rapidity of tides prevents their using hand lines $ and
therefore two of the people commonly wrap themselves
in the sail, and sleep, while the other keeps a strict
look-out, for fear of being run down by ships, and to
observe the weather. For storms often rise so suddenly,
that it is with extreme difficulty they can sometimes
escape to the shore, leaving their lines behind.
Besides the coble, the fishermen have also a five-men
!boat, which is 40 feet long and 15 broad, and 25 tons
burden $ it is so called, though navigated by six men
and a boy, because one of the men is commonly hired
to cook, *&c. and does not share in the profits with
the other five. This boat is decked at each end, but
open in the middle, and has two large lug sails. All our
able fishermen go in these boats to the herring fishery
at Yarmouth in the latter end of September, and re¬
turn about the middle of November. The boats are
^then laid up till the beginning of Lent, at which time
3
they go off in them to the edge of the Dogger, and Fishery,
other places to fish for turbot, cod, ling, skates, &c. Fishgaid
They always take two cobles on board ; and when they
come upon their ground, anchor the boat, throw out
the cobles, and fish in the same manner as those do
who go from the shore in a coble: with this difference
only, that here each man is provided with double the
quantity of lines, and instead of waiting the return of
the tide in the coble, return to their boat and bait their
other lines j thus hauling one set and shooting another
every turn of tide. They commonly run into harbour
twice a-week to deliver their fish.
The best bait is fresh herring cut in pieces of a pro¬
per size ; the five-men boats are always furnished with
nets for taking them. Next to herrings are the lesser
lampreys. The next baits in esteem are small had¬
docks cut in pieces, sand worms, and limpets, here called
flidders ; and when none of these can be had, they use
‘bullock’s liver. The hooks are two inches and a half
long in the shank, and near an inch wide between the
shank and the point. The line is made of small cord¬
ing, and is always tanned before it is used.
Turbots are extremely delicate in their choice of
baits j for if a piece of herring or haddock has been 12
hours out of the sea, and then used as bait, they will
not touch it.
Whale Fishery. See Balden a, Cetology Index.
'Whales are chiefly caught in the north seas j the
largest sort are found about Greenland or Spitzbergen.
At the first discovery of this country, whales not being
used to be disturbed, frequently came into the very bays,
and were accordingly killed almost close to the shore ,
so that the blubber being cut off was immediately boiled
into oil on the spot. The ships in those times took in
nothing but the pure oil and the whalebone, and all the
business was executed in the country j by which means
a ship could bring home the product of many more
whales than she can, according to the present method
of conducting this trade. The fishery also was then so
plentiful, that they were obliged sometimes to send
other ships to fetch off the oil they had made, the
quantity being more than the fishing ships could bring
away. But time and change of circumstances have
shifted the situation of this trade. The ships coming in
such numbers from Holland, Denmark, Hamburgh,
and other northern countries, all intruders upon the
English, who were the first discoverers of Greenland,
the whales were disturbed, and gradually, as other fish
often do, forsaking the place, were not to be killed so
near the shore as before: but are now found, and have
been soever since, in the openings and space among the
ice, where they have deep water, and where they go
sometimes a great many leagues from the shore.
The whale fishery begins in May, and continues all
June and July ; but whether the ships have good or
bad success, they must come away, and get clear of
the ice by the end of August j so that in the month
of September at farthest they may be expected home,;
but a ship that meets with a fortunate and early fishery
in May may return in June or July.
A particular account of the recent history and pre¬
sent state of the British fisheries will be found in the
article Fisheries, in the Supplement.
FISHGARD, or Fisgard, a town of Pembroke¬
shire, situated on a steep cliff on the sea shore, 254 miles
from
FIS [ 657 ] FIS
"ishery, from London, at the influx of the river Gwaine into
'ishing. the sea, which here forms a spacious bay. It is govern*
1 - v ed by a mayor, a bailiff, and other officers 5 and here
vessels may lie safely in five or six fathoms water. The
inhabitants have a good trade in herrings, and annually
cure, between Fisgard and Newport, above 1000 bar¬
rels of them. The town sends one member to parlia¬
ment.
FISHING, in general, the art of catching fish,
whether by means of nets, of spears, or of the line and
hook.
Fishing in the great, performed by the net, spear,
or harpoon, for fish that go in shoals, has been explain¬
ed in the preceding article. That performed by the
rod, line, and hook, for solitary fish, is usually termed
Angling : See that article ; and for the particular
manner of angling for the different kinds of fish, see
their respective names, as Dace, Eel, Perch, under
Ichthyology.
Here we shall give an account of the following:
See Cv- I* ^ie (so called on account of the barb
nm.lch-W beard that is under his chops), though a coarse fish,
iology gives considerable exercise to the angler’s ingenuity.
They swim together in great shoals, and are at their
worst in April, at which time they spawn, but come
soon in season j the places whither they chiefly resort,
are such as are weedy and gravelly rising grounds, in
which this fish is said to dig and root with his nose like
a swine. In the summer he frequents the strongest,
swiftest, currents of water j as deep bridges, wears, &c.
and is apt to settle himself among the piles, hollow
places, and moss or weeds; and will remain there im¬
moveable ; but in the winter he retires into deep wa¬
ters, and helps the female to make a hole in the sands
to hide her spawn in, to hinder its being devoured by
other fish. He is a very curious and cunning fish j for
if his baits be not sweet, clean, well scoured, and kept
in sweet moss, he will not bite ; but well ordered and
curiously kept, he will bite with great eagerness. The
best bait for him is the spawn of a salmon, trout, or
any other fish ; and if you would have good sport with
him, bait the places where you intend to fish with it a
night or two before, or with large worms cut in pieces ;
and the earlier in the morning or the later in the
evening that you fish, the better it will be. Your rod
and line must be both strong and long, with a running
plummet on the line ; and let a little bit of lead be
placed a foot or more above the hook, to keep the bul¬
let from falling on it; so the worm will be at the bot¬
tom, where they always bite ; and when the fish takes
the bait, your plummet will lie and not choke him.
By the bending of your rod you may know when he
bites, as also with your hand you will feel him make a
strong snatch *, then strike, and you will rarely fail, if
vou play him well; but if you manage him not dex¬
terously, he will break your line. The best time for
fishing is about nine in the morning, and the most pro¬
per season is the latter end of May, June, July, and the
beginning of August.
leeCj/- The BleakX, is an eager fish, caught with all
fc/t-sorts of worms bred on trees or plants 5 as also with
flies, paste, sheep’s blood, &c. They may be angled
for with half a score of hooks at once, if they can be
all fastened on; he will also in the evening take a na¬
tural or artificial fly. If the day be warm and clear,
VOL. VIII. Part II. f
there is no fly so good for him as the small fly at the Fishing,
top of the water, which he will take at any time of the v——'
day, especially in the evening $ but if the day is cold
and cloudy, gentles and caddis are the best $ about two
feet under water. No fish yields better sport to a young
angler than the bleak. It is so eager, that it will leap
out of the water for a bait.
There is another way of taking bleak, w hich is by
whipping them in a boat, or on a bank side in fresh
water in a summer’s evening, with a hazel top about
five or six feet long and a line twice the length of the
rod. But the best method is with a drabble, thus :
Tie eight or ten small hooks across a line two inches
above one another; the biggest hook the lowermost,
(whereby you may sometimes take a better fish), and
bait them with gentles, flies, or some small red worms,
by which means you may take half a dozen or more at
a time.
3. For the Bream ||, observe the following directions, || See Cy-
W'hich will also be of use in carp fishing.—Procure aboUtf™”^
a quart of large red worms ; put them into fresh moss,
well washed and dried every three or four days, feeding
them with fat mould and chopped fennel, and they will
be thoroughly scoured in about three weeks.
Let your lines be silk and hair, but all silk is the
best; let the floats be either swan-quills or goose-quills.
Let your plumb be a piece of lead in the shape of a
pear, with a small ring at the little end of it; fasten the
lead to the line, and the line hook to the lead, about
ten or twelve inches space between lead and hook will
be enough ; and take care the lead be heavy enough to
sink the float. Having baited your hook well with a
strong worm, the worm will draw the hook up and
down in the bottom, which will provoke the bream to
bite the more eagerly. It will be best to fit up three
or four rods or lines in this manner, and set them as
will be directed, and this will afford you much the
better sport. Find the exact depth of the water if
possible, that your float may swim on its surface directly
over the lead; then provide the following ground bait.
Take about a peck of sweet gross-ground malt; and
having boiled it a very little, strain it hard through a
bag, and carry it to the water side where you have
sounded ; and in the place where you suppose the fish
frequent, there throw in the malt by handfuls squeezed
hard together, that the stream may not separate it before
it comes to the bottom ; and be sure to throw it in at
least a yard above the place where you intend the hook
shall lie, otherwise the stream will carry it down too far.
Do this about nine o’clock at night, keeping some of
the malt in the bag, and go to the place about three
the next morning; but approach very warily, lest you
should be seen by the fish ; for it is certain that they
have their centinels watching on the top of the water,
while the rest are feeding below. Having baited your
hook so that the worm may crawl to and fro, the better
to allure the fish to bite, cast it in at the place where
you find the fish to stay most, which is generally in the
broadest and deepest part of the river, and so that it
may rest about the midst of your bait that is on the
ground. Cast in your second line so that it may resta g^0,.fc>
yard above that, and a third about a yard below it -Diet.
Let your rods lie on the bank, with some stones to keep
them down at the great ends ; and then withdraw your¬
self, yet not so far but that you cgn have your eye
4 O upon
FIS
[ 658 ]
F I S
r,.],;*, upon all the floats *, ami when you ece one bitten and
1 V^L. carried away, do not be too hasty to run in, but give
time to the fish to tire himself, and then touch him
gently. When you perceive the float sink, creep to
the waterside, and give it as much line as you can.
If it is a bream or carp, they will run to the other side •,
which strike gently, and hold your rod at a bent a lithe
while 5 but do not pull, for then you will spoil all ;
but you must first tire them before they can be landed,
for they are very shy. If there are any carps in the
river, it is an even wager that you take one or more of
them ; but if there are any pike or perch, they will be
sure to visit the ground bait, though they will not
touch it, being drawn thither by the great resort of the
small fish ; and until you remove them, it is in vain to
think of taking the bream or carp. In this case, bait
one of your hooks with a small bleak, roach, or gud¬
geon, about two feet deep from your float, with a little
red worm at the point of your hook ; and it a pike he
there, he will be sure to snap at it. This sport is good
till nine o’clock in the morning *, and in a gloomy day,
till night •, but do not frequent the place too much, lest
the fish grow shy.
f See Carp, 4. The Carp ■f'. A person who angles for carp
and Oypri- arm himself with abundance of patience, because ol its
nut‘ extraordinary subtility and policy ; they always choose
to lie in the deepest places, either of ponds or rivers,
•where there is but a small running stream.
Further, observe, that they will seldom bite in cold
weather } and you cannot be too early or too late at
the spot in hot weather ; and if he bite, you need not
fear bis hold •, for he is one of those leather-mouthed
fish that have their teeth in their throat.
Neither must you forget, in angling for him, to have
a strong rod and line j and since he is so very wary, it
will be proper to entice him, by baiting the ground with
a coarse paste.
He seldom refuses the red worm in March, the
caddis in June, or the grashopper in June, April, and
September.
This fish does not only delight in worms, but also in
sweet paste ; of which there is great variety j the best
is made of honey and sugar, and ought to be thrown
into the water some hours before you begin to angle ;
neither will small pellets thrown into the water two or
three days before be worse for this purpose, especially
if chickens guts, garbage, or blood mixed with bran
and cow dung, be also thrown in.
But more particularly, as to a paste very proper for
this use, you may make it in the manner following :
Take a sufficient quantity of flour, and mingle it with
veal, cut small, making it up with a compound of
honey j then pound all together in a mortar till they
are so tough as to hang upon the hook without washing
off. In order to effect which the better, mingle whitish
wool with it; and if you keep it all the year round,
add some virgin wax and clarified honey.
Again, If you fish with gentles, anoint them with
honey, and put them on your hook, with a deep scarlet
dipped in the like, which is a good way to deceive the
fish.
Honey and crumbs of wheat bread, mixed together,
make also a very good paste.
In taking a carp either in pond or river, if the angler
intends to add profit to his pleasure, he must take a
peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of any blood
to mix with the grains, baiting the ground with it y—,
where he intends to angle. This food will wonder¬
fully attract the scale-fish, as carp, tench, roach, dace,
and bream.
Let him angle in a morning, plumbing his ground,
and angling for carp with a strong line ; the bait must
be either paste or a knotted red worm ; and by this
means he will have sport enough.
Description of proper Baits for the several sorts of Fim
referred to in the annexed Table.
Flies.~\ I. Stone fly, found under hollow stones at
the sides of rivers, is of a brown colour, with yellow
streaks on the back and belly, has large wings, and 1$
in season from April to July. 2. Green drake, lound
among stones by river sides, has a yellow body striped
with green, is long and slender, with wings like a but¬
terfly, his tail turns on his hack, and from May to mid¬
summer is very good. 3* Oak-fly, found in the body of
an oak or ash, with its head downwards, is of a brown
colour, and excellent from May to September. 4. Palmer
flv or worm, found on leaves of plants, is commonly
called a caterpillar, and when it conies to a fly is excel¬
lent for trout. 5. Ant fly, found in ant hills from June
to September. 6. The May fly is to be found playing
at the river side, especially against rain. 7. The black
fly is to be found upon every hawthorn after the buds
are come off.
Pastes.] I. Take the blood of sheep’s hearts, and
mix it with honey and flour worked to a proper con¬
sistence. 2. Take old cheese grated, a little butter
sufficient to work it, and colour it with saffron : in
winter use rusty bacon instead of butter. 3. Crumbs
of bread chewed or worked with honey or sugar, moist¬
ened with gum ivy water. 4. Bread chewed, and work¬
ed in the hand till stiff.
Worms.] 1. The earth hob, found in sandy ground
after ploughing ; it is white, with a red head, and big¬
ger than a gentle : another is found in heathy ground,
with a blue head. Keep them in an earthen vessel well
covered, and a sufficient quantity ol the mould they
harbour in. They are excellent from April to Novem¬
ber. 2. Gentles to he had from putrid flesh : let them
lie in wheat bran a few days before used. 3. Hag
worms, found in the roots of flags ; they are of a pale
yellow colour, are longer and thinner than a gentle, and
must be scowered like them. 4. Cow-turd bob, or clap
bait, found under a cow turd from May to Michael¬
mas ; it is like a gentle, hut larger. Keep it in its na¬
tive earth like the earth hob. 5. Caddis worm, or cod
bait, found under loose stones in shallow rivers ; they
are yellow, bigger than a gentle, with a black or blue
head, and are in season from April to July. Keep
them in flannel bags. 6. Lob worm, found in gardens;
it is very large, and has a red head ; a streak down the
hack, and a flat broad tail. 7. Marsh-worms, found in
marshy ground ; keep them in moss ten days before you
use them : their colour is a bluish red, and are a good
bait from March to Michaelmas. 8. Brandling red
worms, or blood worms, found in rotten dunghills and
tanners bark; they are small i'ed worms, very good for
all small fish, have sometimes a yellow tail, and are
called tag-tail.
Fish
uiiiog.
FIS [ 659 3 FIS
Fish and lmects.~\ 1. Minnow. 2. Gudgeon. 3.
Koacli. 4. Dace. 5. Smelt. 6. Yellow frog. 7.
Snail slit. 8. Grasliopper.
Fishing F/y, a bait used in angling for divers kinds
of fish. See Fishing.
The fly is either natural or artificial.
I. Natural flies are innumerable. The more usual
for this purpose are mentioned in the preceding page.
The^e are two ways to fish with natural flies j ei¬
ther on the surface of the water, or a little under¬
neath it.
In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not
your natural fly swiftly when you see the fish make at
it : but rather let it glide freely towards him with the
stream : but if it be in a still and slow water, draw the
fly slowly sidewise by him, which will make him eager¬
ly pursue.
II. The artificial fly is seldom used but in bluster¬
ing weather, when the waters are so troubled by the
winds, that the natural fly cannot be seen, nor rest upon
them. Of this artificial fly there are reckoned no less
than 12 sorts, of which the following are the principal.
I. For March, the dun fly j made of dun wool, and
the feathers of the partridge’s wing \ or the body made
of black wool, and the feathers of a black drake. 2. For
April, the stone fly ; the body made of black wool,
dyed yellow under the wings and tail. 3. For the
beginning of May, the ruddy fly ; made of x'ed wool,
and bound about with black silk, with the feathers of
a black capon hanging dangling on his sides next his
tail. 4. For June, the greenish fly ; the body made of
black wool, with a yellow list on either side, the wings
taken off the wings of a buzzard, bound with black
broken hemp. 5. The moorish fly, the body made of
duskish wool, and the wings of the blackish mail of a
drake. 6. The tawney fly, good till the middle of
June j the body made of tawney wool, the wings made
contrary one against the other of the whitish mail of
a white drake. 7. For July, the wasp fly ; the body
made of black wool, cast about with yellow silk, and
the wings of drakes feathers. 8. The steel fly ; good
in the middle of July ; the body made with greenish
wool, cast about with the feathers of a peacock’s tail,
and the wings made of those of the buzzard. 9. For
August, the drake fly ; the body made with black wool
cast about with black silk ; his wings of the mail of a
black drake, with a black head.
The best rules for artificial fly fishing are,
X. To fish in a river somewhat disturbed with rain :
or in a cloudy day, w'hen the waters are moved by a
gentle breeze : the south wind is best •, and if the wind
blow high, yet not so but that you may conveniently
guard your tackle, the fish will rise in plain deeps; but
if the wind be small, the best angling is in swift streams.
2. Keep as far from the water side as may be ; fish
down the stream with the sun at your back, and touch
not the water with your line. 3. Ever angle in clear
rivers, with a small fly and slender wings; but in mud¬
dy places, use a larger. 4. W hen, after rain, the wa¬
ter becomes, brownish, use an orange fly ; in a clear
day, a light-coloured fly ; a dark fly for dark waters,
&c. 5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod,
unless the river be encumbered with wrood. 6. For
every sort of fly, have several of the same differing in
colour, to suit with the different complexions of seve¬
ral waters and weathers. 7. Have a nimble eye, and
active hand, to strike presently with the rising of the
fish ; or else he will be apt to spue out the hook. 8.
Let the fly fall first into the water, and not the line,
which will scare the fish. 9. In slow rivers, or still
places, cast the fly across the river, and let it sink a
little in the water, and draw it gently back with the
current.
Salmon flies should be made with their wings stand¬
ing one behind the other, whether two or four. This
fish delights in the gaudiest colours that can be; chief¬
ly in the wings, which must be long, as well as the tail.
I ishing by means of birds, a method peculiar to the
Chinese, who train certain birds for the purpose in the
same manner as falcons are taught to pursue game.
For this purpose they have trained a species of pelican,
resembling the common corvorant, which they call the
Lcu-txe, or fishing bird. Sir George Staunton, who,
when the embassy was proceeding on the southern
branch of the great canal, saw those birds employed,
tells us, that on a large lake, close to the east side of
the canal, are thousands of small boats and rafts, built
entirely for this species of fishery. On each boat or
raft are ten or a dozen birds, which, at a signal from
the owner, plunge into the water; and it is astonishing
to see the enormous size offish with which they return,
grasped within their bills. They appeared to be so well
trained, that it did not require either ring or cord about
their throats to prevent them from swallowing any por¬
tion ol their prey, except what their master was pleased
to return to them for encouragement and food. The
boat used by these fishermen is of a remarkable light
make, and is often carried to the lake, together with
the fishing birds, by the men who are there to be sup¬
ported by it.
The same author saw the fishermen busy on the great
lake Wee-chaung-hee ; and he gives the following ac¬
count of a very singular method practised by them for
catching the fish of the lake without the aid of birds,
of net, or of hooks. To the one side of a boat a flat
board, painted white, is fixed, at an angle of about 41;
degrees, the edge inclining towards the water. On
moonlight nights the boat is so placed that the painted
board is turned to the moon, from whence the ravs of
light striking on the whitened surface, give to it the
appearance of moving water ; on which the fish be¬
ing tempted to leap on their element, the boatmen
raising with a string the board, turn the fish into the
boat.
Water-fowl are much sought after by the Chinese,
and are taken upon the same lake by the following in¬
genious device. Empty jars or gourds are suftered to
float about upon the water, that such objects may be¬
come familiar to the birds. The fisherman then wades
into the lake with one of these empty vessels upon his
head, and walks gently towards a bird ; and lifting up
his arm, draws it down below the surface of the water
without any disturbance or giving alarm to the rest,
several of whom he treats in the same manner, until he
fills the bag he had brought to hold his prey. The
contrivance itself is not so singular, as it is that the
same exactly should have occurred in the new continent,
as Ulloa asserts, to the natives ofLarthagena, upon the
lake Cienega de Tesias.
Fishing Floats, are little appendages to the line,
4 O 2 serving
FIS [
serving to keep the hook ami bait suspended at the
proper depth, to discover when the fish has hold of
them &c. Of these there are divers kinds j some
made5 of Muscovy duck quills, which are the best for
slow waters ; but for strong streams, sound cork, with¬
out flaws or holes, bored through with a hot iron, in¬
to which is put a quill of a fit proportion, is prefer-
660 ] FIS
able: pare the cork to a pyramidal form, and make it
smooth.
Fishing Hook, a small instrument made of steel wire,
of a proper form to catch and retain fish.
The fishing hook in general ought to be long in the
shank, somewhat thick in the circumference, the point
even and straight j let the bending be in the shank.
Fishing.
FIS r 661 ] FIT
lUbiflg, setting the hook on, use strong but small silk,
issnre*,- laying the hair on the inside of your hook $ for if it be
'■’Y*—on the outside,, the silk will fret and cut it asunder.
There are several sizes of these fishing hooks, some
big, some little: and of these, some have peculiar
names j as, I. Single hooks. 2. Double hooks j which
have two bendings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snap¬
pers, or gorgers, which are the hooks to whip the artifi¬
cial fly upon, or bait with the natural fly. 4. Springers,
or spring hooks ; a kind of double hooks, with a spring,
which flies open upon being struck into any fish, and
bo keeps its mouth open.
FismxG-Line, is either made of hair twisted ; or silk ;
or the Indian grass. The best colours are the sorrel,
white, and gray j the two last for clear waters, the first
for muddy ones. Nor is the pale watery green de-
spisable $ this colour is given artificially, by steeping
the hair in a liquor made of alum, soot, and the juice
of walnut leaves, boiled together.
Fishing Rod, a long slender rod or wand, to which
the line is fastened, for angling.—Of these there are
several sorts $ as, 1. A troller, or trolling rod, which
has a ring at the end of the rod, for the line to go
through when it runs off a reel. 2. A whipper, or
whipping rod *, a top rod, that is weak in the middle,
and top heavy, but all slender and fine. 3. A dropper $
which is a strong rod and very light. 4. A snapper,
or snap rod j which is a strong pole, peculiarly used
for the pike. 5. A bottom rod j being the same as
the dropper, but somewhat more pliable. 6. A snig¬
gling or procking stick j a forked stick, having a short
strong line, with a needle, baited with a lob worm :
this is only for eels in their holes.
Fishing Frog, or Angler. See Lophius.
Right of Fishing, and property of fish. It has been
held, that where the lord of the manor hath the soil
on both sides of the river, it is good evidence that he
hath a right of fishing 5 and it puts the proof upon him
who claims liberum piscariam : but where a river ebbs
and flows, and is an arm of the sea, there it is common
to all, and he who claims a privilege to himself must
l,i Diet, prove it; for if the trespass is brought for fishing there,
the defendant may justify, that the place where is bra-
chium mar is, in quo unusquisque subditus domini regis
habet et habere debet liberam piscariam. In the Severn
the soil belongs to the owners of the land on each side j
and the soil of the river Thames is in the king, but the
fishing is common to all. He who is owner of the soil
of a private river, hath separalis piscaria ; and he that
hath libera piscaria, hath a property in the fish, and may
bring a possessory action for them $ but communis pis¬
caria is like the case of all other commons. One that
has a close pond in which there are fish, may call them
pisces sms, in an indictment, &c. but he cannot call
them bona et catalla, if they be not in trunks. There
needs no privilege to make a fish pond, as there doth
in the case of a warren. See Franchise.
FISSURES, in Geology, certain interruptions, that
in a horizontal or parallel manner divide the several
strata of which the body of our globe is composed.
See Geology /We#.
Fissure of the Bones, in Surgery, is when they are
divided either transversely or longitudinally, not quite
through, but cracked after the manner of glass, by any
external force. See Surgery.
FISTULA, in the ancient music, an instrument of
the wind kind, resembling our flute or flageolet.
The principal wind instruments of the ancients, were
the tibia and the fistula. But how they were consti¬
tuted, wherein they differed, or how they were played
upon, does not appear. All we know is, that the
fistula was at first made of reeds, and afterwards of other
matters. Some had holes, some none ; some again were
single pipes ; others a combination of several j witness
the syringa of Pan.
I istula, in Suigery, a deep, narrow, and callous
ulcer, generally arising from abscesses.
It differs from sinus, in its being callous, the latter
not. See Surgery Index.
Fistula, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
FISTULARIA, or Tobacco-Pipe Fish ; a genu**
of fishes, belonging to the order of abdominales. See
Ichthyology Index.
FIT. See Paroxysm.
Dr Cheyne is of opinion, that fits of all kinds, whe-*
ther epileptic, hysteric, or apoplectic, may be cured
solely by milk diet, of about two quarts of cows milk
a day, without any other medicine.
i I1CHES, in Husbandry, a sort of pulse, more ge¬
nerally known by the name of chick-pea. See Cicer,
Botany and Agriculture Index.
Fitches are cultivated either for feeding cattle, or
improving the land. They make a wholesome and nou¬
rishing food, whether given in the straw or thrashed
out. When sown only to improve the soil, they are
ploughed in just as they begin to blossom, by which
means a tough stiff clay soil is much enriched.
FITCH ET, a name used in some places for the
weasel, called also the foumart. See Mustela, Mam¬
malia Index.
Fistula
Fitz-Ste-
pben.
FITCHY, in Heraldry, (from the French fishl, i.e. -
fixed) ; a term applied to a cross when the lower branch
ends in a sharp point: and the reason of it Mackenzie
supposes to be, that the primitive Christians were wont
to carry crosses with them wherever they went $ and
when they stopped on their journey at any place, they
fixed those portable crosses in the ground for devotion’s
sake.
FITZ, makes part of the surname of some of the na¬
tural sons of the kings of England, as Fit%-roy; which
is purely French, and signifies the “ king’s son.”
FITZHERBERT, Sir Anthony, a very learned
lawyer in the reign of King Henry VIII. was descended
from an ancient family, and born at Norbury in Der¬
byshire. He was made one of the judges of the court
of common pleas in 1523 j and distinguished himself
by many valuable works, as well as by such an honour¬
able discharge of the duties of his office, as made him
esteemed an oracle of the law. His writings are, The
Grand Abridgement ; The Office and Authority of
Justices of Peace; the Office of Sheriffs, Bailifts of
Liberties, Escheators, Constables, Coroners, &c.; Of
the Diversity of Courts ; The New Natura Brevium ;
Of the Surveying of Lands, and The Book of Hus¬
bandry. He died in 1538.
FITZ-STEPHEN, William, a learned monk bf
Canterbury, of Norman extraction, but born of respect¬
able parents in the city of London. He lived in the
12th century ; and beingattached to the service of Arch¬
bishop Becket, was present at the time of his murder*
In .
F I X
Fi^s In the year 1174, he wrote in Latin, The Life of St
fi Thomas, archbishop and martyr; in which, as Becket
Fixlmi'lner. was a native of the metropolis, he introduces a clescrip-
' tion of the city of London, with a miscellaneous detail
of the manners and usages of the citizens: this is de¬
servedly considered as a great curiosity, being the ear¬
liest professed account of London extant. 1* itz-htephen
died in 1191.
FIVES, or Vives. See Farriery.
FIXATION, in Chemistry, the rendering any vo¬
latile substance fixed, so as not to fly ofl upon being ex¬
posed to a great heat: hence,
FIXED BODIES, are those which bear a considerable
degree of heat without evaporating, or losing any of
their weight. Some of the most fixed bodies are dia¬
monds, gold, &c.
Fixed or Fixable Air, an invisible and permanently,
elastic fluid, superior in gravity to common atmosphe¬
ric air and most other aerial fluids, exceedingly destruc¬
tive to animal life j produced in great quantities, natu¬
rally from combustible bodies, and artificially by many
chemical processes. From its acid properties it has
obtained the name of aerial acid, cretaceous acid, and
carbonic acid; from its noxious qualities, it has been
called mephitic air, or mephitic gas; and, from the cir¬
cumstance of being produced in vast quantities dming
the combustion of charcoal, it first obtained from A an
Helmont the name of gas sylvestre. The term fixed air
has been given from its property of readily losing its
elasticity, and fixing itself in many bodies, particularly
those of the calcareous kind } and though some objected
to the propriety of the term, the fluid in question is so
well known by the name of fixed air, that we choose still
to retain it. See CHEMISTRY Index. For an account
of the apparatus for impregnating water with fixed air
or carbonic acid, see Materia Medica Index.
Fixed Stars, are such as constantly retain the same
position and distance with respect to each other } by
which they are distinguished from erratic or wandering
stars, which are continually shifting their situation and
distance. The fixed stars are properly called stars;
the rest have the peculiar denomination of planet and
comet. See Astronomy Index.
FIXITY, or Fixedness, in Chemistry, is in a pe¬
culiar manner used for the affection opposite to volati¬
lity j i. e. the property whereby bodies bear the action
of the fire, without being dissipated in fumes.
F1XLMILLNER, Placidus, an eminent astro¬
nomer, was born at Achleiten near Linz, in Austria,
on the 28th of May, 1720. He received the rudiments
of his education in the monastery of Kremsmunster, of
which his uncle Alexander was abbot. Here he stu¬
died during six years, and delighted so much in drawing-
straight and curve-line figures, that his mother called
him the almanack-maker. He went afterward to Salz¬
burg, where he studied a regular course of philosophy,
and particularly turned his attention to mathematics
under a professor Stuard, whose method of teaching that
science was truly extraordinary, as he never made use
of any figures, and yet conveyed such a clear idea of
every proposition as made it perfectly easy. He was
admitted as a novice into Kremsmunster in 1737, and
the next year he took the solemn vow in presence of
his uncle. After being two years in this monastery,
during which time he devoted every leisure hour to the
F I X
study of mathematics and philosophy, he wrent to Fixlmilliuj
Salzburg to finish his studies in divinity and jurispru- —v—
dence, acquiring at that time a competent knowledge
of oriental and modern languages, history and antiqui¬
ties. In the year I 745, he obtained the degree of D. D.
after which he received priest’s orders in his own monas¬
tery, and was created professor of ecclesiastical law,
which office he held for 40 years, discharging the du¬
ties belonging to it till within a few days of his death,
He was also chosen dean of the higher schools, and re¬
gent of the young nobility, which he retained during
life.
He wrote a commentary on the Jus Canonicum, not-
withstanding his extensive epistolary correspondence,
and the management of the whole business of the mo¬
nastery 5 but this work was never published. He was,
by the intreaties of his friends, induced to publish his
Reipublicce sacra origines divincc, seu Ecclesice Christi
exteriorjunctura, imperium, ethierarchia, exprimigenia
ejus institutione eruta et demonstrata. His commendable
diligence procured him universal esteem, but it was his
knowledge of astronomy which rendered him illustri¬
ous. H is uncle Alexander fitted up an apartment for
containing the instruments necessary for the dissemina¬
tion of mathematical knowledge, and he also erected an
observatory, which was begun in 1748, and completed
in 1758, under the direction of Anselm Dering of Ems-
dorf, a celebrated architect. While the observatory
was building, Fixlmillner led a life of retirement and
severe study, his favourite subject during these ten
years being astronomy. When it was finished, one
Dobler, a celebrated mathematician, was appointed first
astronomer-, but the successors of Fixlmillner’s uncle
having discovered his extensive mathematical know¬
ledge, made him an offer of the astronomical depart¬
ment, and the sole direction of the observatory. This
place he accepted in the year 1762, still retaining
his chair as professor of ecclesiastical law. He was not
yet master of the learning which practical astronomy
requires, to remedy which defect he attentively perused
Lalande’s Exposition duCalculAstronomique, soon after
which he obtained the large astronomical Work of the
same great man, and in 1766 he published his Meridi-
anus speculce Astronomicce Cremifanensis, by which he
acquired considerable reputation. Ten years after this
period he gave the world his Decennium Asttonomicum,
containing many curious and important particulars re¬
specting the theory and practice of astronomy. His
Acta Astronomica Cremifanensis, which did not appear
till after his decease, still farther increased his astro¬
nomical reputation j and he was a large contributor
to many periodical publications in different coun¬
tries.
He made and collected a number of observations of
the planet Mercmy, which were at that period both
scarce and difficult, the importance of which was pub¬
licly acknowledged by Lalande, as they greatly assisted
him in constructing his tables ot that planet. Fixlmill¬
ner was one of the first astronomers who calculated the
orbit of the new planet Uranus (Georgium Sidus), and
his tables respecting it may be seen in the Berlin al¬
manack for 1789. He also proved the truth of what
was formerly conjectured, that the 34th star of Taurus,
which Flamstead observed in 1690, was the new planet.
It may be said of most philosophers, that they observe %
great
[ 662 ]
FLA [ 663 ] FLA
imiiincr prent deal, and calculate little, but tbe conduct of
jl Fixlmillner was exactly the reverse. He turned his
| attention to the observation of the solar spots more than
t"'~Y' any of his predecessors, which he noticed in the years
1767, 1776, 1777, I77^» and 1782, from which he
deduced important inferences respecting the revolution
of the sun on his axis.
He had » genius uncommonly adapted to the study
of mechanics, by which he was enabled to invent a new
micrometer, and a machine for grinding concentric
circles. As an additional proof of Ins profound inven¬
tive genius, he resided in the country, by which means
he was in a great measure deprived of literary assistance,
yet to the very close of life he was a singular instance
of the most indefatigable zeal, diligence, and persever¬
ance. He was little subject to the influence of the tur¬
bulent passions ;—perhaps less so than most other men.
Like the laws of nature, which it was his chief delight
to study, he was simple, uniform, and constant; and
such were the mildness and integrity of his character,
that he could not fail to acquire the love and esteem of
mankind. His high reputation never inspired him
with vanity, and he rather wished to conceal than to
propagate what was written in his praise. It gave gene¬
ral joy to his monastic brethren to celebrate the anni¬
versary of the fiftieth year of his residence in it, which
he did not long survive. His health was very much
impaired by his intense application, and he finished his
career on the 27th of August 1791, in the 71st year
of his age.
FLACCUS, Caius Valerius, an ancient Latin
poet, of whom we have very imperfect accounts remain¬
ing. He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expedition ;
of which, however, he did not live to finish the eighth
book, dying at about 30 years of age. John Baptisto
Pius, an Italian poet, completed the eighth book of
the Argonautics ; and added two more from the fourth
of Apollonius j which supplement was first added to
Aldus’s edition in 1523.
FLAGS, in the army, are small banners of distinc¬
tion stuck in the baggage waggons to distinguish the
baggage of one brigade from another ; and of one bat¬
talion from another; that they may be marshalled by
the waggon-master general according to the rank of
their brigades, to avoid the confusion that might other¬
wise arise.
Flag, in the marine, a certain banner or standard,
by which an admiral is distinguished at sea from the
inferior ships of his squadron ; also the colours by which
one nation is distinguished from another. See Plate
CCXVIII.
In the British navy, flags are either red, white, or
blue ; and are displayed from the top of the main-mast,
fore-mast, or mizen-mast, according to the rank of the
admiral. When a flag is displayed from the flag-staff
on the main-mast, the officer distinguished thereby is
known to be an admiral ; when from the foremast, a
vice-admiral; and when from the mizen-mast, a rear-
admiral.
The first flag in Great Britain is the royal standard,
which is only to he hoisted when the king or queen are
on board the vessel : the second is that of the anchor
of hope, which characterizes the lord high admiral, or
lords commissioners of the admiralty: and the third is
the union flag, in which the crosses of St George and
2.
St Andrew are blended. This last is appropriated to Flag,
the admiral of the fleet, who is the first military officer ^BSe^aH*
under the lord high admiral. * . tl~>’ r
The next flag after the union is that of the white
squadron at the main-mast head ; and the last, which
characterizes an admiral, is the blue, at the same mast
head.
For a vice-admiral, the first flag is the red, the se¬
cond the white, the third the blue, at the flag staff on
the fore-mast.
'I he same order proceeds with regard to the rear-ad¬
mirals, whose flags are hoisted on the top of the mizen-
mast : the lowest flag in our navy is accordingly the
blue on the mizen-mast.
To Lower or Strike the Flag^ in the marine, is to
pull it down upon the cap, or to take it in, out of
the respect, or submission, due from all ships or fleets
inferior to those any way justly their superiors. To
lower or strike the flag in an engagement is a sign of
yielding.
The way of leading a ship in triumph is to tie the
flags to the shrouds, or the gallery, in the hind part
of the ship, and let them hang down towards the wa¬
ter, and to tow the vessels by the stern. Livy relates,
that this was the way the Homans used those of Car¬
thage.
To Heave out the Flag., is to put out or put abroad
the flag.
To Hang out the White Flag, is to ask quarter; or
it shows when a vessel is arrived on a coast, that it has
no hostile intention, but comes to trade or the like.
The red flag is a sign of defiance and battle.
Flag is also used for a sedge, a kind of rush.
Coj'ti-Flag. See Gladiolus, Botany Index.
Sweet-scented Flag. See Acorus, Botany Index.
FLAG-Ojficers, those who command the several squa¬
drons of a fleet; such are the admirals, vice-admirals,
and rear-admirals.
The flag officers in our pay, are the admiral, vice-
admiral, and rear-admiral, of the white, red, and blue.
See Admiral, Flag, and Fleet.
FLAG-Ship, a ship commanded by a general or flag-
officer, who lias a right to cany a flag, in contradi¬
stinction to the secondary vessels under the command
thereof.
FLAG-Stone, a kind of sand-stone of a slaty structure,
on account of which it is much employed for the pur¬
pose of paving foot-paths or the floors of apartments in
which wood is unsuitable.
FLAGELLANTES, a set of wild fanatics who
chastised and disciplined themselves with whips in pub¬
lic.
The sect of the Flagellantes had its rise in Italy in
the year 1260 ; its author was one Rainier a hermit y
and it was propagated from hence through almost all
the countries of Europe. It was in all probability no
more than the effect of an indiscreet zeal. A great
number of persons of all ages and sexes made proces¬
sions, walking two by two with their shoulders bare,
which they whipped till the blood ran down, in order
to obtain mercy from God, and appease his indigna¬
tion against the wickedness of the age. They were
then called the devout j and having established a supe¬
rior, be was called x\\e general of the devotion. Though
the primitive Flagellantes were exemplary in point of
morals.
FLA [ 664 ] FLA
Fia 'ellan. nioraii, yet they were joined by X turbulent rabble
tes who were infected with the most ridiculous and impi-
li ous opinions j so that the emperors and pontiffs thought
Flake. Droper t0 pUt an end to this religious frenzy, by de-
^ ^ f claring all devout whipping contrary to the divine law,
and prejudicial to the soul’s eternal rest.
This sect revived in Germany towards the middle
of the next century, and rambling through many
provinces, occasioned great disturbances. They held
among other things, that flagellation was of equal
virtue with baptism and the other sacraments 5 that
the forgiveness of all sins was to be obtained by it
from God without the merits of Jesus Christ; that the
old law of Christ was soon to be abolished, and that a
new law enjoining the baptism of blood to be admini¬
stered by whipping was to be substituted in its place ;
upon which Clement VII. by an injudicious as well as
unrighteous policy, thundered out anathemas against
the Flagellantes, who were burnt by the inquisitors in
several places j but they were not easily extirpated.
They appeared again in Thuringia and Lower Saxony
in the 15th century, and rejected not only the sacra¬
ments, but every branch of external worship, and pla¬
ced their only hopes of salvation in faith and flagella¬
tion, to which they added other strange doctrines con¬
cerning evil spirits. Their leader Conrad Schmidt and
many others were committed to the flames by German
inquisitors in and after the year I4I4*
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, used
chiefly by shepherds and country people. It is made of
box or other hard wood, and sometimes of ivory j and
has six holes besides that at the bottom, the mouth¬
piece, and that behind the neck.
FLAIL, an instrument for thrashing corn. It con¬
sists of the following parts. I. The hand-stafl, or piece
held in the thrasher’s hand. 2. The swiple, or that part
which strikes out the corn. 3. The caplins, or strong
double leathers, made fast to the tops of the hand-staff
and swiple. 4. The middle band, being the leather
thong or fish skin that ties the caplins together.
FLAIR, in sea language. The seamen say that
the work doth flair over, when a ship is housed in
near the water, so that the work hangs over a little too
much, and this is let out broader aloft than the due
proportion will allow.
FLAKE, in the cod fishery, a sort of scaffold or
platform, made of hurdles, and supported by stanchions,
used for drying cod fish in Newfoundland. These
flakes are usually placed near the shores of fishing har¬
bours.
Flake, in Gaj'denivg, a name given by the florists
to a sort of carnations which are of two colours only,
and have very large stripes, all of them going quite
through the leaves.
VVhite Flake, in Faulting, is lead corroded by means
of the pressing of grapes, or a ceruse prepared by
the acid of grapes. It is brought from Italy, and
far surpasses, both with regard to the purity of its
whiteness and the certainty of its standing, all the ce¬
ruse or white lead made with us in common. It is
used in oil or varnish painting for all purposes where
a very clean white is required. The white flake should
be procured in lumps as it is brought over and levi-
gated by those who use it j because that which the co-
1 iourmen sell in a prepared state is levigated and mixed
3
up with starch, and often with white lead, and worse £]8j((!
sophistications. Q
FLAMBEAU, or Flamboy, a luminary made of t Flame,
several thick wicks, covered over with wax, serving to 'r^
burn at nights in the streets 5 as also at funeral proces¬
sions, illuminations, &c.
Flambeaux differ from links, torches, and tapers.-—
They are made square, sometimes of white wax and
sometimes of yellow. They usually consist of four
wicks or branches near an inch thick, and about three
feet long, made of a sort of coarse hempen yarn half
twisted. They are made with the ladle much as torches
or tapers are; viz. by first pouring the melted wax on
the top of the several suspended wicks, and letting it
run down to the bottom. This they repeat twice.
After each wick has thus got its proper cover of wax,
then lay them to dry; then roll them on a table, and
so join four of them together by means of a red hot
iron. When joined, they pour on more wax till the
flambeau is brought to the size required, which is
usually from a pound and a half to three pounds. The
last thing is to finish their form or outside, which they
do with a kind of polishing instrument of wood by
running it along all the angles formed by the union of
the branches.
The flambeaux of the ancients were different from
ours. They were made of woods dried in furnaces or
otherwise. They used divers kinds of wood for this
purpose 5 the wood most usually was pine. Pliny says,
that in his time they frequently also burnt oak, elm,
and hazel. In the seventh book of the iEneid, men¬
tion is made of a flambeau of pine; and Servius on
that passage remarks, that they also made them of the
cornel-tree. -'I
FLAMBOROUGH head, in Geography, a cape
or promontory on the eastern coast of Yorkshire, five
miles east of Burlington, and 2x5 from London.-—
E. Long. 20°. N. Lat. 54. 15.—This was the Fleam-
burg of the Saxons $ so called, as some think, from the
lights made on it to direct the landing of Ina, who in
547 joined his countrymen in these parts with a large
reinforcement from Germany, and founded the king¬
dom of Northumberland. In the time of Edward the
Confessor, Flamborough was one of the manors of
Harold, earl of the West Saxons, afterwards king of
England. On his death, the Conqueror gave it to
Hugh Lupus ; who, in perpetual alms, bestowed it
on the monastery of Whitby.—The town is on the
north side, and consists of about 150 small houses, en¬
tirely inhabited by fishermen 5 few of whom, as is said,
die in their beds, but meet their fate in the element
they are so conversant in. The cliffs of the Head are
of a tremendous height and amazing grandeur. Be¬
neath are several vast caverns ; some closed at the end,
others pervious, formed with a natural arch. In some
places the rocks are insulated, and of a pyramidal
figure, soaring up to a vast height. The bases of most
are solid, but in some pierced through and arched.
The colour of all these rocks is white, from the dung
of the innumerable flocks of migratory birds, which
quite cover the face of them, filling every little projec¬
tion, every hole that will give them leave to rest.
FLAME, is a general name for every kind of lu¬
minous vapour, provided the light it emits hath any
considerable degree of intensity. The xi^mejiame, how¬
ever,
FLA [ 665 ] FLA
iflame. ever* i3 mos^ generally applied to such as are of a coni-
-n/S cal figure, like those arising from our common fires j
without this they are commonly called luminous vapours,
or simple lights.
According to Sir Isaac Newton, flame is only red-
hot smoke, or the vapour of any substance raised from
it by fire, and heated to such a degree as to emit
light copiously. This definition seems to be the most
accurate and expressive of any. It is certain, that
bodies are capable of emitting flame only in proportion
to the quantity of vapour that rises from them. Thus
wood, coals, &c. which emit a great quantity of
vapour, flame violently 5 while lead, tin, &c. which
emit but a small fume, can scarce be perceived to flame
at all.
This rule, however, is by no means to be depended
upon in all cases. Some vapours seem to be in their
own nature uninflammable, and capable of extinguish¬
ing flame j as those of water, the mineral acids, sal-am¬
moniac, arsenic, &c.: while others take fire on the
slightest approach of a flaming substance j such as ether,
spirit of wine, &c. These last-mentioned substances
also exhibit a remarkable phenomenon j namely, that
they cannot be made to flame without the approach of
some substance actually in flames beforehand. Thus,
spirit of wine poured on a red-hot iron, though instant¬
ly dissipated in vapour, will not flame j but if a burn¬
ing candle touch its surface, the whole is set in a flame
at once. The case is otherwise with oils, especially
those of the grosser kind $ for the vapours will readily
be changed into flame by the mere increase of heat,
without the approach of any flaming substance.
There is, however, no kind of vapour, perhaps, that
is incapable of being converted into flame, provided it
is exposed to a sufficient degree of heat. Thus the va¬
pour of water made to pass through burning coals
produces an exceedingly strong and bright flame.—
It is remarkable, that this kind of vapour seems to be
more powerful than almost any other in absorbing heat,
and detaining it in a latent state. When any quantity
of aqueous vapour is condensed, more heat will be sepa¬
rated from it than would have been sufficient to heat an
equal bulk of iron red hot.—It is most probably to this
property which all vapours have of absorbing heat, and
detaining it in a latent state, that we are to attribute
the phenomena of flame, and also the exceeding great
elasticity of steam. It is certain, that vapours, of wa¬
ter at least, have a much greater power of absorbing
and retaining heat, than the water from which they are
raised. In open vessels, water cannot be heated more
than to 212 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer j but
in Papin’s digester, where the vapour is forcibly con¬
fined, it has been heated to 400 of the same degrees ;
and, no doubt, might have been heated a great deal
more, had the vessels been strong enough to bear the
expansile force of the steam. On opening the vessels,
however, the excess of heat was found to have resided
entirely in the vapour; for the water in the vessel very
soon sunk down to 212, while the steam issued forth
with great violence.
From these experiments it appears, that the steam of
water, after it has absorbed as much heat in the latent
state as it can contain, continues to absorb or detain
among its particles, an unlimited quantity of sensible
heat; and if the steam could be confined till this quan-
Vol. VIII. Part II. t
tity became great enough to be visible by emission of Flame,
light, there cannot be the least doubt that the vapour Flamen.
would then be converted into flame. >r~~
In what manner the heat is detained among the par¬
ticles of steam, is perhaps impossible to be explained;
but to this heat we must undoubtedly ascribe the vio¬
lent expansive force of steam of every kind. It seems
probable, that when smoke is converted into flame, the
latent heat with which the vapour had combined, or
rather that which made an essential part of it, breaks
forth, and adds to the quantity of sensible heat which
is already present. This seems probable, from the
sudden explosion with which all flames break out. If
a vessel full of oil is set over the fire, a smoke or vapour
begins to arise from it; which grows gradually thicker
and thicker; and at last begins to shine in some places
very near the surface of the oil, like an electric light,
or sulphur just kindled. At this time the oil is very
hot, as well as the steam which issues from it. But this
last is continually giving off its sensible heat into the at¬
mosphere ; so that at the distance of an inch or two
from the surface of the oil, the heat of the steam will
not exceed 400 degrees of Fahrenheit, or perhaps may
not be so much; but if a burning candle is held in the
steam for a moment, the whole is immediately con-
vei’ted into flame, with something like an explosion ;
after which the oil burns quietly until it is all con¬
sumed. The flame, as soon as it appears, is not only
much hotter than the steam from whence it was pro¬
duced, but even than the oil which lies below it.
Whence, then, has this sudden and great increase of
heat arisen ? It could not be the heat of the va¬
pour, for that was greatly inferior; nor could it be
communicated from the oil, for that could communi¬
cate no more than it had to itself. The candle, in¬
deed, would communicate a quantity of heat to the va¬
pour which touched its flame ; but it is impossible that
this quantity should extend permanently over a surface
perhaps 100 times larger than the flame of the candle,
in such a manner as to make every part of that surface
equally hot with the flame of the candle itself; for this
would be to suppose it to communicate 100 times more
heat than really was in it. The heat therefore must
have originally resided in the vapour itself; and as, in
the freezing of wTater, its latent heat is extricated and
becomes sensible, and the water thereupon loses its flui¬
dity ; so, in the ascension of vapour, the latent heat
breaks forth with a bright flash, and the vapour is then
totally decomposed, and converted into soot, ashes, or
water, according to the different nature of the sub¬
stances which produce it, or according to the intensity
of the heat.—Several other hypotheses have been in¬
vented to solve the phenomena of burning and flaming-
bodies; for an account of which, see Ignition and
Heat, Chemistry Index.
Flames are of different colours, according to the sub¬
stances from which they are produced. Thus, the
flame of sulphur and spirit of wine is blue ; the flame
of nitre and zinc, of a bright white ; that of copper, of
a greenish blue, &c.—These varieties aft'ord *n oppor¬
tunity of making a number of agreeable representations
in fireworks, which could not be done if the flame
produced from every difl’erent substance was of the same
colour. See Pyrotechnics.
FLAMEN, in Roman antiquity, the name of an
4 P order
FLA I 6(
ri«*en order of priests, instituted by Romulus or Numa : au-
y thors not being agreed on this head. .
Jlaminhu. They were originally only three, viz. the JUcimen
' *  Diulis, Flamen Martialis, and Flamen Quirinalis. The
Flamen Dialis was sacred to Jupiter, and a person of
the highest consequence and authority in the state.
He discharged several religious duties which properly
belonged to the kings, and was honoured with many
eminent privileges beyond all other officers, hut was
obliged to observe several superstitious restraints. The
Flamen Martialis tvas sacred to Mars, and was ordain¬
ed to inspect the rites of that god. The ITamen
Quirinalis was sacred to, and superintended the rites
of, Quirinus Romulus. The Flamines last mentioned,
though of high authority, were much inferior to the
.Flamen Dialis. All three were chosen by the people,
and consecrated by the Fontifex Maximus. In latter
times several priests of the same order and name were
added to them, but inferior in power. The whole
number at last amounted to 15; the three first of
whom were senators, and called Flcimines majores y the
other 12 taken from among the people, being deno¬
minated Flamincs wifnorw.—-Some authors tell us the
Romans had a Flamen for every deity they worship¬
ped. The greater Flamines wore the robe edged with
purple, like the great magistrates; had an ivory chair,
and a seat in the senate. They wore a little band ot
thread about their heads, whence their name is said to
be derived, quasi Filamines.—F^he wife of the Flamen
Dialis was called Flammica, and wore a flame-colour¬
ed habit, on which was painted a thunderbolt, and
above her head-dress she had green oak boughs, to
indicate that she belonged to Jupiter the thunderer, to
whom the oak was sacred. The Flamines wore each
of them a hat or cap called Flammeum or Apex.
FLAMINGO, in Ornithology. See Phoenicop-
terus, Ornithology Index.
FLAMINIUS, or Flamininus, T. Q. a cele¬
brated Roman, raised to the consulship in the year of
Rome 554, though under the age of 30. He was trained *
in the art of war agai nst Hannibal; and he showed him¬
self capable in every respect to discharge with honour
the great office with which he was intrusted. He was
sent at the head of the Roman troops against Philip king
of Macedon, and in his expedition he met with uncom¬
mon success. The Greeks gradually declared themselves
his firmest supporters; and he totally defeated Philip on
the confines of Epirus, and made all Locris, Phocis,
and Thessaly, tributary to the Roman power. He
granted peace to the conquered monarch, and proclaim¬
ed all Greece free and independent at the Isthmian
games. This celebrated action procured the name of
Patrons of Greece to the Romans, and insensibly paved
their way to universal dominion. Flaminius behaved
among them with the greatest policy; by his ready
compliance to their national customs and prejudices, he
gained uncommon popularity, and received the name of
father and deliverer of Greece. He was afterwards
sent ambassador to King Prusias, who had given refuge
to HantUbal; and there his prudence and artifice hasten¬
ed out of the world a man who had long been jhe ter¬
ror of the Romans. Flaminius was found dead in his
bed, after a life spent in the greatest glory, in which he
had imitated with success the virtues of his model
Scipio.
56 3 FLA
Flaminius, or Flaminio, Mark Antony, one of FlamuH;
the best Latin poets in the 16th century, of Imola in g
Italy, son and grandson of very learned men. The FlamsUi
pope had chosen him secretary to the council in 1545 ; ~
but he refused that employment, because, favouring
the new opinions, he would not employ his pen in
an assembly where he knew these opinions were to he
condemned.— He paraphrased 38 of the psalms in Latin
verse, and also wrote notes on the Psalms ; and some let¬
ters and poems which are esteemed. He died at Rome
in 1550.
FLAMSTED, a town of Hertfordshire in England,
five miles from St Albans and Dunstable, stands on the
river Verlam, and was of old called Verlamstede. The
land in the vicinity is a clay so thickly mixed with
flints, that, after a shower, nothing appears hut a heap
of stones; and yet it bears good corn even in dry sum¬
mers. This fertility is imputed to a warmth in the flint, .
which preserves it from cold in the winter; and to its
closeness, which keeps it from the scorching rays of the
sun in the summer. Edward VI. when an infant, was
brought hither for his health ; and, it is said, the bed¬
stead he lay on, which is curiously wrought, is still pre¬
served in the manor bouse near the town.
FLAMSTEED, John, an eminent English astrono¬
mer, and the first who obtained the appointment of as¬
tronomer-royal, was born at Derby in the year 1646.
He was educated at the free school of Derby, where he
was head scholar at 14 years of age, at which period his
constitution, naturally tender and delicate, was much
tried by a severe illness. When some of his companions
went to the university, the state of his health prevented
him from accompanying them. He afterwards met with
a book T)e Sphcera, written by John Sacrobosco, which
was perfectly suited to the natural turn of his genius,
and therefore he perused it with uncommon satisfaction,
translating as much of it into English as he thought
could be necessary for him; and from the Astromma
Carolina; of Strut he learned the method of calculating
eclipses, and ascertaining the places of the planets.^ Mr
Hatton, a mathematician, sent him Kepler’s labulce
Rudolphince, and RicciolVs Almagestum Novum, together
with some other astronomical works to which he was
as yet a stranger. In 1669 he calculated an eclipse of
the sun, which had been omitted in the Ephemerides
for the following year, together with five appulses of the
moort to fixed stars, and sent them to Lord Brouncker,
president of the Royal Society, who submitted them to
theexamination of that learned body, by which theywere
greatly applauded, and he received a letter of thanks
from Mr Oldenburg the secretary. He likewise receiv¬
ed a letter of thanks from Mr Collins, one of the mem¬
bers. In 1670 he was invited to come up to London
by his father, that he might become personally acquaint¬
ed with his learned correspondents, ot which he gladly
accepted, and had an interview with Mr Oldenburg
and Mr Collins, by the latter of whom he was intro¬
duced to Sir Jonas Moore, who became the warm friend
and patron of Mr Flamsteed. In consequence of this
journey he became acquainted with many astronomical
instruments, and was presented by Sir Jonas Moore with
Tovvnley’s micrometer, who also assisted him in pro¬
curing glasses at a moderate rate for the construction of
telescopes. On his way home again he returned by
Cambridge, where he paid a visit to the celebrated Dr
JBarrow
FLA t 667 ] FLA
wsteed, Barrow anti Sir Isaac, then Mr Newton, and entered
mders- a student of Jesus college.
In the year 1672, he made large extracts from the
letters of Gascoigne and Crabtree, by which his know¬
ledge of dioptrics was very much improved ; and during
the same year he made a number of celestial observa¬
tions when the weather would permit, which were af¬
terwards published in the Philosophical Transactions.
In 1673 he composed a treatise on the true and ap¬
parent diameters of the planets, when at their greatest
and least distance from the earth, which even the great
Newton did not scruple to borrow, and made some use
of it in his Principia in 168 5'. He published an Ephe-
meris in 1674, in which he exposed the folly and
absurdity of astrology, and the same year he drew up a
table of the tides for the use of the king, with,an astro¬
nomical account of their ebbing and flowing, which Sir
Jonas Moore assured him would be w'ell received by his
majesty. Sir Jonas received from Mr Flamsteed a pair
of barometers, with directions how to use them, which
he presented to the king and the duke of York, to whose
notice he embraced every opportunity of introducing
Mr Flamsteed.
Having taken the degree of M. A. at Cambridge,
he formed the resolution of entering into holy orders,
when Sir Jonas wrote to him to come to London,
where he had an appointment for him very different
from that of the church. Betas he found that nothing
could make him abandon the resolution he bad formed,
he obtained a situation for him which was perfectly con¬
sistent with the character of a clergyman. This was
the new office of astronomer to the king, with a salary
of lool.perannum. Pie received ordination atEly-house
by Bishop Gunning, in Easter 1675 ; and on the 10th
of August in the same year the foundation stone of the
royal observatory at Greenwich was laid, which receiv¬
ed the designation of Flamsteed house, in honour of the
first astronomer royal. Till this edifice was erected, he
made his observations in the queen’s house at Green¬
wich, and in 1681 his Doctrine of the Sphere was pub¬
lished by Sir Jonas Moore in his System of the Mathe¬
matics. Notwithstanding his extraordinary merit, he
never rose higher in the church than to the living of
Burslow in Surrey, although he was deservedly esteem¬
ed by the greatest men in the nation. He correspond¬
ed with the great Newton, Dr Plalley, Mr W. Moly-
neux. Dr Wallis, and many others 5 and M. Cassini
and he imparted their discoveries to each other with
the utmost confidence and cordiality. But none of his
works contributed so much to render his fame immortal
as his “ Historia Caelestis Britannica,” in three vols.
folio. Mr Flamsteed was suddenly carried off by a
strangury on the 31st of December 1719 j and not¬
withstanding the extreme delicacy of his constitution and
incessant labours, he reached the 73d year of his age.
FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands, bound¬
ed by the German sea and the United Provinces on the
north, by the province of Brabant on the east, by Hain-
ault and Artois on the south, and by another part of
Artois and the German sea on the west 5 being about
60 miles long and 50 broad.
Flanders is a perfectly champaign country, with not Flanders
a rising ground or hill in it, and watered with many Flanel.'
fine rivers and canals. Its chief commodities are fine v—v——^
lace, linen, and tapestry.
In this country some important arts were invented
and improved. Weaving in general was greatly im¬
proved, and that of figures of all sorts in linen was in¬
vented $ also the art of dyeing cloths and stuffs, and
of oil colours; the curing of herrings, &c. The ma¬
nufactures of this country are not now in the flourishing
state they were formerly ; yet silk, cotton, and woollen
stufts, &c. are still manufactured here in great quanti¬
ties. This province had counts of its own from the
ninth century to the year 1369, when it went by mar¬
riage to the dukes of Burgundy j and afterwards from
them, by marriage also, to the house of Austria. France,
in 1667, seized the southern part ; and the States Ge¬
neral obtained the northern. It was overrun by the
French in 1794, but was united to the new kingdom of
the Netherlands in 1814.
For a more particular history of Flanders, see the
article Netherlands.
FLANFL, or Flannel, a kind of slight, loose,
woollen stuff, composed of a woof and warp, and wove
on a loom with two treddles, after the manner of
baize.
Dr Black assigns as a reason why flanel and other
substances of the kind keep the body warm, that they
compose a rare and spongy mass, the fibres of which
touch each other so lightly, that the heat moves slowly
through the interstices, which being filled only with air,
and that in a stagnant state, give little assistance in con¬
ducting the heat. From the experiments of Count
Rumford, it appears, that there is no relation betwixt
the power which the substances usually worn as clothing
have of absorbing moisture, and that of keeping the
body warm. Having provided a quantity of each of
these substances mentioned below, he exposed them,
spread out upon clean china plates, for the space of 24
hours to the warm and dry air of a room which had
been heated by a German stove for several months, and
during the last six hours had raised the thermometer to
85° of Fahrenheit ; after which he weighed equal quan¬
tities of the different substances with a very accurate
balance. They were then spread out upon a china
plate, and removed into a very large uninhabited room
upon the second floor, where they were exposed 48
hours upon a table placed in the middle of the room,
the air of which was at 450 of Fahrenheit. At the end
of this space they were weighed, and then removed in¬
to a damp cellar, and placed on a table in the middle
of the vault, where the air was at the temperature of
450, and which by the hygrometer seemed to be fully
saturated with moisture. In this situation they were
suffered to remain three days and three nights $ the
vault being all the time hung round with wet linen
cloths, to render the air as completely damp as possible.
At the end of three days they were weighed, and the
weights at the different times were found as in the fol¬
lowing table.
4 P 2 Sheep’s
FLA
Flauel.
Weight af
ter being
diied in the
hot room.
Parts
1000
Weight af-
tercoming
out of the
cold room.
1084
IO72
1065
1067
ioj7
i°54
1046
1044
Weight af¬
ter reuiain-
ng 72 b. in
the vault.
1163
1125
mi
1112
1107
1103
1102
1082
Sheep’s wool
Beaver’s fur
The fur of a Russian hare
Eider down
f Raw single thread j
Silk < Ravellingsofwhite 7 1
[ taffety. V
r Fine lint
Linen-J Ravellingsoffine 1
linen j
Cotton wool io43 1089
Ravellings of silver lace j 1000 1000
On these experiments our author observes, that though
linen, from the apparent ease with which it receives
dampness from the atmosphere, seems to have a much
greater attraction for water than any other j yet it
would appear from what is related above, that those
Bodies which receive water in its unelastic form with
the greatest ease, or are most easily wet, are not those
which in all cases attract the moisture of the atmo¬
sphere with the greatest avidity. “ Perhaps (says he),
the apparent dampness of linen to the touch, arises
more from the ease with which that substance parts
with the water it contains, than from the quantity of
water it actually holds : in the same manner as a body
appears hot to the touch, in consequence of its parting
freely with its heat j while another body which is really
at the same temperature, but which withholds its heat
with great obstinacy, affects the sense of feeling much
less violently. It is well known that woollen clothes,
such as flanels, &c. worn next the skin, greatly promote
insensible perspiration. May not this arise principally
from the strong attraction which subsists between wool
and the watery vapour which is continually issuing from
the human body ? That it does not depend entirely on
the warmth of that covering, is clear j for the same de¬
gree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of
a different kind, does not produce the same effect. The
perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a
covering of flanel, it is immediately distributed through
the whole thickness of that substance, and by that
means exposed, by a very large surface, to be carried
off by the atmosphere j and the loss of this watery va¬
pour which the flanel sustains on the one side by evapo¬
ration, being immediately restored from the other, in
consequence of the strong attraction between the flanel
and this vapour, the pores of the skin are disencumber¬
ed, and they are continually surrounded by a dry and
salubrious atmosphere.”
Our author expresses his surprise, that the custom of
wearing flanel next the skin should not have prevailed
more universally. He is confident it would ’prevent a
number of diseases ; and he thinks there is no greater
luxury than the comfortable sensation which arises from
wearing it, especially after one is a little accustomed to
it. “ It is a mistaken notion (says he), that it is too
warm a clothing for summer. I have worn it in
the hottest climates, and at all seasons of the year ;
and never found the least inconvenience from it. It
is the warm bath of perspiration confined by a linen
shirt, wet with sweat, whiclf renders the summer heats
668 ] FLA
of southern climates so unsupportable; but flanel pro- p]anel
motes perspiration, and favours its evaporation ; and j)
evaporation, as is well known, produces positive cold. Flats.
It has been observed that new flanel, after some time
wearing, acquires the property of shining in the dark,
but loses it on being washed. Philosophical Transact
tions, N° 483. § 7.
FLANK, or Flanc, in the manege, is applied to
the sides of a horse’s buttock, &c. In a strict
sense, the flanks of a horse are the extremes of the
belly, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the
loins.
The flanks of a horse should he full, and at the top
of each a feather. The distance between the last rib
and haunch-bone, which is properly the flank, should
be short, which they term ivell coupled, such horses be¬
ing most hardy, and fit to endure labour.
A horse is said to have no flank if the last of the
short ribs be at a considerable distance from the haunch-
bone ; as also when the ribs are too much straitened in
their compass.
Flank, in War, is used by way of analogy for the
side of a battalion, army, &c. in contradistinction to
the front and rear.
To attack the eneiyiy inflank, is to discover and fire
upon them on the side. See File.
Flank, in Fortification, is a line drawn from the
extremity of the face towards the inside of the work.
Or, flank is that part of a bastion which readies from
the curtain to the face, and defends the opposite face,
the flank, and the curtain. See Fortification.
Oblique or Second Flank, or Flank oflthe Curtain,
is that part of the curtain from whence the face of the
opposite bastion can be seen, being contained between
the lines rasant and fichant, or the greater and less lines
of defence ; or the part of the curtain between the
flank and the point where the fichant line of defence
terminates.
Covered, Low, or Retired Flank, is the platform of
the casement which lies hid in the bastion ; and is other¬
wise called the Orillon.
Fichant Flank, is that from whence a cannon play¬
ing, fires directly on the face of the opposite bas¬
tion.
Rasant or Raxant Flank, is the point from whence
the line of defence begins, from the conjunction of
which with the curtain, the shot only raseth the face
of the next bastion, which happens when the face can¬
not be discovered but from the flank alone.
FLAT, in sea-language, denotes a level ground ly¬
ing at a small depth under the surface of the sea, and
is also called a shoal or shallow.
Flat-Bottomed Boats are such as are made to swim in
shallow water, and to carry a great number of troops,
artillery, ammunition, &c. They are constructed with
a 12-pounder, bow-chase, and an 18 pounder, stern-
chase ; their keel is from 90 to 100 feet, and from 12
to 24 feet beam : they have one mast, a large square
main-sail, and a jib-sail j are rowed by 18 or 20 oars,
and can carry 400 men eacli. The gun takes up one
bow, and a bridge the other, over which the troops are,
to march. Those that carry horses have the fore-part
of the boat made to open when the men are to mount
and ride over a bridge.
FLATS, in Music. See Interval.
FLATUS,
FLA [ 669 ] FLA
iFlaius FLATUS, X LATULENCE, in Medicine ; vapours ge-
B nerated in the stomach and intestines, chiefly occasion-
FJax. ed by a weakness of these parts. They occasion disten-
sions, uneasy sensation, and sickness, and often a con¬
siderable degree of pain. See MEDICINE Index.
FLAVEL, John, an eminent non-conformist mini¬
ster, was educated at University-college, in Oxford
and became minister first of Deptford, and afterwards of
Dartmouth in Devonshire, where he resided the great¬
est part of his life, much respected and admired for his
preaching ; although he was persecuted on account of
his principles, when in 1685, several of the aldermen of
the town, attended by the rabble, carried about a ridi¬
culous effigy of him, to which were affixed the Bill of
Exclusion and the Covenant. Upon this occasion, he
thought it prudent to withdraw from the town j not
knowing what treatment he might meet with from a
riotous mob, headed by magistrates who were them¬
selves among the lowest of mankind. Part of his Diary,
printed with his Remains, must give the reader a high
idea of his piety. He died in 1691, aged 61 ; and af¬
ter his death, his works, which consisted of many pieces
of practical divinity, were printed in two volumes folio.
Among these, the most famous are his “ Navigation
Spiritualized, or a New Compass for seamen, consisting
of 32 points of pleasant observations and serious reflec¬
tions,” of which there have been several editions in
8vo ; and his “ Husbandry Spiritualized, &c. with oc¬
casional meditations upon beasts, birds, trees, flowers,
rivers and several other objects,” of which also there
have been many editions in 8vo.
FLAX, in Botany. See Linum, Botany Index.
The following particulars with regard to the manner
of raising flax, have been some years past warmly re¬
commended by the trustees for fisheries, manufactures,
and improvements in Scotland.
Of the choice of the Soil, and preparing the ground for
Flax. A skilful flax-raiser always prefers a free open
deep loam j and all grounds that produced the preced¬
ing year a good crop of turnip, cabbage, potatoes,
barley, or broad clover, or have been formerly laid
down rich, and kept for some years in pasture.
A clay soil, the second or third crop after being
limed, will answer well for flax ; provided, if the
ground be still stiff, that it be brought to a proper
mould, by tilling after harvest to expose it to the win¬
ter frosts.
All new grounds produce a strong crop of flax, and
pretty free of weeds. W hen a great many mole heaps
appear upon new ground, it answers the better for flax,
after one tilling.
Flax seed ought never to be sown on grounds that
are either too wet or dry; but on such as retain a na¬
tural moisture : and such grounds as are inclined to
weeds ought to be avoided, unless prepared by a care¬
ful summer fallow.
If the linseed be sown early, and the flax not al¬
lowed to stand for seed, a crop of turnip mav be got
after the flax that very year} the second year a crop
of bear or barley may be taken j and the third year,
grass seeds arc sometimes sown along with the linseed.
This is the method mostly practised in and about the
counties of Lincoln and Somerset, where great quanti¬
ties of flax and hemp are every year raised, and where
these crops have long been capital articles. There, old
ploughed grounds are never sown with linseed, unless Flax,
the soil be very rich and clean. A certain worm, called —v—■
in Scotland the coup worm, abounds in grounds newly
broken up, and greatly hurts every crop but flax. In
small enclosures surrounded with trees or high hedges,
the flax, for want of free air, is subject to fall before
it be ripe j and the droppings of rain and dew from
the trees prevent the flax, within the reach of the trees,
from growing to any perfection.
Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the best
preparation for flax. In the fens of Lincoln, upon
proper ground of old tillage, they sow hemp, dunging
well the first year ; the second year, hemp without
dung; the third year, flax without dung; and that same
year, a crop of turnip eaten on the ground by sheep ;
the fourth year, hemp with a large coat of dung ; and
so on for ever.
If the ground be free and open, it should be but once
ploughed ; and that as shallow as possible, not deeper
than 2J inches. It should be laid flat, reduced to a
fine garden mould by much harrowing, and all stones
and sods should be carried off.
Except a little pigeons dung for cold or sour
ground, no other dung should be used preparatory for
flax ; because it produces too many weeds, and throws
up the flax thin and poor upon the stalk.
Before sowing, the bulky clods should be broken, or
carried off the ground ; and stones, quickenings, and
every other thing that may hinder the growth of the
flax should be removed.
Of the choice of Linseed. The brighter in colour,
and heavier the seed is, so much the better ; that
which when bruised appears of a light or yellowish
green, and fresh in the heart, oily and not dry, and
smells and tastes sweet, and not fusty, may be depend¬
ed upon.
Dutch seed of the preceding year’s growth, for the
most part, answers best; but it seldom succeeds if kept
another year. It ripens sooner than any other foreign
seed. Philadelphia seed produces fine lint and few
bolls, because sown thick, and answers best in wet cold
soils. Riga seed produces coarser lint, and the greatest
quantity of seed. Scots seed, when well winned and
kept, and changed from one kind of soil to another,
sometimes answers pretty well ; but should be sown
thick, as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It springs
well, and its flax is sooner ripe than any other; but
its produce afterwards is generally inferior to that from
foreign seed.
A kind has been lately imported called Memmelseed;
which looks well, is short and plump, but seldom grows
above eight inches, and on that account ought not to
be sown.
Of sowing Linseed. The quantity of linseed sown
should be proportioned to the condition of the soil ;
for if the ground be in good heart, and the seed sown
thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it is
ready for pulling. From 11 to 12 pecks Linlithgow
measure of Dutch or Riga seed, is generally sufficient
for one Scots acre; and about 10 pecks of Philadelphia
seed, which, being the smallest grained, goes farthest.
Riga linseed, and the next year’s produce of it, is pre¬
ferred in Lincolnshire.
The time for sowing linseed is from the middle of
March to the end of April, as the ground and season
answer 5. ;
t 670 ]
Fias.
the less the
FLA
answer j but the earlier the seed is sown
' crop interferes with the corn harvest.
Late sown linseed may grow long, but the flax upon
the stalk will be thin and poor.
After sowing, the ground ought to be harrowed till
the seed is well covered, and then, (supposing the soil,
as before mentioned, to be free and reduced to a fine
mould) it ought to be rolled.
When a farmer sows a large quantity of linseed, he
may find it proper to sow a part earlier and part later,
that in the future operations of weeding, pulling, wa¬
tering, and grassing, the work may be the easier and
more conveniently gone about.
It ought always to be sown on a dry bed.
Of Weeding Flax. It ought to be weeded when the
crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred, the
weeders will so much break and crook the stalks, that
they will never perhaps recover their straightness again
and when the flax grows crooked, it is more liable to
be hurt in the rippling and swingling.
Quicken grass should not be taken up j for, being
strongly rooted, the pulling of it always loosens a deal
of the lint.
If there is an appearance of a settled drought, it
is better to defer the weeding, than by that opera¬
tion to expose the tender roots of the flax to the
drought.
How soon the weeds are got out, they ought to be
carried off the field, instead of being laid in the fur¬
rows, where they often take root again, and at any rate
obstruct the growth of the flax in the furrows.
Of Pulling Flax. When the crop grows so short
and branchy, as to appear more valuable for seed than
flax, it ought not to be pulled before it be thoroughly
ripe; but if it grows long and not branchy, the seed
should be disregarded, and all the attention given to
the flax. In the last case it ought to be pulled after
the bloom has fallen, when the stalk begins to turn
yellow, and before the leaves fall, and the bolls turn
hard and sharp-pointed.
When the stalk is small, and carries few bolls, the
flax is fine : but the stalk of coarse flax is gross, rank,
branchy, and carries many bolls.
When the flax has fallen, and lies, such as lies ought
to be immediately pulled, whether it has grown enough
or not, as otherwise it will rot altogether.
When parts of the same field grow unequally, so
that some parts are ready for pulling before other parts ;
only what is ready should be pulled, and the rest should
be suffered to stand till ready.
The flax-raiser ought to be at pains to pull and keep
by itself, each different kind of lint which he finds
in his field j what is both long and fine, by itself j
what is both long and coarse, by itself 5 what is both
short and fine, by itself $ what is both short and coarse,
by itself*, and in like manner every other kind by it¬
self that is of the same size and quality. If the differ¬
ent kinds be not thus kept separate, the flax must be
much damaged in the watering and the other succeed¬
ing operations.
"Wrhat is commonly called under-growth may be ne¬
glected as useless.
Few persons that have seen pulled flax, are ignorant
of the method of laying it in handfuls across each
FLA
other ; which gives the flax sufficient air, and keeps the
handfuls separate and ready for the rippler. u.
Of Stacking up Flax during the Winter, and Winning
the Seed. If the flax be more valuable than the seed,
it ought by no means to be stacked up j for its own na¬
tural juice assists it greatly in the watering ; whereas,
if kept long unwatered, it loses that juice, and the
harle adheres so much to the boon, that it requires
longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax
becomes thereby harsher and coarser. Besides, the flax
stacked up over year, is in great danger from vermine
and other accidents; the water in spring is not so soft
and warm as in harvest; and near a year is thereby
lost of the use of the lint : but if the flax be so short
and branchy as to appear most valuable for seed, it
ought, after pulling, to be stocked and dried upon the
field, as is done with corn ; then stacked up for win¬
ter, rippled in spring; and after sheeling, the seed
should be well cleaned from bad seeds, &c.
Of Rippling Flax. After pulling, if the flax is to
he regarded more than the seed, it should be allowed
to lie some hours upon the ground to dry a little, and
so gain some firmness, to prevent the skin or harle,
which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling; an
operation which ought by no means to be neglected, as
the bolls, if put into the water along with the flax,
breed vermine there, and otherwise spoil the water. The
bolls also prove very inconvenient in the grassing and
breaking.
In Lincolnshire and Ireland, they think that rip¬
pling hurts the flax ; and therefore, in place of rip¬
pling, they strike the bolls against a stone.
The handfuls for rippling should not be great, as
that endangers the lint in the rippling comb.
After rippling, the flax-raiser will perceive, that he
is able to assort each size and quality of the flax by it¬
self more exactly than he could before.
Of Watering Flax. A running stream wastes the
lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away.
Lochs, by the great quantity and motion of the wa¬
ter, also waste and whiten the flax, though not so much
as running streams. Both rivers and lochs water the
flax quicker than canals.
But all flax ought to be watered in canals, which
should be digged in clay ground if possible, as that
soil retains the water best: but if a firm retentive soil
cannot be got, the bottom or sides of the canal, or
both the bottom and sides, may be lined with clay ; or
instead of lining the sides with clay, which might
fall down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and
filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous
water from entering, and the water within from run¬
ning off.
A canal of 40 feet long, six broad, and four deep,
will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.
It ought to be filled with fresh soft water from a
river or brook, if possible, two or three weeks before
the flax is put in, and exposed all that time to the heat
of the sun. The greater way the river or brook has
run, the softer, and therefore the better, will the water
be. Springs, or short runs from hills, are too cold,
unless the water is allowed to stand long in the canal.
Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax. A little
of the powder of galls thrown into a glass of water,
will
Flax.
Flax.
FLA [67
will immediately discover if it comes from minerals of
o' that kind, by turning it into a dark colour, more or
less tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it
contains.
The canal ought not to be under shade : which, be¬
sides keeping the sun from softening the water, might
make part ot the canal cooler than other parts, and so
water the flax unequally.
The flax-raiser will observe, when the water is
brought to a proper heat, that small plants will be
rising quickly in it, numbers of small insects and rep¬
tiles will be generating there, and hubbies of air ris¬
ing on the surface. If no such signs appear, the wa¬
ter must not be warm enough, or is otherwise unfit for
flax.
Moss holes, when neither too deep nor too shallow,
frequently answer well for watering flax, when the wa¬
ter is proper, as before described.
The proper season for watering flax is from the end
of July to the end of August.
The advantage of watering flax as soon as possible
after pulling, has been already mentioned.
I he flax being sorted after rippling, as before men¬
tioned, should next be put in beets, never larger than
a man can grasp with both his hands, and tied very
slack with a band of a few stalks. Dried rushes an¬
swer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not
rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for use
again.
The beets should he put into the canals slopewise,
or half standing upon end, the root end uppermost.
Upon the crop ends, when uppermost, there frequent¬
ly breeds a deal of vermine, destructive of the flax,
which is effectually prevented by putting the crop end
downmost.
The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully
covered from the sun with divots ; the grassy side of
which should be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it
is not thus covered, the sun will discolour the flax,
though quite covered with water. If the divots are
not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under wa¬
ter, a few stones may be laid above them. But the flax
should not be pressed to the bottom.
When the flax is sufficiently watered, it feels soft to
the gripe, and the harle parts easily with the boon or
show, which last is then become brittle, and looks whit¬
ish. When these signs are found, the flax should be
taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently
rinsed in the water, to cleanse it of the nastiness which
has gathered about it in the canal ; and as the lint is
then very tender, and the beet slackly tied, it must be
carefully and gently bandied.
Great care ought to be taken that no part be over
done ; and as the coarsest rvaters soonest, if different
kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when
the rest is not sufficiently watered.
When lint taken out of the canal is not found suffi¬
ciently watered, it may be laid in a heap for 12, 18,
or 24 hours, which will have an effect like more water-
ing ; but this operation is nice, and may prove danger¬
ous in unskilful hands.
After the flax is taken out of the canal, fresh lint
should not be put a second time into it, until the former
water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and supplied
with fresh water.
1 ] FLA
Of Grassing Flax. Short heath is the best field for
grassing flax ; as, when wet, it fastens to the heath,
and is thereby prevented from being blown away by
the wind. The heath also keeps it a little above the
earth, and so exposes it the more equally to the wea¬
ther. When such heath is not to be got, links or
clean old lea ground is the next best. Bong grass
grounds should be avoided, as the grass growing
through the lint frequently spots, tenders, or rots it;
and grounds exposed to violent winds should also be
avoided.
1 he flax, when taken out of the water, must be
spread very thin upon the ground : and being then
very tender, it must be gently handled. The thinner
it is spread the better, as it is then the more equally
exposed to the weather. But it ought never to be
spread during a heavy shower, as that would wash and
waste the harle too much, which is then excessively
tender, but soon after becomes firm enough to bear the
rains, which, with the open air and sunshine, cleans,
softens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted,
and makes it blister from the boon. In short, after the
flax has got a little firmness by being a few hours
spread in dry weather, the more rain and sunshine it
gets the better.
Jf there be little danger of high winds carrying off
the flax, it will be much the better of being turned
about once a-week: If it is not to be turned, it ought
to be very thin spread. The spreading of flax and
hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it
greatly.
The skilful flax-raiser spreads his first row of flax
at the end of the field opposite to the point from
whence the most violent wind commonly comes, pla¬
cing the root-ends foremost; he makes the root-ends
of every other row overlap the crop ends of the former
row three or four inches, and binds down the last row
with a rope ; by which means the wind does not easily
get below the lint to blow it away ; and as the crop
ends are seldom so fully watered as the root ends, the
aforesaid overlapping has an effect like giving the crop
ends mere watering. Experience only can fully teach
a person the signs of flax being sufficiently grassed: then
it is of a clearer colour than formerly ; the harle is blis¬
tered up, and easily parts with the boon, which is then
become very brittle. The whole should be sufficiently
grassed before any of it is lifted ; for if a part be lifted
sooner than the rest, that which remains is in great
danger from the winds.
A dry day ought to be chosen for taking up the
flax ; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it
should be loosed from the heath or grass, and left loose
for some hours, to make it thoroughly dry.
As a great quantity of flax can scarcely be all equal¬
ly watered and grassed, and as the different qualities
will best appear at lifting the flax off the grass ; there¬
fore at that time each different kind should he gathered
together, and kept by itself; that is, all of the same co¬
lour, length, and quality.
The smaller the beets lint is made up in, the better
for drying, and the more convenient for stacking, hous¬
ing, &c. and in making up these beets, as in every
other operation upon flax, it is of great consequence
that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root ends
together, and the crop ends together.
Fsliows
Flax.
FLA
t 672 ]
FLA
Fkx. Follow an estimate of the Expence, Produce, and Profit of a Scots Acre of Flax.—-supposing the season favour-
"—y——^ that no accidental losses happen, and that the farmer is neither unskilful nor negligent.
Ground rent, labouring the ground, and leading the flax
Linseed from 2I. to 4^* Per hogshead, the medium
3s. 4d. per peck — ““
Clodding and sowing — —
Weeding — . T“ ,
Pulling, rippling, putting in, and covering in the
water — —
Taking out of the water, grassing, and stacking
Breaking and scutching, at 2s. per stone —
Total expence
Produce at ios. per stone
Linseed sold for oil at is. per peck —
The chaff of the bolls is well worth the expence of
drying the seed as it is good food, when boiled
and mixed with bear, for horses.
Total produce
A medium crop.
L. 2 10 o
1168
for 11 pecks.
020
012 o
o 14 o
080
300
for 30 stones.
L. 9
8
L. 15 o o
for 30 stones.
0160
Balance for profit
L. 15 16
L. 6 14
A great crop.
L. 3 10 o
1100
for 9 pecks.
020
080
o 15 o
0 12 0
4 0 0
for 40 stones.
L. 10 17
An extra crop.
L. 5 o o
168
for 8 pecks.
020
nothing.
100
0180
600
for 60 stones.
L. 20 o o
for 40 stones.
0180
L. 20 18
L. 10
L. 14
8
L. 30 o o
for 60 stones.
100
L. 31
L. 16 13
The above estimate being made several years ago,
the expence and profit are now different j but the pro¬
portions of each are probably the same. There is
nothing stated here as expence of the canal in which
the flax is watered ; because that varies much according
to circumstances.
It is a certain fact, that the greater the crop is, the
better is the quality of the same kind of flax.
The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a
crop of turnip the same year—or of sowing grass seeds
along with the linseed—and of reducing the ground to
a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought to be attend¬
ed to.
For Cambric and fine Lawn. The ground must be
a rich light soil, rather sandy, but cannot be too rich.
It ought to be ploughed in September, or the be¬
ginning of October, first putting a little hot x’otten
dung upon it. In January it ought to have a second
ploughing, after a hard frost j and when you intend
to s<Tw it, plough it a third time, or rather hoe it, re¬
ducing the clods very fine } but make no furrows : the
land must be made level like a garden j but never work
the land when wet.
The seed should be sown the beginning of April,
and about double the quantity that is generally sown
by our farmers j if the land be very rich, it will require
rather more than double.
As soon as sown (if the weather be dry) it will be
necessary to roll the ground.
The lint must be weeded very clean when about
three inches high $ directly after which you must set
forked sticks, of about one and a half inch thick (which
ought to be prepared before), every four or five feet,
according to the length of the poles you are to lay upon
them •, they should be well fixed in the ground, the
3
forked part to receive the poles about six or seven inches
above the lint; each row of poles should be two, three,
or four feet asunder, according to the length of the
brushwood you are to lay upon them.
The poles ought to be from 10 to 15 feet long,
and strong enough to support the brush across the
poles 5 take the longest brushwood you can get, the
more branchy the better, very thick, filling up .the va¬
cancies with smaller brush, and any of the branches
that rise higher than 18 or 20 inches ought to be
lopt off to make the brush lie as level as possible:
any sort of brush will do except oak, as that tinges the
Your lint must be pulled as soon as the seed is fully
formed, which is a few days after it is out of the bloom,
before the lint turn yellow.
It must be pulled above the brushwood, and every
handful laid upon it as soon as possible : if it is fine
weather, leave it four or five hours in that manner : then
carry it to a screen near a barn, to put it under a cover
in case of rain j there it must be spread four or five
days, and always put in the barn at night, or when it ap¬
pears to rain : the bundles must be opened in the barn,
or made hollow, to prevent it from heating._
These operations must be performed until the lint is
perfectly dry, and out of danger of heating taking
care all the time to keep the roots as even as possible,
and if possible keep it from rain or wet: if you cannot
prevent it from being wet, it will be better to leave it
on the grass till dry; because when once wet, the put¬
ting it under cover before dry will make it turn black ;
a thing which must be prevented at all events.
If any of the lint upon the border, or through the
piece of ground, be coarser than another, it must be se¬
parated from the rest. ^
I Fla*
FLA [ 673
The utmost care must be taken to preserve the lint and
entire or unbroken ; for this reason they beat off the
seed with a round mell or bittle.
The most proper ground is summer fallow, or after
potatoes or lea; if possible near a wood, to prevent the
expence of carrying brush.
As soon as the seed is off, if you intend to water it
that season, it must be tied in bundles about as large as
you can grasp with your two hands.
The water proper for it, is a very small rivulet or
soft spring free of any mineral matter; taking care that
no flood or foul water enters your pit; which must be
at least five feet deep, about nine or ten broad at the
top, and seven or eight at the bottom ; the length
will depend on the quantity of flax you have to water.
A very small stripe of water, when clear, should always
be running in and off from your pit when the lint is
in it.
The pit ought to be made three or four months be¬
fore it be used.
You must drive poles about four inches thick, with
a hook inclining downwards, in this form 7, all along
the sides of the pit, above five feet asunder. The hooks
must be level with, or rather under, the surface of the
water. A long pole, the whole length of the pit, must
be fixed into these hooks on each side; and cross poles
put under that, to keep the lint under w'ater ; but the
cross poles are not used till the lint is put in. You
must order it so, that all the lint should be three or
four inches under water. You next bring your lint to
the sides of the pit; then put your sheaves head to
head, causing each to overlap the other about one-third,
and take as many of these as make a bundle of two or
two and a half feet broad, laying the one above the
other, till it is about four or four and a half feet high ;
then you tie them together in the middle, and at each
root end : after this you wrap your bundle in straw,
and lay it in the water, putting the thin or broad side
undermost, taking care that none of your lint touch the
earth ; after it is fully pressed under water, put in your
cross poles to keep it under. The bundles ought to
lie in the pit a foot separate from each other. This
renders it easy to take out; for, if the bundles en¬
tangle, they will be too heavy to raise.
The time of watering depends so much upon the
weather, and softness or hardness of the water, that it
is impossible to fix any certain time. This must be left
to the skill of the farmer. If the flax be intended for
spinning yarn soft and fit for cambric, it ought to be
spread upon short grass for four or five days before you
put it into the water; but if for lawns, lace, or thread,
it is best to dry it outright. In either case avoid as
much as possible to let it get rain; as much rain blanches
and washes out the oil, which is necessary to preserve
the strength.
The great property of this flax is to be fine and
long. Thick sowing raises all plants fine and slender;
and when the ground is very rich, it forces them to
a great length. Pulling green prevents that coarse
hardness which flax has when let stand till it be full
ripe, and gives it the fine silky property. The brush¬
wood, when the flax springs up, catches it by the middle,
and prevents it from lying down and rotting; infallible
consequences of sowing thick upon rich ground. It
likewise keeps it straight, moist, and soft at the roots ;
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
]
FLA
Fla*,
Plate
by keeping if warm, and shaded from the sun,
greatly promotes its length. The keeping it from
rain, heating, taking proper care of your water, pre¬
serves the colour, and prevents those bars in cloth so
much complained of by bleachers.
Flax-Dressing. For many ages it was the practice
to separate the boon or core from the flax, which is the
bark of the plant, by the following simple hand me¬
thods. First, for breaking the boon, the stalks in small
parcels were beat with a mallet; or, more dexterously,
the break (Plate CCXVIII. fig, 1. and 2.) was used
thus : The flax being held in the left hand across the CCXVIII.
three under teeth or swords of the break {A, fig. 1. and Iianti 2*
a, fig. 2.), the upper teeth (J?, fig. 1. and b, fig. 2.) were
with the right hand quickly and often forced down
upon the flax, which was artfully shifted and turned
with the left hand. Next, for clearing the flax of the
broken boon : the workman with his left hand held
the flax over the stock (fig. 3. and 4.), while with his
right hand he struck or thrashed the flax with the
scutcher (fig. 3.).
Ihese methods of breaking and scutching the flax
being slow and very laborious, a water-mill was invent¬
ed in Scotland about the year 1750; which, with some
improvements, makes great dispatch, and in skil¬
ful and careful hands gives satisfaction. It has been
generally constructed to break the boon by three dent¬
ed rollers, placed one above the other. The middle
one of which, being forced quickly round, takes the
other two along with it, and one end of the handfuls of
the flax being by the workman directed in between
the upper and middle rollers, the flax is immediately
drawn in by the rollers ; a curved board or plate of
tin behind the rollers directs the flax to return again
between the middle and undermost rollers ;—and thus
the operation is repeated until the boon be sufficiently
broke. Great weights of timber or stone at the ends
of levers, press the upper and under rollers towards the
middle one.
The scutching is next carried on by the mill in the
following manner : Four arms, something like the
hand-scutchers before described, project from a per¬
pendicular axle ; a box around the axle encloses these
projecting scutchers ; and this box is divided among
the workmen, each having sufficient room to stand and
handle his flax, which, through slits in the upper part
and sides of the box, they hold in to the stroke of the
scutchers ; which, moving round horizontally, strike
the flax across or at right angles, and so thrash out or
clear it to the boon.
The breaking of the flax by rollers is scarcely sub¬
ject to any objection, but that it is dangerous to work-
not sufficiently on their guard, who sometimes
allow the rollers to take hold of their fingers, and
thereby their whole arm is instantly drawn in 4 thus
many have lost their arms. To avoid this danger, a
break, upon the general principles of the hand-break
before described, has been lately adapted to water-
machinery, and used in place of rollers. The hori¬
zontal stroke of the scutchers was long thought too
severe and wasteful of the flax ; but very careful ex¬
periments have discovered that the waste complained
of must be charged to the unskilfulness or negligence
of the workmen, as in good hands the mill carries
away nothing but what, if not so scutched off’, must
4 Q he
FLA [67/
be taken off in the heckling, with more loss both of
time and flax. But to obviate this objection of the
violence of the horizontal scutchers, an imitation of
hand-scutching has lately been applied to water. The
01*55 then project from a horizontal axle, and
move like the arms of a check reel, striking the flax
neither across nor perpendicularly down, but sloping
in upon the parcel exactly as the flax is struck by the
hand-scutcher. The sloping stroke is got by raising
the scutching stock some inches higher than the centre
of the axle-, and by raising or lowering the stock over
which the flax is held, or screwing it nearer to or far¬
ther from the scutchers, the workman can temper or
humour the stroke almost as he pleases.
A lint mill, with horizontal scutchers upon a per¬
pendicular axle, requires a house of two stories, the
rollers or break being placed in the ground story, and
the scutchers in the loft above j but a mill with verti¬
cal scutchers on a horizontal axle, requires but one
ground story for all the machinery.
Another method of breaking and scutching flax,
more expeditious than the old hand methods, and
more gentle than water-mills, has also been invented
in Scotland. It is much like the break and scutcher,
giving the sloping stroke last described, moved by
the foot. The treddle is remarkably long, and the
scutchers are fixed upon the rim of a fly wheel. These
foot machines are very useful where there are no wa¬
ter-mills, but they are far inferior to the mills in point
of expedition.
The next operation that flax undergoes after scqtch-
ing is heckling. The heckle (fig. 6.) is firmly fixed
to a bench before the workman, who strikes the flax
upon the teeth of the heckle, and draws it through the
teeth. To persons unacquainted with that kind of
work this may seem a very simple operation -, but, in
fact, it requires as much practice to acquire the slight
of heckling well, and without wasting the flax, as any
other operation in the whole manufacture of linen.
They use coarser and wider teethed heckles, or finer,
according to the quality of the flax j generally putting
the flax through two heckles, a coarser one first, and
next a fine one.
Flax for Cambric and fine Lawn, Thread, and Lace,
is dressed in a manner somewhat different. It is not
scutched so thoroughly as common flax ; which from
the scutch proceeds to the heckle, and from that to
the spinner : whereas, this fine flax, after a rough
scutching, is scraped and cleansed with a blunt knife
upon the workman’s knee covered with his leather
apron ; from the knife it proceeds to the spinner, who,
with a brush made for the purpose, straights and dresses
each parcel just before she begins to spin it.
The following observations on this subject, first pub¬
lished in the Gentleman’s Magazine for June, I7^7>
seem worthy of particular attention.
Of the watering of Flax by a new method, so as to
shorten labour, to add probably to the strength of
the fax, and to give it a much finer colour, which
would render the operation of bleaching safer and
less tedious.
“ Though the following reflections have for their
5 ] FLA
object an improvement in the very essential article of Flax,
watering of flax, yet I must advertise the reader, that
they are only theory, and must depend entirely for
their truth and justification upon future experiments,
skilfully and judiciously made. Should repeated trials
prove the advantage of the new method proposed, we
may venture to affirm, that it would be an improve¬
ment that would increase the national income in the
agricultural branch many thousand pounds annually,
would add greatly to the perfection of the linen manu¬
facture, and over and above would suppress a very dis¬
agreeable nuisance, which the present method of water¬
ing flax occasions during some part of the summer in
every flax-growing country.
“ The intention of watering flax, is, in my opinion,
to make the boon more brittle or friable, and, by soak¬
ing, to dissolve that gluey kind of sap that makes
the bark of plants and trees adhere in a small degree
to the woody part. The bark of flax is called the
harle ; and when separated from the useless woody part,
the boon, this harle itself is called flax. To effect this
separation easily, the practice has long prevailed, of
soaking the flax in water to a certain degree of fer¬
mentation, and afterwards drying it. For this soak¬
ing some prefer rivulets that have a small current, and
others stagnant water in ponds and lakes. In both
methods the water acts as in all other cases of infusion
and maceration 5 after two or three weeks it extracts
a great many juices of a very strong quality, which in
ponds give the water an inky tinge and offensive smell }
and in rivulets mix in the stream and kill the fish.
Nay, if this maceration be too long continued, the
extracted and fermented sap will completely kill the
flax itself. For if, instead of two or three weeks, the
new flax were to lie soaking in the water four or five
months, I presume it would be good for nothing but to
be thrown upon the dunghill -, both harle and boon
would in time be completely rotted 5 yet the harle or
flax, when entirely freed from this sap, and manufac¬
tured into linen, or into ropes, might lie many months
under water without being much damaged j as linen,
it may be washed and steeped in scalding water twenty
times without losing much of its strength and as pa¬
per, it acquires a kind of incorruptibility.
“ It appears then essential to the right management
of new flax, to get rid of this pernicious vegetable
sap, and to macerate the boon j but from the com¬
plaints made against both the methods of watering now
in use, there is reason to think that there is still great
room for improvement in that article. In rivulets, the
vegetable sap, as it is dissolved, is carried off by the
current to the destruction of the fish. I his prevents
the flax from being stained j but the operation is te¬
dious, and not complete, from the uncertainty of
knowing when it is just enough, and not too much,
or perhaps from neglect. In ponds, the inky tinge of
the water often serves as a kind of dye to the flax,
which imbibes it so strongly, that double the labour in
bleaching will hardly bring the linen made of such
flax to an equality in whiteness with linen made of
flax untinged. This seems to be equally unwise, as
though we were to dye cotton black first, in order to
whiten it afterwards, These ponds, besides, become
a great nuisance to the neighbourhood; the impreg¬
nated water is often of such a pernicious quality, that
cattle,
2
FLAGS .
PLATE crxvm
r LAX .
EtK«]»ia [ Mixli-na
J"/ ~ < S'rrfioji ofSreaTc
AIo^-ul !J '!
rLOATIXG BODIES
Fiff.l.
B A
f
FLA. [ 675 ] FLA
Fla*- cattle, however thirsty, will not drink of it; and the
effluvia of it may perhaps be nearly as infectious as it
is offensive. If this effluvia is really attended with
any contagious effects in our cold climate, a thing
worth the inquiring into, how much more pernicious
must its effects have been in the hot climate of Egypt,
a country early noted for its great cultivation of
flax ?
“ I have often thought that the process of watering
might be greatly improved and shortened by plunging
the new flax, after it is rippled, into scalding water j
which, in regard to extracting the vegetative sap, would
do in five minutes more than cold water would do in
a fortnight, or perhaps more than cold water could do
at all, in respect to the clearing the plant of sap.
Rough almonds, when thrown into scalding water, are
blanched in an instant *, but perhaps a fortnight’s ma¬
cerating those almonds in cold water would not make
them part so easily with their skins, which are the same
to them as the harle is to the flax. Were tea leaves
to be infused in cold water a fortnight, perhaps the tea
produced by that infusion would not be so good to the
taste, or so strongly tinged to the eye, as what is ef¬
fected by scalding water in five minutes. By the same
analogy, I think, flax or any small twig would be made
to part with its bark much easier and quicker by be¬
ing dipped in boiling water, than by being steeped in
cold water.
“ This reflection opens a door for a great variety
of new experiments in regard to flax. I would there¬
fore recommend to gentlemen cultivators and farmers,
to make repeated trials upon this new system, which
would soon ascertain whether it ought to be adopted
in practice or rejected. One thing, I think, we may
be certain of, that if the Egyptians watered their flax
in our common manner, they undoubtedly watered it
in very warm water, from the great heat of their cli¬
mate, which would probably make them neglect to
think of water heated by any other means than that
of the sun. A good general practice can only be esta¬
blished upon repeated trials. Though one experiment
may fail, another with a little variation may succeed $
and the importance of the object desired to be obtain¬
ed will justify a good degree of perseverance in the
prosecution of the means. In this view, as the Chi¬
nese thread is said to be very strong, it would be worth
while to be acquainted with the practice of that distant
nation, in regard to the rearing and manufacturing of
flax, as well as with the methods used by the Flemings
and the Dutch.
“ Boiling water perhaps might at once clear the
new flax from many impurities, which when not re¬
moved till it be spun into yarn, are then removed with
difficulty, and with loss of substance to the yarn. Why
should not the longitudinal fibres of the flax, before
they be spun into yarn, be made not only as fine but
as chan as possible ? Upon the new system proposed,
the act of bleaching would begin immediately after the
rippling of the flax ; and a little done then might per¬
haps save much of what is generally done after the
spinning and weaving. To spin dirty flax with a view
of cleaning it afterwards, appears to be the same impro¬
priety as though we were to reserve part of the dressing
given to leather till after it is made into a glove.
“ Should the plunging of the flax into the boiling
water not suffice to make the boon brittle enough, as I
am inclined to think it would not, then the common
watering might be added ; but in that case probably
hall the time usually given to this watering would suf¬
fice, and the flax might then be laid in clear rivulets,
without any apprehension of its infecting the water
and poisoning the fish, or of being discoloured itself;
lor the boiling water into which it had been previously
put, woultl have extracted all the poisonous vegetative
sap, which I presume is what chiefly discolours the flax
or kills the fish.
“ On the supposition that the use of boiling water
in the preparation of flax may be found to be advan¬
tageous and profitable, I can recollect at present but
one objection against its being generally adopted.
Every flax-grower, it may be said, could not be ex¬
pected to have conveniences for boiling water suffi¬
cient for the purpose •, the consumption of water
would be great ; and some additional expence would
be incurred. In answer to this I shall observe, that
I presume any additional expence would be more than
reimbursed by the better marketable price of the flax ;
for otherwise any new improvement, if it will not quit
cost, must be dropt, were it even the searching after
gold. In a large caldron a great deal of flax might
be dipt in the same water, and the consumption per¬
haps would not be more than a quart to each sheaf.
Even a large household pot would be capable of con¬
taining one sheaf after another j and I believe the
whole objection would be obviated, were the practice
to prevail with us, as in Flanders and Holland, that
the flax-grower and the flax-dresser should be two di¬
stinct professions.
“ 1 shall conclude with recommending to those who
are inclined to make experiments, not to be discou¬
raged by the failure of one or two trials.—Perhaps the
flax, instead of being just plunged into the scalding
water, ought to be kept in it five minutes, perhaps a
quarter of an hour, perhaps a whole hour. Should five
minutes or a quarter of an hour, or an hour, not be
sufficient to make the boon and harle easily separate,
it might perhaps be found expedient to boil the flax
for more than an hour j and such boiling when in this
state might in return save several hours boiling in the
article of bleaching. It is not, I think, at all probable
that the boiling of the flax with the boon in it would
prejudice the harle j for in the course of its future ex¬
istence, it is made to be exposed 20 or 40 times to
this boiling trial ; and if not detrimental in the one
case, it is to be presumed it would not be detrimental
in the other. Perhaps after boiling, it would be
proper to pile up the flax in one heap for a whole day,
or for half a^day, to occasion some fermentation $ or
perhaps immediately after the boiling, it might be
proper to wash it with cold water. The great object,
when the flax is pulled, is to get the harle from the
boon with as little loss and damage as possible $ and if
this is accomplished in a more complete manner than
usual, considerable labour and expence will be saved in
the future manufacturing of the flax. On this ac¬
count I think much more would be gained than lost,
were the two or three last inches of the roots of the
stems to be chopped off, or clipped oft’, previous to the
flax being either watered or boiled. When the flax is
watered, care should be taken not to spread it out to
^ 4 Q 2 dry,
FLA
[ 676 ]
FLA
Flax.
dry, when there is a hazard of its being exposed in its
wet state to frost.”
To what we have now salt! we shall add the follow-
ing short account of the flax husbandry of Ireland, in a
letter which appeared in the Farmers Magazine, vol.
vii. page 35. .
“ Having for several years (says the writer) been enga¬
ged in the culture of flax, I devoted a part of last summer
to a tour through the manufacturing districts ot Ireland.
Here that branch of husbandry has long been established
over a large extent of the country, and conducted with
very considerble success. As some of the processes in
this culture, which are followed with advantage, are
either unknown to the Scots farmers, or are periormed
in a very awkward and inefficient manner, it might, I
conceive, prove of no small benefit, were some of your
intelligent corespondents induced to lay belore them a
plain sketch of the peculiar management observed by
the Irish peasantry in this important article. I am the
more desirous it should appear in your pages, because a
periodical work on husbandry, conducted by a practical
farmer, appears before the public with manifest advan¬
tage, and is received with that sort of deference which
is due to experience and authority.. The discussions of
actual cultivators regarding the objects of their own
profession, however new they may as yet be in the an¬
nals of agriculture, are far more likely to prove useful,
that the writings of those volunteers in this favourite
science, who are merely speculative and theoretical. I
freely confess to you, Sir, that I found with pleasure
your work widely circulated in the sister kingdom j and
that the cause uniformly given for its popularity, was a
degree of confidence placed in the practical skill of its
conductor.
“ During my progress through Ireland, the several
processes of stee/u'ttg, drying, and sktitching,viP,xeix\ hand,
and I think I found a peculiarity of management in
these sufficient to affect the success of the whole business,
and to confer a decided superiority on the produce of
an acre of flax in Ireland over that in Scotland, both
in quantity and value. It is no uncommon thing for a
farmer in this country, who wishes to make up a sum
for his rent, to sell a part of his lint on the foot, as it is
termed ; and for this he will commonly receive from
30 to 40 guineas per acre.
“ 1. The method of Steeping.—As soon as the crop has
attained the proper degree of ripeness, (which is some¬
what below your standard of maturity), the flax is pul¬
led, and carried to a stagnant pool, dug lor this pur¬
pose, moderately deep. It is allowed to remain there
only irom five to seven days, according to the tempera¬
ture of the weather. After the fermentation in the
steeping process has been carried to a degree sufficient
to produce the requisite laxity of fibre, the flax is taken
out of the pool, and spread very thinly on the stubble
of the hay meadow. There, instead of remaining till
it is merely dried, it is continued for three or four
weeks, till the grower conceives it ready for skutching.
This blenching process, if I am allowed to call it so,
which, in Scotland, is either unknown, or continued
merely till the crop is dried, has many advantages*, the
most obvious one is, that it enables the farmer, every
time he examines it, to ascertain exactly (by rubbing
on his band) the precise point at which the fermentation
has arrived,and thus to perceive the tenacity.andstrength
of his flax ‘7 while the adhesion of the fibre has been suf¬
ficiently weakened, to admit of the skutcher cleansing it
completely of the woody parts. It is, I am apprehen¬
sive, only the practical flax farmer who is able to judge
of the importance and delicacy of this part of the hus¬
bandry. It is so remarkable, that of two acres of flax,
under precisely the same seed and culture, and of equal
fertility, it frequently happens that the one shall yield
a produce thrice the value of the other, merely trom
superior accuracy in ascertaining the proper time of con¬
tinuing the steeping and blenching processes. In Scot¬
land, therefore, I suspect the practice is faulty and de¬
fective ; because there the whole process of fermentation
is completed by steeping alone j whereas, in Ireland, it
is begun only in the steep, and completed by blenching
on the meadow, to that precise point which the safety
of the produce requires.
« 2. Smoking and Drying.—The Irish peasant seems
to possess another advantage, almost equally decisive, in
his mode of drying the flax, before he submits it to the
skutcher or beater. After the lint has remained a suf¬
ficient length of time on the blenching green, it is ga¬
thered up a second time into sheafs, (beats, provincial-
ly), and seems tolerably dry. In this state it is deemed
by the Scots growers fully prepared for the flax-mill ;
but far otherwise by the Irish farmer, who never sub¬
mits it to the hands of the beaters till h has undergone
a thorough smoking over a peat fire. For this purpose,
he raises, at the back of a ditch, a small hurdle thinly
wrought with osiers, and places it on four posts of wood,
at the height of four feet above the level of the ground.
A pretty strong fire of peats being kindled below, the
heat and smoke pervade every part ot the flax, which
is placed perpendicularly above the hurdle. Ihis pro¬
cess is continued, and fresh quantities of flax regularly
added, till the whole crop is brought to a state of dry¬
ness, which, in this moist climate, can never be eflect-
ed by the sun and the weather alone : by this operation
a degree of brittleness and friability is produced on the
straw, which greatly facilitates the ensuing work, and
admits of an easy separation of the fibre from the wood.
It is evident, that the less friction required in skutching,
the less waste or diminution must be occasioned in clear¬
ing the flax; and consequently, the greater must be
the grower’s produce from the mill. Ibis part of the
process is equally delicate with that described above,
and requires, if possible, still greater attention on the
part of the workmen, since it is clear that, by a care¬
less management of the fire, the whole crop may be de¬
stroyed.
“ 3, Cleansing and Dressmg.—The flax husbandry or
Ireland derives no small benefit from the application of
hand-labour in the beating and skutching of lint, thus
superseding the use of the mill. The most careful and
expert workmen are not always able to temper the ve¬
locity of machinery so exactly, as to preserve flax that
has been oversteeped or blenched to excess: while the
steady and regulated impetus of the hand skutch can
easily be modified, as the circumstances of each case
may require ; a matter of obvious advantage, because
the best flax-mills seldom produce an equal quantity of
lint, nor equally clean, with that which is obtained by
the hand. Besides this, the price of labour in this
part of the united kingdom, still continues so moderate,.
as to preclude any considerable degree of saving in ex¬
pence
Flat.
FLA [ 677 ] F L E
Wa*. pence by the use of machinery. In proof of this, the
«—V  1 flax millers in Scotland, I find, are charging this sea¬
son from three to four shillings for dressing a stone of
flax j while, at the place I am now writing, the same
quantity is dressed by the hand for thirteenpence, or one
British shilling. In Scotland, where hands are scarce,
and the price of labour consequently high, I certainly
would not recommend the disuse of the flax-mill ; on
the contrary, I am persuaded that it is chiefly owing to
our superior machinery, and excellent implements of
husbandry, that wre are at all enabled to maintain a
competition with our neighbours in the present state of
our skill in flax husbandry, and subjected to the dis¬
advantage of paying double price for labour.
“ 4. Preservation of Flax-seed.—The last peculiarity
of management, which I shall at present notice as advan¬
tageous to the flax husbandry of Ireland, is the inven¬
tion of a flax barn for the preservation of seed. Enjoy¬
ing a climate perhaps still more moist and unsteady than
that of Great Britain, the farmers here were, for a long
series of years, unable to supply themselves with this
article, and were obliged to commission seed annually
from America and the Baltic, to supply the increased
demands of an extended culture, to the large amount
of 200,0001. sterling. The annual expenditure of cash
long continued to operate as a drain on the stock of the
laborious farmer, and prevented the accumulation of
his capital; an evil of the most serious magnitude, un¬
der which the Irish peasantry still labour, and from
which, till very lately, they had not even a prospect of
relief. By the practice in universal use, if the farmer
stored up his lint in the barn-yard with the rest of his
crop in harvest, he might, it is true, preserve his seed }
but in doing so, he uniformly lost his flax to a far
greater value from overdryness, when wrought in the
spring.
“ If, on the other hand, he attempted to separate his
seed during the lint harvest by means of the rippling-
comb, he had no means of preventing it from being al¬
most invariably destroyed by the wetness of the climate.
Various methods had been attempted to overcome this
difficulty, but without success j till llobert Tennant,
Esq. of Strangmore, linen-inspector, near Dungannon,
contrived the plan of a flax-barn, which seems perfect¬
ly competent to the preservation of seed. It has al¬
ready been erected, and has proved successful on a small
scale j the seed cured in it remained during the winter
perfectly fresh, and nothing seems wanting to complete
this improvement in our flax husbandry, but a larger
capital in the hands of a few of our farmers. This flax
barn is constructed on wooden posts, roofed on the top,
but left perfectly open at each side y it is supplied with
various stages of floors of basket-work, placed regu¬
larly at two feet distance above each other. Thus,
the air, having free access to the seed on all sides,
preserves it fresh and well-coloured for any length of
time.
“ Thi&contrivance was suggested to Mr Tennant, it is
said, almost casually, by noticing the great effect pro¬
duced on cloth, by drying-houses in bleachfields. He
had in fact been employed by the Linen Board of Ire¬
land, in teaching the new process of bleaching to the
manufacturers, by means of the oxymuriate of lime;
and, in the course of seven or eight years, this method
of whitening linen has been established over the whole
kingdom, with the exception of hardly a single field. Fla*,
Lord Northland and Mr Foster, who invited this Flea,
gentleman from Scotland, and patronized him in this '-“■“■v—
part of the kingdom, have enjoyed the satisfaction of
beholding a more essential improvement effected in
the linen manufacture, in the short space already
mentioned, than had ever taken place in a century
before.
“ It was my intention, when I began this letter, to
have presented you a more minute description of a flax
farm, and to have laid before your readers, a more de¬
tailed account of the flax husbandry of Ireland in gene¬
ral. I find, however, that I have already exceeded
the ordinary bounds prescribed to the contributors to
your useful work; therefore conclude, with expressing
a hope, that the few hints already offered, will incline
some of your correspondents to treat of a subject certain¬
ly of sufficient importance to merit attention. For a
branch of husbandry cannot be deemed contemptible,
which affords sustenance to upwards of two millions of
people ; and which, at the same time, adds to the ge¬
neral resources of the empire, no less a sum than seven
millions sterling annually. These circumstances, too,
I trust, will plead my excuse for holding up a portion
of Irish husbandry to the imitation of your numerous
readers among the cultivators of Scotland, who are at
present justly celebrated for their agricultural know¬
ledge in every part of the world.”
Flax mads to resemble Cotton. In the Swedish Trans¬
actions for the year 1747, a method is given of pre¬
paring flax in such a manner as to resemble cotton in
whiteness and softness, as well as in coherence. For
this purpose a little sea water is to be put into an
iron pot or an untinned copper kettle, and a mixture
of equal parts of birch ashes and quicklime strewed
upon it: A small bundle of flax is to be opened and
spread upon the surface, and covered with more of the
mixture, and the stratification continued till the vessel
is sufficiently filled. The whole is then to be boiled;
with sea water for ten hours, fresh quantities of water
being occasionally supplied in proportion to the eva¬
poration, that the water may never become dry. The
boiled flax is to be immediately washed in the sea
by a little at a time, in a basket, with a smooth stick
at first while hot; and when grown cold enough to
be borne by the hands, it must be well rubbed,
washed with soap, laid to bleach, and turned and
watered every day. Repetitions of the washing with
soap expedite the bleaching; after which the flax is
to be beaten, and again well-washed; when dry it
is to be worked and carded in the same manner as com¬
mon cotton, and pressed betwixt two boards for 48
hours. It is now fully prepared and fit for use. It
loses in this process near one half its weight, which is
abundantly compensated by the improvement made in
its quality.
The filamentous parts of different vegetables have
been employed in difl’erent countries for the same me¬
chanic uses as hemp and flax among us. See Fila¬
ment.
Earth-Flax. See Amianthus, Botany Index.
New Zealand Flax Plant. See Phormium, Bo¬
tany Index.
Toad-FLAX. See Linaria, Botany Index.
FLEA. See Pulex, Entomology Index.,
FlBAt
F L E
FlEA-Bane. See CoNYZA, BOTANY Lw'ex.
FiEA-Bitten, that colour of a horse which is white
or fray, spotted all over with dark reddish spots.
FLEAM, in Surgery and Farriery, an instrument
for letting blood of a man or horse. A case of fleams,
as it is called by farriers, comprehends six sorts of in¬
struments; two hooked ones, called and used
for cleansing wounds ; a pen knile ; a sharp-pointed
lancet for making incisions ; and two fleams, one sharp
and the other broad pointed. 1 hese last are somewhat
like the point of a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, and no
longer than is iust necessary to open the vein.
FLECHIER, Esprit, bishop of Nismes, one of the
most celebrated preachers of his age, and the publisher
of many panegyrics and funeral orations, was boin at
Perne in Avignon in 1632. He was nominated to the
bishopric of Lavaur in 1685, and translated to Nismes
in 1687. At this latter place he founded an academy,
and took the presidentship upon himself: his own pa¬
lace was indeed a kind of academy, where he applied
himself to train up orators and writers, who might serve
the church, and do honour to the nation. He published,
besides his panegyrics and funeral orations, 1. A His¬
tory of the Emperor Theodosius, that ot Cardinal Xi-
menes, and that of Cardinal Commendon. 2. Several
Sermons. 3. Miscellaneous Works. 4. Letters, &c.
He died in 1710.
ELECKNOE, Richard, an English poet in the
reign of Charles II. more remarkable for Mr Dryden’s
satire on him than for any works of his own. He is
said to have been originally a Jesuit, and to have had
good English connexions in the Catholic interest.
When Dryden lost the place of poet laureat on the Re¬
volution, its being conferred on Flecknoe, for whom
he had a settled aversion, gave occasion to his poem
entitled Mac Flecknoe; one of the best written satires in
our language, and from which Pope seems to have ta¬
ken tlm hint for his Dunciad. Flecknoe wrote some
pi a vs; but could never get more than one of them act¬
ed, and that was damned.
FLEECE, the covering of wool shorn off the bodies
of sheep. See Wool.
Golden Fleece. See Argonauts, and Golden
Fleece
FLEET, commonly implies a company of ships of
war, belonging to any prince or state : but sometimes
it denotes any number of trading ships employed in a
particular branch of commerce.
The admirals of his Britannic majesty’s fleet are di¬
vided into three squadrons, viz,, the red, the white, and
the blue. When any of these officers are invested with
the command of a squadron or detachment of men of
war, the particular ships are distinguished by the colours
of their respective squadron: that is to say, the ships
of the red squadron wear an ensign whose union is dis¬
played on a red field; the ensigns of the white squa¬
dron have a white field ; and those of the blue squa¬
dron a blue field ; the union being common to all three.
The ships of war, therefore, are occasionally annexed
to anv of the three squadrons, or shifted from one to
another.
Of whatsoever number a fleet of ships of war is com¬
posed, it is usually divided into three squadrons; and
these, if numerous, are again separated into divisions.
The admiral, or principal officer, commands the centre ;
FEE
the vice admiral, or second in command, superintends p|eet
the van guard ; and the operations of the rear are di- |j
rected by the rear admiral, or the officer next in rank. Flemim
See the article Division. , gm^3‘
The disposition of a fleet, while proceeding on * 'r^“
voyage, will in some measure depend on particular cir-
cumstances ; as the difficulty of the navigation, the
necessity of dispatch, according to the urgency or im¬
portance of the expedition, or the expectation of an
enemy in the passage. The most convenient order is
probably to range it into three lines or columns, each
of which is parallel to a line close hauled according to
the tack on which the line of battle is designed to be
formed. This arrangement is more useful than any ;
because it contains the advantages of every other form,
without their inconveniences. Die fleet being thus
more enclosed will more readily observe the signals, and
with greater facility form itself into the line ot battle,
a circumstance which should be kept in view in every
order of sailing. See Naval Tactics.
Fleet, is also a noted prison in London, where
persons are committed for contempt of the king and his
laws, particularly of his courts of justice; or for debt,
where any person will not or is unable to pay his cre¬
ditors.
There are large rules and a warden belonging to
the Fleet prison ; which had its name from the float
or fleet of the river or ditch, on the side whereof it
stands.
FLEETWOOD, William, a very learned English
bishop in the beginning of the 18th century, of an an¬
cient family in Lancashire. He distinguished himself
during King William’s reign, by his Inscriptionvm An-
tiquarum Sylloge, by several sermons he preached on
public occasions, and by his Essay on Miracles. He
was designed by King WAliam to a canonry of Wlnd-
sor. The grant did not pass the seals before the king’s
death ; but the queen gave it him, and he was installed
in 1702. In 1703, he took a resolution to retire ; and
in 1707, published, without his name, his Chromcon
Pretiosum. In 1708, he was nominated by the queen
to the see of St Asaph. The change of the queen’s
ministry gave him much regret. In he publish¬
ed a pamphlet entitled, “ The 13th chapter of the Ro¬
mans vindicated from the abusive senses put upon it.
In 1714, he was translated to the bishopric of Ely;
and died in 1723, aged 67. He published several other
sermons and tracts, and was a man of great learning
and exemplary piety.
FLEMINGIANS, or Flandrians, in ecclesiasti¬
cal history, a sect ot rigid Anabaptists, who acquired
this name in the i6lh century, because most ot them
were natives of Flanders, by way of distinction from
the Waterlandians. In consequence of some dis¬
sensions among the Flemingians relating to the treat¬
ment of excommunicated persons, they were divided
into two sects, distinguished by the appellations of
Flandrians and Frieslanders, who differed from each
other in their manners and discipline. Many of these
in process of time came over to the moderate commu¬
nity of the Waterlandians, and those who remained se¬
parate are still known by the name of the old Flemin¬
gians or Flandrians; but they are comparatively few
in number. These maintain the opinion of Menno with
respect to the incarnation of Christ; alleging, that his
[ 678 ]
f
I FI
'
F L E
Fltmin-
gialis
II
'Fletcher.
body was produced by tbe creating power of the Holy
Ghost, and not derived from his mother Mary.
FLEMISH, or the Flemish tongue, is that which
we otherwise call Low Dutch, to distinguish it from the
German, whereof it is a corruption and a kind of dia¬
lect. See German.
It differs from the Walloon, which is a corruption
of the French language. The Flemish is used through
all the provinces of the Netherlands.
Flemish Bricks, a neat, strong, yellow kind of bricks,
brought from Flanders, and commonly used in paving
yards, stables, &c. being preferable for such purposes
to the common bricks. See the article Bricks.
FLESH, in Anatomy, a compound substance, con¬
sisting of the various softer solids of the animal body,
and so denominated in contradistinction to bones. See
Anatomy, passim.
Flesh is also used, in Theology, in speaking of the
mysteries of the incarnation and eucharist. “ The word
was made Verhum caro factum est.
The Romanists hold, that the bread in the sacrament
of the supper is turned into the real flesh of Jesus
Christ. See Transubstantiation.
Flesh is sometimes also used by botanists for the
soft pulpy substance of any fruit, enclosed between the
outer rind or skin and the seeds or stone j or for that
part of a root, fruit, &c. fit to be eaten.
FhEsu-Colour. See Carnation.
FLETA, the name given to an unknown writer
who lived about the end of the reign of Edward II.
and beginning of Edward III. and who being a pri¬
soner in the Fleet, wrote there an excellent treatise on
the common law of England.
FLETCHER. See Beaumont and Fletcher.
Fletcher, Andrew, of Salton, a celebrated Scots
patriot and political writer, was descended from an an¬
cient family who trace their origin to one of the fol¬
lowers of William the Conqueror. He was the son of
Sir Robert Fletcher of Salton and Innerpeffer, and
born in the year 1650. The tuition of our author was
committed by his father, on his deathbed, to Mr (af¬
terwards Bishop) Burnet, then his parish minister j by
whose care he received a pious, learned, and polite
education. Endowed with uncommon genius, and pos¬
sessed of virtues and abilities peculiarly suited to the
times in which he lived, Mr Fletcher quickly shone
forth the ornament of his country, and the champion
of its freedom. Having in the course of his classical
studies and historical reading been impressed with an
enthusiastic admiration both of ancient and modern
republics, he had early contracted an ardent love of
liberty, and an aversion to arbitrary rule. Hence his
spirit the more readily took alarm at certain measures in
the reign of Charles II. Being knight of the shire for
Lothian to that parliament where the duke of York
was commissioner, he openly opposed the designs of
that prince and the bill of accession. Pie had a share
with Lord Viscount Stair in framing the test act, by
which the duke of York complained that he lost Scot¬
land. On these accounts he became peculiarly ob¬
noxious to the duke j and was at last obliged to flee to
Holland, to avoid the fatal consequences of prosecutions
which on various pretence were commenced against
him. Being cited before the privy council andjusti-
[ 679 ]
F L E
ciary courts, and not appearing, he was declared trai- Fletcher,
tor, and his estate confiscated. 1—»-v—»
In Holland, he and Mr Baillie of Jerviswood were
the only persons whom the earl of Argyle consulted
concerning the designs which were then in agitation.
In 1681 they came over to England, in order to con¬
cert matters with their party in that country j and
were the only two who were intrusted so far as to be
admitted to the secrets of Lord Russel’s council of six.
Mr Fletcher managed his part of the negotiation with
so much address, that administration could find no
pretext for seizing him j nor could they fix upon him
those articles on account of which Mr Baillie was con¬
demned $ to whose honour let it be remembered, that
although offered a pardon on condition of his accusing
his friend, he persisted in rejecting the proposal with
indignation.
Mr Fletcher having joined the duke of Monmouth
upon his landing, received a principal command under
him ; but the duke was deprived of his services on
the following occasion, as related by Sir John DA-Memoirs of
rymple. Being sent upon an expedition, and not Great Bri-
esteeming “ times of danger to be times of ceremony,**™ and
he had seized for his own riding the horse of a country n an< ’
gentleman [the mayor of Lynne] which stood ready
equipped for its master. The master, hearing this, ran
in a passion to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious language,
shook his cane, and attempted to strike. Fletcher,
though rigid in the duties of morality, having been
accustomed to foreign service both by sea and land, in
which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a
soldier and a gentleman, and of the affront of a cane,
pulled out his pistol, and shot him dead on the spot.
The action was unpopular in countries where such re¬
finements were not understood. A clamour was raised
against it among the people of the country : in a body
they waited upon the duke with their complaints ; and
he was forced to desire the only soldier, and almost the
only man of parts, in his army, to abandon him. With
Fletcher all Monmouth’s chance of success in war left
him.” But, in a manuscript memoir belonging to the
family, we have the following notice concerning Mr
Fletcher’s connection with Monmouth, in which his
separation from that prince is very differently accounted
lor: “ To Lord Marischal Mr Fletcher explained the
motives which first induced him to join, and afterwards
abandon, the duke of Monmouth. The former he
ascribed to the duke’s manifesto in Scotland relating to
religion, and in England to liberty. For the latter he
accounted by the disgust produced in his own mind and
that of his associates, when the duke declared himself
king, and broke faith with all who embarked with him
on his principles. He complained heavily of the ac¬
count commonly given of the death of the mayor of
Lynne : and mentioned to Lord Marischal, in proof of
the contrary, that he did not leave the duke till he came
to Taunton, where he was proclaimed king, several
weeks after the death of the mayor of Lynne.”
Seeing all the efforts of himself and his friends in
favour of liberty frustrated at Taunton, he endeavour¬
ed to secure his own personal freedom by taking his
passage in the first ship bound to a foreign country. It
was his misfortune to land in Spain j where he was
immediately arrested, cast into prison, and guarded by
three
Ifletclier.
Memoirs
of the fa¬
mily of Sal
ton, MS.
F L E [ 680 ] F L E
three different bande of soldiers, till a vessel should be ryas given him in t-eeotnpense of all his sufferings On Fkycte
orenared to carry him a victim in chains to the court the contrary, he, together noth the duke of Hamilton,^
R„t on the morning before the ship could was distinguished by marks of royal and ministerial
he looked penTve Jough the bars that se- dislike. Still, whatever private resentment he might
cured the window of his room, he was hailed by a ve- entertain ,t appeared that his ruling principle was the
nerable personage who made signs to speak with him. good of his country j and that to tins grand object ot
"ihe prison doors he found open ; and whilst his friend- his heart he was willing to sacrifice all persona cons.-
Iv conductor waved to him to follow him, he passed derations. For when, m 169a the abdicated king
brough three different guards of soldiers all fast asleep, meditated an invasion, Mr Fletcher addressed a letter
\V°thont being permitted to offer his thanks to his de- (preserved in Sir John Dalrymple s collection) to the
liverer he found himself obliged to prosecute with all duke of Hamilton, ... which every argument is em-
speed the journey, in which he was directed by a per
son concerning whom he could never collect any infor¬
mation ; and in disguise he proceeded in safety through
Spain. He felt a peculiar pleasure in relating to his
friends instances of the care of Providence which he had
experienced during his exile ; and entertained them
often with narratives of this kind, which he always
mingled with religious reflections. Of these, another
may he here mentioned. Happening in the evening to
pass the skirt of a wood at a few miles distance from a
city where he intended to lodge, he came to a place
where two roads met. After he had entered upon the
road on the right, he was accosted by a female ot a
respectable figure, who warned him to turn back, and
take the road to the left; for that in the other there
was danger which he could not escape if he continued
to proceed. His friendly monitor suddenly retired into
the wood, out of which she had issued no less unexpect¬
edly. Having arrived at the city, the inhabitants were
soon after alarmed by an account of the robbery and
murder of several travellers who that evening had fallen
into the hands of a banditti upon the very way in
which he had intended to travel. From these and other
instances of preservation from dangers, the devotion of
his mind, habituated from his infancy to an intercourse
with heaven, led him to conclude that he was in a pe¬
culiar manner the care of Providence, and that in cri¬
tical cases his understanding received its direction from
a supernatural impulse*
During bis exile, he maintained a frequent and ex¬
tensive correspondence with the friends of liberty at
home j and he partly employed himself in making a
curious collection of books, which compose the best
private library in Scotland. But his genius also
prompted him to engage in more active employments.
He repaired to Hungary, and served Several campaigns
as a volunteer under the duke of Lorrain with great
reputation. At length, understanding that the great
design then projected in Holland, and upon the issue
of which he considered the liberties ot Britain to be
suspended, had attained a considerable degree of ma¬
turity, he hastened thither j where his counsels and ad¬
dress were of eminent service. He came over with
King William j and in zeal, activity, penetration, and
political skill, proved inferior to none of the leaders in
the Revolution.
Such, however, was his magnanimity, that from a
survey of King William’s papers, it appears that while
others laboured to turn this grand event to the emo¬
lument of themselves and the aggrandisement of their
family, Mr Fletcher asked nothing. His estate had
been’forfeited, and his house abandoned to military
discretion j his fortune was greatly shattered, and his
family reduced to circumstances of distress. Nothing
3
     _ in which
ployed with skill and energy to engage his grace to
forget his injuries, and in the present crisis to employ
the extensive influence and authority he then possessed
in the cause of freedom and of his country. This
letter produced its full effect j and the duke returned
to his duty, from which he had in part begun to de¬
viate.
To follow our author through all the mazes of his
political life subsequent to the Revolution, is beyond
our purpose, and would exceed our limits. One or
two circumstances more shall therefore suffice. Being
elected a member for the parliament 1683, he showed
an uniform zeal for the interest of his country. The
thought of England’s domineering over Scotland was
what his generous soul could not endure. The indig¬
nities and oppression which Scotland lay under galled
him to the heart; so that in his learned and elaborate
discourses, he exposed them with undaunted courage
and pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the
Union, he performed essential service. He got the
act of security passed, which declared that the two
crowns should not pass to the same head till Scotland
was secured in her liberties civil and religious. There¬
fore Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to
avoid a civil w'ar after the queen’s demise. Although
Mr Fletcher disapproved of some of the articles, and in¬
deed of the whole frame of the Union j yet, as the act
of security was his own work, he had all the merit of
that important transaction.
We must not omit mentioning, that in the ardour of
his political career Mr Fletcher forgot not the interests
of the place that gave him birth. He esteemed the
education of youth one of the noblest objects of go¬
vernment. On this subject he wrote a treatise, still
extant, most characteristic of himself j and he establish¬
ed at Salton a foundation for the same purpose, of
great utility while it lasted.
This great man died at London 1716, aged 66. His
remains were conveyed to Scotland, and deposited in
the family vault at Salton.
That Mr Fletcher received neither honours nor emo¬
luments from King William, may perhaps be in part
attributed to himself j a circumstance, however, which
must add greatly to the lustre of his character. His
uncomplying virtue, and the sternness of his principles,
were ill calculated to conciliate courtly favour. He
was so zealous an assertor of the liberties of the people,
that he was too jealous of the growing power of all
princes; in whom he thought ambition so natural, that
he was not for trusting the best of kings with the
power which ill ones might make use of against their
subjects j he was of opinion that all princes were made
by, and for the benefit of, the people ; and that they
should have no power but that of doing good. This,
which
F L E [ 681 ] ELI
ietcher. which made him oppose King Charles, and invade King
•' James, led him also to oppose the giving so much power
to King William, whom he would never serve after his
establishment. So we are told by the author of Short
Political Characters, a MS. in the library of the late
T. fiawlinson, Esq—Mr Lockhart, in his Memoirs,
p. 72. expresses a belief that his aversion to the Eng¬
lish and to the Union was so great, that, in revenge to
them, he was inclined to side with the abdicated fa¬
mily: “ But (adds he) as that was a subject not fit to
be entered upon with him, this is only a conjecture
from some inuendos I have heard him make j but so
far is certain, he liked, commended, and conversed
with high-flying Tories, more than any other set of
men j acknowledging them to be the best country¬
men, and of most honour, integrity, and ingenuity.”
It seems difficult to reconcile this with Mr Fletcher’s
avowed principles and the general tenor of his con¬
duct. May we suppose, that chagrin, if not at the
neglect or the ill treatment which he had himself re¬
ceived from government since the Revolution, yet at
the public measures relating to his native country,
might have occasioned him to relent in his sentiments
with regard to the exiled family?—In the family me¬
moirs already quoted, we are informed, That, “ Lord
Mariscbal held Mr Fletcher’s character in high admi¬
ration and that, “ when governor of Neufchatel,
where Rousseau resided about the year 1766, he pre¬
vailed with this very extraordinary genius to write the
life of a man whose character’and actions he wished to
have transmitted to posterity with advantage. For
this purpose his lordship applied to an honourable re¬
lation of Mr Fletcher’s for materials: which by him
were transmitted to Lord Marischal: but the design
failed through Rousseau’s desultory and capricious dis¬
position.” This anecdote must appear incompatible
with the known loyalty and attachments of the Earl
Marischal, unless we suppose him to have been privy
to some such sentiments of Mr Fletcher as those al¬
luded to by Mr Lockhart for how could we suppose
him anxious to promote a composition, in which the
task would be to celebrate principles diametrically op¬
posite to his own, and to applaud actions subversive of
that royal family in whose cause he had ventured his
life, and forfeited his fortune, and foregone his coun¬
try !—But however these circumstances may be recon¬
ciled, as the integrity, disinterestedness, and public
spirit of Mr Fletcher, have been universally acknow¬
ledged, there is reason to believe, that all his sentiments
and actions were founded in honour, and that he never
once pursued a measure further than he judged it to be
for the interest of his country.
Mr Fletcher was master of the English, Latin,
Greek, French, and Italian languages ; and well versed
in history, the civil law, and all kinds of learning. In
his travels, he had not only acquired considerable
knowledge in the art of war, but also became versant
in the respective interests cf the several princes and
states of Europe. In private life, he was affable to his
friends, and free from all manner of vice. He had a
penetrating, clear, and lively apprehension j but is said
to have been too much wedded to opinions, and im¬
patient of contradiction.—He possessed an uncommon
elevation of mind, accompanied with a warmth of
temper, which would suffer him to brook from no rank
Vol. VIII. Part H. f
among men, nor in any place, an indignity. Of this Fletcher *
he exhibited a singular proof in the Scots parliament. 1!
I he earl of Stair, secretary of state and minister for , f light,
Scotland, having in the heat of debate used an im- ’
proper expression against Mr Fletcher, he seized him
by his robe, and insisted upon public and immediate
satisfaction. His lordship was obliged instantly to beg
his pardon in presence of parliament.
Mr I letcher was by far the finest speaker in the
parliament of Scotland j the earl of Stair alone rivalled
him. The latter was famed for a splendid, the former
for a close and nervous, eloquence. He formed his
style on the models of antiquity; and the small volume
of his works, Sir John Dalrymple observes, though
imperfectly collected, is one of the very few classical
compositions in the English language.
FLETEWOOD, William, an eminent English
lawyer and recorder of London, in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. He was very zealous in suppressing mass-
houses, and committing popish priests; but once rush¬
ing in upon mass at the Portuguese ambassador’s house,
he was committed to the Fleet for breach of privilege,
but soon released. Mr Wood says, “ He was a learned
man, and a good antiquary, but of a marvellous merry
and pleasant conceit.” He was a good popular speaker,
and wrote well upon subjects of government. His prin¬
cipal works are, 1. Annalium tam regum Edwardi V.
Richardi III. et Henrici VII. quam Henrici VIII.
2. A Table of the Reports of Edmund Plowden. 3. The
Office of a Justice of Peace. He died about the vear
I LEVILLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia class. See Botany Index.
ILEURI, Claude, an able French critic and histo¬
rian, was born at Paris in 1640. He applied himself
to the law, was made advocate for the parliament of
Paris, and attended the bar nine years j he then entered
into orders, and was made preceptor to the princes of
Conti. In 1689, the king made him sub-preceptor to
the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry j and in
1706, when the education of these young princes was
completed, the king gave him the priory of Argente-
ville belonging to the Benedictines in the diocese of
Paris. In 1716, he was chosen counsellor to Louis
XV. and died in I723’ H6 was the author of a great
number of esteemed French works j the principal of
which are, I. An ecclesiastical history, in 20 volumes,
the last of which ends with the year 1414. 2. The
manners of the Israelites and Christians. 3. Institutions
of ecclesiastical law. 4. An historical catechism. 5.
On the choice and method of study. 6. The duties of
masters and servants, &c.
FLEXIBLE, in Physics, a term applied to bodies
capable of being bent or diverted from their natural
figure or direction.
FLEXOR, in Anatomy, a name applied to several
muscles, which are so called from their office, which is
to bend the parts to which they belong $ in opposition
to the extensors, which open or stretch them. See
Anatomy, Table of the Muscles.
FLIGHT, the act of a bird in flying 5 or the man¬
ner, duration, &c. thereof.
Almost every kind of bird has its particular flight j
the eagle’s flight is the highest j the flight of the spar¬
row-hawk and vulture is noble, and fit for high enter-
4 R . prise
F L I
Flight, prise and combat. The flight of some birds is low,
Flint. Weak, and transient *, the flight of the partridge and
 V"—' pheasant is but of short continuance •, that ot the dove
is laboured ; that of the sparrow undulatory, &c.
The augurs pretend to foretel future events from the
flight of birds. See Augury.
Flight. In melting the lead ore in the works at
Mend ip, there is a substance which flies away in the
smoke which is called the flight. The workmen find it
sweetish upon their lips, if their faces happen to be in the
way of the smoke, which they avoid as much as possible.
This, falling on the grass, kills cattle that feed thereon ;
and being gathered and carried home, kills rats and mice
in their houses 5 that which falls on the sand, they gather
and melt upon a flag hearth into shot and sheet lead.
FLINT, a species of simple stones, chiefly composed
of siliceous earth. See MINERALOGY Index.
Breaking of Flints. The art of cutting, or rather
breaking flini stones into uniform figures, is by some
supposed to be one of the arts now lost. That it was
known formerly, appears from the ancient Bridewell
at Norwich, from the gate of the Augustin friars at
Canterbury, that of St John’s Abbey at Colchester, and
the (rate near Whitehall, Westminster. But that the
art fs not lost, and that the French know it, appears
from the platform on the top of the royal observatory
at Paris ; which, instead of being leaded, is paved with
flint cut or broken into regular figures.
Gun Flints. For the method of manufacturing,
see Mineralogy Index. ^
Flints, in the glass trade. _ The way of preparing
flints for the nicest operations in the glass trade is this.
Choose the hardest flints, such as are black and will
resist the file, and will grow white when calcined in
the fire. Cleanse these of the white crust that adheres
to them, then calcine them in a strong fire, and throw
them while red hot into cold water j wash off the ashes
that may adhere to them, and powder them in an non
mortar, and sift them through a very fine sieve j pour
upon this powder some weak aquafortis, or the phlegm
of aquafortis, to dissolve and take up any particles of
iron it may have got from the mortar ; stir this mix¬
ture several times, then let it rest, and in the morning
pour off the liquor, and wash the powder several times
with hot water and afterwards dry it for use. You
will thus have a powder for making the purest glass as
perfectly fine and faultless as if you had used rock-
crystal itself.
The washing off the ferruginous particles with aqua¬
fortis is not necessary when the glass intended to be
made is to be tinged with iron afterwards j but when
meant to be a pure white, this is the method that will
secure success.
Flint, the chief town of Flintshire, in North Wales.
It is commodipusly seated on the river Dee j and is but
a small place, though it sends one member to parlia¬
ment. It was formerly noted for its castle, where
Richard II. took shelter on his arrival from Ireland ;
but having quitted it, he was taken prisoner by the duke
of Lancaster. The castle now is in a ruinous condition.
This castle stands close to the sea on a rock, which in
various parts forms sevex*al feet of its foundation. It
covers about three quarters of an acre. The assizes
are still held in the town. It is 195 miles north-west
of London. Population 1433 1811.
FLO
FLINTSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded on Flintshire j,!
the north-east and east by an arm of the sea, which is |j
properly the month of the river Dee ; on the north- Floath'5
west by the Irish sea; and on the south-south-west.
and west by Denbighshire. It is the least ot all the |j
counties in Wales, being but 33 miles in length and
9 in breadth. It is divided into five hundreds; in
which are two market towns and 28 parishes ; and
the population in 1811 was 46,518. The greatest
part of this county lies in the diocese of St Asaph, and
the rest belongs to that of Chester. It sends two mem¬
bers to parliament, one for the county and one for Flint;,
and pays one part of the land tax. I he air is cold,
but healthful. It is full of hills, intermixed with a few
valleys, which are very fruitful, producing some wheat
and plenty of rye. The cows, though small, yield a
great quantity of milk in proportion to their size, and
are excellent beef. The mountains are well stored
with lead, coal, and millstones. This county also pro¬
duces good butter, cheese, and honey. See Flint¬
shire, Supplement.
FLIP, a sort of sailors drink, made of malt liquor,
brandy, and sugar mixed.
FLOAT, a certain quantity of timber bound to¬
gether with rafters athwart, and put into a river to be
conveyed down the stream ; and even sometimes to
carry burdens down a river with the stream.
FLOAT-Boards, those boards fixed to water wheels of
under-shot mills, serving to receive the impulse of the
stream, whereby the wheel is carried round. See the
articles Wheel and Mill.
It is no advantage to have too great a number of
float-boards ; because, when they are struck by the
water in the best manner that it can be brought to
come against them, the sum of all the impulses will be
but equal to the impulse made against one float-board
at right-angles, by all the water coming out of the pen¬
stock through the opening, so as to take place on the
float-board. The best rule in this case is to have just
so many, that each of them may come out of the water
as soon as possible, after it has received and acted with
its full impulse. As to the length of the float-board, it
may be regulated according to the breadth.of the mill.
See Mill.
Floats for Fishing. See Fishing Flouts.
FLOATAGES, all things floating on the surface of
the sea or any water ; a word much used in the com¬
missions of water bailiffs.
FLOATING BODIES are those which swim on the
surface of a fluid, the most interesting of which are
ships and vessels employed in war and commerce. It is
known to every seaman, of what vast moment it Is to
ascertain the stability of such vessels, and the positions
they assume when they float freely on the surface of the
water. To be able to accomplish this, it is necessary to
understand the principles on which that stability and
these positions depend. This has been done with great
ingenuity by Mr Atwood, of whose reasoning the fol¬
lowing is a summary account, taken from the Philoso¬
phical Transactions for 179^*
A floating body is pressed downwards by its own
weight in a vertical line passing through its centre of
gravity; and it is supported by the upward pressure of
a fluid, which acts in a veitical line that passes through
the centre of gravity of the part which is under the
water;
[ 682 ]
FLO, [ 683 ] FLO
ifloaiing water ; and without a coincidence between these two
Bodies, lines, in such a manner as that both centres of gravity
•‘—r—’ may be in the same vertical line, the solid will turn on
an axis, till it gains a position in which the equilibrium
of floating will he permanent. From this it is obvious¬
ly necessary to find what proportion the part immersed
bears to the whole, to do which the specific gravity of
the floating body mu^t be known, after which it must
be found by geometrical methods, in which positions
the solid can be placed on the surface of the fluid, so
that both centres of gravity may be in the same verti¬
cal line, when any given part of the solid is immersed un¬
der the surface. These things being determined, some¬
thing is still wanting, for positions may be assumed in
which the circumstances now mentioned concur, and
yet the solid will assume some other position wherein it
will permanently float. If the specific gravity of a cylin¬
der be to that of the fluid on which it floats as 3 to 4, and
its axis to the diameter of the base as 2 to X : if it be
placed on the fluid with its axis vertical, it will sink to
& depth equal to a diameter and a half of the base j and
while its axis is preserved in a vertical position by out¬
ward force, the centres of gravity of the whole solid
and immersed part will remain in the same vertical line $
but when the external force is removed, it will deviate
from its upright position, and will permanently float
with its axis horizontal. If we suppose the axis to be
half the diameter of the base, and placed vertically, the
solid will sink to the depth of three-eighths of its dia¬
meter, and in that position it will float permanently.
If the axis he made to incline to the vertical line, the
solid will change its position till it permanently settles
with its axis perpendicular to the horizon.
Whether a solid floats permanently, or oversets when
placed 011 the surface of a fluid, provided the centre of
gravity of the solid and that of the immersed part be
in the same vertical line, it is said to be in a position of
equilibrium, of which there are three kinds j the equi¬
librium of stability, in which the solid permanently floats
in a given position ; the equilibrium of instability, in
which the solid spontaneously oversets, if not supported
by external force j and the equilibrium of indifl’erence,
or the insensible equilibrium, in which the solid rests on
the fluid indifferent to motion, without tendency to right
itself when inclined, or to incline farther.
If a solid body floats permanently on the surface of
a fluid, and external force be applied to turn it from its
position, the resistance opposed to this inclination is
termed the stability offloating. Some ships at sea yield
to a given impulse of the wind, and suffer a greater in¬
clination from the perpendicular than others. As this
resistance to heeling, duly regulated, has been consider¬
ed of importance in the construction of vessels, many
eminent mathematicians have laid down rules for ascer¬
taining the stability of ships from their known dimen¬
sions and weight, without recurring to actual experiment.
Bouguer, Euler, Chapman, and others, have laid down
theorems for this purpose, founded on the supposition
that the inclinations of ships from their quiescent posi¬
tions are evanescent, or very small in a practical point
of view. But ships at sea have been found to heel io°,
' 20°, or 30°, and therefore it may be doubted how far
such rules are applicable in practice. If statics can be
applied to naval architecture, it seems necessary that
the rules should be extended to those cases in^which the
angles of inclination are of any magnitude, likely to
occur in the practice of navigation. A solid body
placed on the surface of a lighter fluid, at such a depth
as corresponds to the relative gravities, cannot alter its
position by the joint action of its own weight and the
pressure of the fluid, except by turning on some horizon¬
tal axis passing through the centre of gravity j hut, as
many axes may be drawn through this point of the float¬
ing body, in a direction parallel to the horizon, and the
motion ot the solid regards only one axis, this must be
determined by the figure of the body and the particu¬
lar nature ot the case. When this axis of motion is as¬
certained, and the specific gravity of the solid found,
the positions of permanent floating will be determined,
by finding the several positions of equilibrium through
winch the solid may be conceived to pass, while it turns
round the axis of motion ; and by determining in which
of these positions the equilibrium is permanent, and in
which of them it is momentary.
Hie whole ot Mr Atwood’s valuable paper relates to
the theory ot naval architecture, in so far as it is de¬
pendent on the laws of pure mechanics. If the propor¬
tions and dimensions adopted in the construction of
individual vessels are obtained by exact geometrical
measurement, and observations are made on the per¬
formance ot these vessels at sea ; a sufficient number of
experiments of this nature, judiciously varied, are the
proper grounds on which theory may be effectually ap¬
plied, in reducing to system those hitherto unperceived
causes, which contribute to give the greatest degree of
excellence to vessels of every description. Naval ar¬
chitecture being reckoned among the practical branches
of science, every voyage may be viewed in the light of
an experiment, irom which useful truths are to be de¬
duced. But inferences of this nature cannot w’ell be
obtained, except by acquiring a thorough knowledge of
all the proportions and dimensions of each part of the
ship, and by making a sufficient number of observations
on the qualities of the vessel, in all the varieties of situ¬
ation to which a ship is commonly subject in the prac¬
tice of navigation.
The following is an ingenious investigation of the same
Subject by Mr English, which we give in his own words.
“ However operose and difficult (says he) the calcu¬
lations necessary to determine the stability of nautical
vessels may, in some cases, be, yet they all depend, says
this author, upon the four following simple and obvious
theorems, accompanied with other well known stereome-
trical and statical principles.
“ Theorem 1. Every floating body displaces a quan¬
tity of the fluid in which it floats, equal to its own
weight j and consequently the specific gravity of the
fluid will be to that ol the floating body, as the magni¬
tude of the whole is to that of the’part immersed.
“ Theorem 2. Every floating body is impelled down¬
ward by its own essential power, acting in the direction
of a vertical line passing through the centre of gravity
ot the whole $ and is impelled upward by the re-action
of the fluid which supports it, acting in the direction
of a vertical line passing through the centre of gravity
of the part immersed j therefore, unless these two lines
are coincident, the floating body thus impelled must
revolve round an axis, either in motion or at rest, un¬
til the equilibrium is restored.
“ Theorem 3. If by any power whatever a vessel be
4 II2 deflected
Floating
Bodies.
FLO [ 684 ] FLO
deflected from an upright position, the perpendicular
distance between two vertical lines passing through the
centres of gravity of the whole, and of the part im¬
mersed -respectively, will he as the stability of the vessel,
and which will be positive, nothing, or negative, ac¬
cording as the metacentre is above, coincident with, or
below, the centre of gravity of the vessel.
“ Theorem 4. The common centre of gravity of any
system of bodies being given in position, it any one of
these bodies be moved from one part of the system to
another, the corresponding motion of the common
centre of gravity, estimated in any given direction,
will be to that of the aforesaid body, estimated in the
same direction, as the weight of the body moved is to
that of the whole system.
“ From whence it is evident, that in order to ascer¬
tain the stability of any vessel, the position of the
centres of gravity of the whole, and of that part im¬
mersed, must be determined •, with which, and the di¬
mensions of the vessel, the line of floatation, and angle
of deflection, the stability or power either to right it¬
self or overturn, may be found.
“In ships of war and merchandise, the calculations
necessary for the purpose become unavoidably very
operose and troublesome ; but they may be much facili¬
tated by the experimental method pointed out in the
New Transactions of the Swedish Academy of Scien¬
ces, first quarter of the year 1787, page 48.
“ In river and canal boats, the regularity and sim¬
plicity of the form of the vessel itself, together with the
compact disposition and homogeneal quality ot the
burden, render that method for them unnecessary, and
make the requisite calculations become very easy. Ves¬
sels of this kind are generally of the same transverse
section throughout their whole length, except a small
part in prow and stern, formed by segments of circles
or other simple curves •, therefore a length may easily
be assigned such, that any of the transverse sections be¬
ing multiplied thereby, the product will he equal to
the whole solidity of the vessel. The form of the sec¬
tion ABCD is for the most part either rectangular,
as in fig. I. Plate CCXV1II. trapezoidal as in fig. 2.
or mixtilineal as in fig. 3. in all which MM represents
the line of floatation when upright, and EF that when
inclined at any angle MXE •, also G represents the
centre of gravity of the whole vessel, and li that of
the part immersed.
“ If the vessel be loaded quite up to the line AB,
and the specific gravity of the boat and burden be the
same, then the point G is simply the centre of gravity
of the section ABCD ; but if not, the centres of gra¬
vity of the boat and burden must be found separately,
and reduced to one by the common method, namely, by
dividing the sum of the momenta by the sum of weights,
or areas, which in this case are as the weights. The point
R is always the centre of gravity of the section MMCD,
which, if consisting of different figures, must also be found
by dividing the sum of the momenta by the sum of the
weights as common. These two points being found,
the next thing necessary is to determine the area of the
two equal triangles MXE, MXF, their centres of gra¬
vity 0, 0, and the perpendicular projected distance n n
of "these points on the water line EF. This being
done, through R and parallel to EF draw RT = a
fourth proportional to the whole area MMCD, either
triangle MXE or MXF, and the distance nn; through Floating
T, and at right angles to RT or EF, draw TS meet- Bodies,
ing the vertical axis of the vessel in S the metacentre; ' " ~
also through the points G, B, and parallel to ST, draw
NGW and BV ; moreover through S, and parallel to
EF, draw WSV, meeting the two former in V and
W j then SW is as the stability of the vessel, which
will be positive, nothing, or negative, according as the
point S is above, coincident with, or below, the point
G. If now we suppose W to represent the weight of
the whole vessel and burden (which will be equal to
the section MMCD multiplied by the length of the
vessel), and P to represent the required weight applied
at the gunwale B to sustain the vessel at the given
angle of inclination $ we shall always have this propor¬
tion : as VS : SW :: W : P; which proportion is ge¬
neral, whether SW be positive or negative •, it must
only in the latter case be supposed to act upward to
prevent an overturn.
“ In the rectangular vessel, of given weight and
dimensions, the whole process is so evident, that any
farther explanation would be unnecessary. In the tra¬
pezoidal vessel, after having found the points G and R,
let AD, BC be produced until they meet in K. Then,
since the two sections MMCD, El DC are equal j the
two triangles MMX, EFK are also equal j and there-
fore the rectangle EK X KF — K.M X KM 1= KM1 j
and since the angle of inclination is supposed to be
known, the angles at E and F are given. Consequent¬
ly, if a mean proportional be found between the sines
of the angle at E and F, we shall have the following
proportions :
“ As the mean proportional thus found : sine 2. F ::
KM : KF, and in the said mean proportional : sine
Z. F :: KM : KE j therefore ME, MF become known j
from whence the area of either triangle MXE or MXF,
the distance n n, and all the other requisites, may be
found.
“ In the mixtilineal section, let AB =9 feet =108
inches, the whole depth = 6 feet == 72 inches, and
the altitude of MM the line of floatation 4 feet or 48
inches $ also let the two curvilinear parts be circular-
quadrants of two feet, or 24 inches radius each. Then
the area of the two quadrants == 904*7808 square
inches, and the distance of their centres of gravity
from the bottom = 13*8177 inches very nearly, also
the area of the included rectangle able — 1440 square
inches, and the altitude of its centre of gravity 12
inches j in like manner, the area of the rectangle AB
c d will be found = 5184 square inches, and the alti¬
tude of its centre of gravity 48 inches; therefore we
shall have
Momentum of
lh» two quad.
Moment, of the
rcctan. a b i e
Moment, of the
rectan. AB erf
=904-;So7 X I3*SI77
ni44o* X 12
^ ~5iS4* X 4S
— 12501*98966016
— 1-7280.
— 248832*
7528*7808 278613*98966016
“ Now the sum of the momenta, divided by the sum
of tl,e areas, w.l! g.ve ^^8^8 _ “ 37 6
inches, the altitude of G, the centre of gravity of the-
FLO [ 685 ] * FLO
Floating section ABCD above the bottom. In like manner,
Bodies the altitude of R, the centre of gravity of the section
"looking. MMCD, will be found to be equal
—. 493^7808
= 24,934 inches; and consequently their difference, or
the value ofGR = iz‘0^2 inches, will be found.
Suppose the vessel to heel 150, and we shall have
the followiner proportion ; namely, As radius : tangent
of 150 :: MX=r54 inches : 14-469 inches = ME or
MF; and consequently the area of either triangle MXE
or MXF = 390 663 square inches. Therefore, by
theorem 4th, as 4936-7808 : 390*663 :: 72 = nn=z
T : 5-6975 inches =: RT; and, again, as radius :
sine of 150 :: 12-072 =: GR : 3.1245 inches RN ;
consequently RT—RN = S'^91 S — 3’1245 = 2'573
inches — SW, the stability required.
“ Moreover, as the sine of 150 : radius :: 5.69*75=:
RT : 22-013 r= RS, to which if we add 24-934, the
altitude of the point R, we shall have 46-947 for the
height of the metacentre, which taken from 72, the
whole altitude, there remains 25-053 ; from which, and
the half width — 54 inches, the distance BS is found
=r 59-529 inches very nearly, and the angle SBV —
8o°—06'—42"; from whence SV =: 58*645 inches.
Again : Let us suppose the mean length of the ves¬
sel to be 40 feet, or 480 inches, and we shall have the
weight of the whole vessel equal to the area of the sec¬
tion MMCD == 4936-7808 multiplied by 480 =
2369654-784 cubic inches of water, which weighs ex¬
actly 85708 pounds avoirdupoise, allowing the cubic
foot to weigh 62.5 pounds.
“ And, finally, as SV : SW (i. e.) as 58-645 : 2*573
:: 85708 : 3760 the weight on the gunwale which
will sustain the vessel at the given inclination. There¬
fore a vessel of the above dimensions, and weighing 38
tons 5 cwts. 28lbs. will require a weight of one ton 13
cwt. 64lbs. to make her incline 15°.
“ In this example the deflecting power has been sup¬
posed to act perpendicularly on the gunwale at B ; but
if the vessel is navigated by sails, the centre veiique
must be found; with which and the angle of deflection,
the projected distance thereof on the line SV may be
obtained ; and then the power calculated as above, ne¬
cessary to be applied at the projected point, will be
that part of the wind’s force which causes the vessel to
heel. And conversely, if the weight and dimensions of
the vessel, the area and altitude of the sails, the direc¬
tion and velocity of the wind be given, the angle of de-
ilohit. flection may be found
•-g-i. Floating Bridge,. See Bridge.
Flock Paper. See Paper.
r LOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See
Deluge.
Flood is also used in speaking of the tide. When
the water is at lowest, it is called ebb; when rising,
young flood ; when at highest,/fogv^/Zooc/; when begin¬
ning to fall, ebb water.
FLoon-mark, the mark which the sea makes on the
shore at flowing w-ater and the highest tide, it is also
called high-water mark.
FLOOK of an anchor. See Anchor.
FLOCKING, among miners, a term used to ex¬
press a peculiarity in the load of a mine. The load or
quantity of ore is frequently intercepted in its course
by the crossing of a vein of earth or stone, or some dif¬
ferent metallic substance ; in which case the load is
moved to one side, and this transient part of the load is
called a flanking.
FLOOR, in building, the underside of a room, or
that part we w'alk on.
Floors are of several sorts ; some of earth, some of
brick, others of stone, others of boards, &c.
For brick and stone Floors, see Pavement.
lor boarded Floors, it is observable that the car--
penters never floor their rooms with boards till the
carcass is set up, and also enclosed with walls, lest the
weather should injure the flooring. Yet they general¬
ly rough-plane their boards for the flooring before
they begin any thing else about the building, that they
' may set them by to dry and season, which is done in
the most careful manner. The best wood for flooring
is the fine yellow deal w'ell seasoned, which when well
laid, will keep its colour for a long while ; whereas the
white sort becomes black by often washing, and looks
very bad. rIhe joints of the boards are commonly
made plain, so as to touch each other only ; but, when
the stuff is not quite dry, and the boards shrink, the
water runs through them whenever the floor is washed,,
and injures the ceiling underneath. For this reason
they are made with feather edges, so as to cover each
other about half an inch, and sometimes they are made
with grooves and tenons : and sometimes the joints are
made with dove tails ; in which case the lower edge
is nailed down, and the next drove into it, so that the
nails are concealed. The manner of measuring floors
is by squares of 10 feet on each side, so that taking the
length and breadth, and multiplying them together,
and cutting off two decimals, the content of a floor in.
square will be given. Thus 18 by 16 gives 288 or 2
squares and 88 decimal parts.
Earthen Floors, are commonly made of loam, and
sometimes, especially to make malt on, of lime and
brook sand, and gun dust or anvil dust from the forge.
Ox blood and fine clay, tempered together, Sir Hugh
Plat says, make the finest floor in the world.
The manner of making earthen floors for plain coun--
try habitations is as follows : Take two-thirds of lime
and one of coal ashes well sifted, with a small quan¬
tity of loam clay ; mix the whole together, and temper
it well with water, making it up into a heap: let it
lie a week or ten days, and then temper it over again.
After this heap it up for three or four days, and re¬
peat the tempering very high, till it becomes smooth,,
yielding, tough, and gluey. The ground being then
levelled, lay the floor therewith about 2^ or 3 inches
thick, making it smooth with a trowel: the hotter the
season is the better ; and when it is thoroughly dried,
it will make the best floor for houses, especially malt
houses.
If any one would have their floors look better, let
them take lime made of rag stones, well tempered with
whites of eggs, covering the floor about half an inch
thick with it, before the under-flooring is too dry. If
this be well done, and thoroughly dried, it will look
when rubbed with a little oil as transparent as metal or
glass. In elegant houses, floors of this nature are made
ot stucco, or of plaster of Paris beaten and sifted, and
mixed with other, ingredients.
Floor.
Flocking:,
F loor.
FLO [
FW Fioon of a Ship, strictly taken, is only so much of
|! her bottom as she rests on when aground*
Vloiales. Such ships as have long, and withal broad rloors, lie
 * ' on the ground with most security, and are not apt to
heel, or tilt on one side*, whereas others, which are
narrow in the floor, or in the sea phrase, cranked bij
the ground, cannot be grounded without danger ol be¬
ing overturned. . . ,
Floor Timbers, in a ship, are those parts otaship s
timbers which are placed immediately across the kee ,
and upon which the bottom of the ship is framed •, to
these the upper parts of the timbers are united, being
only a continuation of floor timbers upwards.
FLORA, the reputed goddess of flowers, was, ac¬
cording to Lactantius, only a lady of pleasure, who
having gained large sums of money by prostituting
herself, made the Roman people her heir, on condition
that certain games called might be annually
celebrated on her birth-day. Some time afterwards,
however, such a foundation appearing unworthy the
majesty of the Roman people, the senate, to ennoble
the ceremony, converted Flora into a goddess, whom
they supposed to preside over flowers j and so made it
a part of religion to render her propitious, that it
might be well with their gardens, vineyards, &c. But
Vossius (de Idol. lib. i. c. 12.) can by no means al¬
low the goddess Flora to have been the courtezan
above mentioned : he will rather have her a Sabine
deity, and thinks her worship might have commenced
under Romulus. His reason is, that Varro, in his
fourth book of the Latin tongue, ranks Flora among
the deities to whom Tatius king of the Sabines ot-
fered up vows before he joined battle with the Ro¬
mans. Add, that from another passage in Varro it
appears, that there were priests of Flora, with sacri¬
fices, &c. as early as the times of Romulus and
Numa. .
The goddess Flora was, according to the poets, the
wife of Zephyrus. Her image in the temple of Castor
and Pollux was dressed in a close habit, and she held
in her hand the flowers of pease and beans : but the
modern poets and painters have been more lavish in
setting off her charms, considering that no parts of na¬
ture offered such innocent and exquisite entertainment
to the sight and smell, as the beautiful variety which
adorns, and the odour which embalms, the floral crea-
tion. „ .
FLORALES ludi, or Floral Games, in anti¬
quity, were games held in honour of Flora, the god¬
dess of flowers.—They were celebrated with shameful
debaucheries. The most licentious discourses were not
enough, but the courtezans were called together by
the sound of a trumpet, made their appearance na¬
ked, and entertained the people with indecent shows
and postures : the comedians appeared after the same
manner on the stage. Val. Maximus relates, that Cato
being once present in the theatre on this occasion,
the people were ashamed to ask for such immodest re¬
presentations in his presence ; till Cato, apprised of
the reservedness and respect with which he inspired
them, withdrew, that the people might not be disap¬
pointed of their accustomed diversion. There were se¬
veral other sorts of shows exhibited on this occasion ;
and, if we may believe Suetonius in Galba, c. 6. and
2
686 ] FLO
Vopiscus in Carinas, these princes presented elephants
dancing on ropes on these occasions.
The ludi florales, according to Pliny, lib. xviii. c. 29.
were instituted by order of an oracle of the Sibyls,
on the 28th of April', not in the year of Rome
13XVI. as we commonly read it in the ancient editions
of that author j nor in laxiv. as F. Hardouin has
corrected it, but, as Vossius reads it, in 513: though
they were not regularly held every year till after 580.
They were chiefly held in the night time, in the J a-
trician street: some will have it there was a circus for
the purpose on the hill called Hortulorum.
FLORALIA, in antiquity, a general name for the
feasts, games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of
the goddess Flora. See Flora and 1 lorales Ludt.
FLORENCE, the capital of the duchy of Tuscany,
and one of the finest cities in Italy. It is surrounded
on all sides but one with high hills, which rise insen¬
sibly, and at last join with the lofty mountains called
the Apennines, lowards Pisa, there is a vast plain of
40 miles in length', which is so filled with villages and
pleasure houses, that they seem to be a continuation of
the suburbs of the city. Independent of the churches
and palaces of Florence, most of which are very
magnificent, the architecture of the houses in general
is in a good taste', and the streets are remarkably clean,
and paved with large broad stones chiseled so as to
prevent the horses from sliding. The city is divided
into two unequal parts by the river Arno, over which
there are no less than four bridges in sight of each
other. That called the Ponte dell Trinita, which is
uncommonly elegant, is built entirely of white marble,
and ornamented with four beautiful statues represent¬
ing the Seasons. The quays, the buildings on each
side, and the bridges, render that part of Florence
through which the river runs by far the finest. Every
corner of this beautiful city is full of wonders in the
arts of painting, statuary, and architecture. 1 he stieets,
squares, and fronts of the palaces, are adorned with
a great number of statues ; some of them by the best
modern masters, Michael Angelo, Bandinelli, Dona¬
tello, Giovanni di Bologna, Benvenuto Cellini, and
others. Some of the Florentine merchants formerly
were men of vast wealth, and lived in a most magni¬
ficent manner. One of them, about the middle of the
fifteenth century, built that noble fabric, which, from
the name of its founder, is still called the Pala%%o Pittu
The man was ruined by the prodigious expence of this
building, which was immediately purchased by the
Medici family, and has continued ever since to be the
residence of the sovereigns. The gardens belonging
to this palace are on the declivity of an eminence. On
the summit there is a kind of fort,.called
From this, and from some of the lug her walks, you
have a complete view of the city of r lorence, and the
beauteous vale of Arno, in the middle of which it
stands. This palace has been enlarged since it was
purchased from the ruined family of Pitti. Ihe fur¬
niture is rich and curious, particularly some tables ot
Florentine work, which are much admired. Ihe
most precious ornaments, however, are the paintings.
The walls of what is called the Imperial Chamber, are
painted in fresco, by various painters ; the subjects are
allecorical, and in honour of Lorenzo ot Medicis, di-
* stinguished
[ 68? ] FLO
stinguished by the name of the Magnificent. The fa¬
mous gallery attracts every stranger. One of the most
interesting parts of it, in the eyes of many, is the se¬
ries of Roman emperors, from Julius Cgesar to Gal-
lienus, with a considerable number of their empresses,
arranged opposite to them. This series is almost com¬
plete ; but wherever the bust of an emperor is wanting,
the place is filled up by that of some other distinguish¬
ed Roman. The celebrated Venus of Medici, which
has been removed to Paris, is thought to be the standard
of taste in female beauty and proportion, and stood for¬
merly in a room called the Tribunal. The inscription
on its base mentions its being made by Cieomenes an
Athenian, the son of Apollodorus. It is of white marble,
and surrounded by other masterpieces of sculpture, some
of which are said to be the works of Praxiteles and
other Greek masters. In the same room are many va¬
luable curiosities, besides a collection of admirable pic¬
tures by the best masters. There are various other
rooms, whose contents are indicated by the names they
bear; as, the Cabinet of Arts, of Astronomy, of Natu¬
ral History, of Medals, of Porcelain, of Antiquities ;
the Saloon of the Hermaphrodite, so called from a sta¬
tue which divides the admiration of the amateurs with
that in the Borghese villa at Rome, though the excel¬
lence of the execution is disgraced by the vileness of
the subject ; and the Gallery of Portraits, which con¬
tains the portraits of the most eminent painters (all ex¬
ecuted by themselves) who have flourished in Europe
during the three last centuries. Our limits will not ad¬
mit of a detail of the hundredth part of the curiosities
and buildings of Florence. We must not, however,
omit mentioning the chapel of St Lorenzo, as being
perhaps the finest and most expensive habitation that
ever was reared for the dead ; it is incrusted with pre¬
cious stones, and adorned by the workmanship of the
best modern sculptors. Mr Addison remarked, that
this chapel advanced so very slowly, that it is not im¬
possible that the family of Medicis may be extinct be¬
fore their burial place is finished. This has actually
taken place: the Medici family is extinct, and the
chapel remains still unfinished.
Florence is a place of some strength, and contains
an archbishop’s see and an university. The number of
inhabitants is calculated at 80,000. They boast of the
improvements they have made in the Italian tongue,
by means of their Academia della Crusca; and seve¬
ral other academies are now established at Florence.
Though the Florentines affect great state, yet their nobi¬
lity and gentry drive a retail trade in wine, which they
sell from their cellar windows, and sometimes thev even
hang out a broken flask, as a sign where it may be bought.
They deal, besides wine and fruits, in gold and silver
stuffs. The Jews are not held in that degree of odium,
or subjected to the same humiliating distinctions here,
as in most other cities of Europe ; and it is said that
some of the richest merchants are of that religion.
As to the manners and amusements of the inhabi¬
tants, Dr Moore informs us, that besides the conver-
sa%ionis, which they have here as in other towns of
Italy, a number of the nobility meet every day at a
house called the Casino. This society is pretty much
on the same footing with the clubs in London. The
members are elected by ballot. They meet at no par¬
ticular hour, but go at any time that is convenient.
Ihey play at billiards, cards, and other games, or con¬
tinue conversing the whole evening, as they think pro¬
per. riiey are served with tea, coffee, lemonade, ices,
or what other refreshments they choose; and each per¬
son pays for what he calls for. There is one material
diflerence between this and the English clubs, that wo¬
men as well as men are members. The company of
both sexes behave with more frankness and familiarity
to strangers as well as to each other, than is customary
in public assemblies in other parts of Italy. The opera
is. a place where the people of quality pay and receive
visits, and converse as freely as at the Casino above
mentioned. 1 his occasions a continual passing and re¬
passing to and from the boxes, except in those where
there is a party of cards formed ; it is then looked on
as a piece of ill manners to disturb the players. From
this it may be guessed, that here, as in some other
towns in Italy, little attention is paid to the music by
the.company in the boxes, except at a new opera, or
during some favourite air. But the dancers command
a general attention \ as soon as they begin, conversa¬
tion ceases ; even the card-players lay down their cards,
and fix their eyes on the ballette. ’Yet the excellence
of Italian dancing seems to consist in feats of strength,
and a kind of jerking agility, more than in graceful
movement. There is a continual contest among the
pel formers, who shall spring highest. You see here
none of the sprightly alluring gaiety of the French
comic dancers, or of the graceful attitudes and smooth
flowing motions of the performers in the serious opera
at Paris. It is surprising that a people of such taste
and sensibility as the Italians, should prefer a parcel of
athletic jumpers (0 elegant dancers. On the evenings
on which there is no opera, it is usual for the genteel
company to drive to a public walk immediately without
the city, where they remain till it begins to grow dusk-
ish. E. Long. 12. 24. N, Lat. 43. 34.
Florence, an ancient piece of English gold coin.
Every pound weight of standard gold was to be coined
into 50 Florences, to be current at six shillings each ;
all which made in tail 15 pounds; or into a propor¬
tionate number of half Florences, or quarter pieces, by
indenture of the mint: 18 Edvv. III.
FLORENTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Etruria, on the Arnus ; of great note in Sylla’s wars.
Now called Florenza or Firen’za by the Italians ; Flo¬
rence in English. E. Long. 11. Lat. 43. 30.
FLORENTINE marble. See Citadinesca.
FLORESCENTIA (from floresco, “ to flourish or
bloom”) ; the act of flowering, which Linnseus and
the sexualists compare to the act of generation in ani¬
mals ; as the ripening of the fruit in their opinion re¬
sembles the birth. See Flower.
FLORID style, is that too much enriched with
figures and flowers of rhetoric.
FLORIDA, a province of North America, bounded
on the south by the gulf of Mexico, on the north by
Georgia and Alabama, on the east by the sea, and on the
west by Alabama. It was first discovered, in 1497, by
Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, then in the English service;
whence a right to the country was claimed by the kings
of England ; and this province, as well as Georgia, was
included in the charter granted by Charles II. to Ca¬
rolina. .
Flore; ee
11
Honda.
■1'lorida.
L O [ 688 ] FLO
however Florida was more fully miles. The country is in general flat, and without hills. Fiend,
- - " • ■ • The soil is good, but overrun with pines and brush- 11
wood. The climate is considered better than that of.
roliiia. In 1512,  ,
’ discovered by Ponce de Leon, an able Spanish naviga
tor, but who undertook his voyage from the most ab
surd motives that can he well imagined.—The Indians
of the Caribbee islands had among them a tradition,
that somewhere on the continent there was a fountain
whose waters had the property of restoring youth to all
old men who tasted them. Ponce de Leon, who set
out with this extravagant view as well as others, re¬
discovered Florida-, but returned to the place from
whence he came, visibly more advanced in years than
when he set out. For some time this country was ne¬
glected by the Spaniards, and some Frenchmen settled
in it: But by orders of Philip II. of Spain, a force
was fitted out j the French intrenchments were forced,
and most of the people killed. The prisoners were
hanged on trees-, with this inscription, “ Jsot as
Frenchmen, but as Heretics.” . .
This cruelty was soon after revenged by Dominic de
Gourgues, a skilful and intrepid seaman of Gascony,
an enemy to the Spaniards, and passionately fond ot
hazardous expeditions and of glory. He sold his estate 5
built some ships -, and with a select band of adventurera
like himself embarked for Florida. He drove the
Spaniards from all their posts with incredible valour
and activity defeated them in every rencounter : and
by way of retaliation, hung the prisoners on trees,
with this inscription, “ Not as Spaniards, but as
Assassins.” This expedition was attended with no
other consequences-, Gourgues blew up the forts he
had taken, and returned home, where no notice was
taken of him. It was conquered in 1539 by the
Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto, not without a
great deal of bloodshed -, as the natives were very war¬
like and made a vigorous resistance. The settlement,
however, was not fully established till the year 1565 J
when the town of St Augustine, the capital of the
colony while it remained in the hands of the Spaniards,
was founded. In 1586, this place was taken and
pillaged by Sir Francis Drake. It met with the same
fate in 1665, being taken and plundered by Captain
Davis and a body of bucaniers. In 1702, an at¬
tempt was made upon it by Colonel More, governor
of Carolina. He set out with 500 English and 700
Indians: and having reached St Augustine, he be¬
sieged it. for three months -, at the expiration of which,
tlm Spaniards having sent some ships to the relief of
the place, he was obliged to retire. In 1740 another
attempt was made by General Oglethorpe ", but he be¬
ing outwitted by the Spanish governor, was forced to
raise the siege with loss ; and Florida continued in the
hands of the Spaniards till the year 1763, when it
was ceded by treaty to Great Britain.—During the
American war, which terminated in 1783, it was again
reduced by his Catholic majesty, and it remained sub-
icct to Spain till 1818, when General Jackson alleg¬
ing that support had been given by the Spaniards to
some hostile Indian tribes, seized Pensacola and St
Marks, the only fortified posts in the country except St
Augustine. The province was since ceded by treaty
to die United States, and the treaty after much delay
has at length been ratified (1821.)
Florida is about 400 miles in length, from north to
south, and occupies an area of about 30,000 square
3
C
the neighbouring state of Georgia. The whole white
inhabitants and slaves probably do not exceed 12,000
or 15,000. See Florida, Supplement.
FLORILEGIUM, Florilege, a name the La¬
tins have given to what the Greeks call otnioMyioi, an-
thology; viz. a collection of choice pieces, containing
the finest and brightest things in their kind.
Florilege, is also particularly used for a kind of
breviary, in the Eastern church, compiled by Arcadius,
for the conveniency of the Greek priests and monks,
who cannot carry with them, in their travels and pil¬
grimages, all the volumes wherein their office is dis¬
persed. The florilegium contains the general rubrics,
psalter, canticles, the horologium, and the office of the
feriae, &c.
FLORIN, is sometimes used for a coin, and some¬
times for a money of account.
Florin, as a coin, is of diflerent values, according
to the different metals and diflerent countries where it
is struck. The gold florins are most of them of a very
coarse alloy, some of them not exceeding thirteen or
fourteen carats, and none of them seventeen and a
half. See Money Table.
Florin, as a money of account, is used by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, but admits
of divisions in different places. Ibid.
FLORINIANI, or Floriani, a sect of heretics,
of the second century, denominated from its author
Flonnus, or Florianus, a priest of the Roman church,
deposed along with Blastus for his errors. Floriuus
had been a disciple of St Polycarp, along with Irenmus.
He made God the author of evil ; or rather asserted,
that the things forbidden by God are not evil, but of
his own appointing. In winch he followed the errors
of Valentinus, and joined himself with the Carpocra-
tians. They had also other names given them. Phi-
lastrius says, they were the same with xheCai'pophorians.
He adds that they were also called soldiers, milites, quia
de militanbusJuerunt. St Irenaeus calls them Gnostics 1
St Epiphanius Phibionites; and Theodoret, Barborites,
on account of the impurities of their lives. Others
call them Zaccheans ; others Coddians, &c. though for
what particular reasons, it is not easy to say, nor per¬
haps would be worth while to inquire.
FLORIS, Francis, an eminent historical painter,
was born at Antwerp in 1520. Pie followed the pro¬
fession of a statuary till he was twenty years of age ;
when preferring painting, he entered the school of
Lambert Lombard, whose manner he imitated very
perfectly. He afterwards went to Italy, and completed
his studies from the most eminent masters. The great
progress he made in historical painting, at his return
procured him much employment} and his countrymen
complimented him with the flattering appellation ot
the Flemish Raphael. He got much money, and might
have rendered his acquaintance more worthy of the at¬
tention of the great, had he not debased himself by
frequent drunkenness. Pie died in 1^0, aged 50.
FLORIST, a person curious or skilled in flowers :
their kinds, names, characters, culture, &c. It is al*o
applied to an author who writes what is called the
• flora
Florist.
FLO [ 689 ] FLO
florist
II
lotton.
flora of any particular place, that is, a catalogue of the
plants and trees which are found spontaneously growing
there.
FLORUS, Lucius ANN.a£us, a Latin historian, of
the same family with Seneca and Lucan. He flourish¬
ed in the reigns of Trajan and Adrian j and wrote an
abridgement of the Roman history, of which there have
been many editions. It is composed in a florid and po¬
etical style ; and is rather a panegyric on many of the
great actions of the Romans, than a faithful and cor¬
rect recital of their history. He also wrote poetry,
and entered the lists against the emperor Adrian, who
satirically reproached him with frequenting taverns and
places of dissipation.
FLORY, Flowery, or Fleury, in Hei'aldry, a
cross that has flowers at the end circumflex and turn¬
ing down ; different from the potence, in as much as
the latter stretches out more like that which is called
patee.
FLOS, Flower. See Flower, Botany Index.
Fotmineus Flos, a flower which is furnished with the
pointal or female organs of generation, but wants the
stamina or male organ. Female flowers may be produ¬
ced apart from the male, either on the same root or on
distinct plants. Birch and mulberry are examples of
the first case, willow and poplar of the second.
Masculus Flos, a male flower. By this name Lin¬
naeus and the sexualists distinguish a flower which con¬
tains the stamen, reckoned by the sexualists the male
organ of generation j but not the stigma or female or¬
gan. All the plants of the class dioecia of Linnaeus
have male and female flowers upon different roots j those
of the class monoecia bear flowers of different sexes on
the same root. The plants, therefore, of the former
are only male and female : those of the latter are an¬
drogynous j that is, contain a mixture of both male
and female flowers.
Flos, in Chemistry, the most subtile part of bodies,
separated from the more gross parts by sublimation in a
dry form.
FLOTA, or Flotta, fleet; a name the Spaniards
give particularly to the ships which they send annually
from Cadiz to the port of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence
the merchandises gathered in Mexico for Spain. It
consists of the captains, admiral, and patach, or pin¬
nace, which go on the king’s account j and about 16
ships, from 400 to 1000 tons, belonging to particular
persons. They set out from Cadiz about the month of
August, and are 18 or 20 months before they return.
Those sent to fetch the commodities prepared in Peru
are called galleons.
The name flotilla is given to a number of ships
which get before the rest in their return, and give in¬
formation of the departure and cargo of the flota and
galleons.
FLOTSON, or Flotsom, goods that by ship¬
wreck are lost, and floating upon the sea ; which,
with jetson and lagan, are generally given to the lord
admiral : but this is the case only where the owners
of such goods are not known. And here it is to be
observed that jetson signifies any thing that is cast
out of a ship when in danger, and afterwards is beat
on the shore by the water, notwithstanding which the
ship perishes. Lagan is where heavy goods are thrown
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
overboard, before the wreck of the ship, and sink to Flotson
the bottom of the sea. B
FLOUNDER, Fluke, or But. See Pleuronec- :
tes, Ichthyology Index. —y—-
Flounders may be fished for all day long, either in a
swift stream, or in the still deep water ; but best in the
stream, in the months of April, May, June, and July:
the most proper baits are all sorts of worms, wasps, and
gentles.
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground and
sifted. See Meal.
The grain itself is not only subject to be eaten by
insects in that state j but, when ground into flour, it
gives birth to another race of destroyers, who eat it
unmercifully, and increase so fast in it, that it is not
long before they wholly destroy the substance. The
finest flour is most liable to breed these, especially when
stale or ill prepared. In this case, if it be examined
in a good light, it will be observed to be in continual
motion, and on a nicer inspection there will be found
in it a great number of little animals of the colour of
the flour, and very nimble. If a little of this flour
is laid on the plate of the double microscope, the in¬
sects are very distinctly seen in great numbers, very
brisk and lively, continually crawling over one an¬
other’s backs, and playing a thousand antic tricks to¬
gether ; whether in diversion or in search of food, is
not easy to be determined. These animals are of an
oblong and slender form $ their heads are furnished
with a kind of trunk or hollow tube, by means of
which they take in their food, and their body is com¬
posed of several rings. They do vast mischief among
magazines of flour laid up for armies and other public
uses. When they have once taken possession of a par¬
cel of this valuable commodity, it is impossible to drive
them out j and they increase so fast, that the only me¬
thod of preventing the total loss of the parcel is to make
it up into bread as soon as can be done. The way to
prevent their breeding in the flour is to preserve it
from damp: nothing gets more injury by being put up
damp than flour 5 and yet nothing is more frequently
put up so. It should be always carefully and thorough¬
ly dried before it is put up, and the barrels also dried
into which it is to be put j then, if they are placed in
a room tolerably warm and dry, they will keep it well.
Too dry a place never does flour any hurt, though one
too moist almost always spoils it.
Flour, when carefully analyzed, is found to be com¬
posed of three very different substances. The first and
most abundant is pure starch, or white fecule, insolu¬
ble in cold, but soluble in hot water, and of the nature
of mucous substances •, which, when dissolved, form
water glues. The second is the gluten, most of whose
properties have been described under the article Bread.
The third is of a mild nature, perfectly soluble in cold
water, of the nature of saccharine extractive mucous
matters. It is susceptible of the spirituous fermenta¬
tion, and is found but in small quantity in the flour of
wheat. See Bread, Gluten, Starch, and Sugar,
Chemistry Index.
FLOWER, Flos, among botanists and gardeners,
the most beautiful part of trees and plants, containing
the organs or parts of fructification. See Botany
Index.
4 S Flowers,
FLO [690
Flower?. Flowers, designed for medical use, should be jilnck-
k — ■ / gj when they are moderately blown, and on a clear
day before noon : for conserves, roses must be taken in
the bud.
Flowers, in antiquity. We find flowers in great
request at the entertainments of the ancients, being pro¬
vided by the master of the feast, and brought in before
the second course; or, as some are of opinion, at the
beginning of the entertainment. They not only a-
dorned their heads, necks, and breasts, with flowers,
but often bestrewed the beds whereon they lay, and all
parts of the room with them. But the head was chiefly
regarded. See Garland.
Flowers were likewise used in the bedecking of
tombs. See Burial.
Eternal Flower. See Xeranthemum,
Everlasting Flower. SccGnaphalium, |
FLOWER-Fencc. See I’oiNClANA, | g0TANY
Sur-Flower. See Helianthus, ^ Index.
Sultan-FLOWER, See Cyanus,
Trumpet-Flower. See Bignonia,
Wind-Flower. See Anemone,
Flower-de-lis, or Flower-de-luce, in Herald}"!/, a
bearing representing the lily called the queen of flowers,
and the true hieroglyphic of royal majesty *, but of late
it is become more common, being borne in some coats
one, in others three, in others five, and in some semee
or spread all over the escutcheon in great numbers.
The arms of France are, three flowers-de-lis or, in
a field azure.
FLOWER-de-Luce. See Iris, Botany Index.
Flowers, in Heraldry. rJ hey are much used in
coats of arms j and in general signify hope, or denote
human frailty and momentary prosperity.
Flowers, in Chemistry. By this name are gene¬
rally understood bodies reduced into very fine parts, ei¬
ther spontaneously, or by some operation of art; but
the term is chiefly applied to volatile solid substances,
reduced into very fine parts, or into a kind of meal by
sublimation.—Some flowers are nothing else than the
bodies themselves, which are sublimed entire, without
suffering any alteration or decomposition and other
flowers are some of the constituent parts of the body
subjected to sublimation.
Colours of Flowers. See the article Colour {of
Plants.)
Colours extracted from Flowers. See Colour-
Making.
Preserving of Flowers. The method of preserving
flowers in their natural beauty through the whole year
has been much sought after by many people. Some
have attempted it by gathering them when dry and not
too much opened, and burying them in dry sand but
this, though it preserves their figure well, takes oft
from the liveliness of their colour. Muntingius pre¬
fers the following method to all others. Gather ro¬
ses, or other flowers, when they are not yet thorough¬
ly open, in the middle of a dry day; fill the vessel up
tc the top with them ; and when full sprinkle them
over with some good French wine, with a little salt in
it; then set them by in a cellar, tying down the mouth
of the pot. After this they may be taken out at plea¬
sure ; and, on setting them in the sun, or within
•reach of the fire, they will open as if growing natural-
] FLO
lv ; and not only the colour, hut the smell also will be ^lowen,
preserved.
The flowers of plants are by mucb the most difficult
parts of them to preserve in any tolerable degree of per¬
fection ; of which we have instances in all the collec¬
tions of dried plants, or horti sicci. In these the leaves,
stalks, roots, and seeds of the plants, appear very well
preserved ; the strong texture of these parts making
them always retain their natural form, and the colour#
in many species naturally remaining. But where these
fade, the plant is little the worse for use as to the know¬
ing the species by it. But it is very much otherwise in
regard to flowers; these are naturally by much the
most beautiful parts of the plants to which they belong ;
but they are so much injured in the common way of
drying, that they not only lose, but change their co¬
lours one into another, by which means they give a
handle to many errors ; and they usually also wither up,
so as to lose their very form and natural shape. The
primrose and cowslip kinds are very eminent instances
of the change of colours in the flowers of dried speci¬
mens ; for those of this class of plants easily dry in their
natural shape ; but they lose their yellow, and, instead
of it, acquire a fine green colour, much superior to that
of the leaves in their most perfect state. ’Ihe flowers
of all the violet kind lose their beautiful blue, and be¬
come of a dead white : so that in dried specimens there
is no difterence between the blue-flowered violet and
the white-flowered kinds.
Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world
a method of drying plants, by which this defect is
proposed to he in a great measure remedied, and all
flowers preserved in their natural shape, and many in
their natural colours.—For this purpose two plates of
iron are to he prepared of the size ol a large half sheet
of paper, or larger, for particular occasions ; these
plates must be made so thick as not to he apt to bend ;
and there must be a hole made near every corner
for receiving a screw to fasten them close together.
When these plates are prepared, lay in readiness seve¬
ral sheets of paper, and then gather the plants with
their flowers when they are quite perfect. Bet this be
always done in the middle of a dry day ; and then lay
the plant and its flower on one of the sheets of paper
doubled in half, spreading out all the leaves and petals
as nicely as possible. If the stalk is thick, it must he
pared or cut in half, so that it may lie flat ; and if it
is woody, it may he peeled, and only the bark left.
When the plant is thus expanded, lay round about it
some loose leaves and petals of the flower, which may
serve to complete any part that is deficient. When all
is thus prepared, lay several sheets of paper over the
plant, and as many under it ; then put the whole be¬
tween the iron plates, laying the papers smoothly on
one, and laying the other evenly over them ; screw
them close, and put them into an oven after the bread
is drawn, and let them lie there two hours. After
that, make a mixture of equal parts of aquafortis and
common brandy ; shake these well together, and when
the flowers are taken out of the pressure of the plates,
rub them lightly over with a camel’s hair pencil dipped
in this liquor; then lay them upon fresh brown paper,
and covering them with some other sheets, press them
between this and other papers with a handkerchief till
FLO [ 691 ] FLO
the wet of these liquors is dried wholly away. When
the plant is thus far prepared, take the bulk of a nut-
meg of gum dragon 5 put this into a pint of fair water
cold, and let it stand 24 hours ; it will in this time be
wholly dissolved : then dip a fine hair pencil in this
liquor, and with it daub over the back sides of the
leaves, and lay them carefully down on half a sheet of
white paper fairly expanded, and press them down
with some more papers over these. When the crum-
water is fixed, let the presser and papers be removed,
and the whole work is finished. The leaves retain their
verdure in this case, and the flowers usually keep
their natural colours. Some care, however, must be
taken, that the heat of the oven be not too great.
When the flowers are thick and bulky, some art may
be used to pare oft’ their backs, and dispose the petals
in a due order ; and after this, if any of them are
wanting, their places may be supplied with some of
the supernumerary ones dried on purpose j and if any
of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take
them away, and lay down others in their stead : the
leaves may be also disposed and mended in the same
manner.
Another method of preserving both flowers and fruit
found throughout the whole year is also given by the
same author. Take saltpetre, one pound j Armenian
bole, two pounds ; clean common sand, three pounds :
mix ail well together. Then gather fruit of any kind
that is not fully ripe, with the stalk to each ; put these
in, one by one, into a wide-mouthed glass, laying
them in good order. Tie over the top with an oil¬
cloth, and carry them into a dry cellar, and set the
whole upon a bed of the prepared matter of four inches
thick in a box. Fill up th ■ remainder of the box with
the same preparation ; and let it be four inches thick,
all over the top of the glass, and all round its sides.
Flowers are to be preserved in the same sort of glasses,
and in the same manner : and they may be taken up
after a whole year as plump and fair as when they were
buried.
Artificial Flowers of the Chinese. See Tong-
tsao.
Flowers, in the animal economy, denote women’s
monthly purgations or menses.—Nicod derives the
word in this sense, from fl-aere, q. <S. jlitors. Others
will have the name occasioned hence, that women do
not conceive till they have had their flowers ; so that
these are a sort of forerunners of their fruit.
Flowers, in Rhetoric, are figures or ornaments of
discourse, by the Latins called
FLOWERING P/^Arrs. These plants
will grow and flower in water alone, without any earth,
and make a very elegant appearance. We daily see
this practised in single roots ; but there is a method of
doing it with several roots in the same vessel. Take
a common small garden pot ; stop the hole at the bot¬
tom with a cork, and lute in the cork with putty that
no water can get through $ then fit a board to the top
of the pot, and bore six or seven holes in it at equal
distances, to place the bulbs in ; and as many smaller
ones nearer them to receive sticks, which will serve to
tie up the flowers. Then fill up the pot with water to
the board ; and place tulips, jonquils, narcissuses, and
the like plants in the root upon the boles, so that the
bottom of the roots may touch the water: thus will
they all flower early in the season, and be much more
beautiful than any pot of gathered flowers, and will
last many weeks in their full perfection. After the
season of flowering is over, the roots will gradually
shrink through the holes of the board, and get loose in¬
to the water: but, instead of being spoiled there, they
will soon incresse in size ; so that they cannot return
through the holes, and will produce several offsets. It
is natural to try from this the consequence of keeping
the roots under water during the whole time of their
blowing •, and in this way they have been found to
succeed very well, and flower even stronger and more
beautifully than when in the ground. They may thus,
also, with proper care in the degree of heat in the
room, be kept flowering from before Christmas till
March or April. It is not easy, in this last manner,
to manage the keeping the boards under water, for
which reason it is better to procure some sheet-lead of
about four pounds to the foot, and cut this to the size
of the mouth of the pot. In this there should be bored
holes for the bulbs, and other holes fer the sticks:
and, in order to keep the sticks quite firm, it is pro¬
per to have another plate of lead shaped to the bottom
of the pot, with holes in it, answering to those of the
upper plate made for the sticks. The sticks will by
this means he always kept perfectly steady; and the
roots, being kept under water by the upper plate of
lead, will flower in the most vigorous and beautiful
manner imaginable. Some have thought of adding to
the virtues of the water by putting in nitre in small
quantities, and others have added earth and sand at
the bottom ; but it has always been foundj to succeed
better without any addition.
It may be more agreeable to some to use glass jars
in this last method with the leads, instead of earthen
pots. The bulbs succeed full as well in these; and
there is this advantage, that the progress of the roots
is seen all the while, and they are managed better as to
the supply of water.
By repeated experiments in this way on dried bulbs,
and on those taken fresh out of the ground, the former
have been found to succeed the best. For those taken
fresh out of the ground being full of moisture, will not
so soon, upon changing their element, be nourished
fully by a new one ; and the fibres which they had
struck in the ground, always rot when put into the wa¬
ter, and new ones must be formed in their places ; so
that it requires more time for them to come to flower¬
ing. The bulbs themselves will not rot in this man¬
ner ; but they will never he so strong as those which
were put into the water dry, which gradually fill
themselves with moisture from it, and regularly plump
up. The best method of managing the whole process
is this : Place the bulbs at first only on the surface
of the water; for thus they will strike out their
fibres most strongly. When they have stood thus
six weeks, pour in the water so high as to cover them
entirely, and keep them thus till they have done
flowering. ^
Sometimes the roots will become mouldy in several
parts while they stand above the water, and the clean¬
ing them of it is to no purpose ; for it will eat and
spread the farther, and frequently eat through two or
three of their coats. In this case they must be imme¬
diately covered with water; when the mould will be
4 S 2 stopped.
FLO [69
stopped!, and the roots become sound, and flower as
well as those which never had any such distemper. If
the roots are suffered to remain in water all the year,
they will not decay : but will flower again at their
proper season, and that as vigorously as those which
have been taken out and dried. The old fibres of
those roots never rot till they are ready to push forth
new ones. It is found by experience, that the hya¬
cinth, and many other plants, grow to a greater de¬
gree of perfection when thus in water than when in
the ground. There is a peculiar species of hyacinth
called Keyser's jewel; this never, or very rarely, pro¬
duces seed-vessels in the common way of flowering in
the ground ; but it will often produce some pods when
blown in water.
Mr Miller has intimated, in the Philosophical Trans¬
actions, that hulbs set in glasses grow weaker, and
should be renewed every other year : but it is found,
that, when managed in this manner, and kept under
water, at the time of taking them up, they aie as large,
and some of them larger, than when planted j and if
these be dried at a proper season, they will flower, year
after year, as well as Iresh ones.
Ranunculus and anemone roots have been found to
shoot up their stalks very well in this way j but the
flowers are usually blasted, which seems to arise from
want of free air. Pinks will flower very well in this
manner •, auriculas also may, with care, be brought to
flower, but not strongly. Roses, jessamines, and honey¬
suckles, may also be made to flower this way, and will
thrive and send out suckers j the best pieces to plant,
are suckers cut off about three inches under ground,
without any fibres. I he succulent plants may also be
raised this way j for instance, the opuntia or Indian
fig. If a fragment of a leaf of this plant be cut, and
laid by to dry for a month till it is an absolute skin,
as soon as it' is put in this manner into water, it be¬
gins to plump up, and soon sends out fibrous roots,
and produces new leaves as quickly as it would do in
the ground.
This is the more singular in these sort of plants,
because in their natural state in the ground, they
cannot bear much water. This method ot growing
in water is not peculiar to the bulbous-rooted ones,
but others may even be raised from seed by it. A
bean or pea, set in this manner, will grow up to its
proper standard, and will flower and produce pods which
will ripen their seed. The smaller seeds may be also
raised in this manner, by the help of wool to suppoit
them.
No vegetable transplanted out of the earth into wa¬
ter will thrive kindly j but any plant, whether raised
from the root or seed in water, may be transplanted to
the earth, and will succeed very well. It may be pos¬
sible, therefore, from this method of raising plants in
water, to come at a better way than is usually practi¬
sed of raising some roots in the earth which are sub¬
ject to rot there *, such as anemonies, ranunculuses,
and hyacinths. A bulb dropped by chance upon the
ground, will strike out both stronger and more numer¬
ous fibres than those which are planted in the usual
way in the ground. On this principle, it may be
proper to take out the earth of the bed where the
bulbs are to stand at the time of planting them, to
such a depth as they are to be placed under it when
2 ] FLO
set for flowering. The bulbs are then to he set in their Flowering
places, on the surface of this low ground $ and to
stand there till they have shot out their fibres and their
head : then the earth is to be added over them by de¬
grees, till they are covered as high above the head as
thev are in the usual manner of planting them ; thus
they would he preserved from the danger of rotting j
and their fibres would be much stronger, and conse¬
quently they would draw more nourishment, and
flower better than in the common way. The com¬
mon method of planting these roots rentiers them li¬
able to be destroyed by either extreme ot a wet or a
dry season. In the first case, they immediately rot by
the abundance of moisture they receive j and, in the
second, they become dry as a stick and mouldy, so that
they are infallibly rotted by the first rain that falls af¬
terwards.
The directions necessary to the success of the bulbs
planted in water are these. M7hen the leaden false
bottoms are fixed down tight within two or three
inches of the bottom of the vessel (which is only de¬
signed to hold the sticks steady which are to support
the leaves and stalks), then lay on the lead upon which
the bulbs are to rest, placing the notched part oppo¬
site to that in the false bottom, as near as the sticks,
when placed, will suffer it; then place the bulbs one
in each hole, and fill up with water to the upper lead.
The bottom of the bulb will then touch the Water j
and as the water diminishes in quantity, keep it sup¬
plied with more up to the same height for a month or
six weeks ; in which time the bulbs will have shot
strong fibres. Then fill up the water about half an
inch above the surface of the lead ; and by degrees, as
the fibres strengthen, and the plume shoots from the
head, keep the water higher and higher, till at length
the whole bulb is covered. The water is to be kept at
this standard till the season for drying them returns.
 At the time of planting the bulbs, they must
be carefully cleaned from any foulness at the bot¬
tom by scraping them with the point of a knife till
the sound part of the bulb appears j clear them like¬
wise from any loose, skins, and even take off their brown
skin till they appear white ; otherwise this brown skin
will tinge the water, and the growth will not succeed
so well. .
The notches in the side of each lead are intended to
give easy passage to the water, that, if there should be
any foulness or sediment in it, on shaking it a little it
may all run through, and fresh water he put in its
place. But this shifting the water need not be done
more than once or twice in a winter, as there may be
occasion from the foulness j and when this is done,
the sides of the vessel should be cleaned with a paint¬
er’s brush, and rinsed out again, and the bulbs them¬
selves washed, by pouring water on them at a little di-
stance.
At any time when the outer skins of the bulbs dry,
they are to be peeled off, that they may not occasion
foulness in the water 5 and if any dust or foul matter
be at any time observed swimming on the surface, the
method is to fill up the pot or vessel to tire rim, and
let it run over : this will carry off that light foulness,
and the water may afterwards be poured away to the
proper standard.
Bulbs of equal bigness should be planted together m
Iluid.
FLU [ 693
Flowering ^ie same Pot> they may all have the same benefit
|| of the water. Narcissuses and hyacinths do well toge¬
ther j as also tulips and jonquils, and crocuses and snow-
J drops.
FLUDD, Robert, a philosopher and physician of
some celebrity in his time, was the son of Sir Thomas
Fludd, treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth 5 and was
born at Milgate in Kent, in the year 1574. He re¬
ceived his education at St John’s college, Oxford, and
afterwards spent six years in travelling through Europe.
He acquired a strong attachment to the Rosjcrucian
philosophy, which chiefly consisted of mysticism and
jargon, and such as were admitted among them had
certain secrets analogous to those of free masonry. On
his return home, he took the degree of M. D. settled
in the city of London, and was chosen a fellow of the
college of physicians. His piety wras of an enthusiastic
nature, and the seeming depth of his knowledge pro¬
cured him much admiration, and gave him a temporary
fame. It is said that he employed a kind of unintel¬
ligible cant when speaking to his patients, which some¬
times contributed to their recovery, as it operated on
their faith. He is chiefly known as a sectary in philo¬
sophy, and not as a physician. He blended the incom¬
prehensible reveries of the Cabalists and Paracelsians,
forming a new physical system replete with mystery and
absurdity. He believed in two universal principles, the
northern or condensing, and the southern or rarefying
power. Innumerable geniuses he conceived to preside
over these, and committed the charge of diseases to le¬
gions of spirits collected from the four winds of heaven.
In his estimation,.a harmony subsisted between the ma¬
crocosm and the microcosm, or the world of nature
and of man. All his fancies and whims it is impossible
to enumerate, yet they attracted the notice of the phi¬
losophers of that age, being supported by mysterious
gravity and the shadow of erudition. Even Kepler
himself thought his extravagant jargon worthy of refu¬
tation, and Gassendi for this purpose wrote his Examen
Philo soph ice Fluddtunce. One of Fiudd’s performances,
entitled Nexus utriusque Cosmi, is illustrated by some
prints of a very singular and extraordinary nature.
FLUENT, or Flowing Quantity, in the doc¬
trine of fluxions, is the variable quantity which is con¬
sidered as increasing and decreasing: or the fluent of
a given fluxion, is that quantity whose fluxion being-
taken, according to the rules of that doctrine, shall
be the same with the given fluxion. See Fluxions.
See also FLUENTS, SUPPLEMENT.
FLU! D, an appellation given to all bodies whose par¬
ticles easily yield to the least partial pressure, or force
impres-ed. lor the Laws and Properties of Fluids,
see Hydrodynamics in this work ; and Fluids, Ele¬
vation of, in the Supplement.
There are various kinds of animalcules to be dis¬
cerned in different fluids by the microscope. Of many
remarkable kinds of these, a description is given under
the article Animalcule. All of these littht creatures
are easily destroyed by separating them from their na¬
tural element. Naturalists have even fallen upon shorter
methods. A needle point, dipped in spirit of vitriol,
and then.immersed into a drop of pepper water, rea¬
dily kills all the animalcules : which, though before
frisking about with great liveliness and activity, no
sooner come within the influence of the acid particles,
] FLU
than they spread themselves, and tumble down to all
appearance dead. The like may be done by a solution 1
of salt ; only with this difference, that, by the latter
application, they seem to grow vertiginous, turning
round and round till they fall down. Tincture of
salt of tartar, used in the same manner, kills them still
more readily ; yet not so, but there will he apparent
marks of their first being sick and convulsed. Inks
destroy them as fast as spirit of vitriol, and human
blood produces the same effect. Urine, sack, and sugar
all destroy them, though not so fast ; besides, that there
is some diversity in their figures and appearances, as
they receive their deaths from this poison or that. The
point of a pin dipped in spittle, presently killed all the
kinds of animalcules in puddle water, as Mr Harris
supposes it will other animalcules of this kind.
All who are acquainted with microscopic observa¬
tions, know very well, that in water, in which the
best glasses can discover no particle of animated mat¬
ter, after a few grains of pepper, or a fragment of a
plant of almost any kind, has been some time in it, ani¬
mals full of life and motion are produced; and those
in such numbers, as to equal the fluid itself in quanti¬
ty.—When we see a numerous brood of young fishes
in a pond, we make no doubt of their having owed
their origin to the spawn, that is, to the eggs of the
parents of the same species. W?hat are we then to
think of these ? It we will consider the progress of na¬
ture in the insect tribes in general, and especially in
such of them as are most analogous to these, we shall
find it less difficult to give an account of their origin
than might have been imagined.
A small quantity of water taken from any ditch in
the summer months, is found to be full of little worms,
seeming in nothing so much as in size to differ from
the microscopic animalcules. Nay, water, without
these, exposed in open vessels to the heat of the wea¬
ther, will be always found to abound with multitudes
of them, visible to the naked eye, and full of life and
motion. These we know, by their future changes,
are the fly worms of the different species of gnats, and
multitudes of other fly species; and we can easily de¬
termine, that they have owed their origin only to the
eggs of the parent fly there deposited. Nay, a closer
observation will at any time give ocular proof of this;
as the flies may be seen laying their eggs there, and
the eggs may be followed through all their changes to
the fly again. Why then are we to doubt hut that the
air abounds with other flies and animalcules as minute
as the worms in those fluids ; and that these last are on¬
ly the fly worms of the former, which, after a proper
time spent in that state, will suffer changes like those
of the larger kinds, and become flies like those to
whose eggs they owed their origin ? Vid. Reaumur,
Hist. Insect, vol. iv. p. 431.
The differently medicated liquors made by infusions
of different plants, afford a proper matter for the
worms of different species of these small flies: and there
is no reason to doubt, but that among these some are,
viviparous, others oviparous ; and to this may be, in a
great measure, owing the different time taken up for
the production of these insects in different fluids.
Those which are a proper matter for the worms of the
viviparous fly, may be soonest found full of them ; as,
probably the liquor is no sooner in a state to afford
them 1
Fluid.-
FLU [ 694 ] FLU
fluid. them proper nourishment, than their parents place
—■ i them there : whereas those produced from the eggs of
the little oviparous flies, must, after the liquor is in a
proper state, and they are deposited in it in the form of
eggs, have a proper time to be hatched, before they
can appear alive.
It is easy to prove, that the animals we find in these
vegetable infusions were brought thither from else¬
where. It is not less easy to prove, that they could
not be in the matter infused any more than in the
water in which it is infused.
Notwithstanding the fabulous accounts of salaman¬
ders, it is now well known, that no animal, large or
small, can hear the force of fire for any considerable
time £ and, by parity of reason, we are not to believe,
that any insect, or embryo insect, in any state, can
bear the heat of boiling water for many minutes. To
proceed to inquiries on this foundation : If several
tubes be filled with water, with a small quantity of vege¬
table matter, such as pepper, oak bark, truffles, &c.
in which, after a time, insects will be discovered by
the microscope ; and other like tubes be filled with
simple water boiled, with water and pepper boiled to-^
gether, and with water with the two other ingredients
all separately boiled in it; when all these liquors come
to a proper time for the observation of the microscope,
afi, as well those which have been boiled as those
which have not, will he found equally to abound with
insects, and those of the same kind, in infusions of the
same kind, whether boiled or not boiled. ’I hose in the
infusions which had sustained a heat capable of destroy¬
ing animal life, must therefore not have subsisted either
in the water or in the matters put into it, hut must
have been brought thither after the boiling j and it
seems by no way so probable, as by means of some
little winged inhabitants of the air depositing their eggs
or worms in these fluids.
On this it is natural to ask, how it comes to pass,
that while we see myriads of the progeny of these
winged insects in water, we never see themselves? Hie
answer is equally easy, viz. because we can always
place a drop of this water immediately before the fo¬
cus of the microscope, and keep it there while we are
at leisure to examine its contents 5 hut that is not the
case with regard to the air inhabited by the parent
flies of these worms, which is an immense extent in
proportion to the water proper for nourishing these
worms 5 and consequently, while the latter are clus¬
tered together in heaps, the former may be dispersed
and scattered. Nor do we want instances of this, even
in insects of a larger kind. In many of our gardens,
we frequently find vessels of water filled with worms
of the gnat kind, as plentiful, in proportion to their
size, as those of other fluids are with animalcules.
Rvery cubic inch of water in these vessels contains
many hundreds of animals : yet we see many cubic
inches of air in the garden not affording one of the
parent flies.
But neither are we positively to declare that the pa¬
rent flies uf these animalcules are in all states wholly
invisible to us j if not singly to he seen, there are some
strong reasons to imagine that they may in great clus¬
ters. Every one has seen in a clear day, when look¬
ing stedfastly at the sky, that the air is in many places
disturbed by motions and convolutions in certain spots.
2
These cannot be the effects of imagination, or of Fluid,
faults in our eyes, because they appear the same to allj Fluidity,
and if we consider what would he the case to an eye • —
formed in such a manner as to see nothing smaller than
an ox, on viewing the air on a marsh fully peopled
with gnats, we must be sensible that the clouds of
these insects, though to us distinctly enough visible,
would appear to such an eye merely as the moving
parcels of air in the former instance do to us : and
surely it is thence no rash conclusion to infer, that the
case may be the same, and that myriads of flying in¬
sects, too small to he singly the objects of our view,
vet are to us what the cloud of gnats would be in the
former case.
Nervous Fluid. See Anatomy Index.
Elastic Fluids. See Chemistry Index.
FLUIDITY, is by Sir Isaac Newton defined to
he, that property of bodies by which they yield to any
force impressed, and which have their parts very easily
moved among one another.
To tliis definition some have added, that the parts
of a fluid are in a continual motion. This opinion ia
supported bv the solution of salts, and the formation of
tinctures. If a small hit of saffron is thrown into a
phial full of water, a yellow tincture will soon be com¬
municated to the water to a considerable height ;
though the phial is allowed to remain at rest ; which
indicates a motion in those parts of the fluids which
touch the saffron, by which its colouring matter is car¬
ried up.
With regard to water, this can scarce be denied j
the constant exhalations from its surface show, that
there must he a perpetual motion in its parts from the
ascent of the steam through it. In mercury, where in¬
sensible evaporation does not take place, it might be
doubted ; and accordingly the Newtonian philosophers
in general have been of opinion, that there are some
substances essentially fluid, from the spherical figure of
their constituent particles. The congelation of mer¬
cury, however, by an extreme degree of cold, de¬
monstrates that fluidity is not essentially inherent in
mercury more than in other bodies.
That fluids have vacuities in their substance is evi¬
dent, because they may be made to dissolve certain
bodies without sensibly increasing their bulk. For ex¬
ample, water will dissolve a certain quantity of salt;
after which it will receive a little sugar, and after that
a little alum, without increasing its first dimensions.
Here we can scarce suppose any thing else than that
the saline particles were interposed between those of
the fluid ; and as, by the mixture of salt and water, a
considerable degree of cold is produced, we may thence
easily see why the fluid receives these substances with¬
out any increase of bulk. All substances are expand¬
ed by heat, and reduced into less dimensions by cold ;
therefore, if any substance is added to a fluid, which
tends to make it celd, the expansion by the bulk of
the substance added will not he so much perceived as
if this effect had not happened *, and if the quantity
added be small, the fluid will contract as much, per¬
haps more, from the cold produced by the mixture, than
it will he expanded from the bulk of the salt. This
also may let us know with what these interstices be¬
tween the particles of the fluid were filled upj namely,,
the dement of fire or heat. The saline particles, up¬
on
Viuke.
F L U [ 695 ]
on their solution in the fluid, have occupied these
___ spaces ; and now the liquor being deprived of a quan-
~ ‘ity of this element equal in bulk to the salt added,
feels sensibly colder.
As, therefore, there is scarce any body to he found,
but what may become solid by a sufEcient degree of
cold, and none but what a certain degree of heat will
render fluid 5 the opinion naturally arises, that fire is
the cause of fluidity in all bodies, and that this ele¬
ment is the only essentially fluid substance in nature.
Hence we may conclude, that those substances which
we call fluids are not essentially so, but only assume
that appearance in consequence of an intimate union
with the element of fire ; just as gums assume a fluid
appearance on being dissolved in spirit of wine, or salts
in water. *
Upon these principles Dr Black mentions fluidity
as an effect ol heal. The different degrees of heat
which are required to bring different bodies into a
state of fluidity, he supposes to depend on some parti¬
culars in the mixture and composition of the bodies
themselves : which becomes extremely probable, from
considering that we change the natural state of bodies
in this respect, by certain mixtures ; thus, if two
metals are compounded, the mixture is usually more
fusible than either of them separately. See Chemis¬
try Index.
ft is certain, however, that water becomes warmer
by being converted into ice ; which may seem con¬
tradictory to this opinion. To this, however, the doc¬
tor replies, that fluidity does not consist in the degree
of sensible heat contained in bodies, which will affect
the hand or a thermometer j hut in a certain quantity
which remains in a latent state. This opinion he
supports from the great length of time required to melt
ice $ and to ascertain the degree of beat requisite to
keep water in a fluid state, he put five ounces of water
into a Florence flask, and converted it into ice by
means of a freezing mixture put round the flask. Into
another flask of the same kind he put an equal quantity
of water cooled down nearly to the freezing point, by
mixing it with snow, and then pouring it off. In this
he placed a very delicate thermometer ; and found that
it acquired heat from the air of the room in which
it was placed : seven degrees of heat were gained
the first half hour. The ice being exposed to the
same degree of heat, namely, the air of a large room
without fire, it cannot be doubted that it received heat
from the air as fast as the water which was not frozen j
hut, to prevent all possibility of deception, he put his
hand under the flask containing the ice, and found a
stream of cold air very sensibly descending from it,
even at a considerable distance from the flask ; which
undeniably proved, that the ice was all that time ab¬
sorbing heat from the air. Nevertheless, it was not
till 11 hours that the ice was half melted, though in
that time it had absorbed so much heat as ought to
have raised the thermometer to 140°$ and even after
it was melted, the temperature of the water was found
scarce above the freezing point: so that as the heat
which entered could not be found in the melted ice,
lie concluded that it remained concealed in the water,
as an essential Ingredient of its composition.
FLUKE, or Flounder. See Pleuronectes,
Ichthyology Index.
FLU
See Fasciola, Helminthology
Fluke TForm.
Index.
Fluke of an Anchor, that part of it which fastens
in the ground. See Anchor.
FLUMMERY, a wholesome sort of jelly made of
oatmeal.
The manner of preparing it is as follows. Put three
large handfuls of finely ground oatmeal to steep, for
24 hours, in two quarts of fair water : then pour off
the clear water, and put two quarts of fresh water to
it j strain it through a fine hair sieve, putting in two
spoonfuls of orange flower water, and a spoonful of su¬
gar: boil it till it is as thick as a hasty pudding, stir¬
ring it continually while it is boiling, that it may be
very smooth.
FLUOR, in Physics, a fluid; or, more proper¬
ly, the state of a body that was before hard or solid,
but is now reduced by fusion or fire into a state of
fluidity.
Fluoe Acid. See Fluoric Acid,Chemistry Index.
I Luo R Albus, a flux incident to women, commonly
known by the name of whites. See Medicine Index.
Fluor Spar or Blue John, called also fluxing spars,
vitrescent or glass spars, are minerals composed of cal¬
careous earth united with fluoric acid. See Mineralo¬
gy Index.
1 LUSHING, a handsome, strong, and considerable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and in the
island of Walcheren, with a very good harbour, and a
great foreign trade. It was put into the hands of
Queen Elizabeth, for a pledge of their fidelity, and
as a security for the money she advanced. It was taken
by the British in the memorable and ill conducted ex¬
pedition of 1809, ail^ kept some months. E. Long. 3.
32. N. Lat. 51. 26.
FLUTE, an instrument of music, the simplest of all
those ol the wind kind. It is played on by blowing it
with the mouth ; and the tones or notes are changed by
stopping and opening the holes disposed for that pur¬
pose along its side.
This is a very ancient instrument. It was at first call¬
ed the flute a bee, from bee an old Gaulish word signi-
fying the beak of a bird or fowl, but more especially
oi a cock ; the term flute a bee must therefore signify
the beaked flute ; which appears very proper, on com¬
paring it with the traverse or German flute. The word
flute is derived from fluta, the Latin for a lamprey or
small eel taken in the Sicilian seas, having seven hole#
immediately below the gills on each side, the precise
number of those in the front of the flute.
By Mersennus this instrument is called the fistula
dulcis sen Anglica; the lowest note, according to him,
for the treble flute, is Cfa ut, and the compass of the
instrument 15 notes. There is however, a flute known
by the name of the concert flute, the lowest note of
which is I'. Indeed, ever since the introduction of the
flute into concerts, the lowest note of the instrument,
of what size soever it is, has been called F ; when in
truth its pitch is determinable only by its corre¬
spondence in respect of acuteness or gravity with one
or other of the chords in the scala maxima or great
system.
Besides the true concert flute, others of a less size
were soon introduced into concei ts of violins ; in which
case the method was to write the flute part in a key
correspondent
Flake
worm
II
Fiiue.
rlule.
FLU [ 696 ] FLU
correspondent to its pitch. This practice was introdu¬
ced in 1710 by one \Voodcock, a celebrated performer
on this instrument, and William Babell organist of the
church of All-Hallows, Bread Street, London. They
failed, however, in procuring for the flute a reception
into concerts of various instruments ; for which reason
one Thomas Stanesby, a very curious maker of flutes
and other instruments of the like kind, about the year
1732, adverting to the scale of Mersennus, in which
the lowest note was C, invented what he called the new
system; in which, by making the flute of such a size
as to be a fifth above concert pitch, the lowest note be¬
came C sol fa ut. By this contrivance the necessity of
transposing the flute part was taken away •, for a flute
of this size, adjusted to the system above mentioned,
became an octave to the violin. Io further this in¬
vention of Stanesby’s, one Lewis Merci, an excellent
performer on the flute, published about the year 1735*
six solos for this instrument, three of which are said to
be accommodated to Mr Stanesby’s new system } but
the German flute was now become a favourite instru¬
ment, and Stanesby’s ingenuity failed of its effect.—
One great objection indeed lies against this instrument,
which, however, equally affects all perforated pipes j
namely, that they are never perfectly in tune, or can¬
not be made to play all their notes with equal exact¬
ness. The utmost that the makers of them can do is
to tune them to some one key; as the hautboy to C,
the German flute to D, and the English flute to F j and
to effect this truly, is a matter of no small difficulty.
The English flutes made by the younger Stanesby came
the nearest of any to perfection ; but those of Bressan,
though excellent in their tone, are all too flat in the
upper octave. For these reasons some are induced to
think, that the utmost degree of proficiency on any
of those instruments is not worth the labour of attain-
ing it.
German Flute, is an instrument entirely different
from the common flute. It is not, like that, put into
the mouth to be played ; but the end is stopt with a
tompion or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a
hole about two inches and a half or three inches di¬
stant from the end. This instrument is usually about
a foot and a half long j rather bigger at the upper end
than the lower $ and perforated with holes, besides that
for the mouth, the lowest of which is stopped and open¬
ed by the little finger’s pressing on a brass or some¬
times a silver key, like those in hautboys, bassoons, &c.
Its sound is exceeding sweet and agreeable j and serves
as a treble in a concert.
Flute, or Fluyt, is a kind of long vessel, with
flat ribs or floor timbers, round behind, and swell¬
ed in the middle j serving chiefly for the carrying of
provisions in fleets or squadrons of ships*, though it is
often used in merchandise. The word flute, taken for
a sort of boat or vessel, is derived, according to Borel,
from the ancient flotte, a little boat. In the verbal
process of the miracles of St Catherine of Sweden, in
the 12th century, we read Unus equum suum tinacum
mercibus magniponderis introduxit super instrumentum
de Itgnis fabric alum, vulgariter dictumfluta. U pon which
the Bollandists observe, that in some copies it is read
fiotta, an instrument called by the Latins ratis; and
that the word or flotta arose from flatten or viat¬
ica, “ to float.”
Flutes, or Flutings, in Architecture, are perpen- Fialeti
dicular channels or cavities cut along the shaft of a co- Flux,
lumn or pilaster. They are supposed to have been first ‘ v1—
introduced in imitation of the plaits of women’s robes;
and are therefore called by the Latins striges and ruga.
The French call them cannelures, as being excavations ;
and we, flutes ox flutings, as bearing some resemblance
to the musical instrument so called. They are chiefly
affected in the Ionic order, in which they bad their
first rise ; though they are also used in all the richer
orders, as the Corinthian and Composite; but rarely
in the Doric, and scarce ever in the Tuscan.
FLUX, in Medicine, an extraordinary issue or eva¬
cuation of some humour. Fluxes are various, and vari¬
ously denominated, according to their seats or the hu¬
mours thus voided ; as a flux of the belly, uterine flux,
hepatic flux, salival flux, &c. The flux of the belly is
of four kinds, which have each their respective deno¬
minations, viz. the lientery, oxfluxus lientericus; the
cceliac, orfluxus chylosus; the diarrhoea; and the dy¬
sentery, or bloody flux. See Medicine Index.
Flux, in Hydrography, a regular periodical motion
of the sea, happening twice in 24 hours; wherein the
water is raised and driven violently against the shores.
The flux or flow is one of the motions of the tide;
the other, whereby the water sinks and retires, is called
the reflux or ebb. There is also a kind of rest or ces¬
sation of about half an hour between the flux and re¬
flux ; during which time the water is. at its greatest
height, called high water. The flux is made by the
motion of the water of the sea from the equator to¬
wards the poles ; which, in its progress, striking against
the coasts in its way, and meeting with opposition from
them, swells, and where it can find passage, as in flats,
rivers, &c. rises up and runs into the land. This mo¬
tion follows, in some measure, the course of the moon ;
as it loses or comes later every day by about three quar¬
ters of an hour, or more precisely by 48 minutes ;
and by so much is the motion of the moon slower than
that of the sun. It is always highest and greatest in
full moons, particularly those of the equinoxes. In
some parts, as at Mount St Michael, it rises 80 or 90
feet, though in the open sea it never rises above a foot
or two; and in some places, as about the Morea, there
is no flux at all. Its runs up some rivers above 120
miles. Up the river Thames it only goes 80, viz. near
to Kingston in Surry. Above London bridge the wa¬
ter flows four hours and ebbs eight; and below the
bridge, flows five hours and ebbs seven.
Flux, in Metallurgy, is sometimes used synony¬
mously with fusion. For instance, an ore, or other
matter, is said to be a liquid flux, when it is com¬
pletely fused.
But the word flux is generally used to signify cer¬
tain saline matters, which facilitate the fusion ot ores
and other matters, which are difficultly fusible in es¬
says and reductions ot ores ; such are alkalies, nitre,
borax, tartar, and common salt. But the word
flux is more particularly applied to mixtures of diflerent
proportions of only nitre and tartar; and these fluxes
are called by particular names, according to the pro¬
portions of these ingredients, as in the following ar¬
ticles.
White Flux, is made with equal parts of nitre and
of tartar detonated together, by which they are alka¬
lized.
3
Flat*
FLU
lized. The residuum of this detonation
/ composed of the alkalies of the nitre and of the tartar,
both which are absolutely of the same nature. As the
proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than is suffi¬
cient to consume entirely all the inflammable matter
of the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation
is perfectly white, and is therefore called white flux ;
and as this alkali is made very quickly, it is also called
extemporaneous alkali. When a small quantity only of
white flux is made, as a few ounces for instance, some
nitre always remains undecomposed, and a little of the
inflammable principle of the tartar, which gives a red
or even a black colour to some part of the flux; but
this does not happen when a large quantity of white
flux is made $ because then the heat is much greater.
This small quantity of undecomposed nitre and tartar
which remains in white flux is not hurtful in most of
the metallic fusions in which this flux is employed : but
if the flux be required perfectly pure, it might easily
be disengaged from those extraneous matters by a long
and strong calcination, without fusion.
Crude Flux. By crude flux is meant the mixture of
nitre and tartar in any proportions, without detonation.
Thus the mixture of equal parts of the two salts used
in the preparation of the white flux, or the mixture of
[ <597 ] FLU
is an alkali one part of nitre and two parts of tartar for the pre¬
paration of the black flux, are each of them a crude
flux before detonation. It has also been called white
flux, from its colour; but this might occasion it to be
confounded with the white flux above described. The
name, therefore, of crude flux is more convenient.
Crude flux is detonated and alkalized during the
reductions and fusions in which it is employed $ and is
then changed into white or black flux, according to
the proportions of which it is composed. This detona¬
tion produces good effects in these fusions and reduc¬
tions, if the swelling and extravasation of the detona¬
ting matters be guarded against. Accordingly, crude
flux may be employed successfully in many operations j
as, for instance, in the ordinary operation for procuring
the regulus of antimony.
Black Flux. Black flux is produced from the mix¬
ture of two parts of tartar and one part of nitre deto¬
nated together. As the quantity of nitre which enters
into the composition of this flux is not sufficient to con¬
sume all the inflammable matter of the tartar, the al¬
kali which remains after the detonation contains much
black matter, of the nature of coal, and is therefore
called black flux.
Flu*.
FLUXIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
r | ’HE branch of mathematical analysis which is called
in this country the Method of Fluxions, but on the
continent the Differential and Integral Calculi, was in¬
vented near the end of the 17th century ; and Sir Isaac
Uewton, and Mr Leibnitz, two of the greatest philoso¬
phers of that age, have both claimed the discovery.
It will appear very possible that two such men should
both fall upon this method of calculation nearly about
the same time, if it be considered, that from the begin¬
ning of the 17th century its principles were gradually
coming into view, in consequence of the united labours
and discoveries of a number of mathematicians, such as
Napier, Cavallerius, Roberval, Fermat, Barrow, Wallis,
and others. And considering the number of men of
the first abilities engaged at that time in the study of
mathematics, we may reasonably suppose, that the flux-
ional or difterential calculus, would very soon have
been found according to the ordinary progress of human
knowledge, even although a Newton, or Leibnitz, had
not by the force of superior genius anticipated perhaps
by a few years that event. The first intimation that
was given of the discovery of the calculus was in the
year 1669, when through the intervention of Dr Bar-
row, a correspondence was begun between Sir Isaac
Newton (then Mr Newton), and Mr Collins, one of the
secretaries to the Royal Society. Dr Barrow commu-
nicated to the latter a paper by Newton, which had for
its title, De analysiper cequationes numero terminorum
infinitas. In this paper, besides shewing how to resolve
equations by approximation, Neivton teaches how to
square curves, not only when the expression for the or¬
dinate in terms of the abscissa is a rational quantity,
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
but also when it involves radical quantities, by first re¬
solving these into an infinite series of rational terms by
means of the binomial theorem, a thing which had
never before been done. Newton in this paper gives
some rather obscure indications of the nature of his cal¬
culus, which however serve to shew, beyond all doubt,
that he was then in possession of it j and indeed there
is good reason to believe that he knew it as early as
the year 1665, or even sooner.
These analytical discoveries of Newton were imme¬
diately circulated among mathematicians both in this
country and abroad, by Dr Barrow, and by Collins
and Oldenburg, the two secretaries to the Royal So¬
ciety.
About the end of the year 1672, Newton commu¬
nicated to Collins, by letter, a method of drawing tan¬
gents to curve lines, illustrated by an example, from
which it again plainly appears, that he now possessed
his method of fluxions.
In the course of the following year, Leibnitz came
to London, and communicated to several members of the
Royal Society, some researches relating to the theory of
differences. It was however shewn to him, that this
subject had been previously treated by Mouton an astro¬
nomer of Lyons *, upon this Leibnitz directed his atten¬
tion to the doctrine of series, which was now consider¬
ably advanced, in consequence of the discoveries of the
English mathematicians.
The first direct communication that passed between
Newton and Leibnitz, was by a letter, which the former
addressed to Oldenburg, about the middle of the year
1676. In the beginning of this letter, which was in¬
tended to be shewn to Leibnitz, Newton speaks of him
with much respect. The letter itself chiefly refers to
4T the
Introduc¬
tion.!
FLUXIONS.
698
,ntiodue- the theory of infinite series. In a second letter, written
tiou also with a view to its being communicated to LabmlZ,
' v  Newton, after bestowing deserved commendation on him,
proceeds to explain the steps by which he was led to the
discovery of the binomial theorem. He afterwards,
among other things, delivers several theorems which
have the methofl of fluxions for their basis j but he does
not give their demonstrations, and only observes, that
they depend on the solution of a general problem, the
enunciation of which lie conceals under an anagram
of transposed letters, but the meaning of it is this:
An equation being given containing any number of flow¬
ing quantities, to find their fluxions ; ami the contrary.
This letter affords another proof that Newton was now
in full possession of his calculus.
In the end of June 1677, Leibnitz sent to Oldenburg,
for the purpose of being communicated to Newton, a
letter containing the first essays of his Differential
Calculus. The death of Oldenburg, which happened
soon after, put an end to the correspondence, and in
the year 1684, Leibnitz published his method in the
Leipsic jdcts for the month of October 1684. The title
of the memoir which contained it was, Nova mcthodus
pro maximis et minimis, itcmque tangentibus, quce nec
fractas, nec irrationales quantitates moratur,et smgulare
pro Hit's calculi genus. Thus, in whatever way Leibnitz
came by his calculus, whether he discovered it solely
by the force of his own genius, or founded it on the me¬
thod of fluxions, previously invented by Newton, both
of which hypotheses are possible, his method was cer¬
tainly published before Newton's, which, except what
transpired in consequence of the circulation of his
letters and manuscripts, became only known to the
world in general for the first time, by the publication of
the Frincipia in the end of the year 1686.
It seems at first to have been allowed, that Leibnitz
had invented his calculus, without having any previous
knowledge of what had been done by Newton; tor in
the first edition of the Pnncipia, Newton says, “ In the
course of a correspondence which ten years ago I carried
on with the very learned geometrician Mr Leibnitz,
having intimated to him that I possessed a method of de¬
termining maxima and minima, of drawing tangents,
and resolving such problems, not only when the equa¬
tions were rational, but also when they were irra¬
tional •, and having concealed this method, by transpo¬
sing the letters of the following sentence—An equation
being given, containing any number of flowing quan¬
tities, to fluid their fluxions ; and the contrary; this ce¬
lebrated man answered that he had found a similar
method, which he communicated to me, and which dif¬
fers from mine, only in the enunciation, and in the no¬
tation.” To this, in the edition of I7r4 added,
“ and in the manner of conceiving the quantities to be
# . generated*.”
lib H lem* There is reason to suppose that Leibnitz might have
3 »«hol. * continued to enjoy undisturbed the honour of being
considered as one of the inventors of the fiuxional or
differential calculus, if he had not manifested a disposi¬
tion to attribute the invention too exclusively to him¬
self. This called forth some remarks respecting the
priority of Newton's claim to the discovery. In parti¬
cular M. Facio asserted, in a treatise on the Line of
swiftest descent, published in 1699, “ that he was obli¬
ged to own Newton as the first inventor of the diffe¬
rential calculus, and the first by many years ; and that introdiu.
he left the world to judge whether Leibnitz, the second Uon.
inventor, had taken any thing from him.” “
On the other hand, when Newton's treatise on the
quadrature of curves, and on the enumeration of lines
of the third order was published, which was in 1704,
the Leipsic journalists insinuated, in a very liberal ac¬
count which they gave of the work, that Leibnitz was
the first inventor, and that Newton had taken his method
from Leibnitz's, substituting fluxions for differences.
In consequence of tins attack on Newton, Dr John
Keill asserted, in the Philosophical Transactions for
1708, that Newton was beyond a doubt the first invent¬
or of the arithmetic of fluxions, and that the same arith¬
metic having its name and notation changed, was
afterwards published by Mr Leibnitz in the Peipsic
Acts. In answer to this, Leibnitz replied, in a letter
to Hans Sloane, secretary to the Royal Society, that no
one knew better than Newton himself, that the charge
against him implied in Keill's assertion was false •, and
he required Keill to retract what he had said. To this
request, however, Keill would by no means accede ; but
on the contrary, he wrote a long letter to the secretary
of the Royal Society, in which he endeavoured to prove,
not only that Newton had preceded Leibnitz in the in¬
vention, but that he had given to the latter such in¬
dications of the nature of his calculus, as made it easy
for him to fall upon the same. This letter was sent to
Leibnitz, who replied, that Keill, although learned, was
too young a man to be fit to judge of what had passed
between him and Newton, and he requested the Royal
Society to put a stop to Keill's clamours.
The Royal Society being thus appealed to as a judge,
appointed a committee to examine all the old letters,
papers, and documents, which had passed among the
several mathematicians, relating to the question. The
judgment of the committee was to the following et~
feet: “ That Mr Leibnitz was in London in 1673,
and went thence to Paris, where he kept a correspond¬
ence with Mr Collins by means of Mr Oldenburg, till
about September 1676, and then returned by London
and Amsterdam to Hanover 5 and that Mr Collins was
very free in communicating to able mathematicians
what he bad received from Newton, lhat it did not
appear, that Mr Leibnitz knew any thing of the differ¬
ential calculus before his letter ot the 21st ol June 1677?
which was a year after a copy of Newton's letter of the
10th of December 1672 had been sent to Paris, to be
communicated to him, and above four years after Mr
Collins began to communicate that letter to his corre¬
spondents •, in which letter the method of fluxions was
sufficiently described to any intelligent person. That
Newton was in possession of his calculus before the year
1669, and that those who had reputed Leibnitz the first
inventor, knew little or nothing of his correspondence
with Mr Collins, and Mr Oldenburg, long before, nor of
Newton's having that method above 15 years before
Mr Leibnitz began to publish it in the Leipsic Acts.
That for these reasons, they reckoned Newton the first
inventor, and were of opinion, that Mr Keill in assert¬
ing the same had been in no ways injurious to Mr
Leibnitz."
It is deserving of remark, that the committee deliver¬
ed no opinion upon the advantage which Leibnitz was
accused of having taken of the hints furnished to him
in
FLUXIONS.
utroduc- the course of his correspondence with Neivton; they
tion. left the decision of this point to the world in general ;
I*~v——' and to enable every one to judge for himself, the Koyal
Society ordered the opinion of the committee to be
printed, together with all the documents upon which
it was founded. These appeared in 1712 under the
title of, Commerctum Epistolicum de Analysis promota.
This work was carefully circulated over Europe, to vin¬
dicate the title of the English nation to the discovery.
The Commercium Epistolicum having appeared, Leib¬
nitz expressed great dissatisfaction, and threatened to
reply in such a manner as to confound his adversaries.
There seems no reason however to suppose, that any
thing he could have said, would have affected Newton's
claim to the honour of being the first inventor; for on this
point there cannot be any doubt. With respect, however,
to the other question, whether Leibnitz took his calcu¬
lus from Newton, or found it himself, it is impossible
to decide with such certainty. Mr Montucla, in his
JoUi. p. History of Mathematics *, says, “ There are only three
, places of the Commercium Epistolicum, which treat of
the principles of fluxions in so clear a way, as to prove
that Newton had found it before Leibnitz, but too ob¬
scurely, it seems, to take from the latter the merit of
the discovery. One of these is in a letter from Newton
to Oldenburg, who had signified to him, that Slusius
Gregory had each found a very simple method of draw¬
ing tangents. .Nmjfo/z replied, that he conjectured what
the nature of that method was; and he gave an example
of it, which shews it to be in effect the same thing as
those geometricians had found. He adds, that it is
only a particular case, or rather a corollary to a method
much more general, which, without a laborious calcu¬
lation, applies to the finding of tangents to all sorts of
cQrves, geometrical or mechanical, and that without
being obliged to free the equation from radicals. He
repeats the same thing without explaining himself far¬
ther, in another letter, and he conceals the principle of
the method under transposed letter’s. The only place
where Newton has allowed any thing of his method to
transpire, is in his Analysis per cequationes numero ter¬
minus infinitas. He here discloses, in a very concise
and obscure manner, his principle of fluxions, hut there
is no certainty of Leibnitz's having seen this essay. His
opponents have never asserted that it was communica¬
ted to him by letter, and they have gone no farther than
to suspect, that he had obtained a knowledge of it in
the interview which he had with Collins, upon his se¬
cond journey to London. Indeed, this suspicion is
not entirely destitute of probability, for Leibnitz ad¬
mitted, that in this interview, he saw a part of the
Epistolary Correspondence of Collins. However I think
it would be rash to pronounce upon this circumstance.
If Leibnitz had confined himself to a few essays of his
new calculus, there might have been some foundation
for that suspicion ; but the numerous pieces he inserted
in the Leipsic Acts, prove the calculus to have receiv¬
ed such improvements from him, that probably he owed
the invention of it to his genius, and to the efforts he
made to discover a method, which put Newton in pos¬
session of so many beautiful truths. This is so much
the more likely, as, from the method of tangents dis¬
covered by Dr Barrow, the transition to the differen¬
tial calculus was easy, nor was the step too great for
such a genius as that with which Leibnitz appears to
have been endowed.” Such is the opinion of Montucla,
who being a foreigner, cannot be supposed to have
been too partial towards Newton, an Englishman. The
British mathematicians have hitherto, with few excep¬
tions, entertained an opinion still more decidedly in fa¬
vour of the claims of their celebrated countryman.
It has been said that Newton took no share in the
controversy ; this however seems not to have been ex¬
actly the case, for besides suppressing in the third edi¬
tion of his Brincipia (printed in ih]’l6') the passage we
have already quoted, which seems to admit that L.cib-
nitz invented his calculus for himself, he is known to
have written the notes which accompany the edition of
the Commercium Epistolicum, printed in 1722. Leib¬
nitz had also begun to prepare a Commercium Epistoli¬
cum, but he died before it was completed.
Besides the disputes that have happened respecting
the inventor of the method of fluxions, the accuracy of
the method itself has been the subject of controversy,
both in Britain and on the continent. The differential
calculus was attacked abroad by Nieuwentat, a writer
of little or no reputation as a mathematician, and by
Nolle, who was an expert algebraist, and an indefatiga¬
ble calculator, but rash, and too confident of the just¬
ness of his own opinions, and jealous of the inventions
of others. To the first of these writers Leibnitz him¬
self replied, and afterwards Bernoulli &nA Herman ;
the attack from Rolle was successfully repelled by Va-
rignon, who was as zealous and intelligent, as his ad¬
versary was warm and impetuous.
The very concise manner in which the great inventor
of the method of fluxions thought proper to explain its
principles, gave occasion to the celebrated Dr Berkley
bishop of Cloyne to call in question, not only the logical
accuracy of the reasoning employed to establish the
theory of fluxions, but also the faith of mathematicians
in general, in regard to the truths of religion. The
bishop commenced the controversy first in'a small work
entitled The Minute Philosopher ; but his principal at¬
tack made its appearance in 1734, under the title of
“ The Analyst, or A Discourse addressed to an Infi¬
del Mathematician'' (understood to be Dr Halley,)
“ wherein it is examined whether the object, principles,
and inferences of the modern Analysis are more dis¬
tinctly conceived than religious mysteries and points of
faith." One of the best answers which was made to
this work came from the pen of Benjamin Robins, and
is entitled, “ A discourse concerning the nature and
certainty of Sir Isaac Newton's methods of fluxions,
and of prime and ultimate ratios." Other mathemati¬
cians likewise attempted to defend Newton, and the
method of fluxions, against the very cogent and well-
directed arguments of the bishop: but the most satis¬
factory way of removing all objections to the method,
was to abandon those obscure and inaccurate modes of
expression, of which Berkley had, not without some rea¬
son, complained, and to substitute in their place, others
more intelligible, and more consonant to the common me¬
thods of mathematical reasoning. This was accordingly
done by the celebrated Maclaurin, who, in the year
1742, published his Treatise of Fluxions, a work which,
although in some respects rather diffuse, placed the prin¬
ciples of the method beyond controversy, by establishing
them on the firm basis of geometrical demonstration.
It would extend this introduction to too great a
4X2 length
699
Introdve.
tion
700
Direct
Method.
FLUX
length werG we to enter into a detailed account of the
various improvements which the calculus has received
’ from its first invention to the present time. We shall
just briefly observe, that among those who contributed
the first and the most effectually to its improvement, we
may reckon Newton and Leibnitz themselves, the two
illustrious rivals for the honour of its discovery ; these
were followed by the two brothers Jat?ies and John Ber¬
noulli, by the Marquis de Vliopital, and many other
foreign mathematicians j and in this country we may
reckon Craig, Cheyne, Cotes, Taijlor, and De Moivre,
as among the earliest of its improvers. It is to Cotes
in particular that we are indebted for the discovery of
the method of finding the fluents of certain rational frac¬
tions, a discovery which was extended by De Moivre,
so as to form one of the most beautiful and complete
branches of the theory of fluxions.
Besides innumerable memoirs on particular branches
of the fluxional calculus, which are to be found in aca¬
demical collections, many distinct treatises have been
written on the subject. Some of the most valuable of
these are as follow. The Method of Fluxions and In¬
finite Series, by Sir Isaac Newton. This work was
written in Latin, but was not published till the year
when it was translated into English, and given to
the world, along with a comment, by Mr Colson. Har-
monia Mensurarum, by Cotes, a most valuable and ori¬
ginal work, published in iqid. A Treatise on Fluxions,
in two books, by Maclaurin, published in 1742. Many
parts of the writings of the celebrated Euler have a re¬
ference to the theory of fluxions, or the differential and
integral calculi. He has, however, three works in par¬
ticular that relate to that subject 5 the first is his In-
troductio in AnaJysin Infinitorum, the second his In-
stitutiones Calculi Dijfcrentialis, and the third his In-
stitutiones Calculi Integralis.
There is a work on this subject which deserves to be
particularly mentioned, both on account of its excellence,
and the singular circumstance of its being composed by a
lady. Its title is, Analytical Institutions, in four books,
originally written in Italian, by Donna Maria Gaetana
Agnesi. This lady was Professor of Mathematics and
IONS. Parti.
Philosophy in the University of Bologna ; her work was Direct
originally published in 1748, and has been styled by her Method,,
countryman Frisi, Opus nitidissimum, ingeniosissimum,
et eerie maximum quod adhuc ex fcemince alicujus cala-
mo prodierit. A part of this work has been published
in the French language by Bossut. An English transla¬
tion was prepared for the press many years ago by the
late Professor Colson ; it remained, however, unpublish¬
ed, and might still have continued so, but for the libera¬
lity of Baron Maseres, who, after satisfying some pe¬
cuniary claims upon the manuscript, caused it, in 1801,
to be published (we believe at his own expence), in
two volumes quarto. The Doctrine and Application of
Fluxions, by Thomas Simpson, is a work deservedly in
high estimation. The Doctrine of Fluxions, by Emer¬
son, is also very generally read by the British mathe¬
maticians. We are sorry, however, to observe, that
there is no work in the English language that exhibits
a complete view of the theory of fluxions, with all the
improvements that have been made upon it to the pre¬
sent time. We cannot at present acquire any tolerable
acquaintance with the subject, without consulting the
writings of the foreign mathematicians. There are se¬
veral excellent works in the French language ; we may-
mention in particular a Traite de Calcul Dijferentiel et
de Calcul Integral, by Cousin, in 2 vols. 410. *, another
by Bossut, in 2 vols. 8vo. y and another by La Croix,
in 3 vols. 4to. This last deserves particular notice, as
the author intended it to comprehend the substance of
the various valuable treatises by Euler, as well as of
the most important academical memoirs that relate to
this subject. The author has also published an abridg¬
ment of his work, in one volume octavo. Principiorum
Calculi Differentialis et Integralis, by VHuilier, pub¬
lished in 1795, contains a very clear exposition of the
principles of the calculus. The writings of our coun¬
trymen Landen and Waring, and of these foreign ma¬
thematicians La Grange, Le Gendre, La, Place, and
many others, abound with improvements in the calcu¬
lus. Having given this sketch of the history of this
very important branch of mathematical science, we pro¬
ceed to explain its principles.
PART I. THE DIRECT METHOD OE FLUXIONS.
Sect. I. Principles and Definitions.
1. IN the application of algebra to the theory of
curve lines, we find that some of the quantities which
are the subject of consideration, may be conceived as
having always the same magnitude, as the parameter
of a parabola, and the axes of an ellipse or hyperbola y
while others again are indefinite in respect of magni¬
tude, and may have any number of particular values,
such are the co-ordinates at any point in a curve line.
This difference in the nature of the quantities which are
compared together, has equally place in various other
theories, both in pure and mixed mathematics, and it
naturally suggests the divisions of all quantities what¬
ever into two kinds, namely, such as are constant, and
such as are variable.
2. A constant quantity is that which retains always
the same magnitude, however other quantities with
which it is connected may be supposed to change y and
a variable quantity is that which is indefinite in respect
of magnitude, or which may be supposed to change its
value. Thus, in the arithmetic of sines, the radius is a
constant quantity, while the cosine, sine, tangent, &c,
of an arch, also the arch itself, are variable quantities y
and in the conic sections the axes and the parameters
of the axes are constant quantities, and any abscissa
and its corresponding ordinate are variable quantities.
Constant quantities are usually denoted by the first
letters of the alphabet a, l, c, &c. and variable quan¬
tities by the last letters z, y, x, &c.
3. Any expression of calculation, containing a va¬
riable quantity, along with other constant quantities, is
called a Function of that variable quantity. Thus, sup¬
posing a; to be variable, and the other quantities constant,
any
3art I.
Direct c it . ,, a-\-bxm
Method. any one °* these expressions a xnf —^—-—
cos. x. sin. x, &c. is a function of x; and in any such
equation as yrra + the quantity y is
called a function of x. Even although the variable
quantities x and y, should not be separated as in the last
example, but should be related to each other as in the
following,
a x*y -j- 6 w y* -|-y3:=o,
as, setting aside the consideration of the constant quan¬
tities, the value ofy depends on that of «, and on the
contrary the value of x depends upon that of y, the
quantity y is said to he a function of xt and on the other
hand x is said to be a function of y.
4. If a variable quantity be supposed to change its
value, then a corresponding change will take place in
the value of any function of that quantity. Let us
examine the nature of this change in the magnitude of
a function.
First, let us suppose that, x denoting any variable
quantity, the function to be considered is any integer
power of that quantity, as x*, or x3, or a?4, &c.; then,
x being supposed to be increased by an indefinite quan¬
tity h, and thus to become a?-}-/z, the function will
change its value j if it be it will become or
701
power of the indefinite quantity h multiplied by some Direct
function of the variable quantity # as a co-efficient. Method.
The second term of the series consists of the second v -r
power of /i, multiplied also by a function of a; as a co¬
efficient $ and, in like manner, the third and following
terms are composed of the third and higher powers of /i
(the exponents forming the arithmetical series 1, 2, 3,
4, &c.) each multiplied by a function of a? as a coeffi¬
cient; and it appears, that the particular form of the
function which constitutes the coefficient of any assigned
term of the series depends entirely upon the particular
form of the original function. Thus, when the original
function is x*, the function which is the coefficient of
the first term is 2 x ; when the original function is a?3,
the co-efficient of the first term is 3 a?* ; when the ori¬
ginal function is a:4, the coefficient of the first term is
4A;*, and so on. It also appears that the functions of x,
which are the co-efficients of the powers of h, are com¬
posed only of the variable quantity x and given quan¬
tities, so that they are entirely independent of the inde« -
finite increment h.
6. These observations may be extended to a function^
that is any power whatever of a variable quantity, by
the application of the binomial theorem. Let x be
supposed to become A?-fA, then A;nwill become
but by the binomial theorem, (see Algebra, Sect,
xvii.) (Af + A)" when expanded into a series, is
FLUXIONS.
, fl*, log. A?,
#*-{- 2 x h-\-h* ;
and if it be x3 it will become (a?-{-/*)3 or
a;3-{-3 x* /z-}-3 x ;
and if it be x* it wfill become (A?-f-^)4, or
#4-f-4 a:3 ^4-6a:* A*-f-4A?A3-}-/i4}
and so on, for other integer powers.
If we compare the new value of the function in each
of these cases with its former value, it will immediately
appear, that the new value may be resolved into two
parts, one of which is the original value of the function,
and, therefore, the other is the increment which the
function has received, in consequence of the change in
the value of the variable quantity a;. Thus, the function
being a?*, we have found its new value to be a?*-{-2a?A-f-A2,
of which expression, the first term x* is the original value
of the function; therefore the other part of the expression
viz. 2xli-\.J? is its increment. In like manner the ex¬
pression a;3=3a:Vj-{-3 a?A*-{-AV which is the new value
of the function jc3, may be resolved into a;3, the original
value of the function, and 3 x^h-J-3 at A*-f- A3 its incre¬
ment j and a;4 4-4 *3 A+ 6 a;* 7^4-4 at A3A4, the new
value of the function x4, may be resolved into a;4, the
function itself, and 4 a?3 A-}-6 a:2 A*4-4 a? A3+A4 its in¬
crement.
5. Having seen that, by conceiving the variable
quantity x to receive the indefinite increment A, the
functions a;s, .v3, x4 receive the increments
2 x A-j-A*,
3 a:2 A4-3 a? A24-A3,
4 A?3 A 4-6 #2 A24-4 x A3 4-A4,
respectively, we next observe that each increment is ex¬
pressed by a series, the first term of which is the first
„ . , , . 72(72—O
xn+ - A?”-1 A 4- —   xn
I 1*2
A*1
n(n—i) (72—2)_ n_,
  A? J
I • 2 * 3
A3 4- &C.
where it appears, that the first term of the series is the
original value of the function, and the following terms
are the first, second, and following powers of the incre¬
ment A, each multiplied by a new function of a;, that
is independent of the increment. Let us denote the
functions nxn~xt ^ a;"”1, and — - .
1-2 1 ‘ 2 • 3
Ar"-3, &c. hyp, q, r, &c. respectively ; and it is to be
observed that, in the present case, as well as in the case
of any other function of x we may hereafter consider,
by the letters p, q, r, &c. or the same letters with ac¬
cents over them, or lastly the capital letters P, Q, R,
&c. we do not mean to denote functions of x of any
particular form, but functions of a? in general, that con¬
sist only of x and given quantities. This being kept in
view, it appears that the variable quantity x being sup¬
posed to change its value, and to become A?-j-A, the
function xn changes its value, so as to become
Af-f-pA-f-yA*4-7’A34-sA44-> &c.
a series, the terms of which have the properties already
explained in the two preceding sections.
7. Every rational and integer function of a variable
quantity x is necessarily of this form,
A#1*-}- B «/34-CA;y4- dccojj
where A, B, C, &c. and «, /3, y, are supposed to denote
constant quantities.
Let us examine what is the form which the function
assumes when the variable quantity a; changes its value
to -
FLUXIONS.
Direct to n-\-h; and to avoid complicated expressions, let us
MeltloJ- suppose the function to consist of these two terms A** +
We have already found in last section that * being
up posed to become a?-[-A, will become
j^-p h-\-q A2+r 7i3+ &c.
where p, q, r, &c. denote functions of * independent
of hf as explained in the last section, and consequently
Ax" will become
' Ax*-\-Ap h+Aq/i*-{-Arh3+&c.
■ In like manner Ba?!3 will become
B*'3 +B p' h+B q' Aa+B r* h3 + &c.
q', tJ, &c. denoting also functions of x independent
ofh; therefore taking the sum of the two series, it ap¬
pears that, supposing x to change its value, and to be¬
come x + h, the function Ax* + B ^ becomes
A** 4- Ba;£ +(A- p+B/?0 ^ + (A
+ (Ar+Br0^3 + &c.
now p and p' being functions of x, Ap + Bp' will also
be a function of#, and may be denoted more simply by
P, and for the same reason Aq-\-Bq\ Ar-j-Br', &c.
which are functions of #, may be denoted by Q, B, &c.
thus the expression for the new value of Ax* +B is
Ax* + B +P + &c.
a series, the form and properties of which are in all
respects analogous to those of the series that expresses
the new value of the function and although we have
supposed the function to consist of but two terms, still
the form of the series and its properties will be the same ;
that is, it will consist of two parts, one of which is in¬
dependent of h, and;is the original value of the function,
and the other is a series, the terms of which are the suc¬
cessive powers of the increment h, each multiplied by a
function of the variable quantity # as a coefficient.
This conclusion may be expressed in symbols concisely
thus. Let u denote any rational and integer function
of a variable quantity #, let * be conceived to change
its magnitude, and to become and let.« denote
the new value which the function acquires in conse¬
quence of the change in the value of #, then
u!zzu-\-p 7i~\-q h*-\-rh} &c.
where p, q, r, &c. denote functions of x as already
stated.
8. Suppose next the function of x to be of this
form
(A** + E^ + C*> H-&c.)%
that is, suppose it to be the «th power of a polynomial,
consisting of any number of terms whatever. Let the
expression between the parenthesis be denoted by v,
then we are to consider the function v". Now when x
becomes x+ht we have already found that v becomes
v-^-ph-^qh^-^r h3 -f- &c.
therefore t;“ will become
(v+ph + qh'Jfr/i3-^ See.)",
or, putting p h-^-qh?-\-r h3 -f- &c. r:M,
t>" will become (u-f-M)",
and this expression when expanded into a series by the
binomial theorem is
aT-fat;"-1 M9+t;c"-J M4 &c.
where a, r, See. express numbers.
Now from the form of the series denoted by M, it is
manifest that its square, cube, or any power of it what¬
ever, will be a series proceeding by the powers of h, and
having for the coefficients of its terms certain combina¬
tions of the quantities jo, q, rt &c. which being func¬
tions of #, any combinations of them will also be func¬
tions of x. Therefore, each of the terms of the above
series, expressing the developement of ex¬
cepting the first term v", will itself be a series proceed-
ing by the powers of h, and having its terms multiplied
by functions of #, and consequently their sum will be a
series of the same nature. Let us as before denote the
functions of x, which are the coefficients of the succes¬
sive powers of 7i by P, Q, R, Sec. and we shall hav*
upon the whole
(v-\-p h-\-q ^-{-rh3 -{- &c.)"
expressed by a series of this form
t;"-fP^-f-Q/P + RA3 -f &c.
therefore, putting the single letter u for the function*
or for
(A** -f B -}- C ** -f &c.)"
and u' for the new value which u acquires by x chang¬
ing its value to x-\-h,
u'=t/ + PA + QA9-fR//3+ &c.
a series of the same nature as before.
p. Let us now consider a fractional function of
and let us suppose it to be
A' x*f + B' xP -f- C' xy' -f &c.
A ** + B #£ + C + &c.
Where A', A, B', B, &c. also *8, &c- de¬
note constant quantities. Let v denote the numerator
of the fraction, and its denominator, then the func¬
tion is
v t
—, or vw~lt
w
now when x becomes #4“v becomes
v~{-p h-\-q h?-\-r h3 4* &-c*
and to~l becomes
U)~l-\-pt h-\-q' h3 -f*
and consequently v iv~* becomes
04-f A-H A*4-8cc.) («r* x/ A-f / A*4-&c.)
and
Fart I. Pi
Dircet j
Method.
Part I.
Direct and the product of these two factors, by actual multi-
Method. plication is
-f- v p*
p
7 4-^' 1
5“ +PP' fh*
3 +W-'q J
-J* &c»
Now, here as before, it appears that the coefficients of
the powers of h are functions of x, therefore, denoting
these functions by P, Q, R, &c. and observing that
vw~x is —, we have the new value of— expressed
w w
by the series
-f PA-fQ /i*+R/i3 4. &c.
or, substituting the single letter « for —, that is, for
A' -f-TV -f-C'
A xK -j-B x^ -f-C x7 -f-&c.
and putting u! for the value that u acquires when x be¬
comes tf-j-A,
t/=M-|-P A+Q 7i3-f-Scc.
a series in all respects analogous to those already found
for the other functions of x.
io. In the functions which we have hitherto consi¬
dered, the exponents of the powers of x were constant
quantities. Let us now' consider a function in which
the exponent is the variable quantity x itself.
Suppose then the function to be «*, where a de¬
notes a given number ; then, by supposing x to become
#-{-/*, the function will become
x4-h x h
a 1 —a a .
Now it has been shown in the article Algebra,
§ 295, that if A be put to denote the quotient arising
from the division of a logarithm of a by the logarithm
of 2’7i828i8‘” the exponential quantity oh is expres¬
sed by the series
/i*_j A3-j-&c.
FLUXIONS.
change that takes place in the magnitude of the vari¬
able quantity from which the function is formed, we
may conclude the truth of the following general pro- 1
position to be sufficiently established.
Let x denote a variable quantity^ and u any function
whatever of that quantity, let x be supposed to receive
any increment h, and thus to become x-j-h, and let u'
be the new value which the function acquires by the
change in the value of x; then, the new value of u may
in every case be expressed thus :
u'=zu-{-p h-\-q h*-\-r h3
where p, q, r, &c. denote quantities that are quite in¬
dependent of h, and consequently can only involve the
variable quantity x, and given quantities.
7°3
, A 7 , Aa
14 hA 
I 1 1’2
l-2'3
therefore, ox^"A, the new value of the function, is
'A A* As
ox (1 4- — A4- --- £*4- -1— A34-&c.
I 1*2
this series, by multiplying all its terms by and put-
ting p, q, r, &c. for that part of each term which is
independent of h, becomes
0*4-/' ^*4-r A34-&c.
so that denoting the function o* by «, and its new
value by u',
u'—uA^-p h-\-qh*-\-r h3+&.C.
a series of the same form as the others.
11. From a due consideration of what has been
shewn relating to the changes that take place in the
magnitude of a variable function, corresponding to the
Direct
Method.
12. Having examined what is the general form that
any function of a variable quantity acquires by a change
in the value of that quantity, and found it to be a series,
the first term of which is always the function itself, it is
evident that the remaining terms will express the incre¬
ment that the function receives, in consequence of the
change in the magnitude of the variable quantity from
which the function is formed. Let us now compare
the simultaneous increments of a variable quantity and
its function with each other, and that vve may at first
avoid general reasoning, and fix the mind more com¬
pletely, let us suppose the functions to have a determi¬
nate form, as a*, x3, a4, &c.
Putting u and u' as before to denote the two succeed¬
ing values of the function, first let it be supposed that
7/=a*, then x being supposed to receive the indefinite
increment h, and thus to become xA^-h, and «to change
its value to a'=:(x4-Aa)> we have
u'—x'14- 2 .r A 4-^*,
or, u'—u 4- 2 a; A 4-7^,
and consequently
u'—'ll— ix h4-A*.
Thus it appears, that the simultaneous increments of
x and x* (or u') are A and 2 a? 774-77*, respectively. Let
us now compare these increments, not in respect of their
absolute magnitudes, but in respect of their ratio to each
other, thus vve shall have the increment of u to the in¬
crement of a;, as 2x hAf-h2 to h, that is, (dividing the
two last terms of the proportion by A) as 2 a?4-^ to 1.
Or, instead of employing an analogy, let us, for the
sake of brevity, and in conformity to the algebraic no¬
tation, rather express each of these ratios by the quo¬
tient arising from the division of the antecedents of the
ratio by its consequents, and put the results equal to
each other. Then, observing that the symbol u'—ut
which expresses the difference between the succeeding
values of the function, may be employed to denote its
increment, vve have
u'—u 2 x A-I-A* .
—a—=“+/S-
Hence it appears that the expression for the ratio of
the increment of the function u to the increment of the
variable quantity x is made up of two parts, one of
these, viz. 2 a x, is quite independent of A, the incre¬
ment of x, and the other is in the present case that incre¬
ment itself. In consequence of this peculiarity in the
form
704
Direct
Method.
FLUXIONS.
form of the expression for the ratio, it is evident that
if the increment h be conceived to be continually dimi¬
nished, the part of the expression which consists of h
will continually diminish, so that the whole expression,
viz. 2.v-f-A, may become more nearly equal to its first
term 2X than by any assignable difierence ; therefore,
. v'—u
2 x may be considered as the limit of the ratio ^ •
that is, a quantity to which the ratio may approach
nearer than by any assignable ditference, but to which
it cannot be considered as becoming absolutely equal.
Let us next suppose that M=:tf3, then * being suppo¬
sed to become x+h, we have u'=:(x+hy, =a;3+3
+ 3 * or
-J-3 a?* A+3 # A*+
Part I.
denote any function of a variable quantity, as for ex- Direct
ample, axn} or a xm-\‘bxn-\- &c. or tMethod.
axm-\-bxn-\- &c. ,1 J
a' A?m, + ^n/+&c.
and u' being put for the new value which the function
acquires when x becomes a?+A,
A-}-^ A2-f-r A3-f &c.
where p, y, r, See. denote functions of x that are inde¬
pendent of A, therefore,
v!—«=/> A+g'A*-j-r A3 Sec.
and
-—A-f-r A3-f-&c. ^
and consequently
u'—«=3 A+3 x A*+AJ,
and -^—3 #*+3 x A+A2.
n
or,
—-—=rp-}-A (g-J-r A-{- &c.)
n
Thus it appears, that whatever be the form of the
Here it is evident, as in the former case, that the ex¬
pression for the ratio is composed of two parts,
one of these, viz. the first term 3 is a function of*
that is independent of the increment A, but the other,
viz. 3 * A+A», or A (3 *+A), is the product of two
factors, one of which is the increment itself. From the
particular form of this latter part of the expression tor
the ratio, it is plain, that A being supposed to be con¬
tinually diminished, that part will also dimmish, and
may become less than any assignable quantity, .there¬
fore in this case, as well as in the former, the ratio
u u has a limit, and that limit is the first term of the
general expression for the ratio, namely the quantity
3 A?*.
Suppose, next, that «=*♦, and consequently
«,=(*+A)4=<tf4+4 a? 3 A + 6 A2 4-4 x A3-|-A4,
or,
v ' a:3 A -{- 6 #2 A2 -f- 4 a? A3 A4,
and—^—=4 ^2 + 4 * A-}-A ).
Here, as in the two former cases, we have only to in-
. «'—u ,.
spect the general expression for the ratio —^— to dis¬
cover, that by supposing A to be continually diminished,
the latter part of the expression, viz. A(6iv24-4«A-}-A2),
and which comprises all the terms except the first, wi l
become smaller than any assignable quantity) and con¬
sequently, that the first term 4** is the limit of the
ratio.
13. It is easy to see that the property which we have
found to belong to the ratio of the simultaneous incre¬
ments of a variable quantity, and its function in these
three particular cases, is an immediate consequence
of the form of the expression for the increment of the
function, so that it is not peculiar to the functions x2,
x3t and *4, but belongs equally to all functions what¬
ever.
For we have found, f n> that u being supposed to
function, the ratio is always expressed by a quan-
/i
tity which may be resolved into two parts j one of these,
viz. p, is independent of the increment A, and the other,
viz. A(9-fr A -|-&c.), is the product of A by a series,
the first term of which is a function of.#, and the re.
maining terms also functions of x multiplied by the first,
second, third, and higher powers of A. Now from the
particular form of this last part of the general expression
for the ratio, it is manifest, that A being conceived to
be continually diminished, the quantity A (y-j-r A+
&c. will also be continually diminished, and may be¬
come less than any assignable quantity j therefore, the
limit of the ratio is simply p, that is, the function
/i
of x, which is the coefficient of the first or simple power
of A in the general expression for the increment.
14, From what has been just shewn, we may infer
the truth of the following general proposition relative
to the simultaneous changes that take place in a varia¬
ble quantity and its function.
Zet x denote a variable quantity and u any function
of that quantity, let x be conceived to change its value
and become x-f h, where h denotes an arbitrary mere-
ment, and let u' denote the new value that the function
acquires, in consequence of the change in the magnitude
ofx. Then, observing that h and u'—u are the simul¬
taneous increments of the variable quantity and its
function, if h be conceived to be continually diminished,
the ratio —continually approach to a certain
Limit, which will be different for different functions, but
always the same for the same function, and in every case
quite independent of the magnitude of the increments.
The ratio which is the limit of the ratio ot the in¬
crements, when these increments are conceived to be
continually diminished, may be called the limiting ratio
of the increments.
1 c. The analytical fact contained in the preceding
proposition, affords the foundatien for a mathemati¬
cal theory of great extent, and which may be divided
3
'’art I.
Direct
Method.
FLUX
into two distinct branches j one having for its object the
resolution ot the following problem. Having given the
relation oj any number of variable quantities to each
other, to determine the limiting ratios of their incre¬
ments; and the other the converse of that problem,
namely, Having given the limiting ratios, to determine
the relations oj the quantities themselves,
I he theory to which we have alluded constitutes the
Method of Fluxions, and in explaining the founda¬
tion of the method, we have endeavoured to show, that
it rests upon a principle purely analytical, namely, the
theory of limiting ratios 5 and this being the case, the
subject may be treated as a branch of pure mathema¬
tics, without having occasion to introduce any ideas fo¬
reign to geometry.
16. Sir Isaac Newton, however, in first delivering the
principles of the method, thought proper to employ con¬
siderations drawn from the theory of motion. IJut he
appears to have done this chiefly for the purpose of il¬
lustration, for he immediately has recourse to the theory
of limiting ratios $ and it has been the opinion of several
mathematicians of great eminence (a) that the consi¬
deration of motion was introduced into the method of
fluxions at first without necessity, and that succeeding
writers on the subject ought to have established the
theory upon principles purely mathematical, independent
of the ideas of time and velocity, both of which seem
foreign to investigations relating to abstract quantity.
17. That we may conform to the usual method of
treating this subject, we proceed to show how the
theory of motion is commonly applied to the illustration
of the nature of variable quantities, and of the relations
that result from their being conceived to change their
value.
As quantities of every kind, if we abstract from their
position, figure, and such aflections, and consider their
magnitude only, may be represented by lines, we may
consider a variable quantity x, and u any function of
that quantity, to be represented by two lines AP, BQ,
which have A, B, one extremity of each given, and
which vary by the points P, Q, their other extremities,
moving in the directions AC, BD, while the equation
expressing the relation between x and u, or their repre¬
sentative lines AP, BQ, remains always the same.
IONS.
and the measures of the velocities with which the varia¬
ble quantities increase have been called \.\\ewfluxions,
19. To simplify the hypothesis, we may suppose that
the point which generates the line AP, or x, moves uni¬
formly 5 thus the measure of its velocity, or the fluxion
of will be a given quantity, with which the measure
ol the velocity ol the point Q, or the fluxion of w, may
be continually compared. To determine then the flux¬
ions, or rather the ratio of the fluxions of x a variable
quantity, and u, any function of that quantity, is in
eflect to resolve the following problem.
Having given an equation expressing the relation at
every instant between the spares passed over by two
points, one of which moves with an unjorm velocity:
It is required to Jind an expression Jor the ratio that
the measures of the velocities have at every instant to
each other.
20. Now it is a fundamental principle in the theory
of motion, resulting indeed from the very nature of a
■variable velocity, that when two velocities are compar¬
ed together, whether they be both variable, or one of
them uniform, and the other variable, the measures of
their velocities are any quantities having to each other
the ratio that is the limit of the ratio of the spaces de¬
scribed in the same time, when those spaces are con¬
ceived to be continually diminished. And hence it fol¬
lows that the ratio of the fluxions of two variable quan¬
tities is no other than the limiting ratio of their simul¬
taneous increments.
I hat the theory of motion may be applied to the
generation of variable algebraic quantities, we have sup¬
posed them to be represented by lines \ this, however,
is not necessary, if the variable quantities are them¬
selves geometrical magnitudes j for like as a line is
conceived to be generated by the motion of a point, so
a surface may be considered as generated by the mo¬
tion of a line, a solid by the motion of a surface, and
an angle by the rotation of one of the lines which con¬
tain it j and the fluxions of those quantities at any in¬
stant, or position, will be the measures of the veloci¬
ties, or degrees of swiftness, according to which they
increase at that instant or position.
But in every case the ratio of the rates of increase,
or fluxions of two homogeneous magnitudes, will be the
limiting ratio of their simultaneous increments.
7^5
I)ir< et
Mtthod.
P
B j D
Q
18. The lines AP, BQ being thus conceived to vary,
the relation that is supposed always to subsist between
them, in respect of their magnitudes, will necessarily
give rise to another relation, namely, that which will
constantly subsist between the velocities of the moving
points P and Q, by which the lines are generated.
With a reference to this particular mode of conceiv¬
ing variable quantities to exist, the quantities them-
■elves have been called flowing quantities or fluents,
21. Having thus found that by conceiving variable
quantities as generated by motion, and taking their ve¬
locities, or rates of increase, as an object for the mind
to contemplate and reason on, we are in the end led to
the consideration of the limiting ratios of their incre¬
ments, a subject which is purely mathematical, and in¬
dependent of the ideas of time or velocity, we shall ex¬
change the definition of a fluxion given in § 18, which
involves those ideas, for another that rests entirely up¬
on the existence of limiting ratios.
By the fluxions then of two variable quantities hav-
ing any assigned relation to each other, we are in the
following treatise always to be understood to mean any
indefinite
^ a3 Lagrange, Cousin, La Croix. &c. abroad, and Landen in this country*
Vox.. VIII. Part II. f 4 U
7oS FLU X
Direct indefinite quantities which have to each other the limit-
Method. ing ratio of their simultaneous increments. . _
,,u—* In conformity to this definition of fluxions, it is evi-
dent that we are to consider them, not as absolute, but
as relative quantities, which derive their origin from the
comparison of variable quantities with each other in re¬
spect of their simultaneous variations ot magnitude.
22. Sir Isaac Newton employed different symbols at
different times to denote the fluxions of variable quanti¬
ties. It is now however common in Britain to denote
them by the same letters employed to express the quan¬
tities themselves, and each having a dot over it. Thus
x denotes the fluxion of the variable quantity expres¬
sed by tf, and in the like manner «, v, z, denote
the fluxions of the variable quantities », v, as, respec¬
tively.
23. Suppose now that u is any function of a variable
quantity x, and that the limiting ratio of the simultane¬
ous increments of u and x is the ratio of^? to I, where
j9 denotes some other function of x ; then, from the de¬
finition just given of fluxions, we have
and u—px.
x
Hence it follows as a consequence of the preceding
definition, that the fluxion of u, any function of a vari¬
able quantity x, is the product arising from the multi¬
plication of that function of x which is the expression
for the limiting ratio of the increments by the fluxion of
the variable quantity x itself.
SECT. II. Investigation of the Rules of the Direct
Method of Fluxions.
IONS. Parti.
of this change in the magnitude of x, u also changes its D'rect
value, and becomes u\ then, observing that u'—u and Method.
h are the simultaneous increments of wand*, the limit-' '—r'—'
ing ratio of - ~~J~ is 2 Ijet expression for the
limiting ratio be put equal to the ratio of the fluxions of it
and x, that is to , thus we have —r—zx, and u=2xx.
x x
Hence it appears, that whatever be the magnitude of
the quantity that expresses the fluxion of x, the fluxion
of u or x* will be expressed by the fluxion of x multi¬
plied by 2 X.
Again, when u~x^t and u\ u'—u and h denote the
same as before, it has been shown, § 12, that the limiting
ratio of U is 3 #*, therefore, § 21, — = 3 **, and
h x
11=3 x*x; that is, the fluxion of x3 is expressed by the
fluxion of x multiplied by 3X*.
And when «=«4, it has been shown, § 12, that the
limiting ratio of ^  is 4#*. Therefore, § 2X,
~—^x* and uzz/[x3x.
x
To resolve the problem generally, or when u—x"*
let us suppose x to become a;-J-4, and u to become u\
then u,z=.(x-\-h')n. But this last quantity, when ex¬
panded into a series by the binomial theorem (ALGE¬
BRA, Sect. XVII.) is
#”-}-/) A-{-g'^* + 7,/$3+ &c-
or u^p h\-h* + &c.)
where p, q, r, See. denote functions of at, independent
of h. Therefore,
u'—u=ph-\-h} (q-\-rh-\- &c.),
24. The method of fluxions naturally resolves itself
into two parts, as.we have already observed, § 15. We
proceed to explain the first of these, which is called the
Direct Method, and which treats of finding the ratio of
the fluxions of variable quantities, having given the re¬
lations of those quantities to each other.
25. We shall begin with investigating the ratio of the
fluxions of two variable quantities in that particular
case, when one of them is any power of the other.
Let us suppose then, that u is such a function of a
variable quantity x, that u=xn, where n denotes any
number whatever, it is required to determine the ratio
of the fluxions of u and x.
If we recur to the definition which has been given of
the fluxions of variable quantities in § 21, it will appear
that we have in effect resolved the problem just proposed
in three particular cases, when treating of the limiting-
ratios of the increments of variable quantities. For it
has been shown in § 12. that when u—x1, and x is sup¬
posed to change its value, so as to become x-\-h, where
4 denotes an indefinite increment, and in consequence
and —j—~p-\-h h-\- &e.).
n
Therefore, supposing h to be continually diminished,
the limit of is p ; but, whatever be the nature of
the exponent n,p is always nxn~*, (Algebra, § 26J.),
therefore, the limit of —f —IS nxn~t, and consequently
~-=znxH~l, and u—nxn~'tx.
x
26. As ive shall have frequently occasion to employ
the result of this investigation, it will be proper to ex¬
press it in the form of a practical rule. thus.
To find the fluxion of any power of a variable quan¬
tity. Multiply the fluxion of the variable quantity it¬
self by the exponent of the power, and by a power of
the quantity whose exponent is less by unity than the
given exponent, and the product will be the fluxion re¬
quired.
27.
'"'b) We are here to be understood to mean the ratio of the values of the increments, which may al¬
ways be compared with each other, whether the variable quantities be of the same kind, as both lines, or both
surfaces, &c.-or of different kinds, as the one a line, and the other a surface.
Part I:
Direct 27. In determining the limit of the ratio of the simul-
Method. taneous increments of x and xn, we have referred to the
 * ' binomial theorem j but the only application we have
had occasion to make of that theorem was to determine
the numeral coefficient of the second term of the deve-
lopement of when n is supposed to be any
number whatever, which is an inquiry of a more simple
nature than the general investigation of the theorem.
We shall now show how that coefficient may be deduced
from the first principles of algebra. Thus the investi¬
gation of the fluxion of xn will be rendered independent
of the general demonstration of the binomial theorem ;
and we shall hereafter show that the theorem itself is
easily investigated by the direct method of fluxions.
707
Let both sides of this equation be raised to the power Direct
n, having first substituted M v for A v-f-Bi;**}- &c. Method.
Now as we have just found that m and n being integers,
(1 -f-u)m= 1 ^-mv + &c.
and (1 1 -f See.
Here we stop at the second term, that being the only
one whose coefficient is required. Substitute now for
M v its value A t; -j- &c. then, stopping again at the
second term, we get
(r + Mv)"=:i-|-»At;-|- &c.
FLUXIONS.
28. Since x-\-h is equal to x (i + -J it follows that
(sr+/i)" zzxn thus the developement of {x-\-h)
h\ h
is reduced to that of or putting to
(i-j-f)". Now if we give particular values to and
suppose it to be I, 2, 3, &c. or —I, —2, &.c. or last¬
ly it T> &.c. we can find the series that express the
powers of l-f-u, whose exponents are those numbers, by
the operations of multiplication, division, and evolution,
and in every particular case we shall find, that the
powers of 1 -j-p are expressed by a series of this form,
i_|_At;-f-B -j-Du4-f- &c.
Where A, B, C, D, &c. denote numeral coefficients
which depend for their value only on n the exponent
of the power, and not on the quantity v ; and as the
form of the series will be found to be the same what¬
ever particular values we may give to the exponent, we
may conclude that it is the same, whether the exponent
be positive or negative, whole or fractional.
29. First let us suppose that the exponent is a whole
positive number, then, because
(l-|-i;)"=:I + At;-{-Bt>*-f- &c.
if we multiply both sides of this equation by l-f-tf, and
collect together the like powers of v, it will appear
that
+4v+^r+
&c.
Hence it appears that the coefficient of the second term
of any power of 1-f-t; exceeds that of the next less
power by unity. Now in the case of the first power of
l+v, the coefficient of the second term is obviously 1,
therefore, in the second power it is 2, in the third power
3, and universally, in the nth power it is n ; so that n
being a whole positive number,
-f-v) —— 1 See.
30. Let us next suppose the exponent to be a frac¬
tion denoted by^> so that
J n
(1 4- At;*+ Bt;4^. See.
therefore,
-f-^At; -{- &c.
and making the coefficients of v in each series equal to
each other,
nAzzm, and A~ —.
n
31. In the last place, let us suppose that the expo¬
nent is a negative quantity either whole or fractional,
so that
m
(i-f-t;)--"—i-f A'^-f BV-f See.
or  —^-=i+A,t;+BV+&c.
(1+1/)^
then, multiplying both sides by (i-f-u)^ we get
i=(i+^)n (1-|-A'v-j-BV 4. See.)
or, substituting 1 -}-At;-f B^-f- &c. for (l+v)7 and
actually multiplying the two series,
i=i-f-A 7 4-B *)
-f-A' ^ -f-A A' >i>* -f- Sec.
+B' ^
Now that this equation may subsist, whatever be the
value of v, it is necessary that
A+A'=ro,
B-j-AA'-f-B'zzo,
See.
and by these equations we may determine A', B', C',Sec.
It is, however, only required at present to find the first
of these, viz. A', now we have A'rr -—A •, but A being
the coefficient of the second term of the series expressing
(1 -f i0~”, the exponent of which is positive, we have al¬
ready found it to be therefore, A'=: —. —
n ' n
32. As we have found that the coefficients of the se¬
cond term of the developements of (i-ftO",
and (i-f- t>) » are and— respectively, it ap¬
pears that whatever be the number denoted by «, the two
first terms of the series expressing'(i -J-r)'1 are, 1 -f-nt;,
and therefore, substituting for v its value and multi¬
plying by xn, the two first terms of the series expressing
(v+^)* are xn-irnx1'-'h, agreeing with what we
have
FLUXIONS.
Part L
have assumed in § 25* as g‘ven by the binomial theo¬
rem (c).
33. The mode of reasoning employed to determine
the ratio of the fluxions of u and x, when the former is
a function of the latter of the form xn, will apply equal¬
ly when the function has any other assigned form. But
instead of investigating in this manner the fluxion of
every particular function, it is better to consider a com*
plex function as the sum, or diflerence, or product or
quotient, &c. of other simple functions, and to inves¬
tigate rules for each of these cases, supposing that the
fluxions of the simple functions are previously known.
34. Let us first suppose that u, a function of a varia¬
ble quantity x, is equal to the sum of v and w, two
other functions of x* It is required to find the fluxion
of u, having given the fluxions of v and w.
Let x be conceived to change its value, and to be¬
come #4-A, then, as ti-and w will also change their va¬
lues, § 11, the one to
v'zzv-^-ph-^qJi1&c.
and the other to
w’—w -\-p' h-\-qr h*-\-r' A*-}- &c.
if u' as usual denote the corresponding new value of
we have
u=.v-\-w
, C u-j-jo A<7/i*-j- &c.
u £A-f-*/A*-f-&c.
u'-—&c*
U~~T~~ ~P “f"P* + (?+?'>* + &C*
where a. A, e, denote any given numbers, positive or
negative, then, by reasoning as above, it is evident that
s~au-\-bv-\-cw-\-
Direct
Method,
Therefore, to find the fluxion of (he sum of any number
of functions, each multiplied by a constant quantity.
Multiply the fluxion of each function by its constant
coefficient, and the sum of the products is tfte fluxion
required.
36. If c denote a constant quantity, and u, v, be
functions of a?, such, that u—c-\-v; then x being sup¬
posed to become x-\-h, and consequently v to become
v\ or tt-j-pA-f-^A3-}-&c. and c-\-v to become c-f-v
ph^qh1 &c. we have
u~c-\-v,
and u'~c-\-v-\~p h-\-q h"1 &c.
and hence u'—u~p h-\-qhx-\- &c.
or u'—u— vf—vy
u'—u v' V
therefore, —= —,
and these ratios being always equal, their limits must al¬
so be equal; therefore, substituting for the limiting ra¬
tios those of thefluxions,we have t=:—r and uzsv; that
X X
is to say, the fluxion of c-\-v is v, from which it appears.
That the fluxion of any variable function is the very
same as the fluxion of the same function, increased or
diminished by any constant quantity. This is a remark
of great importance in the theory of fluxions, as will ap¬
pear hereafter.
If we now conceive A to be continually diminished, we
shall have the limit of —j— expressed by^-f-/?'. But
h
p is the limit of § M* antl manner p* is
'lift 'IV
the limit of —^—, therefore,
». • r «'—u >. r ^—v ii**. e w>—w
limit of —;—= limit of —  f- limit of  ?—.
hah.
Substitute now the ratio of the fluxions instead of the
limited ratios, and we have
u  v '
xxx
therefore, u~v-\-w.
35. If we suppose s to be a function of x, and u, v,
w, &c. other functions of a’, such that
szzau-\-bv-{-c'W-\-&tc.
37. Let us now suppose that #, v, w, are functions of
x, such, that tfzzvw, it is required to find the fluxion
of v, supposing the fluxions of v and w to be given.
By supposing that x, u, v, and w, change their va¬
lues as usual, we have
U—VW
u'=:(v-\-p h^-qh* &c.) (w-\-pf Jih*&c.)
and this last expression by multiplication becomes
u'zzvw+vp'h+v q' A21 c
-\-tvph-\-w q h1}
therefore
u'—u—(vp'-\-wp)h-f{vq’-\-pp'-\-w qfld-^ &c.
. . u'—u
dividing now by A, and taking the limit of —^—, we
have that limit expressed by vp'-\-wp ; but p' is the li¬
mit of H>- j -1 § 14, and in like manner/? is the limit of
V— : V ; therefore
the
(c) In this investigation we have supposed n to be a rational number. If, however, it were irrational, still the
result would be the same; for, corresponding to every such number, two rational numbers, one greater, and the
other less than it, may be found, which shall differ from each other by less than any assignable quantity. There*
fope, the general properties of these numbers must belong also to the irrational number which is their limit.
’art I.
Direct
! Method
FLUXIONS.
709
the limit of
r  ft’X limit of
w—~~w
W—u
h
-f-W’X limit of
Hence, by substituting for the limiting ratios the ratios
of the fluxions, we have
~ — —- -} r and uzz v tv tvv.
XXX
Therefore^ tojlncl the fluxion of the product of any
two functions,, multiply the fluxion of each function by
the other function, and the sum of these products is the
fluxion required.
38. We have just now seen that when
then u—wv-\-vw.
Let each side of the latter equation be divided by the
corresponding side of the former, thus we get
« v vw
  — ■+- — J
u v w
suppose now that the function w is the product of two
other functions s, t, so that
u—v s t,
then, because w~s t, from what has been shewn it fol-
w s t
lows that—:= — j therefore, substituting this va-
• • • •
lue of — in the equation —{- —, it becomes
w ^ u v ' w
u u *
In general, if we suppose that
u—v s t r &c.
by reasoning as above it will be found that
«   r j?
u v ' s
+ y + 7- + &c-
whatever be the number of factors.
Suppose the number of factors to be three, so that
u—v s t
u v ' s ^ t ’
then substituting v s t for u in this last equation, and
taking away the denominators, we find
uz=stv^-vt s-\~vst.
And as a similar result will be found, whatever be
the number of factors, we may conclude that The
fluxion of the product of any number of functions is
equal to the sum of the products of the fluxion of each
function by all the othei'functions.
39* •Let us in the last place suppose that n——, and
that it is required to find the fluxion of u, having given Direct
the fluxions of v and w. Method.
From the given equation we have vzzw u, and there-
fore 37.) v—wu-\-uw, let —be substituted for u
in this equation, and it becomes vxzwu 4- from
w
which we easily obtain
w v—v w
u—
Hence we have the following rule for finding the
fluxion of a fraction.
Multiply the fluxion of the numerator by the denomi¬
nator, andfrom the product subtract the fluxion of the
denominator multiplied by the numerator, and divide the
remainder by the square of the denominator ; the result
is the fluxion required.
40. It will now be proper to shew the application of
these general rules for determining the fluxions of va¬
riable functions to some particular examples.
Example 1. Suppose wna-J-iy/'A?—Required
x
the fluxion of u.
Here a being a constant quantity, the fluxion of
a-t-b^/x— — is the same as the fluxion of by/x— —,
Z
§ 36, or bx^—cx~x. Now, by J 26, the fluxion of
. 1 *
x* is \ «T-T x, which expression is equivalent to
2 7*
of x~~x is
x, or—A?“a x, or
therefore,
multiplying the fluxion of x* by b, and the fluxion of
x * by c, and taking the sum of the products, agree¬
ably to the rule in j 35. we have
• bx cx
,2)fx
Ex. 2. Suppose k=o+ 3-^ —
By writing the function thus
_,4
c ,
ar3y'ar ' a:1*
u—a-\-bx T—cvw ^Jrdx—*
the application of the same rules employed in the last
example gives us
u~ —flx ^ xc x 7 x—2dx x
or, exchanging the fractional indices for the radical
sign, and otherwise reducing,
• —2 b x . Acx
2x3\/x* ' 3xt3fx
2 dx
xa
Ex. 3.
7iO
Direct
Method.
FLUXIONS. Part [
Ex. a. Suppose and this equation, by reducing all the terms on the lat- Direct
In order to find the fluxion of this function by the ter side of it to a common denominator, is more simply Method,
rules already laid down, it will be necessary to consider expressed thus, . l—Y-—H
it first as a function of a variable quantity that is itself . (o^-f-oV1—4 x*) x
a function of x. Let us then put a+bxm equal to v, « — ^ (aa—#a)
and thus the proposed equation becomes uz=:vn 5 then, u
being considered as a function of v, we have by § 26.
u~nvn~1v. Again, v being considered as a function
Ex. 7. Suppose «=—
0 + *
a*-)-**
of#, from ^ the equation v—a + bxm, we find by § 36. j£ere we employ the rule given in § 39. for finding the
tinU § 26. v—mbx"1-1 x. Let this value of t; be substi "   
tuted in the expression for «, and it becomes
fluxion of a fractional function $ thus we find
(a*.|_<va);v—2X (fl-f-#)#
u—m nbv" 1 xm * #,
which, by substituting for v its value a-^-bx'*, is also
uzzmnbxm~x (a-^b xmy~l x.
Ex. 4. Suppose «= \/
Here we are to proceed as in the last example, and
first put d1—x1—Vt then u—^/vzz xi* j and therefore
Again, since
Substitute
this value of v in the expression for «, and we have
2XX 7
t/=-
(§ 26)
v
V
which when reduced, is
• (a*—2 ax—x*) x
U (a14-O’*)
Ex. 8. Suppose
To simplify this expression, we put
lv —
2V? 2 \/v
v—at—x*, by § 26. we find v=z—2x x
b
y/ X
Thus we have
=y, >v^w)7=^.
t/—-
2\/V
uzzsj (a—,y4-!z)J = (a—y+2;)7.
Now as the fluxion of a—y+as, is—y-}*z (§ 35),
which, by restoring \f (a*—»*) for v, and leaving out we find from § 26. that by considering a—y+!3 as a
the number common to the numerator and denominator, single variable quantity,
becomes
y/ (a*-#*) •
Ex. 5. Suppose ms= y/ (a+i x-\-c #*).
By proceeding in the same manner as in last ex¬
ample, we find
(b>{-2cx')x
1 (—y-fa)
=Kq—y+«)7 C—y+^)
=ix/ a—(—y+s)
b T
but, since we have, § 26,
,=—lbx~
b x
#=-
u~
y/(a+bx-\rcx1')
2 X y/X*
Ex. Suppose «=# V (a2—#1).
Here the proposed function is the product of these
three functions, viz. #, a*4-#*, and y/ (a*—#*). There¬
fore, its fluxion will be found by proceeding according
to the rule in § 38.
Now the fluxion of x is #, and the fluxion of as4-*3
is 2xx, and the fluxion of y/ (a2—#2) has been found
in last example to be —■■■• —. Therefore, multi-
\/(o—#*)
plying the fluxion of each function by the product of
the other two functions, and taking the sum of all these
products, we find
and since (c*—#*),=r by consider¬
ing c*—#* as a single variable quantity, and observing
that its fluxion is —2x#, we find by § 26, that
vf—1 * —4##
ZZZj (c*—#e)
X — 2 # x=
3 VO’-*’)
Instead of y, 25, y, z, substitute now their values in
the expression for the fluxion of u, thus it becomes
«=i ✓ (a- -^+ V C^—»■)•)
/ bx
XX \
0*—#*)/’
f (o24-a;2) y/a*—x1 x
t* =: ] + 2A?* \/«*—x* *
1 x1 (0*4-^*) V
\2 X y/ X 3 3 -0 0
Ex. 9» Suppose urzavm yn, where i» and y denote
any fumtims of a variable quantity.
Then, $ 37,
y/ (o’—#1)
«« $ayn'X' of 7
+ avm x fluxion of y" J
But
3
irt I.
Direct But fluxion of vmzznivm~*vi § 26,
^e^10tK and fluxion of yn~nyn~Ty ;
therefore,
uzzamy*vm-tv+a n vmy* 1 y,
— av'n~tyn~l(my v n v y).
F L u x I o N s.
where q denotes a new function of x, derived from j»,
the former function, by the same kind of operation as
that by which p was deduced from u.
Suppose now q to denote the particular function
«(«—1 then,
71
Direct
Method.
Lx. 10. Suppose where vt 2$ and y denote
any function of a variable quantity. Then, because
fluxion (v-\-%)zzv-\-‘z, § 34, and fluxion 3^=3 3^ y,
§ 26, we have, § 39,
;r_y3(v +x)—3(v+x)y*y,
y6
_yp+gQ—sP+gQy
y4
41. As when u denotes that particular function of x
which is xn, we have (§ 25.)
u
~—nxn-' }
x
80, m general, whatever be the form of the function de¬
noted by «/, we have always
4-=«p—1) (n—2) a"-3,
<7
or ~—r.
where r denotes a function of x derived from y, as q
was derived from p, or p from the original function 11,
And it is evident that we may proceed in this manner
as far as we please, unless it happen that in finding the
series of functions y, y, r, &c. we at last arrive at a re¬
sult that is a constant quantity, and then the series of
operations will terminate. Thus if the function was
ax*, vve should have
wzzax*
11 *
—■^z^ax^zzp,
—=4-3°*s=y,
X
4-=4.3.2ax=rt
■=p,
—=4.3 • 2.1 .a—2.4a.
x
where p denotes a new function of x, resulting from the
analytical process employed to find the fluxion of the
function u, and depending for its form upon the par¬
ticular form of that function : just as in involution, or
any of the other operations of algebra, a result is ob¬
tained depending upon the particular nature of the ope¬
ration, and the quantities operated upon.
Let us put p to denote the particular function tixn~1,
Here the expression for — is a constant quantity, which
x
has no fluxion.
Hence it appears, that relatively to any function of a
variable quantity, there exists a series of limiting ratios,
deducible from that function, and from each other, by a
repetition of the operation of finding the fluxion of a
variable function.
or the expression for -v the ratio of the fluxion of u to
x
the fluxion of x when z/=*B, then, supposing that «—1
is not equal to o, (for in that case nx’^* would be sim¬
ply n, a given number,) we may reason concerning the
ratio of the fluxions of the variable quantities p and x,
in all respects as concerning the ratio of the fluxions of
wand x; and accordingly, from the equation
p—?ixn~%,
we get, by taking the fluxions,
~zzn{n—i)*"-2,
x
or, considering p as denoting generally the function of
x that results from the operation of finding the fluxion
of the original function u} whatever be the form of that
function, we have
42. In treating of the fluxion of a function, we have
hitherto regarded the fluxion of the variable quantity x,
from w'hich the function is formed, merely as one of
the terms of a ratio, without considering whether it was
a constant or a variable quantity.
Now as we may assume any hypothesis respecting the
nature of the fluxion of .r, that is not inconsistent with
what has been already delivered, we shall suppose it to
be constant. This assumption, if we consider the fluxions
of variable quantities as the measures of their respective
velocities, or rates of increase, is in eftect the same thing
as to suppose that the variable quantity x increases uni¬
formly. Then, as in the expressions
n p q *
~r~p, —=y, —=r, &c.
XXX
or these others, which follow from them,
uzzpx, p—qx, q—rx, &c.
the symbol x is to be understood as denoting a constant
quantity, it follows that if p be variable, then px, or
u will be variable $ and if y be variable, then qx, or
Pt will
7T2
Direct p wlll be variable j and if r be variable, then r *, or
Mctfa<>l!l“ , q wiH be variable, and so on.
43. Let us now recur to the relation in which the
succeeding functions /*, §cc» stand to the original
function u.
By performing that particular analytical opera¬
tion upon the function z/, which consists in fuiding its
fluxion, we obtain p a? as the expression for its fluxion,
that is, we get uz=px; and by repeating the operation
on the function p, we get pz=qx ; and therefore p x=
qx*j but, x being regarded as a constant quantity,
p x is deduced from px, considered as a function of x,
just in the same manner as pa* is derived from the ori¬
ginal function u; therefore the expression q x2 is dedu¬
ced from the function u by performing the operation of
taking the fluxion twice ; that is, first upon the function
u itself, and then upon u or px, the expression for its
fluxion and in this second operation x (or the fluxion
of the quantity from which the function is formed) is
considered as a constant quantity.
The expression qx*, obtained in this manner from
the function n, is called the second fluxion of the func¬
tion * and to express its relation to the function u, it is
denoted by ii, that is, by the letter denoting the func¬
tion itself with two dots over it. Thus, like as u=px,
vre have
.. «
u—qx* and -r-—
**
Again, since q~rx, it follows that qx3~rx* j but,
as x is constant, q x' is derived from qx%, by the ope¬
ration of finding its fluxion, considering ^ as a func¬
tion of x, just in the same manner as qx*, or « is de¬
rived from p x, or u, and in the same manner as u is de¬
rived from the original function u ; therefore, like as
pxovu is the first fluxion of the function, and q x*
or « is its second fluxion, so rx* is called its third
fluxion, and is denoted by «, that is, by the letter ex¬
pressing tile function itself, having three dots placed
over it, so that
u ~r x3 and ~ —r.
ars
The fourth fluxion of a variable function u is denot-
Part I
second and higher orders of fluxions of a function, let Direct
us suppose u to denote the particular function a xn *, Method,
then, proceeding agreeably to what has been laid down ’
in last section, we obtain, by the rule for finding the
fluxion of any power of a variable quantity ($ 26.)
«=« a x”"'1 x
u—n(ii—i)a xn’‘2xt,
u—n{n—1) {n—2)0 xn~*x3,
u —n{n—1)(«—2)(«—3) axn~4x*, &c.
Here we have exhibited the first, second, third, and
fourth fluxions of the function ax»-, the law of con¬
tinuation is obvious, and it appears that when « is any
positive integer, the function a xn will have as many
orders of fluxions, as there are units in n, and no more ;
for if n were supposed ~3, then, as the fourth fluxion,
and all the subsequent ones, are multiplied by n—3, or
in that case by 3—3=0, they consequently would va¬
nish, and a similar observation may be made when n is
any other whole positive number.
45. That we might be able to apply the rules of
§ 26, § 34, &c. to the determination of the fluxion of
a complex function of a variable quantity, we have
found it convenient in some cases to consider such a
function as composed of other more simple functions of
the same quantity, and we have expressed its fluxion by
means of the fluxions of those other functions. In find¬
ing the fluxion of any higher order than the first of such
a complex function by those rules, we must keep in
mind, that it is only the fluxion of .v, the variable quan¬
tity from which the functions are all formed, that is to
be considered as constant, and that the fluxions of the
functions themselves are in general variable quantities 5
so that each of them may have a second, third, &c.
fluxion, as well as the function which is composed of
them.
Let us suppose, for example, that
u=x/(a2+x*) j
then, considering as a function of x, and putting
t; to denote it, we have uzn^vzzv*, andtt=^ii~7v
: but since vz^a'-X-x2, it follows that vzz2x x\
therefore, substituting for v and v their respective va¬
lues, we have
• xx
V C°*+**)
FLUXIONS.
ed by «, that is, by the letter u with four dots over it,
and is derived from the third fluxion, in the same man¬
ner as the third is derived from the second, or the se¬
cond from the first, or the first fluxion from the variable
function itself $ observing, that in repeating the opera¬
tion of taking the fluxions, the symbol x (or the fluxion
of the variable quantity from which the function is
formed) is considered as a constant quantity. And the
same mode of notation and deduction is to be under¬
stood as applying to a fluxion of any order whatever of
a variable function.
44. To illustrate what has been said respecting the
Now, to find the second fluxion of u, we may either
. . • xx
take the fluxion of this last expression, viz. " ■ - tt,
V(° +* )
and consider the symbol x, which is found in it, as de¬
noting a constant quantity $ or we may recur to the
• * *v
equation and take the fluxion of this other ex-
* */v
pression for u ; and in this case, we must consider that
both v and v denote variable functions of x, and there¬
fore that the fluxion of
\rv
may be found by the rule
for
Jart I.
FLUXIONS.
7U
Direct for gnd;ng the fluxion of a fraction 5 observing that v is
_ ^ to be substituted as the fluxion of v. Accordingly, pro¬
ceeding by this last method, and considering that the
kv
fluxion of -y/^jthe denominator of the fraction, is —7-, we
yv
find
. I   
u t v
I 2VV—V2
Now from the equation vz=a*-j-x2 we ;have v~ 2 x
and (observing that x is constant) t7=2 x2. Let these
values of t>, v, and v, be now substituted in the ex¬
pression for «, and it becomes
u
’ 4(0*-f. a?*)#2—4#***
v=:a-\-b xm, t=C’{-dxH,
then v=mb.xm~J x t~n dxn~l x,
and considering x as constant,
v=zm(m~—l')b xm~2xs,
&c.
t—n(n—i)dxn
these values of v, t, v, t, &c. being substituted in the
expressions of uf «, &c. will give the successive fluxions
of u in terms of x and x only.
46. If the fluxion of a variable quantity be consider¬
ed as the measure of its rate of increase, if that rate be
uniform, then its measure will be a constant quantity ;
but if it be variable, then its measure will be a variable
quantity, which will also have a certain rate of increase
or decrease ; and the measure of this rate will be its
fluxion, or will be the fluxion of the fluxion of the ori¬
ginal variable quantity j that is, it will be the second
fluxion of the original variable quantity. And if this
second fluxion is not a constant quantity, then the mea¬
sure of its rate of variation will be its fluxion, or will
be the third fluxion of the original variable quantity,
and so on. Thus a quantity will have a successive order
of fluxions till some one fluxion become constant, and
then it will have no more.
The very same expression for u would have been found
if we had employed the other method.
By proceeding as in this last example, the rules al¬
ready delivered for finding the first fluxion of any func¬
tion of a variable quantity will apply to the finding of
the fluxion of any higher order.
Thus if we had uzzv t, where v and t denote each a
function of another variable quantity x, and it were re¬
quired to find the different orders of fluxions of «, con¬
sidered also as a function of x ; then, by the rule of
§ 37* we have
47. We have hitherto supposed the equation expres¬
sing the relation between a variable quantity, and a
function of that quantity, to be of such a form, that
the function was found alone, and of the first degree on
one side of the equation, and some power, or combina¬
tion of powers, of the variable quantity on the other j
as in these examples,
u~axn,
a-\-bxm
c-\-dxu’
u—tv -}-t> ty
and w=:fluxion of ft; + fluxion oi vt ;
but v and t being variable functions of a?, we may con¬
sider -uandtfas denoting also variable functions of a:, the
fluxions of which are to be denoted by v and t re¬
spectively j now by the rule in b 37, we have
fluxion of tv^v \-\-t Vy
and fluxion oivt=.t v-\-v t,
therefore, u-=z2v t-\-v t.
By considering v, v, v, also t, t, as denoting each a
distinct function of x, we may find the third fluxion of
u from the second, in the same manner as the second has
been found from the first, and so on for the other orders
of fluxions of u. If. it be now required to express the
successive orders of fluxions of ti in terms of x and its
fluxion, we must find the values of y, f, &c. also of f,
t &c. in terms of x and its fluxion, and these values,
also the particular functions of x denoted by v and /,
being substituted in the expressions found fora, a, &c.
will give to these expressions the form required.
If for example we suppose that
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
In such cases as these, u is said to be an explicit function
of x. We are now to consider how the ratio of the
fluxions is to be found when the relation between the
variable quantity and its function is expressed by an
equation, the terms of which involve different powers,
both of the function, and the variable quantity j as in
the following example,
y*—-a a: y-{-£ a?*—cr:0,
where we are to consider y as a function of a:; but from
the particular manner in which its relation to x is ex¬
pressed, it is said to be an implicit function of that quan¬
tity.
Now in this example, by the resolution of a quadra¬
tic equation, we find
axz±z>sj * (a*—4^) ^* + 40 £
and as y is here an explicit function of .v, its fluxion or
the ratio of its fluxion to that of at, might be determi¬
ned by the rules already laid down. Bi)t it is to be
observed that it is only in the particular case of the
proposed equation being of the second degree that we
can effect the solution generally in this manner. If it
4‘!X were
71 4-
Dircct
Method.
FLUXIONS.
were of a higher order, this particular mode of solution
would be often impracticable, for want of a general
method of resolving equations.
Part I.
. V i i* • r ^ V Direet
putting —■ equal to the limit of v, we have there- Method.
fore
48. We may however in all cases resolve the pro¬
blem, without a previous resolution of the equation, by
reasoning as follows.
Whatever be the degree of the equation, by giving
particular values to x, we can, by the theory of equa¬
tions, obtain corresponding particular values ofy ; there¬
fore, we may be assured that in every casey is expres¬
sible by means of x in some way or other, if not in
finite terms, at least in the form of a series, the terms
of which shall involve powers of x. Hence we may
infer, as in the case of explicit functions, that when x
changes its value, and becomes x-\-h, y will also change
its value, and become
y-f-p/i-f-y A*-|- &c.
where p, q, &c. denote functions of A?, that are indepen¬
dent of the arbitrary quantity h. Let us denote p h
&c. the increment of y, by the single letter
k; then y-J-& is the new value of y, corresponding to
x-\-h, the new value of x. Let these new values be sub¬
stituted instead of x and y in the proposed equation
y’—a x y -\-b x'—c—O)
and as the result must still be =0, we have
(y_j_&)*—a{x-\-K) erro $
which equation, by actually involving its terms, substi¬
tuting for k its value p h-^-q ^a-j- &c. and arranging the
result in the form of a series proceeding by the powers
of /*, becomes
y*—a xy-\-b —c’
y—a(p x+y^ + lb x)h >• =0.
+Q/i2+R^3+ &c.
Here Q, R, &c. denote quantities independent of
and involving x, y, p, q, &c. that is to say, x, and func¬
tions of at, and therefore Q, R, &c. are also functions
of x. Now as this equation must subsist whatever h
may be, which is a quantity quite arbitrary and inde¬
pendent of the coefficients by which its powers are mul¬
tiplied, it follows (as has been observed when treating
of the method of indeterminate coefficients, Algebra,
§ 261.) that the coefficients of the different powers of
h must be each equal to o.
Therefore,
y*—a x y-\-b x*—c=o
2 p y—“{px+y) + 2 ^ *=°»
&c.
From the first of these equations we can infer nothing,
as it is no other than the proposed equation itself j but
from the second we find
a y—2 b x
p    .
2y—a x
Now A, and kzzp A-f-y Ae-{- &c. being the simulta-
k
neous increments of x and y, we have ^zrp-|-yA-}-&c.
therefore, supposing A to be continually diminished, and
1=
y __av-
•ibx
x 2y—ax
thus we have obtained an expression for the ratio of the
fluxions of y and x} from which we find
2yy—a{xy-\-yx') -\-2bxxzzOy
and this is precisely the expression we should have ob¬
tained, had we taken the fluxion of each term ef
y2—a x y-\-b x*—c=o,
the proposed equation, and put the result equal to o.
49. But to see that this will always be the case,
whatever be the degree of the equation, we have only
to observe, that, by the very same process employed to
deduce from the original equation
y*—a xy-\-b x*—c~o,
these two others
2yp—a (xy-}-y)-j-2 A arrzo,
^y y—flOvy-f-y*)!"2 bxxzz.0 $
if we suppose the equation to be generally expressed
thus,
y^-}-fly,”*,,• • •+a;r-f-c=0,
where the exponents /, m, n, and r denote constant
quantities, we shall obtain
? I—1 • /• *
ly p+a(my
xnp+n y’
v-> 7
r0’
and hence, by substituting for y its value -4-, and bring-
x
ing x from the denominator,
l yl *y-\-a(mym 1 AWy-{- n ym xn 1 x)l
1 r—* * f ~0‘
From which it appears that, when the relation be¬
tween x, a variable quantity, and y, a function of that
quantity, is expressed by an equation, the terms of
which are brought all to one side, so as to produce an
expression mo 5 the relation of the fluxions will be
found, by taking the fluxion of each term of the equa*
tion {considering y as a function of x), and putting the
sum of these fluxions equal to o.
50. Having from the equation
y*-_a # y-f-A a;2—-emo,
found that
• (a y-—2 b x') x
y=— »
J 2 y—a x
if it be required to find the second fluxion of y, we
have only to take the fluxion of the latter side of this
equation,
«
Part I.
FLUXIONS.
si T'r:-™^;::e*a!“"eunt’miy»(■+<>)-i=A;+2B^+3c«>t;+4Dt,.i+&c.
— ' or leaving out the quantity v, common to each term,
J (2y—axXay—2bx)x 1 "C1+^)“~I=A + 2 B ^+3 C t;*+4 +&c.
y ■— ~ C^.y ^ ^ X J TjPt Lnttl Gf/Ioc Apfliia  l   1. • 1*
lbx~) (ay—a*)
( 2ij—ax)*
1l$
TL'r.ct
M etisod.
Let both sides of this equation be multiplied by 14-f,
and divided by nt thus we shall have
an equation which abbreviates to
(46—a'Xxy—yx)x
V (2y—axy ’
and from which we may exterminate y by means of the
equation
Thus, by performing on the quantities the analytical
process of taking their fluxions, we have obtained a
new expression for (1 Let tf,e quantities that are
independent of v in each expression be put equal to
each other, and also the coefficients of like powers of
v ; thus we obtain
(ay—zbx') x
ly—ax
By the same mode of proceeding we may determine
the third or any higher fluxion of the function y.
51. As far as we have yet gone in explaining the
principles of fluxions, we have had continually occasion
to employ the rule for finding the fluxion of the parti¬
cular function where x denotes a variable quantity,
and n any constant number ; and we may therefore in
respect of other functions, consider xn as a simple func¬
tion. Besides the function at", writers on Analysis have
considered each of the following as also constituting a
simple analytic function of a variable quantity j viz.
a*, where a is constant, and x is variable.
Log. x, that is the logarithm of a?, a variable number.
Sin. #, that is the sine of at, a variable arch of a circle,
radius being unity.
Cos. #, that is the cosine of at, a variable arch of a
circle, radius being as before unity.
1 ~ —, and hence A—«
n
a = Ahi? B_ A
n 2
B-£g.+3c c-^2b
n 3
C_3C±4D
n 4
&c. &c.
Or, substituting successively the expression for each
coefficient in that which follows it,
A ~ n,
p —”P—1)
2 ’
c __ wP—OP—2)
2*3 »
52. We have already found the fluxion of a;", and we
proceed to find the fluxions of the other simple functions
of x ; and, as in the investigation of these we shall have
occasion to employ the binomial theorem, it will be
proper to show how that theorem may be deduced from
the principles already explained. We are then to find
the series that expresses p-j-A;)n, when ^ is any number
whatever. Or, since (a-J-Ar)’* is equal to o° (i+u)",
where v denotes the fraction -, we may leave the quan¬
tity o" out of consideration, as has been formerly ob¬
served, J 28, and seek the series that expresses (i-j-i;)".
As we have already pointed out (§ 28.) the process of
induction by which we may find the general form of the
series, we shall not here repeat it, but assume
(1 1 -j-At;-f-Bt>*-f-C
where A, B, C, D, &c. denote numbers that are inde¬
pendent of v.
Now, as the fluxion of a variable function must be
the same, whether that function be expressed by one
term, or developed into a series of terms j by performing
the operation of taking the fluxion on each side of the
above equation, the results must be equal, that is, § 26.
D= ”P—OP—2)p—3)
&c. 234
Hence it appears that
+,.,+ ^=L>.. 1 2)
2 2*3
1 ”P—OP—OP—3)
_r 2'3’ 4
t>4+ &c.
and therefore, substituting — - for v, and multiplying
by o",
(a-\-x'yi—anar-f- o"~g y*
2
. *P—OP—O „
H  —  « 5 &c.
2*3
where the law of continuation is evident.
53. We now proceed to investigate the fluxion of
the function u=a*, a being supposed constant, and m
the variable quantity, to which the function is referred.
4X2 Let
7,6 FLUX
Direct Let x be supposed, as formerly, to change its value,
Method, and to become x + h, and put u' for the new value that
v—    the function acquires by this change in the magnitude
of x} then we have
ft
:a —a X« ,
IONS. Parti.
wise than by a general symbol. Therefore, we have Direct
now got
/= i + A /*+B /**+C-f- &c.
and consequently,
and, taking the difference between the two succeeding
values,
(AA+BA*+CA*+ &e.)
and
x h
u’—li=. a Xa ■
x x , h
-U =a {a ■
.1).
it’ 71
=A.ax-\-^axh-\-Cax 4*-{-&c.
. h • ,
We must now develope the expression a I into a
series, the terms of which are arranged according to the
successive powers of the increment h. T-O effect *-^s»
let us put b=a—I, so that a= I -f-6, and a —i
but by the binomial theorem, this last expression may
be expanded into the following series :
i jt.kb+hsi=iib'+h{’‘-'^ c*-2W*e.
Therefore,
+ &c.
As the terms of this series are not arranged accord¬
ing to the powers of 4, but according to the powers of £,
it is necessary that we transform it into another having
the required form ; now this may be effected by actually
multiplying together all the factors that constitute each
term, and arranging the series anew in such a manner,
that each of its terms may be a power of 4, multiplied
liy a coefficient composed only of the powers of 4, and
given numbers $
Accordingly we have
4 4 . • • — 4 4,
4(4—i) ^
2 2
^-0 (*-2) i3= H
o • o 2 ^2 0
&c.
2- 3
Therefore, by taking the sum of all the quantities on
each side of these equations, we get the series,
i +W+ b‘ + Kh~^ 4>+ &o-
otherwise expressed thus,
i4-A4-j-B4* + C4J-f- &c.
where A is equal to the infinite series 4-
Hence, when 4 is conceived to be continually di¬
minished, we have the limit of —^— expressed by An ,
and therefore, § 21,
~= Aa*, and u=Aaxx.
x
54. In the preceding investigation, we have had oc¬
casion to develope the exponential expression a into a
series of this form,
i+A4+B4*-f-C4*4- &c.
that is, a series the terms of which are the successive
powers of the exponent, each multiplied by a coefficient,
which is independent of the exponent.
We have however only determined the coefficients
of the first two terms of the series, these being the only
ones we had occasion to employ.
The result of the investigation however may be ap¬
plied to determine all the coefficients by the very same
kind of process as that which we have employed m
§ 53, to determine the coefficients of the terms of the
series which constitutes the other expansion of o .
Instead of denoting the exponent by 4, let us consi¬
der it as a variable quantity, and express it by *, then,
from what has been shewn, it appears that
0*=i _j_Aa;-{-B a:*-J-Ca;j4-Da;4+ &c.
where A, B, C, &c. express constant quantities. Let
the operation of taking the fluxions be now performed
on both sides of this equation, (observing that the flux¬
ion of <f is An1*) and let all the terms be divided by
#, which is common to each, thus we obtain
AcT=A-f 2Bff+3C*,-f4D*J+ &c.
and, dividing by A,
B
Let the coefficients of the same powers of a; in each of.
the two series expressing ax be put equal to each other.
4* 4*
See.
— — + &c.
4
that is, to
a—1 (a—1)* (a—iV (a—Q*
~~l 2 3 4
and B, C, &c. are also quantities composed of the
powers of 4, and consequently are independent of 4 ;
but as these are all to disappear in the course of the in¬
vestigation, it is not necessary to express, them other-
then,
2B . . „ A*
—- =A, hence, B= —,
—B,
=C,.
A
4D
A
&c.
C=
D=
2
A3
27
A4
2.3.4’
&c.
^Therefore,
fart I.
FLUX
[Direct Therefore, substituting these values of B, C, D, &c. io
lethod. the original series, we have
—i A *v
A1 x* . A3x3 . A*x*
&c.
2 ' 2.3 1 2.3.4
the same result as has been found in the article Al¬
gebra, § 293. by proceeding in a different manner.
55. If we suppose x—ir then the preceding equation
becomes
1+A+— -j
A* A3
A4
2'3’4
and if we suppose xzz -r-, it becomes
A
2 ■ 2-3
I
4. &c.
«A_i+i + --{-—+ —— + &e.
I
thus the quantity aA is equal to a constant number,
which is the value of a when Am, and which, by
taking the sum of the first ten terms of the series, is
found to be 2,7i828i8, or by taking the sum of a
greater number of terms, more accurately
2,7i828i828459045 • • • •
We shall, in the remainder of this treatise, denote this
1
number always by e, then a A z=e, and o=eA, and ta¬
king the logarithms, log. a—A X log. e, hence,
a
log. e *
I O N S.
and therefore, u~
cal number of the
1 x log. ex . ,
-r ——  but as a is the radi-
A x log. a x
system, log. 0=1, therefore
717
Direct
Method.
u ~log.
e
x
X '
The number which we have denoted bye occurs very
often in analytical investigations j it is the radical number
of the system of logarithms first invented by Baron .Nb-
pier, and called by some writers Hyperbolic logarithms,
butby others,with more propriety, Alapierean logarithms.
Ihe expression is called the modulus of the system
of logarithms whose radical number is a. In the Na-
. log. e log. e ...
pierean system = =4—~ 1, that is, the modulus
log.o log. e
is unity j but in the common system, or that in which
a—10, the modulus |^-^=o,434294482. The rule for
finding the fluxion of the logarithm of a variable quan¬
tity may now be expressed thus :
Multiply the fluxion of the variable quantity by the
modulus of the system, and divide the product by the va¬
riable quantity itself, the result is the fluxion required.
58. By the application of the rule for finding the
fluxion of the logarithm of a variable quantity, we may
readily find the fluxions of exponential functions in
general. Thus, for example, if u—vf, % and y being
both functions of any variable quantity x, then log.
u—y X log. 2;; and taking the fluxions (considering
y X log. iz as the product of two functions y and log. :z,
and proceeding by the rules of § 37 and last),
56. If we now substitute this value of A in the ex¬
pression for the fluxion of u~ax, found in § 53, it be¬
comes
, and hence
• log. a •
u =:: arx.
iog.e
Hence it appears, that the fluxion of the function
a* is equal to the fluxion of x multiplied by the function
itself, and by the quotient arising from the division of
the logarithm of z. by the logarithm of e, where e denotes
u • z
-=ylog. 343,-,
U^zu (ylog. 3 4y-^-)»
=*y (yiog.z4—r-).
I
s
14-4——f- b 
'x1 I*2l*2,3 I,2*3*4
whose sum is 2'7182818 nearly.
4 &c. a series
57. Let us now consider the third simple function of
x, namely «=log. x. Let a be the radical number of
the particular system, in which u is a logarithm, and x
the corresponding number j then from the nature of lo¬
garithms (see Algebra, § 277.) we have auzzx. Now,
whether we consider m as a function of x, or # as a
function of«, the limiting ratio of their simultaneous
increments, and consequently the ratio of their fluxions,
will be the very same. But by considering # as a
function of u, we have immediately, from what has been
shewn in § 53, and § 55,
x .
—~AauxzAx}
u
59. We are next to consider the functions «=sin. x,
and m=cos. x.
Suppose x to change its value, and to become x-^h,
and u to become u\ then, since
wnsin. x, and w'nsin. (#4^)>
«'—K=sin. x >
but by the arithmetic of sines (see Algebra, \ 353), ^
sin. (A?4^)=:sln' x cos« ^4cos. x sin. h, therefore,
wrrsin. a? cos. /i4cos* x sin. h—sin. x
=cos. x sin. A—sin. a? (1—-cos. h).
In this case, as" when treating formerly of other
functions, we might consider the above expression for
u'—u, as resolvable into a series ph^-qh*-\- &c. pro¬
ceeding by the powers of the increment, and thence we
might
7iS
Method. m;ght the 1ImIt aS bef°re* But We may
discover the limit otherwise, by proceeding as follows :
Because
Sin.*/j=ri —cos.*/i=(i-f-cos. h) (i—cos. h)
sin.* h
therefore, I—cos. fizz ; 7- >
7 1 -^-cos. h
Let this value of 1—cos. h be substituted in the ex¬
pression for u'—iiy and it becomes
. sin. x sin.* h
wzzcos. x sin. h— ; j— j
i-j-cos. h
And hence, dividing by and arranging the terms
..... • s*n* ^
so as to exhibit the ratio —7—, we get
FLUXIONS.
Now, it has been just shewn that
u'—u
sin. h r
— —-— 4 cos. X-
h i
sin. h sin. x
l-}-cos
n. x~t
7XS
Conceive now h to be continually diminished, and we
. -tJ—u , .• •. »sin. A
shall have the limit of —^— equal to the limit ot —
multiplied by the limit of the following expression
cos. x-
sin. h sin. X
14-cos. h
Now, the sine of an arch being less than the arch
itself, we have *7^^1. Again, the arch being less
sin. h sin. h . . , , sin. h
than its tangent, —;—77^—7 J but tan. n—
and therefore
flux, of sin. (c—«)=5C0S. (c—x~) X^ux. of (c-—
but cos. (c—»)=:sin. x, and the fluxion of c—a; is —x,
therefore
—x sin. x.
Thus it appears, that the fluxion of the sine of a va¬
riable arch is equal to the fluxion of the arch multiplied
bij its cosine ; and that the fluxion of the cosine is equal
to the fluxion of the arch {taken with a negative sign)
multiplied by the sine.
60. We can now very readily find the fluxion of any
other function of an arch of a circle. Thus, suppose
, , sin. x ,
u=tan. x ; then, because tan. xzz , we have uzz
cos. x
—This expression being considered as a fractional
cos. x
function of x, we have, by § 39, and what has been just
now shewn
_x cos.* a; 4-# sin.* x
COS.* X *
Part I„
Direct
Method,
u~-
a?(cos.*a; 4-sin.* x)
cos.* X
or, since cos.a A?-|-sin.* xm, and
• x
h " tan. h7 " cos. h*
sin. h , sin. h 
 j-ncos. h ; consequently —7— ^
tan. h h
cos. h. Hence it appears, that the expression for the
ratJ0 .S1‘n — is less than I, or radius, but greater than
h
cos. h. But h being conceived to be continually dimi¬
nished, cos. A continually approaches to I, and may
come nearer to it than by any assignable difference $
therefore, the limit of ^— is I. As to the other ex-
h
sin. h sin. x , , . , ,
pression, cos. x 1 jpCos h 7 'vlien A18 suPPoset*to be
, j. . sin.^sin..v
continually diminished, its second term, to wit, ~_j_CQS j
may become less than any assignable quantity} there¬
fore the limit of the expression is simply cos. x : thus,
upon the whole we have found that the limit of —^—
is cos. x, and therefore
u • •
—r=rcos. x, and uzzx cos. x.
x
The fluxion of the other function, «=rcos. x^ is ea¬
sily deduced from that which we have just found, by
proceeding thus:
Put c to denote a quadrant, then pos. tfrrsin. (c—*),
and therefore
strain, (c—x).
♦ u ~ —
cos.' x
Hence also we have xzz-
cos. x
■— x sec.* x.
rr secant x,
u
sec." x 14-w*
In like manner, if we suppose u zz sec. x, then, be¬
cause sec. xzz-
, we have uzz—-—, and
cos. x
cos. x
• u sm. x
u—  —,
COS. X
. sin. x , I
or, since  == tan. x, and  =r sec. x,
cos. x cos. x
u zzx tan. x sec. x.
Proceeding in this manner, we find that when *cr
cotan. x, then
tan .* a? cos.* * sin. * * 7
And when uzz cosec. at, then
-zz—x cotan. x cosec. x.
61. Let us now consider the fluxions of geometrical pjBle
magnitudes: And first let it be required to find the gcXlXi
expression for the fluxion of BDPC the area bounded fig, i.
by CP, a curve line, and by CB, PD, the ordinates at
its extremities, and BD, the portion of AE, the line of
the abscissas, which lies between those ordinates. Let
the numerical measures of AD and PD, the co-ordi¬
nates at the point, be denoted by a: and y, and
the numerical measure of the are BDPC by s;
'art I.
Direct
lethod.
then y and / may both be considered as functions of the
abscissa x.
Let x, or AD, be supposed to change its value, and
to become AD', and let D'P', and BD'P'C be the cor¬
responding new values of y and s; then DD', and
DD'P'P will be the geometrical expressions for the si¬
multaneous increments of the abscissa and area. But,
as one of these quantities is a line, and the other a
space, they cannot be compared in respect of their ratio.
Therefore, let us consider a as denoting a line whose
numerical value is unity, and then the numerical va¬
lues of the increments of the abscissa and area may be
considered as analogous to the geometrical quantities
and the area DD'P'P respectively, which
quantities being homogeneous may now be compared
with each other. We are now to investigate the limit
. area DD'P'P
0* —JTx DD'—’ 116 &eneral expression for the ratio
of the increments of s and x. Draw PM and P'N pa¬
rallel to AE, meeting the ordinates in M and N. The
curvilineal area DD'P'P is greater than the rectangle
DD'MP, that is, greater than PD X DD'; but less than
the rectangle DD'P'N, that is, less than P'D'xDD',
therefore
FLUXIONS.
719
63. We proceed now to find the fluxion of an arch Direct
of a curve. Let APP' be a curve line of any kind, Method,
and AB, BP any two co-ordinates at a point P in the
curve. Put x for AB, the abscissa, y for BP, the or-^*®'
dinate, and a for the curve line AP, then z and y may
be considered as each a function of x. Draw P'B'ano¬
ther ordinate, and draw PM parallel to AB, meeting
P'P' in M, and draw the chord PP'; then PM, MP',
and the arch PP', are the simultaneous increments of x,
y, and z respectively. Now we have *
arch PP'_ arch PP' _ chord PP'
PM ~ chord PP' X PM
But chord PF= V(PM>+MP'*)=PMv/(i+^-^ ;
therefore,
arch PP' arch PP' _ MP7*
PM
chord
PP' „ . MF*\
PpX vXi+ pjvpj-
Suppose now the increments to be continually diminish-
*2 arch PP' 7v2
ed, then, as — = limit of —, and ~ = limit of
X x
and
area DD'P'P
a X DD'
area DD'P'P
aX DD'
PDxDD' PD
aXDD' ^
P'D x DD' ^ P'D'
axDD' ^ a
But the increments being supposed to be continually
. . PD . . P'D' PD 7
diminished,  is the limit of  , therefore   is
a a a
1 f r area DD'P'P
also the limit of  —» an“ hence fS 21D
aXDD' J
x a x an s—yx.
That is, the fluxion of a curvilineal area is equal to
the product of the ordinate, and the fiuxion of the ab¬
scissa.
62. Before we proceed to investigate the expression
for the fluxion of an arch of a curve, it is necessary that
we should inquire what is the limited ratio of an arch
of a curve to its chord.
Let APB be any curve line, all the parts of which
are concave towards its chord AP. Let AQ, QP be
tangents at the extremities of the arch, and let apq be
a triangle similar to APQ, but having its base of a
given magnitude, then
AQ-f-QP : AP :: aq-\-qp : ap.
Suppose now the point P to approach to A, then the
angles at A and P, and consequently the angles at a
and p, which are equal to them, will decrease, and
may become less than any assignable angles ; therefore,
the limit of the ratio of aq-\-qp to ap is evidently a
ratio of equality ; hence also the limit of the ratio of
AQ-f-QP to AP is the ratio of equality; and since the
arch AP is less than AQ-j-QP, but greater than its
chord AP, the limit of the arch AP to its chord AP
must also be the ratio of equality.
MP'* arch PP'
21.), and 1—limit of (last §) we have
x x1'
Hence it appears that the square of the fluxion of a
curve line of any kind is equal to the sum of the squares
of the fluxions of the co-ordinates.
64. The expression for the fluxion of a solid may be
found by the same mode of reasoning as that which we
have employed, § 61, to find the fluxion of a curvilt-
neal area. Let APQ/; be a portion of a solid generat-^
ed by the revolution of APB, a curve line, abont AC, a
line taken in the plane of the curve, as an axis. Let
PD/;, P'D7/;' be the lines in which BA b, a plane pas¬
sing along the axis AC, meets PQ/), P'Q'/)', the planes
of two circles formed by sections of the solid perpendi¬
cular to its axis. Draw PM and P'N parallel to AD.
Put AD=«, DP=y, let s denote the solid APQ/),
having y for the radius of its circular base, and x for
its altitude ; put w for the number 3•I4I59••• viz. the
circumference of a circle having its diameter zr I, and
let a denote an area, having its numerical measure ex¬
pressed by unity; then DD', or «xDD' being con¬
sidered as the increment of x, the portion of the solid
comprehended between the parallel planes PQ/), P'Q'/)'
will be the corresponding increment of s, which we are
•
to consider as a function of x; hence (§ 21.) is
x
equal to the limiting ratio of the portion of the solid,
comprehended between the planes PQ p, and P'Q' pi
to the solid axDD'. But the former of these solids
being evidently greater than a cylinder Pot, having
the circle PA/) for its base, and DD' for its altitude,
that is greater than wPD*xDD', and less than a cy¬
linder N/)', having the circle P'Q'/)' for its base, and
DD' for its altitude, that is less than w P'D'* X DD';
it:
720
Direct
Method.
F‘g< 5-
flux:
it follows, that as long as DD' has an assignable mag-
nitude,
4-^xPD* x DO' X -xId5T»
,rPD'*
and -4-^.?rP'D,a X DD' X aX j)i)/'»
ttP'D'2
^ a 5
but the increment DD' being continually diminished,
"P-, the greater limit of—, approaches continual-
a x
ttPD* w V*
ly to its lesser limit = —= (because g= i) ?ry*,
so as to come nearer to it than by any assignable differ¬
ence, therefore4-=7r/, and 's—Tcijx K. Now, if we ob-
x
serve that wy* is the area of the circle PQp, it will
appear, that the fluxion of a solid generated by the revo¬
lution of a curve about its axis is equal to the fluxion of
the axis multiplied by the general expression for the area
of a circle formed by supposing the solid to be cut by a
plane perpendicular to its axis.
65. To find the fluxion of the surface of the solid,
let us denote that surface by s, and let x and y denote
as before $ then the surface contained between the cir¬
cles PQjj and P'Qy will be the increment of s, cor¬
responding to DD' the increment of x. Draw the
chord PP' j then the curve line PP' being supposed to
revolve about the axis AC, and thus to generate the
increment of the surface of the solid, the chord PP'
will generate at the same time the convex surface of a
frustum of a cone $ now the limiting ratio of the curve
line PP' to its chord PP' being the ratio of equality,
the limiting ratio of the surfaces generated by the re¬
volution of those lines will also be the ratio of equality $
"B • •
therefore -r» which is equal to the limit of
x
surf, gener. by arch PP'
ixDD'
will also be equal to the limit of
surf, gener. by chord PP'
but the convex surface of a frustum of a cone is equal
to the product of its slant side into half the sum of the
circumference of its two bases (see Geometry), and in
the present case these circumstances are equal to 2 PD
Xw, and 2P'D'Xw, therefore i*- is equal to the limit
x
O N S. Part 11
limit of this expression (if we consider that P'M and
DD' are the simultaneous increments of 3/ and«) is evi¬
dently equalto C1 + |r)» therefore
4 = 27ry<v/(l + -T-),
x x*'
and consequently
sr: 2*7 >/(**+?*).
If we now observe that 2Try is the circumference of
the circle PQp, and f (**-{-y*) is the fluxion of the
curve line AP, § 63, it will appear, that the fluxion of
the surface of a solid generated by the revolution of a
curve about its axis is equal to the fluxion of the curve
line multiplied by the general expression for the circum¬
ference of a circle formed by supposing the curve to be
cut by a plane perpendicular to its axis.
SECT. III. The Application of the Direct Method »f
Fluxions.
Having explained the principles of the direct me¬
thod of fluxions at as great a length as we think suit¬
able to the work of which this treatise forms a part, we
proceed to shew how the calculus may be applied to
the resolution of some general problems in Analysis and
Geometry.
Investigation of a general formula for expanding a
Function into a Series.
66. In treating of the principles of the method of
fluxions, we have, from an examination of particular
functions, inferred by induction, that u being any func¬
tion of a variable quantity x, which was either actually
expressed, or capable of being expressed by a combina¬
tion of the powers of a?, then, x being supposed to change
its value, and to become x+h, the new value which
the function u will acquire when x-\-h is substituted in
it instead of x will always be capable of being expand¬
ed into a series of this form,
u -j-j9 h-\-qh%^-rh?Jf &c.
where/), q, &c. denote functions of x that are quite in¬
dependent of h.
We have shewn that, from the particular form of
this developement, it happens that jhe ratio of/)/*-f-
q A2-f-r + &c. the increment of the function, to h the
increment of the variable quantity x itself, admits of a
limit, which is always expressed by/), the coefficient of
its second term $ and as we have defined this limit to
be the expression for the ratio of the fluxions of u and tf,
so that/)=:—, the new value of the function may also
of
*r(PD-f-P'D') PP'
DD»
=w(PD+P'D')
PP'
DD' *
but the point D' being supposed to approach to D, the
x
be expressed thus,
»
3
And
!lart I.
Direct
Method.
FLUX
Anti this expression may he considered as indicating not
only the general form of the series, but also the particu¬
lar relation subsisting between «, the original function,
and p, the coefficient of the second term of the series,
the latter being in every case that function of x which
results from the operation of taking the fluxion of the
former, and dividing by x
We are now to investigate the relation that subsists
between each of the remaining coefficients and the ori¬
ginal function.
67. First let us suppose the function u to have the
particular form xnt n being a constant number. Then
x changing its value to x-\-h, u changes to
therefore, by the binomial theorem (§ 52.)
u'—xK-\-nxn~'1 h-ir-7^——— at”-* h*
2
n(n——2) , .
-f  A h* -f See.
But since u—xn, by taking the successive fluxions of
and considering x as constant, we have
u
X
t- = —1) («—2) at*-5,
JV*
u
— = n(«—1) (»—2) (n—3)
X*
&c.
Let «, -r- &c. be now substituted for nx*-1,
X X*
n{n—1) a"-*, &c. respectively, in the series for
and we have
u . , u 7i% u h3 u A4
—A-f-v- f.-r-  
X X* 2 x3 2.3 x* 2,3.4
+ &c.
68. This manner of expressing the developement of
uf, or (Af-f-A)B, indicates directly the relation that each
of the coefficients of the successive powers of A has to
the original function.
The first term of the series is the original function
w, or xn, itself, or it is what the function (a;-f-A.)" be¬
comes upon the supposition that A=o. The second
h ti
term is A, or —, multiplied by the coefficient -r-, which
1 x
coefficient is a function of x derived from the original
function by the operation of taking its fluxion, and di-
• , . .A*
viding the result by x. The third term is mul¬
tiplied by the coefficient—, that is, by a function of x
x*
derived from the preceding coefficient ~ by the same
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
IONS.
operation as that coefficient was derived from the
original function, namely by taking the fluxion of
x
considering x as constant, and dividing by x. The
fourth term is —multiplied by that is, br a
1.2.3 xl J
function of .r deduced from the third coefficient by the
very same operation as that by which the third was de¬
rived from the second, or the second from the first.
And so on with respect to all the other terms of the
senes, the «th term being the product of 
1.2.3...O—1)’
and the (?z—l)th fluxion of the function u divided
by a,'"'-1.
i
69. Let us now suppose that u denotes any other
function of x, then, whatever be its nature, it may al¬
ways be conceived as capable of being expressed by a
series, the terms of which are powers of x, in tlm
manner 5
A^+B^+C/+D^-f &c.
where A, B, C, &c. a, A, c, &c. denote constant num¬
bers. Thus we have
KzrAa’^-J-Ba’^-l-Ca^ -}- &c.
Then, x being supposed to become ^-f-A, and (in con¬
sequence of the change in the value of x) u to become
we have
«'=A(*+Ay7-fB (x+7i)b+C(x+hy+ &c.
Let us now denote Axa by P, Ba^ by Q, C** by
R, &c. then by last §
A(x+A)‘=P+?A+i.- +? - + &c.
X X* 2 X° 2.3
B ^+A)>=Q+$.4+3—+ ^- + &c.
X X* 2 x3 2.3
C (*+A)'=B+^+^.—- + &c.
* X* 2 X3 2.3
&C,
Therefore, substituting these developements in the
series expressing
P+Q+R+Scc
p Q »
+ (-r + -+“ +&c.)A
XXX
+4+|+ft+&c0£ ,
Xa X* X* 2
-f -r-- + &C.) —
X3 X3 x3 2.3
-f- &c.
4 T But
722
Direct
Method.
FLUXIONS;
But
aA= I + AA + — /** + —7*3 + &c.
*=P+Q+R+ &c.
4-Z.+2-+5-+ &c.
X X x X
2-3
Parti
Direct
Method,
X2 X
&c.
X' X2
or, exchanging h for x,
. A3.r* A3 ^3
o =i + A.r + H — + &c.
the same result as we formerly obtained in § 54.
Ex. 2. Suppose «=log. x. Then, x becoming
x-\-hy u becomes w'zrlog. Now from the
Therefore, substituting t/, 4, See. for the series to c j au x a “
’ & X equation «=log. .r, we find (by J 57.) -r = —.
x x
which they are respectively equal, Here M denotes the modulus of the system. Again, sup-
hx
h>
u H un-tun~ % . c j t. r /r w ^ 7
+— — + — ^ posing x constant, we find by $ 26, r-= 
7* 1 xx 1,2 •■^•3 ^ a
M n
before the values of u’ », -4-, &c. in the general fo^-
x
u u
mula «'= « 7i + — + &c. it becomes
Hence it appears that u being any function of x  2M "  2-3^ &c. Therefore, substituting as
whatever, if x+h be substituted in that function in- .x3 » w— tX4
stead of x, the series expressing the developement of
this new value of the function will have the general
properties which have been shewn, in last §, to belong
to it in the case of the function having the particular
value xn.
The very general theorem which we have just now
investigated is one of the most elegant and important in
analysis. It was first published by Dr Brooke Taylor
in a work entitled Methodus Incrementorum, which
made its appearance about the year 17x6. The theo¬
rem itself is generally known by the name of Taylor's
theorem. It is more general than the celebrated Bino¬
mial theorem, inasmuch as this last, and innumerable
others, are comprehended in it as particular cases.
M
log. (*+A)=:log. x-\- — h—
If we suppose xssi, and change h into y, we have,
because log. .r=log. 1=0,
log. (1+y) =M (y— f*+y — &c.)
Tor the particular method of applying these two
series to the calculation of logarithms, see ALGEBRA,
§ 285 to § 291. See also Logarithms.
Ex. 3. Suppose now tt=sin. x. TLhen r^rrsin.
(a -f-A). From «=sin. x, by the application of the
u u . w
rule in $ CQ, we deduce ■ . — cos. a, -7- = — sin. a, -r-
5 X X* X3
M
70. We shall now give some examples to shew the
manner of applying Taylor’s theorem, as well as its great
utility as an instrument of analysis.
Example 1. Suppose —uaxt a being constant and a
variable. Then a becoming a-f-^., u becomes u'zzax+h‘
Now from the equation u-=zax we derive (§ 56.)
^r—A.ax1 (here A denotes Again, consider¬
ing a as constant, and repeating the operation of tak-
U Ax 1 u
■ = A ax, we get
x x
— cos. x, — sin. x. &c. Therefore, substituting
— . ..
. « * , » a . - j, for a' . &c. their values in the general formula
ingthe fluxion — = A ox, we get -r- =: A* o , and hence lor «,«/, , occ. 5
0 .7! a*
again -^-=A 3 a*, &c. Therefore, substituting for
a
u'f u, ^r, 4—* &.c« their values in the general theorem
a a
 1- &c. it becomes
a x* 2
as before, we have
7. . A . A*
sin. (a-f-A)=sin. a-j-cos. a — sin. a
h3 . h* > oT
—cos. a f- sin. a -- + oie.
1.2.3 i.2*3*4
or sin. (a+A) is equal to
sin. a (1-
Hx+h zza* (1 Kh + ■“ h* + ^ + &c.)
Suppose now, that aso, then, as in this case a*=:i,
we have
-j-cos. a (4— 
2 i.2.3«4
h3 h*
■ &c.)
1.2.3 I-2-3-4-5
&c.)
If we suppose azro, then, as in that case sin. a—0,
the preceding formula becomes
sin.
art I.
Direct
Method.
FLUX
sin. h—h-
As
A*
1.2.3 1.2.3.4.5
or, substituting x instead of A,
■&C.
sin. xz=x-
*s
'&c.
1.2.3 I.2.3.4.J
Ex. 4. Suppose «=cos. x, then u'zzcos. (.r+A),
1 • 1. X w .11
and since tf=cos. x, by $ 59, — = — sm. ftr, —= —.
cos. —= sin. at, &c. Therefore, substituting as be¬
fore these values in the general formula —A-J-
x
&c. it becomes
r \ .A A*
cos. rAf-j-/i)“cos, Af—sm. x cos. a; 
I 1.2
-f-sin. x
or cos. (a?-}-A) is equal to
A*
A3
cos. X (-
1.2.3
A*
&c.
sin. a? (A-
1 . 2 1 1 . 2.3 . 4
A3 A?
1 . 2.3 1 . 2 . 3.4.5'
&c.)
■ &c.)
which expression, when x~o, and therefore cos. Afzri,
sin. Ar=o, becomes simply
cos. A~l-
A*
A4
1 . 2 ’ 1 . 2.3.4
or substituting at for A,
at2 a;4
1 &c
cos. «=:l-
I . 2 1 I . 2 . 3.4
&c.
71. It may be remarked that in each of these ex¬
amples, from the developement of uf the new value of
the function of w, ve have been able to deduce a deve¬
lopement of u the function itself. But it is easy to see,
that by proceeding in the same manner with the gene¬
ral formula as we have done in these particular exam¬
ples, we shall obtain a general expression for the deve¬
lopement of any function whatever.
The general formula is
A3
u h u A*
« = «4-    + -
^ I . 2^at3 I • 2. 3
f &c.
IONS.
Now, v! being the value that u assumes when A?-fA
is substituted in it instead of a?, if we suppose x—O, then
uf becomes the very same function of A, that u is of x.
.Let us denote the values which each of the functions
723
Direct
Method.
u u o
u, -7-, -V-, &c. acquire, when A?=o, by U, IP, U", &c.
x a;3
respectively.
I hen (f) u' (considered as the same function of A
that u is of at) is equal to
^—{-IP"—— f- &c.
1 1.2 1.2.3
Let x be now supposed to be substituted both in u\
and the series which is its developement instead of A,
then u' becomes «, and we have
«=U+U'- +U"— O-U'"—— U See.
I 1.2* 1.2.3“
and in this formula it is to be considered, as already
stated, that U, IP, IP', &c. denote the particular values
which the functions u, t-, —, —, &c. acquire respec-
X X* X3
tively, by supposing that in each of them x is taken
=0.
72. As an example of the application of this series
let us resume the equation u—<f, then--^-=rA a*
x
(§ 5^*)> —=A2 or, ~=A3 a*, &c.
x x3
Suppose now that A;=ro, then u, or a* becomes a°—xf
^-=Aax becomes A, A* a* becomes A*, &c. so
x x*
that Um, U'zrA, \J"=A2, &c. substituting therefore
these values in the general formula, it becomes
o*=i + A--fA2 —+ A3—+&c.
I I. 2* I.2.3r
Let us next suppose that u is an arch of a circle of
which the sine is a?4(radius being unity), then A:=:sin. u.
Now the ratio of the fluxion of u to the fluxion of x
will be the very same whether we consider « as a
function of x, or A? as a function of «; therefore (§ 59.)
xzzu cos. v, and 4-= » but since sin. cos.
x cos. u
—a?*), therefore,
u 1
T” ■v/(I—-A?*)'
Taking
(f) For the sake of illustration let us take a particular example. Suppose «=(o+a?)’‘, then-T-=»(i7-f .r)”-1,
a*
~—n(n O (a+a-)’1-1, &c. Suppose now that ^=0, then u becomes on, becomes wo"”1,becomes
^2 v v x or
n(n—1) a"”2, &c. so that in this particular case we have U=2an, U,=»o’,“I, U^rrn(«— 1)a"-2, &c.
4 Y 2
Fi*. 6.
Takins now the fluxion of
ion of the result, &.c. we have
\/(i—»*) ’
FLUX
and the flux*
Ci—
3**
*3 (i—(i—w1)!
3-3x
3-Sxi
x*
&c.
(I—^)t
Suppose now that a;=:0, then u becomes O, -^—becomes
X
— becomes o, —
x* x3
becomes x, — becomes O, &c. so
that U=o, U'—i, U"=o, U'"=:x, U""=0, &c.
Therefore, substituting in the general formula, we find
* — -f- &c.
u~x-\-
1.2.'
By prosecuting the computations farther, we may find
i 3*xs 3*5*^7
u—x-
2.3 ^ 2-3-4-i 2-3-4-5-6-7
+ &c.
Part I,]
Direct
Method.
Application of the Method of Fluxions to the Drawing
of Tangents.
73. The theory of tangents to curve lines furnishes a
good illustration of the truth of the principle which we
have considered as the foundation of the method of
fluxions, namely, that whatever be the form of a func¬
tion, the ratio of its increment to the increment of the
variable quantity from which the function is formed, is
in every case susceptilde of a limit.
Let AB, the abscissa of a curve, be the geometrical
expression of a variable quantity and let BP the cor¬
responding ordinate, be the expression for y, any func¬
tion of .r; then the curve line itself is the locus of the
equation expressing the relation between x and y. Let
PT, a tangent to the curve at P, meet AB the abscis¬
sa in T *, through P draw any straight line meeting the
abscissa in D, and the curve in p; draw the ordinate
p b, and from P draw P n parallel to the abscissa, meet¬
ing the ordinate bp in n.
The triangles DBP, Y np are similar j therefore
pn\nY :: PB : BD.
Now p n, and nY, or B b, are the increments of PB
and BA, or of y and x respectively, therefore the ratio
of the simultaneous increments of PB and BA, or y
and x, whatever be their magnitudes, is equal to the
ratio of PB to BD. Conceive now the point p to ap¬
proach continually to P, then the angle contained by
the straight line PD, and the tangent PT, will de¬
crease, and the point D will approach to T; at the
same time n p, and n P, the increments of y and x, will
be continually diminished} still, however, they will have
IONS.
to each other the ratio of PB to BD, but this ratio ap¬
proaches continually to the ratio of PB to BT, and be¬
comes at last more nearly equal to it than any assign-^
able ratio } therefore the ratio of PB to BT is the limit
of the ratio of PB to BD, and consequently is also the
limit of the ratio of pn, the increment of y, to nY, the
increment of x. And as this conclusion does not de¬
pend upon the particular nature of the curve, or upon
any particular relation supposed to subsist between x
and y, we may conclude, that whatever be the form of
the function, the ratio of the simultaneous increments of
the function, and the variable quantity from which it is
formed, has a limit to which it approaches when the in¬
crements are conceived to be continually diminished.
It is now easy to see how the method of fluxions may
be applied to the determination of tangents to curves,
for since the ratio of the ordinate PB to the subtangent
BT is always the limiting ratio of the increments of the
ordinate and abscissa, it is equal to the ratio of their
fluxions, that is
y : x :: y : subtan. BT.
Hence in any curve whatever, referred to an axis, the
subtangent, (that is, the segment of the abscissa between
the ordinate and tangent) is equal to -r- y where x
V
denotes the abscissa, and y the ordinate at the point of
contact; and the subtangent being found, the position
of the tangent is thereby determined.
Let us apply the above general formula to some ex¬
amples.
Example 1. Let the proposed curve be a circle. It Fig. 7.
is required to determine the position of PT, a tangent
at any point P in its circumference.
Put 2a for AE the diameter, also x for AB the ab¬
scissa, and y for BP the ordinate at the point of con¬
tact.
From the nature of the curve, we have
ABxBErrBP*, that is
w(2a—.r)=ry2.
Hence taking the relations of the fluxions of x and y,
we have
2a x-—2xx-=z2yy,
therefore — =: —-—»
y a x
and BT
y "—a
from which it appears that BT the subtangent is a
third, proportional to a—x and y, that is, to CB the
distance of the ordinate from the centre, and BP the
ordinate, agreeing with what is known from the ele¬
ments of geometry.
Ex. 2. Let the curve be a parabola, required the j'jg. 1.
same as before.
Put x for AB, the abscissa, and y for BP the ordi¬
nate at P the point of contact} also a for the parame¬
ter } then, from the nature of the curve
PB2=axAB, that is
axz=f
therefore,
■’art I.
Direct
Method.
ig- 9-
S-to.
FLUXIONS.
therefore, taking the fluxions, we get axzzZyy, and
4=^, and
y a
g-p __ jv 2 y*  lax ^
CT=a+x—~a*+x'
725
a-\-x a-j-»
therefore CB : CA :: CA : CT.
Direct
Method.
from which it appears that the sub-tangent BT is double
the abscissa BA.
Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipse.
Put AB=#, BP=y, AC the semi-transverse axis —<z,
CH the semi-conjugate axis -=zb.
The nature of the curve is such, that
AC9: CH9:: AB X BE : BP*
or a* : b* :: (2a—x') x :
Hence a?y^zzb* (2 a—#)#,
and taking the relation of the fluxions,
a'y yzzb'^a—a?)# ;
Therefore
at/
y b% (a—x)
and
But =-y
y J b\a—x)
But from the preceding equation expressing the nature
of the curve, ^- = (20—x^x ; therefore
grp   f 2 a Af
“ y y- a—x
To this expression for BT, let BC=ro—» be added,
and we have
CT=a—x -4- =
a—x a—
a
a—x
from which it appears that CB : CA :: CA : CT.
Ex. 4. Suppose the curve to be a hyperbola, and let
it be required to find, as in the preceding examples.
Put a and b, as in the case of the ellipse, to express
the semitransverse and semiconjugate axes, then the
equation of the curve is
a'y'—fr^za+x^x,
and taking the relation of the fluxions,
a'yy—b'ia+x^x,
from which we find
BT= ~i/=~a*yi .
y y £9( + *)
or, substituting (20+#)# for
BT = y—
y Cl A?
Let this expression for BT be subtracted from the ex¬
pression for CB, that is from a-J-a?, and we have
Ex. 5. Suppose the curve APD to be a cycloid, of Fig* n.
which AE is the axis, and AQE a semicircle described
on the axis as a diameter. Suppose AC, the radius, to
be unity ; put AB=x, BP—y, and the arch AQzrr ;
then, AB:z;i—— cos. v. and BQ — sin. v. Now, from
the nature of the curve, PB = arch AQ+BQj hence
we have
*=1—cos. v, yzzt;-]-sin. v,
and taking the fluxions, by § 59.
xzz v sin. v, y~v-{-v cos. v ;
therefore,
jjp_ _ v y sin, v _ y sin. v
y V-\-VCQ3.V. I-pCOS.t;
_ PB x BQ
” EB »
but from the nature of the circle — = there-
- .p™ PB x AB
tore, BI — —? and consequently BQ : BA ::
BP : BT, from which it appears that if the chord AQ
be drawn, the tangent PT is parallel to the chord
QA.
74* If PT (fig. 6.) be a tangent to the curve AP at Fig. 6,
the point P, and PC be drawn perpendicular to the
tangent, meeting AC the axis of the curve in C, then
the line PC is called a normal to the curve at the point
P ; and BC, the distance between the ordinate and the
extremity of the normal, is called the sub-normal.
The triangles TBP, BPC being similar, we have
TB j BP:: BP : BC j or, since TB : BP :: x-.yt (573.)
^ - V -- y - BC, hence in any curve, BC the sub-normal
is equal to —7- 5 and from this expression, we may find
the sub-normal in the same way as we have found the
sub-tangent in the examples of last §.
75. As by plane trigonometry
TB : BP :: rad. : tangent of T,
and from § 73, TB : BP :: x :yt
therefore x \ y :: 1 -. tan. T,
hence it appears that 4 expresses the numeral tangent
x &
of the angle T, that is, the angle contained by a tangent
to the curve, and the axis of the curve. In like man¬
ner we have
y-x :: BP : ED :: CB : BP :: 1 : tan. C,
X
therefore expresses the tangent of the angle C, that
y
is, the angle contained by a normal to the curve and
its axis.
Application
726
Method. Application of Fluxions to Problems relating to Maxi-
''"" v     ma and Minima.
76. If a variable quantity be supposed to change its
magnitude, then any function of that quantity will also
change its magnitude. When the variable quantity is
supposed to increase continually so as to acquire succes¬
sively all degrees of magnitude, there are some func¬
tions of such a form, that they either increase conti¬
nually, or decrease continually ; but there are others
again which increase to a certain limit, after which
they decrease; or else they decrease to a certain limit,
after which they increase.
If, in consequence of the continual increase of a va¬
riable quantity, a function of that quantity first in¬
creases to a certain limit, and afterwards decreases,
when it arrives at that limit it is then said to be a
maximum. Or if it decrease to a certain limit, and af¬
terwards increase, w'hen it arrives at that limit, it is
then said to be a minimum.
77. Let us consider the function y—b—{x—a)*.
If we suppose x=o, then y~b—a*. Suppose now x to
be at first very small, and to increase; then as (;v—a')*
will decrease, y will also increase, till # become —a, and
then y will become ^xib^ when it is a maximum / for x
being supposed to become greater than o, y will be less
than b. By supposing «to increase till (a?—a)2 become
equal to £, then y will decrease to o j and x being still
supposed to increase, y will become negative.
Let us next suppose y—b~\-{x—a)a. In this case
when Ar=o,y=6-f-a* as x increases, (a;—a)9 decreases,
and consequently y decreases, till arrrer, and then y=b,
a minimum ; for x becoming greater than 0, y becomes
greater than b.
78. Every function that either increases or decreases
continually has neither maximum nor minimum ; for
whatever value such a function may acquire, in the one
case it may always have a greater, and in the other a
less value.
The characteristic property of a maximum value of a
function, by which it is made the object of analytical
inquiry, consists in its being greater than the values
immediately preceding, and also greater than the va¬
lues immediately following it; and that of a minimum
consists in its being less than the values immediately
preceding, and also less than the values immediately fol¬
lowing it.
In some cases a function may increase to a certain
limit and then decrease, and afterwards increase again
indefinitely ; or the contrary. Hence it may happen
that such a function may have values greater than its
maximum or less than its minimum as they have been
here defined. And indeed it is easy to conceive that
a function may increase and decrease alternately seve¬
ral times } in such a case it must be considered as hav-
insr several maxima and minima.
79. Since y any function of a variable quantity x
may be considered as the ordinate of a curve, of which
x is the abscissa, it is evident that to determine the
greatest or least value of such a function, we have only
to seek the greatest or least ordinate of the curve which
Part I.
is the locus of the equation expressing the relation be- Direct
tween x and y. Let us suppose this curve to be DPE, Method,
and that AB is the value of a?, corresponding to BP the ‘ J
maximum or minimum value of the ordinate y; it is evi- an®
dent, that in the case of a maximum, the curve must be
concave towards AC, at least to a certain extent, on
each side of the point P, as in fig. 12. but that in the
case of a minimum it must be convex towards AC, as in
fig. 13. j and also, that in either case, if a straight line
be drawn through P parallel to AC, the curve must be
wholly on one side of that line, to a certain extent on
each side of the point P, and therefore, that the line
PQ must be a tangent to the curve at the point P.
Now when PQ a tangent to a curve at P (fig. 8.)
y .
meets the axis in T, it has been shewn, § 75, that -4- is
x
the expression for the tangent of the angle T, radius be¬
ing unity; but this angle vanishes, when PQ, instead
of meeting AC, is parallel to it, as in fig. 12. and
fig. 13.5 therefore, as in this case the tangent of the
y
angle is =:o, we have —=0.
x
Hence it appears, that to determine the maximum or
minimum of y, a function of x, tee must find thefluxion
of the function, and divide it by x, and put the result
equal to 0.
80. We proceed to illustrate this rule by some ex¬
amples.
Ex. I. To divide a given number a into two such
parts, that their products may be the greatest possible.
Let x denote the one part, then a—x will be the
other part, and xfi—at) the product of the two parts.
Therefore, by the question
y—x{a—x)xza x—x*, a maximum,
hence, taking the fluxion of the function,
y—ax—2xx, and ——a—2x,
x
therefore, a—2 x~o, and x—\ a.
Thus it appears that the product of the parts will be
tbe greatest possible, when each is half the given num¬
ber.
Ex. 2. To find the fraction which shall exceed its
cube by the greatest quantity possible.
Let x denote the fraction, then its cube is x3, so that
we have
y~x—at3, a maximum ;
therefore, taking the fluxion of the function,
y—x—3 aAv, and -4=1—3 * —
x
hence 3 ^*=1, and x~ the fraction required.
Ex. 3. To determine the greatest rectangle that can
be inscribed in a given triangle.
Put the base AC of the triangle ~b, and its alti¬
tude BDzzro, and let B n, the altitude of the rectangle fig. 14*
p’ qr’ s, considered as variable, be denoted by x, then,
because
FLUXIONS.
Part I.
FLUXIONS.
Direct
Method.
because of the parallel lines A C, js it will be, as
B D : A C : : D w : p that is a •. b : \ a—x : p <7,
b(a—#) , ,
hence p q— — , and the area of the rectangle, or
jo y X B », will be
c b(a—x^x
 . therefore 7/— — 
a J a
its solid content cxDF1 XEH=r -C aX ^—— hence
o
C Cl
 £ -is to be a. maximum, therefore, leaving out
the constant multiplier —, we hweyzzx^^b—x)~bx2
727
Direct
M etbod.
• 1 * b a Xmmm^'2.bxx
must be a maximum, and hence y~ —i  ; thus
a
we have
7J   b a—2 b x 
v a
and^a—2 b xzzO, and hence it appears that
the greatest inscribed rectangle is that whose altitude is
half the altitude of the triangle.
81. It is proper to observe that the value of a quan¬
tity, when a maximum or minimum, may often be deter¬
mined more readily by considering that any given mul¬
tiple, or part of the function, likewise any power or
root of it, must then be also a maximum or minimum.
Thus in the preceding example, in which the function
o C a x j a*
to be a maximum is—^—  , we may reject the con¬
stant multiplier—, and then the function to be a maxi¬
mum is y=(«—x) xzzax—the fluxion of which be¬
ing taken, we have y~Q a?——2 x x and ^- — a—2.t~o,
x
—a;3, a maximum; taking now the fluxions, we get
ij—ibxx—3 x*x, and ~ —2bx—3 xt-=zo,
x
hence $x*—2bx, and X— - b, and consequently HF
=| BH. 3
Ex. 6. To find the sun’s place in the ecliptic, when
that part of the equation of time which arises from the
obliquity of the ecliptic is a maximum.
Let EQ be the equator, EC the ecliptic, S the sun’s Fig. 17.
place, and SA his declination, then this part of the
equation of time is the difference of the sun’s longitude
ES, and right ascension EA, turned into time. Put
the arch ES=a?, the arch EA=t;, which is to be con¬
sidered as a function of x, and put a for the cosine of
the angle £=23° 28'. Then, by Spherical Trigono¬
metry, in the right-angled spherical triangle EAS, we
have tan. EA=cos. Extan. ES ; therefore, to deter¬
mine x we have tan. v~a tan. x, and y=zx—v, a maxU
mum.
From the second of these equations we get
iS-
hen ce xxz\a, the same value as before.
82. Ex. 4. Of all the right-angled plane triangles
having the same given hypothenuse, to find that whose
area is greatest.
Let A B C be the triangle ; put A Err#, and A C,
the given hypothenuse, —a, then BCzry' (a*—at*), and
* * * j y v
7j—x—v, and — =1   =0,
a? x.
and from the first, by J 60.
sec.*t;=o.rsec.*A?, and-—
x
a sec.*A?
sec.2i; ’
g. 16.
consequently the area of the triangle is — \i(a*—&•“),
which being a maximum, its square —  also
four times that square, or A?*(a*—aj*), will likewise be
awoa?/Vwtt»i, therefore, y=A;,(o*—Af,)=:a2A?*—x4, a max.
hence yn: 2 atxx—4 x3x, and
V
-4-—2 a'x—4,r3=o,
x
hence 2x*zza*, and xzxx V^.
Ex. 5. To determine the greatest cylinder that can
be inscribed in a given cone.
Put AC the base of the cone =£, BH its altitude
—a, and 13F, the diameter of the end of the cylinder
DIGF inscribed in the cone, —x. From the similar
triangles BAC, BDF, we have AC : BH :: DF : BE,
that is b : a :: x : BE, hence BE= and EHr=BH
ax ab—ax .
— BE — a -r- zz T . Put c lor the number
b 0
.78539, then the area of the base of the cylinder
is (by the Elements of Geometry) cxEF*, and
q sec.3 x
therefore, I  —=0, and sec.3iy=a sec.*Ar,
sec.*D ’
or 1 -ftan.*t?=:a-f-atan.* x, but from the first equation.
tan.*t;=:aztan.stf, therefore,
14-a2 tan.2x—a-\-a tan.2 x,
or a(a—1) tan.2A;=:c—1,
hence tan. a?= ——m.04416, the tangent of 46® 14',
Va
the sun’s longitude when this part of the equation is a
maximum.
83. We have deduced the rule of § 79. for deter¬
mining when a function is a maximum, or minimum,
from the consideration of curve lines. The whole the¬
ory of maxima and minima may however be explained
in a manner purely analytical, as follows :
Let us suppose that y is any function whatever of x,
and that x has acquired the value that produces the
maximum or minimum of the function ; then, if we sup¬
pose x—h and to be substituted successively in the
fuction instead of x, the two resulting values ought to
be both less than the maximum or both greater, than
the minimum value.
Lett
728
FLUX
Direct Let us denote the value of the function that results
Method, from the substitution of x——h by ty and that which re-
' suits from the substitution of by y\ then by the
theorem given in § 69,
y 1 y h* V h3 , s
X X* 2 x3 2.3
In each of these values, ■—-, the coefficient of hy must
x
either be equal to some quantity, positive or negative,
or else it must =0. Let us suppose, if possible, that it
is equal to some quantity, positive or negative; now as
V
h may be conceived to be so small that the term — hy
or any other term, shall exceed the sum of all the terms
that follow it in each series, (d) if we suppose h to have
such a value, then, because of the term-L/i having the
x
sign — in the one series, and in the other, it follows
that the one value of the function is greater, and the
other less than y, the maximum or minimum value : But
this conclusion is inconsistent with the nature of a maxi¬
mum or minimum, therefore -!-* cannot in the case of a
x
maximum or minimum be equal to any positive or ne¬
gative quantity whatever.
If however we assume 4r- =0, so that the two values
x
y h* y h3 t 0 .
,y—y +77 r7 ^ ^cc*
x* 2 x3 2.3
yh'ijh3
y-y + 4- —1-4-—+ &c.
X 2 X3 2.3
v h*
then as the second term  has the same sign in both,
x* 2
when that term is greater than all the terms that follow
IONS.
it, we shall have both values greater than y when Direet
-L is positive, and both less when it is negative, the first1
x*
case corresponding to a maximum, and the second to a
minimum.
Hence, to determine the maximum or minimum of
the function y, it appears that we must take the fluxion
of y, and divide it by x, and put the result equal to 0,
which agrees with what was shewn in § 79.
84. Although in the case of a function admitting of
y
a maximum or minimum we have always —-=0, yet we
x
must not conclude that conversely the one or the other
of these has place every time that —no. For if it so
x
happens that the value of x that renders -L=o> causes
x
also to vanish, without at the same time making
x*
•!— to disappear, then we have
x3
y h*
y h3
ty-y—   
y h3
y=y+-
X3 2.3 X* 2.3.4
y *
X3 2.3 X4 2.3.4
■ Sec.
-f- &c.
y
and as by giving a proper value to h, 4 may be
x3 2.3
rendered greater than the sum of all the following terms
in each series, it follows, that -L being supposed to be
x3
any quantity either positive or negative, because of its
sign being different in the two values, the one of them
will be greater, and the other less than y, the maximum
or minimum value, which result is inconsistent with the
V
nature of a maximum or minimum. If however 4- be
x3
assumed =0, then
y—
(0) If this should not appear sufficiently obvious, let
A £+B Aa-f C h3+T> h*+ &c.
be such a series, where A, B, C, D, &c. denote quantities either positive or negative, but which are independ¬
ent of A. Then, writing the series thus,
A(A-j-B A+C A*+D A»-f &c.)
it is obvious that if h be conceived to be continually diminished, and at last to become =0, the part
BA+CA*-J-DA3+&c.
will also become =0, therefore before it vanishes it will be less than A, or any other assignable quantity, there
fore B A*+C A4-f &c. may become less than A h.
?»rt I.
FLUXIONS.
Direct
Method.
A*
, y h*
V=y+ v~ ■—
2-3-4
+ &c.
Sj- We shall conclude this theory by applying it to
an example. Let y be such a function of x that
then by § 49,
y'—Zmxy+x'—a'zzo,
(y—m x)y—(my—Ar)«f=o,
and hence —■ — —-
y—mx
=0,
therefore my—xzzo, and y~
To find the value of let this value of y be substituted
in the original equation, it thus becomes
- _**—oW0,
hence we find
m a
and ^ 1/(1—m*)'
We must now examine what is the nature of the ex¬
pression for 4-^. Taking the fluxion of the equation
y _ m—yx ,
r fix' an^ cons*^er^ng & is constant, we have
x y—mx
y_ — C1—m*) (.xy—yx)
** (y—mxy ’
therefore, dividing by *,
v _ I y 7
hut as in the present case 4- =0, and yrr—, this ex-
x x
y_ __ —m
~ (l_w*)’
>/(!—m*)’
here again, the coefficient of the second term having in
both values the same sign, the conditions of the maxi-
y __
O-v/C1—w*2)’
mam or minimum are fulfilled, and the sign of shews
A4
when the one or the other is to have place.
It must now be sufficiently evident, without proceed¬
ing any further, that a function can only admit of a
maximum or a minimum when the frst of its fluxions
that does not vanish, is of an even order (or is its second
or fourth fluxion, <^c.), and that the sign of that fluxion
is negative in the case of a maximum, but positive in the
case of a minimum.
Of the values of fractions, the numerators and deno¬
minators of which vanish at the same time.
86. There are some fractional functions of such a
nature, that by giving a particular value to the variable
quantity, both the numerator and denominator of the
fraction vanish, and thus the fraction is reduced to this
^°rm o’ an exPress*on fr°m which nothing can be con¬
cluded. We have an example of this in the fraction
which, by supposing x—a becomes— 2 •
x —“ or—o* o
we must not however conclude that the fraction has no
determinate value in this particular case, for if we con¬
sider that its numerator and denominator have a com¬
mon divisor, viz. x—a, it is evident that by taking this
x—a
(x—a){x+af
becomes —-—, an expression, which in the case of x~a
divisor out of both, the fraction-^—
x-\-a
is equal to 1
2a
87. In general, if we make x=za in an expression of
this form-— it becomes however its true va-
—a) o
lue is either nothing, or finite, or infinite, according as
mr^n, or m—n, or m^Ln ; for by taking out the fac¬
tors common to the numerator and denominator, the
fraction becomes
Q
• Jl
■ in the first case, — in the
second, and
3 in the third j here we sup-
Q(at—a)"
pose that P and Q are such functions as neither become
nothing, nor infinite, by the supposition of x—a.
88. Therefore, when by giving a particular value to
x a function of that quantity assumes the form-,todis
o
cover the true value of the function in this particular
case, we must disengage the factors which are common
to the numerator and denominator. This may be done
in most cases by finding their common measure (Alge¬
bra, § 49.) but the direct method of fluxions furnishes
us with another method.
In the expression P (#—a), where P denotes any
function of x that is independent of x—a, if we suppose
x—a, then the expression vanishes ; the fluxion however
of the expression, viz. (x—a), P -f- P a?, is a quantity
which does not vanish when x=za, but is then reduced
to its last term, that is to P x.
4Z
729
Direct
Method.
which equation, by putting instead of x its value
m a
-, becomes
and as this result is negative, we conclude that the va¬
lue which we have found for y is a maximum.
pression becomes simply
Vox.. VIII. Part II,
Again,
73°
Direct
Method.
FLUXIONS.
Part I.
Again, the function P (tf—fl)3 vanishes by supposing
x—a, but if we take its fluxion, viz. (,r—a)2 V + 2 («
 p and again the fluxion of this quantity, we
get
(*—«)2P + 4 (x—a) P x + i . 2 P ^e,
an expression which does not vanish upon the hypothesis
0f .r—but is reduced to its last term, viz. 1.2P#2.
By proceeding in tills manner, it is easy to see that by
taking the fluxion of a function of the form P (x «)
m times successively (m being a whole number) we shall
finally obtain an expression, all the terms of which, ex¬
cept the last, vanish by supposing that x=a ; and that
the last term will be I . 2.3 • • • P#'1', an expression
free from the factor (x—a)m, and involving only the
function P.
denominator is 2x x, neither of which quantities vanish Direct
when x=zl, therefore, in this particular case, the value ,
. . 3 #2 3
of the fraction is   
2 X
Ex. 2. Suppose the fractipn to be
which vanishes when x~c.
ax2—2 ac x-\-ac*
bx2—2 be A’-J-^c2’
By taking the fluxions of the numerator and denomi¬
nator we obtain
2 a xx—2acx a ,v—ac
, a fraction,
2 b xx—2bcx k x ^ c
the numerator and denominator ol which still vanish
upon the hypothesis oi x—c, we therefore take the flux¬
ions a second time, and get r — r for fhe value of
2 bx2 b
the proposed fraction in the particular case of x—c.
89. It is not necessary that we should know the num¬
ber n, nor that we should exhibit the factor (a?—a)\
in order to determine when the expression P (x—-a)'\ is
freed from that factor. We have only to ascertain alter
each operation of taking the fluxion, whether the result
vanishes or not, when we substitute a instead of x ; for
in the last case the operation is finished, and the result
is the quantity 1 . 2.3 . . P a?”1. Suppose for example
the function to be x3—ax2-\-a2x-ya3, which vanishes
when x=a, its first fluxion also vanishes when x—a, but
not its second fluxion, which is (6 x—2 fl)A;2, hence we
, may conclude that the function has the form P (at—a)*,
which is besides obvious, because
a?3—ax2—n* a?-{-«3—(Ar-f-a) (x—a)2.
90. In applying these observations to the fraction
p (AT—a)_ it rs> t]iat by repeating the operation
Q (a#—a)n
of taking the fluxions of its numerator and denominator,
they will he freed at once from the factor x—a, if m—n.
If a result, which does not vanish, be obtained first from
the numerator, then we may be assured, tliat the factor,
 a) is found in the numerator raised to a less power
than in the denominator, and in this case the fraction is
infinite when x—a. If on the contrary the first result
that does not vanish is found from the denominator,
then the numerator contains a higher power of (a?—a)
than the denominator, and in this case, when X—a, the
fraction vanishes.
The rule for finding the value of a function which
becomes - by giving a particular value to #, may there¬
fore be expressed thus. Take the successive fluxions of
both the numerator and denominator until a result
which does not vanish be obtained from either the one
sr the other, or from both at the same time ; in the first
case the function is infinite, in the second it is equal to
p, and in the last case its value is finite.
91. We proceed to illustrate this rule by a few ex¬
amples.
#3_i
Ex. 1. The value of the function —  is required
at—1
when a:=:i.
The fluxion of the numerator is 3** x, and that of the
Ex. 3. Suppose the fraction to be
a?3—ax2—a2x -j- a*
which vanishes when a=«. In this example, by taking
the fluxions of the numerator and denominator once,
we get
3A?2i— 2a x x—a2x _ 3 A'2—2 ax—a2
an expression, of which only the numerator vanishes
upon the supposition of x—a; hence we may conclude
the true value of the fraction in this case to be O.
The contrary happens in the fraction
a x*—x
a4—2 a3 x —[- 2 a x}—a4 ’
we may therefore conclude that when xzza, this last
fraction becomes infinite.
92. The rule § 90. can only be applied when the
factors common to the numerator and denominator are
integer powers ol x—a, for as by taking the fluxions,
the index of (a-—a)m is diminished by an unit at each
operation ; when m is a fraction we shall at last arrive
at a result containing negative powers of x—a,, which
therefore, when x—a, will become infinite. rIlie fol¬
lowing mode of proceeding will however apply to all
cases Avhatever.
V
Let ~ be a fraction of which the numerator and
X'
enominator both vanish when xr=a; by substituting
1 it c-J-A instead of x, the functionsX and X; may be
A h* + B// + &C. A' A* + B7/ + &c.
which are ascending, that is, having the exponents of
the powers positive and increasing} because the series
must become o, upon the hypothesis that h—O. W e
have therefore
AA*+B/^+&c.
A'r+B7/ + &C..
instead of the proposed fraction.
Now
art I.
Direct
itethod.
F L U X I
Now If «s a', by dividing the numerator and de¬
nominator of this expression by the factor, /t“, which
is common to all the terms of each, it becomes
A h*-*' + B &c.
A'+ B-f&c.
O N S.
Let a thread be fastened to it at H, and made to paos
along the curve, so as to coincide with it in its whole
extent from H to F. Let the thread be now unlapped
or evolved from the curve, then its extremity F will de¬
scribe another curve line FAPP'. The curve HCF is
called the EvOLUTE of the curve FAP; and the curve
FAP is called the Involute of the curve HCF.
/
31
Diiect
Method.
£• IS.
a quantity which, by supposing //—Q, is reduced to
-2-, that is to 0. If again the expression for the
A
fraction, after dividing the numerator and denominator
by /<*, is
A + BAg-*'-f.Scc.
A'+BA/s'~a'-f&c. ’
A
which, by supposing h to be =0, becomes simply —, a
finite quantity. If, however, at «sil then the expres¬
sion for the fraction is
A+ B//-”+&c.
Ar'-a+B//~a -f&c. ’
which, when h~0, becomes —, an expression which
may be considered as infinite. Thus it appears that in
each case the true value of the fraction depends only on
A and A', the first terms of the series.
The following rule is applicable to every function
that can appear under the indeterminate form
Find the first term of each of the ascending series
which express the developements of the numerator and
denominator when a + h is substituted in them instead
of x. Reduce the new function formed of these first
terms to its most simple form, and make b—o $ the re¬
sults shall be the different values of the proposed func¬
tion when x is made equal to a.
Example. Suppose the function to be
f x— f af (x—a)
f (**—a1) ’
which, when x—a, becomes By substituting a-j-A
instead of x, and developing the results into series, the
> &
numerator becomes /*'-{-—7—+ &c. and the deno-
1 2fa 1
h*
minator s/2al^ ^ ^-y=. + &c. Taking now the first
2V2o
term of each series, we have-
A*
V
2 a
expression in which A is not found j therefore the value
of the function is 1 ■, when A'rro.
V
Of the Radii of Curvature.
93. Let HC'CF represent a material curve, or mould*
94. From this mode of conceiving the curve to be
generated, we may draw the following conclusions.
1st. Suppose PC to be a portion of the thread de¬
tached from the evolute, then PC will be a tangent to
the evolute at C.
2dly. The line PC will be perpendicular to a tan¬
gent to the curve FAP at the point P, or will be a
normal to the curve at that point. For the point P
may be considered as describing at the same time an
element ot the curve Fi\P, and an element of a circle
q P cf, whose momentary centre is C, and which has PC
for its radius.
3dly. That part of the curve between F and P,
which is described with radii all of which are shorter
than CP, is more incurvated than a circle described on
C as a centre, with a radius equal to CP. And in like
manner PP', the part of the curve on the other side of
P, which is described with radii greater than PC, is
less incurvated than that circle.
4thly. The circle q R q' has the same curvature as
the curve APP' itself has at P: hence it is called an
Equicurve circle, and its radius PC is called the
Bai>ius of Curvature at the point C.
95. We are now to investigate how the radius of
curvature at any point in FAP any proposed curve may
be found.
Let AB and BP be the co-ordinates at P any point
in the curve, and PC its radius of curvature 5 and let
PC meet AB in E. Put the abscissa ABrrr.r, the or¬
dinate BP—y, the arch APzra, the angle AEP (that
is, the arch which measures that angle, radius being
unity) zzr, the radius of curvature PCrsr. Take P'
another point in the curve, and let P' C' be the radius
of curvature at that point. Let P'C' meet AB in E',
and PC in X), and on I) as a centre, with a radiusm,
describe an arch of a circle, meeting the radii PC, P'C'
in m and n. Then the arch PP' will be the increment
of k; and since the angle PDP' is the difference of the
angles PEA, P'E'A, the arch m n will be the corre¬
sponding increment of v.
Suppose now the point P' to approach continually to
P, then the points (7 and I) will approach to C, and
the ratio of the arch PP', the increment of 25, to the
arch m n the increment of v, will approach to the ratio
of CP to C m, that is to the ratio of r to I ; therefore
the ratio of r to 1 is the limit of the ratio of AP' to m n,
PP'
or r~ limit of , and passing to the ratio of the
m n °
fluxions, r—--, thus we have obtained a formula ex-
v
pressing the radius of curvature, by means of the fluxion
of the arch of the curve, and the fluxion of the angle
which a normal to the curve makes with the line of the
abscissas. We proceed to deduce from this formula
4Z2 other
732 FLUXIONS.
Direct other expi’esslons which may involve the fluxions of * ^
Method, and y only.
Part I,
fore, yz
96. Because PE is a normal to the curve at E, the
tangent of the angle PEA or v is equal to — (§ 75*)»
y
put then because tan. vzzty we have, by taking
y. t .
the fluxions (§ 60.), v stc.* v=:ty but sec.* w=l+tan.a t;
(§ 63.), therefore = t
y* y y% y
t if
and vzz-
Substituting now this value of v in the formula r=-r
v
it becomes
25*
‘y%
If we now recollect that and that
y
it will appear that this other expression which we have
found for r involves in effect the fluxions of x and y
only.
97. In computing the values of , and —t-t—
y * if
we
may consider any two of the three quantities x, y, 25,
as a function of the remaining quantity ; and upon that
hypothesis compute their fluxions.
Thus if we suppose that y and 2! are functions of x,
then, as in taking the fluxions of y, t, and a, we must
considers as a given or constant quantity, from the
. x , • x y t . , ,
equation — we have t—   (j 390> and sub-
y . y*
stituting this value of t in . ■ the value last found for
ty'
r, it becomes
r=-4^r:
—* y —at y
If again, instead of considering y and 2; as functions of
r, we consider x and % as functions of y, then from the
equation t (as y must now be reckoned constant),
y
• x %
we get t s=—r, thus the formula rr=—r- becomes
y 1 y%
* y
* y
3 * -i—.01*
a xx _——, and, making x constant,
2X*
Direct ^
Method. I1'1,
— *^2 v» $  a X
-—, therefore, ^
^xi
x /(Ax-\-a\ . . - ,
^—~—]» an“> putting r for the radius of
curvature,
r_ _Ca+4^)4
— xy 2
If in this general expression, we put .vrro, we find
. a for the radius of curvature at the vertex of
2 y o
the curve.
Ex. 2. Suppose the curve to be an ellipse, required
as in the last example.
Putting a and c to denote the two axes, the equation
of the ellipse is a'y'z^^^ax—x*). Hence taking the
first and second fluxions, we have 2a*yy—ci x (a—2x')t
and 2 c? y1 2 or y y — — 2 c* x* \ whence y
ca x(a—2x) . •• <2*v*-I-c*x% , . ,
and —y— ■~—7 , which expressions,
2 o*y " a'y
by substituting the values of y and y, become
• c x (a—2 w)
2a{a x—a?*)
f o*c*A;,(a—2 a:)*
•• j 4o*c(aA:—a:2) ^{ax—x1)
y 1 * 1
t
a\/{ax—.v*)
_ca:* (a—2a:)*-{-4(oa:—A:*)
«—• “ S\ *
a 4(nA?—Af*)v'(cAf—a:1)
c a a:*
4 (or a:—a:*)t
therefore,
2s=v/ («*+ y1)
fc*x*(a—2A:)a \
^'4a1 (a a?—) +* )
_ * //c2a2-j-(a2—ca) (4ax—4x*)
\ ax—a* '
and
—v y
(oV + 4(ol—fa) (ax—x2y
2 a* c
Wc shall now apply these formulae to some examples.
which expression, when a=o, becomes simply the
98. Example 1.—It is required to find the general
expression for the radius of curvature of a parabola.
The equation of the parabola is ynza* xl, there*
radius of curvature at the vertices of the transverse
axisL, but when zzArfa, it becomes , the radius of
2 c
curvature at the vertices of the conjugate axis.
PART
FLUXIONS.
art II.
[averse
olethod.
PART II. THE INVERSE METHOD OF FLUXIONS.
733
Inverse
Method.
99. AS the Direct Method of fluxions treats of
finding the relation between the fluxions of variable
quantities, having given the relation subsisting between
the quantities themselves 5 so the Inverse Method
treats of finding the relation subsisting between the va¬
riable quantities, having given the relation of their
fluxions.
Whatever be the relation between variable quantities,
we can in every case assign the relation of their fluxions ;
therefore the direct method of fluxions may in this re¬
spect be considered as perfect. But it is not the same
with the inverse method, for there are no direct and
general rules, by which we can in every case determine,
from the relation of the fluxions, that of their flowing
quantities or fluents. All we can do is to compare any
proposed fluxion with such fluxions as are derived from
known fluents by the rules of the direct method, and if
we find it to have the same form as one of these, we
may conclude that the fluents of both, or at least the
variable parts of these fluents, are identical.
100. In the direct method we have shewn, that by
proper transformations, the finding of the fluxion of any
proposed function is reducible to the finding of the
fluxions of a few simple functions, and of the sums, or
products, or quotients of such functions. In like man¬
ner, in the inverse method we must endeavour to trans¬
form complex fluxionary expressions into others more
simple, so as to reduce them, if possible, to some fluxion,
the fluent of which we already know.
Sect. I. OJ the Fluents of Fluxions involving one
variable quantity.
101. As when y is such a function of a variable
quantity .r, that yrr Ax'"-f-C, where A, m and C de¬
note constant quantities, we find by the direct method
(J 36. and $ 26.) that y—m A xm~x x% or (putting a
instead of m A, and n instead of m—1), y—ax" x; so,
on the contrary, as often as we have the fluxional equa¬
tion
y—ax" .v,
we may conclude that the relation of the fluents is ex¬
pressed by the equation
axnJrI
W-J-I
fCi
inquiry in which the fluxional equation y=axHx oc¬
curs. If it be known that y=0, when x acquires some
known magnitude, which may be denoted by b, then
abn+t
the general equation y~ —jC, becomes in that
»-j-1
particular case
abn+t
71F1
C;
Hence, by subtracting each side of this last equation
from the corresponding side of the former, we get
y=
o(x’,+1 A,+'‘)
»+1
an equation that is independent of the constant and ar¬
bitrary quantity C#
103. By giving particular values to n in the fluxion¬
al equation y—axnx, and in that of the fluents w—
a (x"*1—£"+I) . ^
 — , we may obtain particular fluxional
equations, and corresponding equations of the fluents.
There is however one case which requires to be no¬
ticed ; it is when n is =—1 j then the equation of the
fluxions \sy=2ax-'xz=~, and that of the fluents, ac¬
cording to the general formula y~
o(*—I+I—i-1*1)
—i-f-i
_ a(*°—b°) _c(i—1) o ,
—  ^ ~t——^ ““o’ r°m “usexPresSl0n
it is manifest, that nothing can be concluded. The value
g(x"+i b'"*1')
ol the function   * *n Par^cu^ar case
of //-f-izro may be found by the rule given in $ 90
lor determining the value of a function when it assumes
the form -; but it may be otherwise found by pro¬
ceeding thus. Put and let » =r and
log. e
loir, b , , , ,
?= 1^17 J tben’ by 1 >e formula of § 54.
m , . p*»i* „
xm=i -\-pmF f- &c.
for by substituting m A instead of a, and m—1 instead
of » in this equation, it becomes y=rA x^-j-C, the same
equation as that from which the fluxional equation was
derived.
102. The value of the constant quantity C, which is
generally called by writers on fluxions, the correction
®f the fluent, is to be determined from the particular
+ &c-
and therefore
O-?)
xm—bm ■
and
Thus
734-
FLUXIONS.
Inverse
Method.
Thus we have
*»+* &n+i
or     expressed ge-
n-\-\
Part II,
So, on the contrary, if we have any fluxional equation invert®
of this last form, we may conclude that Method,
nerally by a series, all the terms ot which, except the
first, being multiplied by m or w-f-i, will vanish when
n -j- i~o, or when n— —I j hence it appears that the
. o(.rn+I—. . ,
general equation y—   ’ “ecomes in t‘ie
particular case of n ~—I, (/?—y)’ which, substi¬
tuting for p and q their values, and observing that
y=a t-\-b v-\-c u ^-&c. -}-C.
And since that when wdiere u, v and t de¬
note any function of a variable quantity, and C a con¬
stant quantity, we have, § 37, u^vt-\-t v, so, on the
contrary, if
log. x log. b
log. e log. e log. e
X log. becomes
a , x
—y-.  X log. 7
J]og.<? 45 b
where log. e and are ^a^en according to the
we may conclude that
uz=.v
and in like manner if we have
tv—vt v vt
t ?
same system, which may be any system of logarithms
whatever. So that if we take the Napierean system in
which log. e—i, then
we may infer from § 39. that
«= -+C.
t 1
y—a 1. *- =a 1. .r—a 1. b~a 1. ar-f-C,
where C denotes a constant quantity, and where the let¬
ter 1, in this formula, and in others in which it may oc¬
cur, is put as an abbreviation of the words Napierean
logarithm, so that by o l.a is meant a multiplied by the
Napierean logarithm of x, &c.
This expression which we have found for the value
of y in the particular case ef y — ax~x x, or —, co¬
incides with what we might have found by considering
that when yz=\. x, it has been shewn (§ 57.), that
• x 9 (tx
y— - so that conversely, when —, we may con-
x %
elude that yzrol. ff-f-C, where C denotes a constant
quantity, to be determined from the particular question
in which the fluxional equation may occur.
106. It is often convenient to denote the fluent of a
fluxional expression without actually exhibiting that
fluent. For this purpose we shall employ the sign^j
putting it before the fluxion whose fluent we mean to
denote. Thus, by the expression J'a xn x, is to be un¬
derstood the fluent of a xn x; and as this fluent has been
found to be - + ~i+C\ we may express this conclusion
in symbols shortly thus,
fa
ax x =r
ax
.n-J-X
71 —I
-C.
104. It must now be evident that if
y—axmxJrbxnx-\- ca:pa:-{- &c.
where ot, n, p, &c. are constant numbers, then
107. Suppose we have y—(ax-$-b)m x, we may ex¬
pand (a x-{-b)m into a series, and multiply the series by
x, and find the fluent of each term of the result. But
we may also find the fluent of this expression without
employing the developement of (a x-\-b)m, by proceed-
bxn+t C*p+,
OT-f-I ‘ W+I P+I
-j- &C. -fC }
here C denotes a constant arbitrary quantity that may
he considered as the sum of the constant quantities which
*+* bxn+'
ought to be added to the terms  , —-—, &c.
6 OT-fl
each being regarded as a distinct fluent.
%—0 J
ing thus. Put ax-^b—%, then X— ——, and
Substitute now these values of and #, in the ex-
pression for y, and it becomes y~ — j hence we have
2,m+I
(§ ioi.)y=
a(OT-{-i)
stituting (o.v + i) for
105. In general, since that when
yzza t-\-b v-^c u-{- &c. -|- C,
where t, v, u, &c. denote any functions of a variable
quantity, and C a constant quantity, we have (§ 35.
‘ 36-)
y=
-j-C, and consequently, by suh-
{.C.
o(OT-j-l)
io8. Suppose that yzz(axn-\-b)”'x*r~*x. By putting as
before axn-\-b=zz, we have n a xr'~x x=z, and x”-1*
and
ysoi-f-i &c.
— . hence y rzr ——^ snd y— r . x
-j-C, and
substituting foi: « its value cxn~f-&,
t.
y=
art II.
Inverse
fJIetbod.
log. Let us now consider fractional functions, and
to begin with a simple case let us suppose that
Axm.V -p x—b . 25*
V—7 —r—Jrut a074-^7725, then »= , .v=
’ a a
and consequently,
FLUXIONS. < 735
place, we remark that the greatest exponent of the Inverse
powers of x in the numerator may be supposed to be Method,
less than that of its powers in the denominator. For if v’"
it were not so, by dividing U by V, and calling Q
the quotient, and II the remainder, we should have
U * • R a?
'^r=(e^+-y-> and
y~~ am+125’‘
We have now only to find the developement of (2;—&)”,
to multiply each of its terms by 2; and divide it by 2;",
and take the fluent of the result.
Let us take for example the case of m = 3, and
n—2t then
/ _ A(«—by%
V~ 0*7? ’
2; 2;—3 bK-y^tf-TT'T,— b*%-x7i\^
Hence, taking the fluents of the several terms, as in
§ 105, we have
+C.
Let us now restore the value of z, and then it appears
that when
/t-=/
y=7:
A x3x
(ax+by*
A I i<ax+by—3b(ax-\-1A t
y-tfl +3^ \.(ax+b) + b\a x+b-' j; + U
no. If we suppose that
•   AA7n^4-BA7pA7-f-&C.
(a-\-bxyn *
then, w'e may write the equation thus,
6 •
• Axnx . R xvx
y=
{a-\.bx)m ’r (a-ybxy
^ C x^x
&c.
(a-}-b x)n
and take the fluent of each term, in the same manner
as we have found the fluent of —^ X *—.
(ax+by
Of the Fluents of rational Fractions.
in. Every fluxion that is a rational fraction is com¬
prehended under this general formula,
(A xm -f B x" -f C ** -f- &c.>
A'xm'4Wxn/ +TW+&cc. ’
which, by putting U to denote the expression between
the parentheses in the numerator, and V the denomina-
tor, may be represented by Now in the first
Now, Q being a rational and integer function J"Q x may
be found, as in § 104, and it only remains to find
f*Rx . . . ,
/ y j an expression in which the highest exponent of
the powers of x in R is less by unity than in N ; so that
R x
the fraction ——— may be generally expressed thus,
(A at’-^B A7"-24CA:n-J +T)«
-j-AV-1 + ii'x*-2+UXn-i . . .4/f''
Ihe general method of finding the fluent of a frac¬
tional expression of this form consists in decomposing it
into a series of other fractions, the denominators of
which are more simple. These fractions may be found
by proceeding as follows: By putting the denominator
of the proposed fraction equal to o, we get this equa¬
tion,
a;B-{-AV~t 4-BV-a . .. -fT'rro.
Suppose now that the roots of this equation are found,
and that they are denoted by
—a, —a', —a", —a'", &c.
which quantities we shall suppose, in the first place, are
all unequal. Then the expression which has been as¬
sumed as equal to o, may (Algebra, Sect. X.) be
considered as the product of n factors
#40, x4a\ x-J-a”, x-j-a'", Sec.
Let the proposed fraction -y be now assumed as equaSi
to the sum of the simple fractions
N
N'
N"
-, &c.
x-J-a’ x-ya'’ x-j-a
having for their denominators the simple factors of the
denominator of the proposed fraction, and for their
numerators quantities which are constant, but as yet are
indetermined.
T-hat we may avoid complicated calculations, and
present a determinate object to the mind, let us suppose
that the fluxion of which we are to find the fluent is
(A a?24B a?4C)a;
x3-j-A'xi~j-B'x-j-C/*
and that we have by the resolution of the cubic equa¬
tion x34A'x* 44 C'— o found
x3 4 AV 4 B'a? 4 Cf:= (* 4 °) (* 'h0') •
The
A*
The fractions
N * N'.v N"*
FLUXIONS.
~1. ^ («+^>y' (ai+o'O^ ^ -^-const.
Part II. FJ|
Inverse
Method.
i"1
x-\-a x+a x-^-a”
when reduced to a common denominator are
N(*-fa')0+a"> N'C^+aKHha^
(.f + o) (ar+a') (A?4-a'>)’ (*-|-o) (ar-f-o') (tf-f'0")
N'T^ + a) (x-j-a')x
(x+a) (x-f-a') (x-j-a") *
The common denominator of these fractions is the same
as that of the proposed fraction, and each ot the nume¬
rators, as well as their sum, is a function of x of a de¬
gree lower than tire denominator, that is, in the present
case, it is a function of the second degree. By taking
the actual products of the factors in the numerators,
and adding the results, we find the sum of the fractions
equal to
. r(N-fN'+N">a 1
y I + £ N(«’+<!'') + N'(a+a") +N"(o + «') j * j-
t+Na' a"-j-NW'-fN"aa'
where V denotes the common denominator (tf-j-o)
Setting aside
x
the factor of the above expression, we are now to
compare that part of it which involves the three inde¬
terminate quantities N, N', N", with Aa^-j-B tf-J-C,
the numerator of the proposed fraction, thus we obtain
these three equations
N+N'+N"=A,
N(fl'+o/,)+N'(«+aw)H-N"(a+oO=B,
N a'a"+N' a a"+N" a a'=C.
to
N x
N'x , N" x
r i
Put x-f-a=:z, then xzzz, and the fraction
a'-J-a
N
Nf g
(.r-j-o) (§ 103). In like manner we find /——^ =
%/ x-]-d
N' 1. (j'-j-o'), andy—p-1. (x-\-a"), and conse«
quently
J «1-L
where by const, is meant a constant quantity.
It is easy to extend this mode of proceeding to the
general formula given at the beginning of this § $ and
it is obvious, that as often as the denominator of a ra¬
tional fraction can be decomposed into real and unequal
factors, the determination of the fluent of that fraction
is attended with no other difficulty than this decompo¬
sition, which requires the numerical resolution of equa¬
tions.
By these equations, which are all of the first degree,
we may determine the values of N, N' and N", and thus
, , , • (Ax*-I-Baf-4-C) x
we have the proposed fraction ^Tav+B^+C/ CqUal
112. We have supposed that the factors of the de¬
nominator of the proposed fraction are unequal among
themselves, and it is only when this is the case that the
fraction can be decomposed into others, having all this
N
form   . If we suppose that the denominator
xn A'#"-1-}- BV“2. . . T' has a factor of the
form (a’-j-c)p, then the proposed fraction
ar-f-a * x-\-a! 1 tf-j-a"’
where N, N', N", and a, o', a", are constant and known
quantities.
N* .
transformed to   of which the fluent is Nl.^rrN 1.
a:1 -f-A'a* -f- B'a? -{- C'
=:N1. (a-fo) +N'l. (x+gO+N'M. const.
(Aa"-1 -f-Bx”~a -f-C*'’-3. .T)x
*"+A'*—1 +BV-14-CV-3 f-T
must be assumed equal to
(Px^-fQxP-’+R**-* hY)x
+
N'x
N"a
x-^.a! x-if-a"
where P, Q, R. . .Y, N', N", &c. denote indetermi¬
nate but constant quantities, and x-j-o', x+o", &c. are
the remaining factors of the denominator of the propo¬
sed fraction. To determine the quantities P, Q, R. . .
Y, N', N", &c. we must now proceed in all respects as
in last §, that is, we must reduce the fractions involving
these quantities to a common denominator, which will
be the same as the denominator of the proposed frac¬
tion *, then we must add the numerators, and put the co¬
efficient of each power of x in the sum equal to the co¬
efficient of the same power in the numerator of the pro¬
posed fraction. Thus we shall have as many equations
as indeterminate quantities, and by resolving these equa¬
tions, the value of these quantities will be found.
Having thus determined all the quantities P, Q, R,
. . .Y, which enter into the fraction
(Pxp~I-fQx^1 1-Y)x
(x-f-a)1’
its fluent may be found as shewn in § 109* But we
may also assume it equal to
M x M'x M"x
M'"..x
x + a
and, it is easy to see, that by reducing these fractions to
a
’art II.
FLUX
Inver*e a common denominator and adding them, the numerator
!Method, of their sum will have the same form as that of the frac-
tion whose fluent we are seeking; so that the values of the
indeterminate quantities M, M', &c. will be found by
putting the coefficients of the same power of x in both
numerators equal to each other. To find the fluent of
M * , , . • ,
we may assume #-{-0=55, then arrrz, and
/• M AT ___ /*M z: _ M a-r+*
^ n,p
M
1—1
(1—p) (at-J-o)’’
In like manner
St
M':
M'
(2—p) (A?+«)p_1
and so on, all the fluents being algebraic, except the
rW ...”x
lasty—‘s («+a), a logarithmic
function.
A?-j-a
113. In resolving the equation
*n-f AV-'+BV-*... +T=o,
it may happen that some of its roots o, o', a", &c. are
imaginary quantities, and then some of the simple fac¬
tors Af-j-o, at+o', AT-f-o", &c. will be imaginary. These
factors always occur in pairs (Algebra, 5 170.) and
have this form
—I, X~x—
so that their product
AT*-j-2*AT4-«*+/3*
is a real factor of the second degree. As every corre¬
sponding pair of imaginary simple factors may be united
in this manner into a real factor of the second degree,
if these factors are all unequal, we may avoid introdu¬
cing imaginary quantities into the fluent of the propo¬
sed fraction by proceeding thus. Let x —1
and at + *—P\/—denote two corresponding imagi¬
nary simple factors of the denominator. Instead of the
two simple fractions
N AT N'at
AT-ffl + iS^/ 1 Af-j-O  1’
which would have been assumed if the factors had been
real, assume a single fraction
(K AT-f-L)#
Xt-±-2ctX-\-ct1-{-/it
the denominator of which is a real function of at of the
second degree, viz. that which is the product of the two
imaginary factors. Here K and L denote two constant
but indeterminate coefficients, the values of which, as
Vol, VIII. Part II. f
IONS.
also those of the other indeterminate coefficients are to
be found as before.
If the denominator of the proposed fraction have se¬
veral equal factors of the second degree resulting from
its imaginary simple factors, so that the product of those
equal factors is
737
Inverse
Method.
(AT* -j- 2 « AT -f«* -f/32)7 j
then, corresponding to this product, we must, among
the fractions having indeterminate coefficients, assume
one of this form
(Q,x3,~x-f-R,xtl~i... +Y')x
(at*2 * AT-fa* 4/3*)J
where Q', R'...Y'denote constant and indeterminate
coefficients, the values of which will be found in all re¬
spects as those of the others.
We are now to find the fluents of these two fluxional
expressions, beginning with the first, viz.
(KAT-fL> __ (KAf-fL>
x*-^-2xx-^~clx-^-/3,’ °r (x-f-xy-f/S1 ’
Put x-j-x~zf then it becomes
(K.
and this again, by putting L—K«=M, is resolved in¬
to these two fluxions
K z « ( Mz
z’-j-p2
We can immediately find the fluent of the first of these,
by putting z^+^zrv, for then zz= —, and
2
==T'Ss=K*Lv’ ^ I03-)'
=K IV 0*+£2).
With respect to the other fluxion, if we put z~/iy, we
have
M z  M y
5s*+0a~ /3 i+ya’
A
z'+f
but we have seen ($ 60.) that —- is the fluxion of
1+S
an arch of which the tangent is y, therefore
/M y M , ‘
J — T-T-71 = a»-c (tan. =y) + const.
M
/3 l+y1
=r—arc Ctan.zz1—f- const.
t K /3 ‘
It is proper to remark, that if - be the tangent of a»
p
arch, then the sine of that arch is
cosine is
4
7-r, and it*
—, thus we may express the fluent
V(*2+/3X)’
3 A under
738 FLUX
Averse under ilifferent forms, by Introducing the sine or cosine
Method, of the arch instead of its tangent,
  V   If instead of » we substitute in these two fluents *-}-«
IONS.
Part II, ^
 and another function, which is the fluent . 1 w!
+ ’ Method.
of
we find that the fluent of
*2+ 2c6X-\-x'i-\-fi1
K 1. ,v/02 + 2*.r + *t + /32)
C«2+/32)5
Mi
 , that is, let us assume
f—X 1 1
Gz . r Ha
C^+/32) (*2+A
■y-1 "h/l
(ts24-/32j*-1 ’
L—K<e , -j-Af
arc (tan. =—") + const.
114. To find the fluent of the expression
where G and H are constant but indeterminate coeffi¬
cients. To determine these, let the fluxion of each side
o(,this equation be taken (observing that the fluxion of
(QV’-r 4-RV*-* ... +Y').r
(^ + 2^v + *2 + /32)3
a quantity having the sign J'prefixed to it is the same
we first transform it to
(K.r-t-L).r
quantity only without that sign) $ thus we have
Mz Gss 2(7—i)Giz2gi
o^+rr1
ni
(*2 + £2)
(a,* -f- 2xx -j- «* +^*)
(K'^-f-
,2\q~I >
(flf1 -j- 2x-V +«2 + /3*)
:* 1
and from this equation, by rejecting what is common to
each term, we find
(K"'....v-fL"/...>
X% -\-2XX-\-x*
where K, L, K', L', &c. denote indeterminate but
constant coefficients, which may be determined by re¬
ducing these fractions to a common denominator, and
proceeding as in the two preceding § §. Then the whole
difficulty is reduced to the finding of the fluxion of the
expression
(Kat-(-L)a;
(*,4-2<*y + *,+/S,)?
  (Ky-f-L).r
where q denotes some integer number. To simplify this
expression put x-\-et—zy and L—KarzM, then it be-
(K% X wh;ch we shall now shew may be
M=G(s2+/S2)—?(?—i)G*9+H(*9+0*)>
and hence
M=G/32+H£2-J-(G—i)G-f-H)*a j
Therefore by comparing together like terms, we find
M=G/32+H/S2, G—2(5-—i)G-j-H=o 5
and from these equations we get
M
G=
(22—2)/3
~(2?—2)/3* '
comes
(*2+^),
reduced to
Hs;
we decompose its fluent into two parts
may
To effect this reduction
Let these values of G and H be now substituted in our
assumed equation, and it becomes
M;
M
(*2+£’)J (2?—(»2+^*)?~1
J r^-k.a2)* “t/ 1
Ms
(32+£2)* T/ (22 + /32)*
The fluent of the first part may be immediately found
• V
by putting »1 -|-/32 = t; ; for then %% —— and
M(2q—3) r 2 
Thus we have reduced the determination of the fluent of
Mz - - *
to that of-
C Kzz r Ku __ Kt;-7**
(i*y 2v'1 2(1—(/V
’ —, and by proceeding in
(5&3+/82)* ” 7 ” (is1+/3*)J *
the same manner with this last fluxion, its fluent may
2(1—?)
be made to depend on that of-.' ■ J hut this
Let us now suppose that the fluent of the second part
-, is equal to the sum of the algebraic function
(*2+/32r
(s’+^r
will be more readily effected by simply substituting q—i
instead of?, and supposing M=i in the preceding equa¬
tion.
Thus
art II.
Inverse Thus we shall obtain
tVlethod.
f(?,'
(a’ + ZS3)^1 (2^—4)/32 O2-^*) 3
C2<7—iLyi 25
+
(2^—4)/32<y (a24-/32)3
Substituting now this value of/-
FLUXIONS.
be assigned either algebraically, or by means of arches
of a circle or logarithms ; and that to prepare it for a
solution, we must decompose the fraction into others,
whose denominators may be either binomial or trinomial
quantities. This decomposition may always be effected
by the method of indeterminate coefficients. There
are, however, several analytical artifices by which the
labour of calculation may be greatly shortened. These
we now proceed to explain.
O2-^1) 3-‘
the
former equation, we haveeflual to
M
(27—2)/J2 (5£2+/31)3-1
— C2?—3)M   *
■ (27—2) (2</—4)/34 (‘s’-f/S1)3-
(29—3) (29'—5)M r 2;
vx p 2;
! (2<7—2) (2y—4)/3i/ (a2-}-/S2) 3~2
It is easy to see, that like as we obtained an expres¬
sion for the fluent of ■
+ ^ SubstitUtInS V—1
for g, and supposing M~I, in the equation preceding
the last but one ; so by substituting q—2 for g', we shall
obtain an expression for the fluent of
(2S3-f-/3>) «-2 *
which expression will consist of two terms, one an alge¬
braic function of 2:, and the other f ■■■■■ . 25   ;—multi-
’ J {* +& )
plied by a constant and given coefficient. This value of
when substituted in the last equation
O’+ZS2)
wiil produce an expression for^/—consisting of
algebraic quantities and /By continu-
e A ^ (z*-f/33)3-3 J
ing this process it is evident that we shall at last have
M;s
f-_ 3 expressed by a series of algebraic quan*
titles, andy^-—-—■, and here we must stop, for if WB
repeat the process with a view to make the fluent de¬
pend on / —~—— that is on f si, or z, we shall find
' (!s2-f/a*) J
that the coefficient of this quantity becomes infinite. As
to the fluent of —^—- we have exhibited the expres-
S5s + /3* r
sion for it in last §.
In comparing together the results which have been
obtained in the preceding articles, it must appear that
when a fluxion is expressed by a rational fraction, if we
grant the resolution of equations, the fluent may always
115. Let us recur to the fraction and suppose
that A'-J-ff is one of the unequal factors of the denomi¬
nator V, so that we have V— (x-\-a) Q. Let us now
u A P A , .
put -37 = —  (--tt, A being supposed a constant
V x-\-a (4 o ir
quantity, and P an indeterminate function of ,r, but
such as not to he divisible by .r-\-a. Then we have
U=AQ-j-P (.v-f-ff), and hence P=r As P
is an integer function with respect to x, it follows from
this equation that U—AQ, which is also a rational and
integer function of#, is divisible by .v-\-a, and conse¬
quently has #-f-a for a factor j therefore, the function
U—AQ will vanish when we substitute —a in it instead
of #, seeing that —a is the value of x that makes the
factor #-J-a~o. Let us denote by u and q, what U
and Q become by this substitution, which however will
not affect the indeterminate quantity A, because it is
independent of x. We have therefore u—Aqzzo, and
consequently A=r-.
This value of A requires that we should know the
function Q given by the equation Vrr(#+a) Q, and
we may always find it by dividing V by «+#. The
direct method of fluxions affords also a very simple
method of determining it. For by taking the fluxion
of the above equation we have
^ 6
-r-=Q+(^+r0 ~i
x x
if in this result we make .v-j-azro, or x=—a, and de-
V
note by v what — becomes by that substitution, we
shall have vzzq, and consequently A=r —.
The expression A=- has always a finite value, for
the numerator and denominator can never become r:o,
because we suppose the fraction reduced to its lowest
terms, and consequently, that the numerator U has not
for a factor ar-f-a, which is a factor of the denominator,
but which being contained in it only once does not enter
into Q.
116. Let us now consider how the numerators of the
fractions, into which the proposed fraction i» to be
decomposed, are to be found in the case of the denomi-
< A 2 nator
1
74°
FLUXIONS.
Inverse nator V having equal factors of the first degree. In this
Method, case we have V=;Q (#+«)’', and we assume
U A B  c 
V” (*+a)n_,”(-v+0)"~I + (*+a)"“2
N P
*
By reducing to a common denominator, we find U
equal to
Q ja+b (*+.^+++p(*+«)"
and P equal to
U—Q(A + B(^+rO + C(A;4-a)2...4.N (^4-«)"~:)
C^+°)n
Part 11,
The direct method of fluxions facilitates greatly the
preceding operations. For the numerator of P being
divisible by (Ar-f-0)”is necessarily of this form X(a+#)'>» *
X being an integer function of ar, but which does not
contain the factor x-\-a. Now agreeably to what has
been shewn in § 88, the successive fluxions of this nume¬
rator, as far as the n—l order inclusive, vanish when
x—a is supposed =:0. By giving to the numerator the
following form,
Q -A-B O+o) -C (*+«)’... )
and observing that the function Q does not contain the
factor x-f-fl, it is manifest that it is only the part of this
expression between the parentheses which ought to be
divisible by (tf+a)". Let us put — —Z,then the suc-
cessive fluxions of that part are
luverie
Method,
and as P ought to be an integer function of at, the nume¬
rator of its value is necessarily divisible ii times suc¬
cessively by x—a ; therefore, that numerator ought to
be equal to o, when —a is substituted in it instead of
x. Now this substitution being made, each of the
terms of the numerator which is multiplied by x-^-a
vanishes, so that there remains only U—AQ, but that
this quantity may be divisible by a?-fa, it is necessary
that u—q A=o, where u and q denote the same as in
last 6, hence A
q
This value of A changes U—Q A into U — - Q,
q m
which must be divisible by A:-f-a. Let us, with a view
Zl
to abridge, put U Q=U' (Ar-fa), then substitut¬
ing this quantity in the value of P, and dividing both
numerator and denominator by Ar-fa, we have P
equal to
U' Q (B-fC (Ar-f-a) . . . -f-N (j-fq')"-*)
O-fa)"-1
Now to obtain B we make x-f-arro, then, putting
to denote what U' becomes by substituting —a in it
in place of a;, we have v!—q B=o, and B=r —
Instead of B let its value be substituted in {l'—QB,
ii!
/ and this quantity becomes 1? Q, which vanishing
when a;-|-az=o, will have at-fa for a divisor y therefore,
'll!
we may put U' — Q^U" (a;-fa), then, substituting
this last quantity instead of the former in the value of
P, and dividing the numerator and denominator by
x-fa, we have P equal to
U"—Q(C-f !)(*-fa) fN (*-fV->)
(a;-fa)'-2
Bv continuing the same mode of reasoning, and the
u"
same notation, we find u"—q C~o, and C=—. And
q
so on with the remaining quantities.
Z—Bat—2 C (x-fa)#—3 D (x-fa)ax ...
Z—2 Cx*—2.3 D (x-f x)x*. ..
Z—2 . 3 D xJ...
&c.
and these results ought all to vanish when we put
x-f a=o. Thus we have
Z—A=o, and A= -,
q
• • Z
Z—B x=o, B=: —,
x
.. . Z
Z— 2 C x2—0, C~ ——,
2 a.’2
Z—2.3 D x3=o, D= —,
2.3X*
&c. &c.
Z Z
observing that in each of these functions —r, , we
x 2 x3
must substitute —a instead of x.
The most simple way to find the value of Q in this
case is to divide V by (x-f a)”, but we may also find
it by the direct method of fluxions, as in the preceding
§ ■, for, since V=Q (x-fo)”, if we take the fluxion
of each side of this equation « times, and then make
.r-f a=o, we shall find, § 88, the wth fluxion of V
equal to 1 . 2 . 3 . •. « Q x", and consequently
^ nth flux, of V
t£= r-
I . 2 . . . » «n
117. Let us now consider how we are to find the
U
numerator of the fraction which forms a part of y
when it has this form
A x-f B
x2-f 2«x-f*a-f
Assume
F L U X I O N S.
art II.
Inrerse
(Hetbod.
Assume
_U
V:
A*4-B
then, reducing the latter part of this equation to a
common denominator, we find
U=Q (A*-f B)-t-P (Ar*2«1r4-«,+^)-
Hence we deduce
p_ tJ—Q (Aa;-}-B)
—4~2 * *+542+z3 2 *
As P Is supposed to be an integer function with
respect to x, it follows that U—Q (Ax-J-B) is divisi¬
ble by x2-±- 2 x x-j-x*-t-(32 •, therefore, the former of
these two quantities must contain among its factors those
of the latter, and the quantities, which, being- substitu¬
ted for x, cause the latter to vanish, must also make the
former vanish. But the factors of x2,-\-2xx
are Ar4-«-f-/3 —I, and —/J —1, and these,
being put each =0, gives us x—— (a+Z3 sj—0> an^
— (x—/3 a^/—1), therefore, each of these values of
.v being substituted in U—Q (A#-f-B) ought to make
that quantity vanish. Let us denote by xr=±zu!—1,
and by qz+zq'^/—1 what U and Q respectively be¬
come when — —1) is substituted in each in¬
stead of at, then, after this transformation, we have
f/zfc:?/ .J —1 ~l
—(?—?' >/—O |—A (x+p sj—i) +B|=0.
This equation is twofold, because of the sign with
which several of its terms are affected, and it is equiva¬
lent to those which would be formed by putting the
real part equal to o, and the imaginary part ~0.; from
this consideration we have
x A—q' fi A—q Br=0,
Z3 A-\-q’ x A—q'li—O,
two equations which give us the values of A and B.
The function Q may be found as in § 115. For, if
we take the fluxions of each side of the equation
Q (#*+2*tf + «l-p/8*)=V,
and afterwards make
-f 2 * .v -f- x2 -f-/3*=ro,
we find Q (2.va;-F 2xx)—Vt and hence
Q=   r-J
2X X-\-2 X X
Let the two values of .v, to wit —(xztr/i be
substituted instead of it in this equation, then, putting
I to denote wiiat the expression — becomes
x
by that substitution, and writing q:
of Q, we have
, /—- v+v'is/—:
q—q v 
•q’ v"/—x instead
sj—1
which, by multiplying the terms of the fraction on the
latter side of the equation by ^—i, becomes
1 / irqrrty
z±z 2/3
741
Jnverje
Method.
Hence by putting the real parts of each side of this
equation equal to each other, and also, the imaginary
parts equal to each other, we find
v' f v
2/3' * ^ 2/3*
118. If the factor x2-\-2xx-\-xx is found several
times in the denominator of V, so that
^ =Q then, § 113, we assume
in this case equal to
Ar+B   A'*-|-B'
fx2 4- 2xx 4-** 4-0*)»+(*? 4- 2«« 4-«v4^3*)”-*
A"a?4-B" P
^"(zifI4-2^4-«,4./3,)”-a f-Q
reducing this expression to a common denominator, and
so ordering the equation as to bring P to stand alone on
one side, we find P equal to
U—Q IAar-j-B 4- (A'*4-B') (** 4- 2*# 4-«2 4-Z3*) 7
^1+ (A"a;4-B") (a?i4-2«a;4-^4-i3»)2. . . \
(AJi4-2fl{A;4-*24-(32)n
By reasoning in this as in the preceding case, it may
be concluded that the numerator of this expression
ought to vanish when —(xz±zfl —1 is substituted in
it instead of x; therefore putting »dhz«'and
q—q' s/—1 t0 denote the same things as before, we
deduce from that substitution
UZ+Ztl' AaJ—1
—(?—?'n/—-O (—A v/:=i4-B)
the very same equation for the determination of A and
B, as we have already found in last
Having found the values of these quantities, they may
be substituted in the numerator of P, and the terms
U—Q (Aa'4-B) becoming divisible by at*-f-2 <* ^ + ***
4~/32, the whole expression becomes divisible by the
same quantity. Calling therefore IP the quotient
arising from the division of U—Q (Aa?4-B) by
at* 4“ 2 x xx2(i2, we have P equal to
U'_Q[A/a?4-B,4-(A"a;4-B")C^,4-2«a?4-**4-/3*) ...]
a;24-2«a?4-*,4-/3,)'^x
If in this numerator we substitute instead of x its va¬
lues deduced from the equation Ar24-2* Ar4-«24-/32z=C,
and put the result —o, we may determine A' and B' in
the very same way that we have already determined
A and B, and by proceeding in this manner we shall
find the remaining coefficients A", B", &c.
This case is quite analogous to that which has been
already treated in § 116, and the direct method of
fluxions applies to it in the same manner as to the other.
For since Q does not contain the factor .r a4-2f«‘4-«a-f-i6*t
if the numerator of P be divided by the function Q, the
result, which may be denoted by r, ought to be of this
form:
74.2 FLUXIONS.
Inverse form >~X (.i;,+2 »* + «’+/3‘)*, ami consequently
Method, ought to vanish, as well as all its fluxions, from
' v—~tl,e first order to the n—I order, inclusively, when
** + 2*#-4-fl*+/32=0 ; this being the case, we have
these equations,
Part II,
* \ _ Inverse
—X*—Xs, therefore-v=8^7 +7^—4>;S—3A:*. If in Method.
x •
i |i«<
sl«t
this expression we substitnte -f-1 instead of x (viz. the
value of a? deduced from the equation x—i=ro) we find
the result to be 8, therefore v~S. So that
r=0, rz=o, r=o,...
and so on to the n—I fluxion of which ought also to
berzo each of these equations becomes twofold when
we substitute, instead of x, the values of which it is sus¬
ceptible in consequence of the equation a;1-f-2
-f/3*=o. By putting the real and the imaginary parts
separately =0, we shall obtain as many equations as
are sufficient to determine A, B, A', B', &c.
It may also be remarked, that from the equation
V=Q (x22ctxct*
wc find Q equal to the quotient arising from the di¬
vision of the wth fluxion of V by the wth fluxion of
#*+2«.r-f-«2-f-/32, observing to assume
x*-{-2ctx^-uz-]-/2t=o.
119. We shall now give some applications of what
has been said relative to the fluents of rational fractions.
Suppose the fraction to be
A _ « _ 1 ^ A  I 1
x—1 8 a?—1’
Let us next investigate the values of B and C in the
B C
fractions and —, by means of the rule of
(a?-}-1)1’ .r-j-i’
§ 116, and that we may make the symbols expressing
the quantity under consideration agree with those em¬
ployed in that formula, let us exchange the letters B
and C for A and B, so that we are to consider
o+iy
B
J . In the first place we have
Q=
A;* -f- x1—xA—3
:xs—-J- .r4—x3 5
O + i)2
Put then j?=:i *, substituting now this value
of x in the value of Q, the result is 4=?, therefore
Let this value of A be substituted for A
4
x* -f-AT7—-a:4—Ai3
The factors of its denominator are easily found, for it
may be put under this form
A:3(Ars-J-A:4—x—l)=ra’3 (a?-|-i) (a;4—1),
the factor x*—I may be decomposed into a:1—1 and
a:*-J-i, or a;—I, A’-f-i, and A:*-f-i, thus we have the
denominator equal to
x3 (*—0 («+1)1 C^+O
in the expression forll' in the § above cited, and we have
U'=
U—A Q _ 4—Ag-f-x3—r4+x3
therefore (§ in, § H2, and § 113.) the proposed
fraction is to be decomposed as follows
Af + I 40+0
—xs + 2x*—3A:3 -f-4A?2—4X 4- 4
_ _
Hence putting —1 instead of x in the expression for U',
have u' = - and B=—= % Thus the two fiac-
and
we
1 1
tions under consideration are found to be -. ^7—-j.
Kx
+
B x
(.r-f t):
+
Ca;
Ho? E AT
v3 * X1
+
F x
+
X —f- I
(Ga?4-H)a:
1 -f-Ar*
E 1 , We might have deduced the value of B from
8* #4-1
25 . U
the formula B=§ n6, where Z is put for
x
Q
for we have
By reducing these fractions to a common denominator,
and comparing the numerator of their sum with that of
the proposed fraction, we might determine the unknown
quantities A, B, C, &c. we shall, however, rather em¬
ploy the methods that have just been explained.
7 u  
Q (a:6—xs4-a:4—a:3)’
, Z 6xs—5at4 -j- 4A;3—3a:4
and -j_ — •
x
By comparing this particular example ^—-
if in this expression we substitute —I instead of a?, it
becomes —7= ?, the same value for B as before.
16 o
Ua-
with the general expression it appears thatUzzi,
and V=a^4-a:7—xA—x3. First let us investigate the
A
numerator of the fraction  , and for this purpose
x— I
, • , E , F
Let us now consider the fractions + 0ir
exchanging the symbols 1), E, i for A, B, C,
a
we employ the formula A= — (§ 1 ijO- As we have
U=i, it is evident that w=i ; and since V=A«4-Ar7
The numerators A, B, C may all be found from these
formulas of § 116.
2
art II.
FLUXIONS.
I in verse
iMetliod.
A=l=Z'B=fC:
L
743
1.2-v
observing that in this case —s—i j and that
we must substitute o instead of x in each formula) after
taking the fluxions. Now we have
7-E- *
Q - .rs+x<—.v—l’
Z  —i
X ~ —.r—i)1’
Z  20rr3-f-T2.F*
i2 (a-’s + ^4—x—i)*
4-2(5 a,4-f 4 a?3—
(.t’S-j-.r4—x—1 )3 '7
Hence putting x=zo, we find
A=r—I, B — 41 > C——1,
so that
-+- +E=_2.+L_I.
X3 X* X X3 ■ X* X
There yet remains the fraction or to
at* 41 at*4i
be considered. It may be found by subtracting the sum
of all the others from the proposed fraction j we proceed,
however, to find it directly by the formulas of § 117.
In the first place we have Q=ra64a'5—at4—a’3 $ next,
the factor a?24I being put —o gives -i
x—o, ft—o. Hence we find
<p±=.(f —1——2ziz2^/-—1, uzz 1, and u’—Q.
The equations which determine A and B thus become
142A42B=o, aA—2Bz=o,
therefore A=B=——, and
4
A .r4B  I a'4 1
at* 41 — 4*aa4l‘
Thus, upon the whole, the proposed fraction
•2?
■ — 7     is decomposed into the following
« • •
I X m l X ox
8 x—I 4 (a;4l)* ' 8 a;41
xxi (#40#
— r—7
1
| (#*4i)— - arc (tan. =a?) 4 const, j
The union of all the algebraic terms produces the love
. . 2—2#—5#* , t , , , ... Method,
traction —-—•-—-—and that of the logarithmic u—
/J_ ft 1 ( I —+-A? j
quantities gives
gl. (#—04 gl. CA? + I) + 1' (#“4^)
— |l. (#24i)—l.#
We have therefore upon the whole / — X~~
v J a8 4 #7—,
equal to
#4—x3
2—2 X—5 X* I /#*—1\
c*(x 4#) ^"8 ' \#*4i/
4b (”“)—“arc (tan.=#)4 const.
120 When a fluxion is a rational fraction having
either of these forms
** # 4 #*41
The manner of finding the fluent of each of these has
been already explained, and the result of taking all the
fluents is
*1. 1
8 v 4 #41
+!'•
#’1zt:an, #*"z±;2p o”#”4«"’
we can always, by the application of a particular theo¬
rem in analysis, resolve its denominator into real factors
of the first and second degrees. The theorem to which
we allude is this. Let n be any positive integer, and
let s$ denote any arch of a circle, of which the radius is
unity, then
(cos. —1 sin. z)n=:cos. n’zdtitj—1 sin. n%.
We proceed to prove this theorem. Because
(cos. s 4*/—1 sin. (cos. sin. %.
~ cos.* 254 sin.* 2i—1.
If we put cos. izdb^/—1 sin. %—v,
Then cos. —1 sin. zzz - :
v
Therefore taking the sum of these two equations,
2 cos. x—v-l-
v
Now by the arithmetic of sines, (Algebra, § 358.)
2 cos. 2 z=2 (2 cos. s x cos. z— 1),
2 cos. 3 z~2 (2 cos. % x cos. 2 as—cos. ss),
2 COS. 4 25=2 (2 COS. % X cos. 3 Z—COS. 2 Si),
2 COS. 5 Z~2 (2 COS. 25 X COS. 4 25—COS. 3 z),
&c.
Therefore, substituting in the first of these equations
^4 “ instead of 2 cos. z. we have
v
2 cos.
744
Inverse
Method.
FLUXIONS.
2 COS. + —2
from that in which it is odd, we shall write for the first inrersa
In like manner, substituting in the second equation, V "l"1* V cos*
instead of 2 cos. a, and i;2-j—- instead of 2
1 v v
cos. 2 js, we have
Part II.
irom mat m wiutu n. *o uuu, ..v v..w ...-1
2m, and for the second *, we therefore make Method.
n%z=:27iiv, and «2S=:(2m4-i)
By the first hypothesis, we find
2 m ir . /  . 2m fc
 t-v/—1 sin*  >
n n
and by the second
2 cos. 3 2!=(t;-f-^) —(v+~)
y'=-~h
_ (2 m-f Qtt | f—
( 2 m 4-1) *■
=-J+T;-
Proceeding in the same way with the third and follow-
ing equations, we find
2 COS. 4 25 = 1^ + -^,
122. By means of the indeterminate number m, each
of these expressions for y furnishes all the values of
which this quantity is susceptible, for we may take suc¬
cessively
m—Q, m=l, m=2, w=3, &c.
The first formula gives
s . i
2 COS. 5 2!=L’s-{-—J
so that we may conclude in general that
i
2 COS. n 2S=t>" + — >
hence we have this quadratic equation
v“"—2 cos. n«Xvn+I:=0»
from which, by completing the square, we find
l'B=COS. /I53=±=^/ (cos.* 71 25 1) j
therefore, by substituting for v the quantity it was put
to represent, and observing that \/ (cos.* nz —l)
=rv/ (—sin.*«2s)=x/—i sin. n%, we have
(cos. i sin. 25)” = cos. n %z±=K/—i sin. n z,
as was to be proved.
121. The function #"=+=: a” is transformed to
a" (y”z±zi) by putting a'sray, and to discover its
factors, we must resolve the equation
?fztzi=o.
The expression y=rcos. 25-fV-I sin. z satisfies this
equation, by a very simple determination of the arch z ;
for we have y"=(cos. —1 s’10* «)" = cos. nz
W”1 sin. nz, and as by putting ct to denote halt
the circumference, and m any whole number, we have
(Algebra, § 352.)
sin. m irzzo, cos. m ir^zzizl.
where the sign is to be taken, if m be an even num¬
ber, but — if it be odd, we have only to suppose « z
—m v, in order to obtain ynzz'ztzi.
That we may distinguish the case in which m is even,
3
y—cos. 0.ir=l
2ar , /  . 2*-
w=:cos. f-v—1 sin*—»
y=cos.^+N/=Isb.^,
^ 71 ^
&c.
It is evident that we shall always have different results
as far as mzzn—i. If, however, we suppose m=n ;
then we have y—cos. 2 7r=J, which is the same as the
first of the values already obtained, and if we suppose
m~n~l~i, then (Algebra, § 25O
Cos.
(2n-}-2)
n
2*-
»
71
Sin.
(2» +
n
which is the same as the second value, and so on with
respect to the others.
By this mode of proceeding we shall not only obtain
the n roots of the equation yB=i, or y"—1=0, but,
with a little attention, we shall discover that these roots
may be arranged in pairs, by bringing together those
that only differ in the sign of the radical V-1 ’ for
since.
Cos. (27r—-p)=cos. p, and sin. (2*-—/>)=—sin. p,
it follows that
(2n—2mjtt /  . (2n—
V—cos.   f-V—1 sin- ‘ “
rrcos.
2m *
—yy/—“-i sin.
2 m #
n
Hence it appears that we may comprehend all the roots
of the equation yB—1=0 in the single expressions
?art II,
Inverse
Method.
y—cos.
2m w
n
~sj—i sin.
2 m v
by giving to m only these values
o, j, 2, ..
if « is even, and these values
FLUXIONS. 74s
'Ihe first and the last of the factors of the second de- Inverse
gree are the squares of y—i, and y + l, factors of the Method,
first degree, each of which only enters once into the' v" '
proposed function j it will therefore be necessary, when
we employ the factors of the second degree, to reject
the first and last, and take instead of them
(y—1) (y+i)=y2—i.
The factors of the first degree of the function y*—i
o, i, 2,
are
if n is odd j and it may be observed that in the form¬
er case the last value of y is
yrreos. w— —i,
because that then the equation y*—irro has two real
roots.
The two values comprehended in the formula,
2 m 7T . ,  . 2 m w
y-CoS.__ + >/_I
give for factors of the first degree of the quantity y”—I,
the two imaginary expressions
y-(cos- —— + v—I s.n. ),
, 2m-x .— . 2m v\
and the product of these is the expression
2 nix
y*—2y cos.
+ i,
which comprehends all the real factors of the second
degree.
As an example of the formula
2m x , ;  . 2m x
yrzeos. —v—1 s,n* ,
the simple factors, or those of the first degree, contain¬
ed in the function y5—i will be
y—
, 2 x   . 2x\
(COS. I sin.—J,
r 4 ^ /
y—(cos.
y+I*
The formula
2m x
y2—2ycos.
f i
gives as factors of the second degree
y*—2y-f i,
y—2y cos.—g—1,
ya—2ycos.-^-+i,
y3+2y+i.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
y-
. 2 w /  . 2x \
y-—(cos.- =±=\/ —i sin. )
5 5 '
)•
y—(cos.
Those of the third degree are
y*_2y+i,
2 2
y —-2y cos.— }. i,
4 x
~T
ys—2y cos.
5
4 ^
+ 15
but it is to be observed that the first factor of the se¬
cond degree is the square of y—i, which enters only
once into the proposed function.
* 23* When the function to be decomposed into fac¬
tors is y”-f i, the formula
y=cs. ti>+v/^Isi„. j£S±l>
n n
which corresponds to that case (§ 121.) is also suscep¬
tible of the double sign =±r, provided we stop at the
value of m, which gives
2m-\. i~n, or 2m-{-i~n-—i,
according as n is odd or even j hence it follows that
 n—1  n—2
2 * l~ ' 2 ’
the factors of the first degree are
(2m-{.i)x_A_ /—- . (2m + i)x
y—(cos.
/I
and those of the second
y2—2y cos.
—1 sin.
(2 w-f-i)*-
)■
+ 1.
When among these last there is found some which are
squares, we must take only one of their simple factors,
in the same way as in the two preceding examples.
When the function is y^-j-i,
the factors of the first degree are
y—(cos. ^—\/—1 sin.
y—(cos,
y+i 5
3 *\
Zy/ 1 sin.
5B
and
746
Inverse and those of the second,
Method.
if—2y COS. “ 4* r>
, Qir ,
y —zy cos. — 4-T>
r+2y+i*
The function has for factors of the first de
FLUXIONS.
and we immediately find
yn——cos. sin. 5 $
we now assume, as in § 121,
^=cos. sj—i sin. x ;
then we find (§ 120),
^"=cos. n ,zc±zsJ —i sin. n 2,
Fart II.
Inverse
Method.
gree
y—(cos. —i sin.
y—(cos. 2?=S=V—' sin.
r 57r-
y (cos. ~6-:
which expression for yny being compared with its other
value, gives
cos. wtsrzcos. sin. MBzzsin. 5.
These relations will be satisfied if we suppose n %
—2m + ^> —m being any whole number whatever, for
cos. (2 m 7r-j-^)=cos. sin. (2 m w-j-^)=sin. IJ
we have therefore
and those of the second,
y*—2y cos. ^ +r>
3*
2 m 7r-f-^
^2—2y cos. or
2^ cos.f +1.
2 m 7r4-^
?/—cos. ;
J n
--si-
i sin.
2WW+S
The factors of the first degree of the function
cos. 5-f-i
124. Such functions as are of this form x^-\-2pxn will consequently be comprehended in this formula,
Jf-q may be treated in the same manner as those which .
consist of only two terms. By putting the function —o, cos,  
and resolving the equation which is thus produced, in n
the same manner as if it were of the second degree, we
find the factors to be
~sj—
1 sin.
2m7r-\-'h
\
*” + 0—v'
if exceed <7, the second term of these factors is real,
and by making
z±ian=pz±zj O1—7),
we have the functions of the form
xz±zan
to decompose into factors.
When p'^-q, then we put q^zb**, x=byy
and the function becomes
If p the coefficient of the second term of the pro¬
posed function be negative, the only change necessary
is to make p——a”, and to take the arch 3 greater than
a quadrant.
Of the Fluents of Irrational Functions.
125. When a fluxionary expression involves irrational
functions, we must endeavour either to transform it into
another that is rational, or to reduce it to a series of
m #
irrational terms of this form Axn x, and then, in either
case its fluent may be found by the rules already deli¬
vered.
Letustake forexample the fluxion
b2’ly‘zn+2an bn7f+bn
, 2 a’* \
but the condition p**zLq, or a2
(1.4- -v/x—3 Vx*) x
I-J-SV#
It is evident that by putting .r—5s4, all the extractions
indicated by the radical signs may be effected, and the
6s$s(i-J-z3—z4)z ,. .
fluxion may be transformed to  ’
b , makes an^Lb , ^ dividing the numerator by 1 +z2, may be otherwise
And therefore L may be represented by the expressed thus,
cosine of a given arch and the proposed function will
be reduced to
b2tt ffn + 2if cos. 5-f-i),
we have then only to resolve the equation
cos. §4-1=0,
—6(z7z—z6z——zxz 4-2-
14~»
The fluent of which is
i
"S ~6 ' 5 3
4-z—arc (tan. rrz)
}
4- const.
12C.
Part ir. FLUX
Inverse 126. VVe sfuiU first consider such fluxions as contain
Method, the irrational function v'(A + T>*-f-G*?2), and which
have necessarily one or other of these forms,
X ^/(A-j-B.r-J-CA?2), ——-— —
X being put for any rational function of and it may
be remarked, that the latter form comprehends the for¬
mer, which may be written thus :
X ary/fA-fB.r-fCa:2) X y'(A--f-Ba'-fCX*)
(A-j-Ba'-J-Ca1)
_ X(A-t.BA?-f-Ca?*)a’
“ VCA + Bx+C^y ’
and here the numerator of the fluxion is a rational func¬
tion of x.
Before we transform the expression ^/(A -f-Btf-f (X*)
into another that is rational with respect to the va¬
riable quantity it contains, we shall put the quantity
A-fB^-fCa2 under this form,
^/'A B \
C(‘C + C'*+*
and, in order to abridge, we shall put
~ , A B _
G —c , ^ — 17,
then we have
VC A+B*+Gv2)^
Let us now assume y' + =a-f-z, then,
squaring both sides of the equation, we find a-\-bx—
(7—.<2*
2XX+Z1, hence we get   -, and consequent-
2iz—o
h
•J (A-f-B«-f-C.r2)=c (x-\-'z)—c(-—
\ 2Z~~o J
■  2 (a—
(22;—by
X
By means of these values the fluxion —-—    ——
^(A-fBa-f-Ga*
is transformed into another fluxion Z 8, where Z de¬
notes a rational function of 3, which is real when C or
e* is positive ; but as when C is negative c becomes
imaginary, the fluxion Z 3 which involves c becomes
also imaginary.
In this case we have to consider ^(A-f-B-r—L*2),
and making
r s A  B
it becomes c v'(«+6#—z*2)- The quantity a?*—bx—«
may always be decomposed into real factors of the first
degree j let us represent these factors by x—«, and
then it is evident that
a~\-b x—a‘2= — (a:2—b.v-+-a')
~ (.r—«) («'—.r).
ions.
Let us now assume
s/(•!'—«) («'—x) — (x—ot)*t
then squaring both sides of the equation it becomes
divisible by x—and we have «'—x~{x—at) 3*, from
which we find
  «3*-}-«' %
X=—5— , (.F x) 3= ^; 
»2+I V 3*-f-I ’
values which
X x
^  2(«—«')3 3
~\^+iy ’
render the
rational.
proposed fluxion
\/ (A-f-B ar-f-Ga?*)
127. Let us now take for example the fluxion
X
ViA+Ux+Cx*5 by aPP1yinS t0 5t the first of the
preceding transformations it becomes
— 2 a
c(23—b)
, the
fluent of which is—-1. (2a—b) + co)ist. Substitut¬
ing now for 2 its value -x-\- ^ (a + bx+x2), and for
x, b, and <?, the quantities they severally represent, the
fluent becomes
{*(
B
“V'v-2a:'/c
+ 2X/(A+Bx+Cx
-{-const.
a result to which we may also give this form,
—li i S —77; — x VC
^/G ’ I 2VC
(. + \/(A-fBar-f Car5
-f- 1. — -f- const.
By uniting the constant quantities into one, and ob¬
serving that the radical quantity y/C may have the sign
prefixed to it, we have at last
fz
— equal to
y^ A-j-Bar-|-Cr*
7C L { + ITC +X^C+ v/(A+Bar+Car*) |
const.
128. Let us take for the second example
By employing the latter trans-
2 3
of which the
y^A-f-Ba;—Car*)*
formation of $ 126, we have —
^ 6(a2+l)
fluent is
2
 arc (tan. =3) -f const.
Substituting now instead of 3 its value
^(V—*)
. — 7 deduced from the equation x'—xz^Cx—x)**,
V (^—«)
5 B 2 and
747
Inverse
Method.
748
FLUXIONS.
Part II
Inverse , P
Method, and putting ior we ge'- / “
equal to
v/C
/ v/(es'—x \
[ tan.=—7 }
V ^{x—xj
without aftecting the generality of the expression, inverse
„ Method.
T • I — t _
For if we had .t To;(rt-{-^T) 9, we may assume xrrfc6,
then x=:6%5z, and the fluxion becomes 6 z1 z
x and «' being the roots of the equation
B
(a + fo.3) 11. We may also suppose/z to be positive, for
if it were negative, so that the fluxion were .'vm_r .v
C C
I.et us suppose that A=C=:i and B=ro, then the pro-
(a^-bx~n)^ we have only to assume ,r=r J_, and the
posed fluxion becomes in this particular case
the
a/(i—O’
and the preceding formula gives for its fluent — 2 arc.
(tan.rr ^ 4- const, for x and «' being
roots of the equation a2—l=ro, we must take x~ —x,
and a.'— i.
We may, however, give this fluent another form
by proceeding thus : Let v be the arch whose tan.
fluxion is transformed to —z~m~'sz(a-\-zn) \
Let us inquire in what case the fluxion a”1-1 x
p_
(a4-^") may become rational. Assume a + b
V vn
%q—fir
then (a-f.&r")s —%r, arn—xm—
v C1 'v)^ tjien ^ \ anj x —
^/(x+a’)
2
l+x
i — tan. 2 v and .v”1-1 x—^-.z1 1
no
l tan. 2 v
I =
1 = 2 cos.2 v —— i, but
/ —a\ n T ’
^^—J ssj hence
posed fluxion is transformed to
q-a m 
(V)’ 1
the
pro-
„ . g—a. m
q r+3-» . /a; \—~
* " %
nb
i -|~tan. tr sec.‘t;
2 cos.2tr—i=cos. 2 ir (Algebra, § 358-), therefore,
a?=cos. 211. Put s for the arch whose sine is and n
for half the circumference, then a‘=:cos (4 ^—s)» . ... . m .
therefore 2vz=.\tf—and since it has been shewn that expression is evidently rational as often as ~ is
f x = —2ti+ const, therefore /    whole number
-/ —*r2) VC1 ■z'2) Tliere are >
yet other cases in which the fluxion may
—s—\7r-\-c0nst. or, by including the arch ^ tt in the become rational, and which may be determined by as-
r x . suming a^-bxn—xnu'1^ thus we have
constant quantity,y—^ = s + const. This con¬
clusion agrees with what has been shewn in § 59.
Instead of finding the fluent of
an
’u'—V X ~ {u‘—b) "'
^/(A+Bai—Ca;2) cy/(a-\-bx—xx)
by first transforming it to a rational expression, we may
reduce it directly to an arch of a circle by proceeding
m ,_x .
xm~J x——~a U- and because that (a—bx™) *
m 1 1? ^ y
n(uq—b') n
as follows. Put a; =2, then xzz%, and the fluxion
2
the fluxion a?”1 ia? (a + frvn)9 is trans-
is transformed to
$ again, put a+4^a
cv/(o+|62—ss2)
=g2, and X—g u, then x=:g «, and this last fluxion is
K—)
formed to
,rt lj:
transformed to
tl I
—— —, the fluent of which is -
c^Ci—z/2)’ c
—qa
” 5 P+5-1
2.+ £-t X
arc (sin.—11) const.
z(zz9—
, on p 9
an expression which is rational “ 4* “ 93 a 'v^°^e
Of the Fluents of Binomial Fluxions.
129. Let us now consider such fluxions as have this number,
form,
F
A?*-1 ^(a+AO 5,
and which are sometimes called binomial fluxions. We
may here suppose m and n to be whole numbers, may try to reduce it to its most simple case, as we have
130. As it is not possible, in every case, to express
in finite terms the formulaJxm~Tx(aJrbx') ’, we
done
Ijif
jlftli
art II.
n verse
FLUXIONS.
nverse , . . r x . * ( m—n \ n .
letbod. done wilh respect toUj ^ II4> which we fx™’-'x {a-\.bxnyz=
749
Inverse
Method.
have succeeded in reducing to/—^—. To eftect this
i % (r>4-
reduction, we remark, that, since when u and v denote
any Junctions of a variable quantity, the fluxion of uv jience afc jast we
\stiv-\-vu, (J 37.) therefore /*av—iiv—•J'vu. Now
J f xm-n(a->rbxny*'
l)nb[——n)'x (a+bxn)v\
(A)
J« (a+^n)p=
or one
other 1 x '!(c+^a?")p+x ^ 1
ade to b(pn+m) f xm-n~t x f
it we can decompose the expression xm~z x (a-\-b xH) ®
into two factors, such that we can find the fluent of one
of them, then denoting that factor by v, and the
by u, the fluent of the proposed fluxion will be made
depend on that of v uf which in some cases will be
more simple than the proposed fluxion. That we may It js easy to see that> as we have> by thls formula?
abridge a little the results, we shall writep instead of-, reduced the determination of the fluent of xm~l x
*l„f -n . r ^1 {a-\-b xny to that of xm~n~z x (a-\-bxny. vie may re-
so that p will represent any fraction ; the proposed , . . , , . v ‘ re
fluxion thus simplified in its form is ^uce t ns a.s^ °f 2" *x («+£#")'’ by writ¬
ing m—n in place of m in equation (A), then by
a?’"-1 x (aJrbx',y. changing m into m—2 n we may reduce the fluent of
^ 1 * Cc + At”)p to thatof «(o-}-^")p,and
so on.
Among the different ways of resolving this fluxion T 1 1 ^ 1 , - , .
into two factors, we shall choose that which diminishes , }} £e”era ’ 1 r ( en0 e 116 nuRl er of reductions, we
the exponent of x without the parentheses, we therefore s ia a as corRe 0
write the fluxion thus x (a-^b xny, and the last formula will be
xm~n ^ xn—t # A:n),’,
now the fluent of the factor ar"-1 x (a-{-ia;n)p may
always be determined, whatever be the value ofp, by
§ 108; let us denote this factor by v, then
(a■4-&a;”')I’+, ,
:—-—-—7-, and u—xm~n,
(p-\-l)nb
thus the formula f u vzxlu v—J'v u give us /*»-.*
(a-f-Z'a;n)p equal to
xm~n (fl-^-ia:n)p+,
j'xm-[r-r)n-X x
_jr^j:a+bxny+x
b(pn -\-m—(r— i)n)
a(jn—rn}J'xn~rn~zx{a-\-bxny
b^pn^m—fi'—1)»)
It appears by the last formula, that if m is a multiple
of «, theny'xm~xx{a-\-b x^y will be an algebraic quan¬
tity, for in that case the coefficient m—rn will be
=0, and therefore the term containing J' xm~rn~'t x
(a-j-£a?n)p will vanish. This result coincides with what
we have already found, § 129.
131. We may also obtain a reduction, by which the
exponent p will be diminished by unity. For this pur¬
pose it is sufficient to observe that j*xm~l x (a-f-&v"),s
is equal to
J'x'n~x x (o + ^'n)p~I (a-f-ix") =:
a J*xm~s x (a-\-bxny~z
+bj'xn*n-'x (a+bx*y-z,
Substituting now this last value in the preceding , , . ,
equation, and collecting into one the terms involving an^ ^1.a^ ^oriyiu a (A) clanging tn in 0 w+w,
the fluent f x”1-* x (a-j-Z»xn)p, we find ani* ^ ‘ntoi, 1 gives
{p+i)nb
■ ■ — m—^—j- fxm~n~1 x (a-i-ix")p+I.
(p+l) nbj v 1 y
But J*xm~n~z X (a-\-bxnyirt~
J'xm~n~1 x (a-f-bxny (a-j-ixn)=
a f xm~n~z x (a-\-bxny
b J'xm~z x (a-{-bx”y.
750 FLUXIONS,
xm(a-\-bxny’zzamJ‘vm_I A? (a-f i'.vn)r *
b(pn-\-m)
Inverse
Metliod.
a vi
Part II.
Inverse
Method
b(jn°\-n-\-7ii))Jxm^n~lx (a4-hxny
Substitute now this value in the preceding equation,
we have
(B)
J”Km~l x{a-\-bxny—
xm (a 4. bxny -\-p n ax{a -f-Zw”) v~r
pn-\-m
By means of this general formula we may take away
successively from p as many units as it contains, and by
the application of this formula, and formula (A), we
may cause the fluent j*x™ 1 x (ji-\-b x'^1 to depend on
rxm~rn~r x (a4 bxny~\ rn being the greatest mul¬
tiple of r contained in ??i—I, and s the greatest whole
number contained in p.
• 5
The fluent J'x"1 x ^a-\-bx3)^, for example, may, by
the application of formula (A), be reduced successively
to
/ x*x (a4 At3) 5, and f XX (a-\-bx3)r,
and by formula (B) f xx (a+bx*)^ is reduced succes¬
sively to
f x x ^a-^-bx2')1 y and /1 xx (a-^-bx3^,
1^2. It is evident, that if m and 11 were negative,
the formulas (A) and (B) would not answer the pur¬
pose for which they have been investigated, because, in
that case, they would increase the exponents instead of
diminishing them. If, however, we reverse them, we
shall find that they then apply to the case under consi¬
deration.
From formula (A) we get
J'xm-n~1 x (a+bxny=z
xm~n (a-\-bxny+l
a (rn—n)
b(m-\-np')J' xm~'tx(a-\-bxny
a(m—n)
Substitute now m-\-n in place of 7w, and it becomes
(C)
f xn~xx (a 4 bxny~
This formula diminishes the exponents without the
parentheses, because m-\-n—I becomes
when —~m is substituted instead of m.
To reverse formula (B) we first take
j"xn~'1 x(a -\-bxr,y~x~
— xm(a-\-bxny
pna
(m-\-np) Cx™*1 x (a-\-bxy
H    »
p n a
Then, writing ^41 instead of p, we find
(D)
J'xm~'tx (a°ybxny~
xm(a-t-bxny+t ■
(m+n^-np') j'xm-lx(a-\.bxny+x
^ (/;4l) « a
This formula answers the purpose we have in view,
because p+i becomes -441 when p is negative.
These formulas (A), (B), (C), (D), are inapplica¬
ble when their denominators vanish. This is the case
with formula (A) ; for example, when m=—np; but,
in every such case, the proposed fluxion may have its
fluent determined either algebraically or by logarithms.
X y
 -, m being a whole
y(l—x)
positive number. Formula (A) immediately applies to
this case, so that by putting a— 1, b= — 1, t?=2, p= —
we have
f x'^1 \f (1—*■*)
fx'*-' x ]
V(i—*2)_ | m—2 rxm~3"
1 ~Tt
^ ' m—1 \/(i—jcl)
or, substituting m in place of m—1,
xm~1^/ (1—xz)
fxm x
m—1
J'xm~2x
Z1" m J v'C1—^2)
Let
jrt II.
llnTerse
[lethod.
FLUX
Let us suppose, for example, that w=J, then
sf (i_*=)+c««(.
Let us now suppose that ^=3, then
• f—f*V(i—^z)
p X% X 1
Jinj^T)- l+rf-
y** A? A?
or, substituting for J ^ ^^ its value,
/vfr-b3=“(^+|)
If we suppose mz=2i then
—%**/ (1—»*)
But we have already found, § 128, that
farc (sil1-=^’
therefore, putting A for arc (sin. =a?),
f-7 (I ^ C1—fl?2)+H+ const.
In the very same way we find that
/x*x
■v/c—o ■seillall°
—*•+ I*) v/(l—+ 3 A+ const.
134. In the case of m, a negative number, we must
have recourse to formula (C), from which we find
r  x~m (\—a;*)
p x~n~'t X  3 m
J J , ^zzlrx-^x
L m J ^
which formula, by writing —m instead of m—I, be¬
comes
r \/ (1—
r x   \ (;»—1) a?”'-*
a?m y' (1—x%) I _j_ w—2 r x
L m—xm~* ^(1—a?1)
We cannot here suppose m~it for that value would
render the denominator =0 j therefore, before we can
apply this formula, it is necessary to investigate the
IONS.
or otherwise thus, put I—»a?*s:b*, then
751
Inverse
Method.
x=za/(i^z2), A?=-
V (!--»*)*
Therefore
x   —^ fss
a? y' (1—-a;*) ~i—2, — i -f-2 1—%’
The fluent of the right hand side of this equation is
evidently (§ 103.)
—* ]- U+z) + i 1. (I-S!)=—i 1. (I±|) •
. (r-l-s;)2
or, since -—- = — the same fluent may be ex-
* /O 1 5S
pressed thus,
—x 1. Cl+25^-—1. I+a -
1—a'
V(I—O’
therefore, by substituting y' (1—.a?*) for a, and a? for
V (i—-O, we have
 f _ , /i+y/O—**)\ ,
JXx/ (I—A?1)" * ( ^ J + C°nSL
If we suppose ?w~2, the formula becomes
v/(i—»2)
-j- const.
fluent of
^ We may easily find it from § 126,
X
x*^ (1—a;*)
If we suppose then
r \/ (1—
r X _ J 2Af2
J*W{I—*') ~~] + xr x
Xy/(i—A;*)5
which expression, by substituting for
j 77 7— its value, becomes
^ X(x—xj
r >y/(l—O
 a?  3 2 a*2
7a;V(i-0~ ^ + j 1,
-f- const.
Of Finding Fluents by Series.
I35* We can always easily find an expression for the
fluentJx. x, where X denotes any function of a;; when
that function is expanded into a series, each term of
which is some power of x multiplied by a constant quan¬
tity ; thus suppose
X=rAa?”*-|-BArm +”-f-Cxm +lB-{- &c.
then X x is equal to
&x’r-
FLUXIONS.
Part II.
A xm tf + B A?m+nA? + C *w+SnA? Sec.
and taking the fluent of each term by § IOI,
A *w+, B
x*. x6
a*-\-x2
See.
Inverse
Method.
fxi=
w-f*1
0 «c*»+ *«+ *
‘ m-\-n -j-1
Sec. + const.
Hence, multiply both sides by a?, and taking the fluent
of each term, we get
If in the develepement of x there be any term of this
s* ax , *\ .
/—   r= arc (tan. =r - ) + co«.s^.=:
Ja' + x* y a/^
form :_5 the fluent corresponding to that term will be
Al. * (§ 103).
136. The most simple function of x that can be ex¬
panded into a series is —, which becomes
I xx2 *3 . Ct
 r + -T r + &c*
*1 n* * rt 5 fA •
X X X ^ t Q 1 /
   -j     4- &c. + const.
a 3 a3 5 as 7 a7 1
If we wish to deduce from this equation, the value of
, X . .
the least arch whose tangent is —, it is necessary to
suppress the arbitrary constant quantity, for when that
arch =0, then j thus we have the arch whose
X
tangent is — expressed by the infinite series
a
Hence we find
x
X x JL x * 4 &c
a 3 o3 5 as 7 a7 *
 X XX X*X X*X
a-\-x~ a a2 ** a3 a4
and taking the fluents
/•i_= 4 +&«•
J a-\-x a 2 a* 1 3 a3 4 a4
Let 7T denote the circumference of a circle whose dia¬
meter is unity, or half the circumference of a circle
whose radius is unity, then, as the sine of 30 degrees,
or is and its cosine y^C1—3> we *iave
7T — sm.^?r — Let be substituted instead
tan. - ~
O COS. ^5T
4 const.
Now we know thaty^-^ = 1. (a4^) (§ 57-) therefore
of x in the above series, and a be supposed =1, thus
we get
x*
1. — — —j 4 —3 — ^ “H
v ^ ^ a 2 a* 1 3 a3 4 a4 ‘
’=>/ixil-±-3+-±-1lp + bc.)
4(
4 const.
and therefore
To find the value of the constant quantity we have only
to make ^=0, for then the equation becomes 1. a—
const, therefore
r=x/l2X (l —V
3-3 5*3
7*3:
;4&c>) ?
x x" x*
a 2 a* 3 a3
hence, if we subtract 1. a from each side, and observe
1. (04#)—!•  — —- 4 &c.
by taking the sum of about fifteen terms of this series,
we shall find *-=3.1415927. The determination of
this number is of great importance in every branch of
mathematics.
that 1. (*4o)—1. a=l. = (I+^) we get
x\ x x* x3 ft?4 -
^1 a J aj 2 a2 3 a3 4 a4
X X
138. By proceeding with the fluxion in
the
same manner as we have done with
1'rom this conclusion we may deduce rules for comput¬
ing the logarithms of numbers.
0*4 A?*’
we get
137. Let the fluxion be which may be put un~
rxmx _ *m+I  
J an4«~ (m41)ore (?»4«4l)a:
Vm+1*+I
4. _Z__&C.
^ (/»42w4I)a3"
der this form and which consequently belongs to Adiis series proceeds by the positive powers of 01
is an ascending series, but we may also expand
the arch of which the tangent = — (j 60.). By re¬
ducing — into a series, we find
& a* 4**
into a series proceeding by the negative powers of ar,
and which will therefore be called a descending series.
Thus because
1
»let
“art II.
Inverse
IMethad.
I I a*" atH a**
— -r *5' *«'■ + &c-
FLUXIONS.
We may easily find an expression for the fluent of
xn-\-an
U x
the rational fraction (§ ur.) by expanding the
. U .
quantity — into a series, but the result thus obtained
is in general very complicated, and seldom convergent 5
besides, this manner of finding the fluent is hardly of
any use, since it may be expressed by means of arches
of a circle and logarithms, both of which are readily ob¬
tained from the common trigonometrical tables.
139. The fluent of xm-t x is easily ob-
tamed by first expanding the quantity into
a series by the binomial theorem, then multiplying each
term of that series by xn~x x, and taking the fluents
of the results by § 101. Thus we have
V
(a-f- b x*J
f y xm+H K p—q) b* xm+**
xm+3a t ?
w'e have, after multiplying both sides by xmx, and tak¬
ing the fluents
/'xm x
J xn-\-an
(n—m—1 )«’*-"
(2«—m—(3«—m—
+ &c. const.
This last series will be convergent, when x is greater
than o, and at the same time m^.n, and But
besides, that it may contain algebraic terms only, it is
necessary that none of the divisors n-—m—1,2n—tn—I,
3?i—m—I, &c. become =ro ; this circumstance will
take place as often as is a multiple of », and in
which case
the series
 4" &cc* which is the develope-
X'~"' X1
ment of the fluxion, will contain a term of this form,
-, the fluent of which is arn 1. x.
x
get
If in this result we put m=2, nzzo, and o=ri, we
1.2.3 ? 0
w+3»
■f- f -f- const.
r x 1 . 1 1 . o
/ ; =—  ; —  ;4- &C. 4- Const.
^i+a;4 x ' •xx3 ex1 '
+A?4 x " 3 a<3 J i
But although the expression
I -J-A?4
is the fluxion of
the arch having x for its tangent, we must not conclude
that this series is the developement of that arch, for x
being supposed =0, each of the terms of the series be¬
comes infinite.
The consideration of the constant quantity added to
the fluent will remove this apparent difficulty, if we re¬
mark, that to know the true value of a series, it is al¬
ways necessary to begin with the case in which it is
convergent. Now the series
This is an ascending series, but to get a descending
\i? nP
series we must divide (a+bxnJ ? by a? ? and multiply
Arm“, x, the remaining part of the fluxional expression,
by the same quantity, thus the fluxion is transformed
to
A?’”’' q 1 x (b^-ax—n) ?
the fluent of which, by proceeding as in the former
case, is
^ r , , o—g)*
Lq>qxn+T pa gx^ q 
l_mq~\-np qb m q^-{p—-q) n
X 3 Af®
5 xs
-f- &c.
, O—*g)"
X p—y) «2 q ^ q
1.2 b* tnq-\-(p—2 q)n
&c. f + consU
converges so much the faster as x is greater, and it va¬
nishes when x is infinite j but in this extreme case the
equation
arc (tan. =*)=—
5 x*
const,
4* &c.
becomes simply arc - = const, where denotes half the
2
Circumference of the circle $ therefore, substituting this
value of the constant quantity, we have
. *— &c*
2 a: ■ 3 at* 5 a:* 1
Vol. VIII. Part II. +
either of these series may be employed if a and b are
both positive, or q an odd number, but if q be an even
number, the first formula becomes imaginary on ac-
1
count of the factor a ? if ap be negative, and the same
thing happens to the second formula if a* be nega¬
tive.
140. Let it be required to express by a series the
fluent of •
x . T I I
arc (tan. =*)=- — —+ —
dical quantity
V C1—**)
That we may develope the ra-
we put it under this form,
iC
754
biTeise ^ ao expression which when expanded by
,Method- the binomial theorem, is
FLUXIONS. Part II. %
eary that the terms of the series should be each simply inrene I*'
a power of a? multiplied by x and constant quantities.
If for example we have this fluxion
Methed,
1 2 '2.4 2.4.6
therefore, multiplying each term of this series by x,
and taking the fluent, we get
X\/(l—e1*8)
in which e is supposed to denote a small constant quan¬
/:
l.X3
—x-
1 . 3 . AT*
tity, we may expand y^C1—e*»*) or (1—into a
series, which will thus become
2.3 2.4*5
1.3*5**7
const.
1 . * A A
I—— ta- — —t4.*4-
2
i*i*3
2.4
2.4.6
e6x6— See.
' 2.4.6.7
If we suppose x to denote the sine of an arch, then
*/ (1—«*') is its cosine, and —rr —r\ is the fluxion
and the fluxion -— rH- will be transformed to
of the arch itself (§ 59.)} therefore the series which
we have just found, expresses the length of the arch of
a circle, radius being unity, and the sine of the arch x.
If we suppose the series to express the smallest arch
that corresponds to the sine Af, then, as when the sine
of that arch =0, the arch itself =0, the series ex¬
pressing the arch must vanish when ajsso, therefore
we must suppress the constant quantity added to com¬
plete the fluent j or suppose it =0. The same series
has already been found by the direct method of fluxions
in § 72.
Let n denote the same as in § 137, then, as the sine
) i 2
1.1
-y/(l—-AT
2.4
e4*4
2.4.6
&c. J.
the series will converge very fast when e is small, for
that y'( 1—x*) may be a real quantity, x* must be les»
than 1. We must now multiply each term of the series
by the common factor
and take the fluents,
v/fi—#*)
which being all contained in the general expression
f-4
-, will be found by $ 133. Thus, putting
of 30 degrees, or *f is 4, we have, by substituting
4 instead of x in the preceding series, and multiplying
**)
A to denote an arch of which x is the sine, we have
both sides by 6,
»=3(i+TT^ +
*-3
i*3*5
&c
•)
/
•X\/(l—etx*')
1/(1—^)
2.3.2* * 2.4.5.24 ‘ 2.4.6.7.26
by means of this series, which involves only rational
numbers, we may compute (but with more labour), the
value of sr as before.
Suppose the fluxion to be x ^/(ax—x*)t which may be
. x 1
otherwise expressed thus, xa*x* CImmm
nomial theorem (1—
x 1.1 ac* 1.1.3 AC3
+i<?* *9)—
+r?{(ra+^)^-^-r4A}
G*'+ 'ik>+
2.4.6
i*3*5,
&c.
+ &c.
2.4.6
4- const.
2a 2.4 a* 2.4.6 o3
« r .
Let each term of this series be multiplied by aTArT at, and
the fluent taken by § 101, thus we gitf)c4/{ax—x*)z=:
Of the Fluents of such Fluxions as involve Logarithmic
and Exponential functions.
3 r 7
* / 2A?t I 2*t I. I 2 x’
° \ 3 2 5a ““ 2.4 70*
I.I . 3 2X* 0 N ,
 §  ; —- &c.) 4- const.
2.4.6 9a3
142. Let it be required to find the fluent of x (1.#),
where 1. a: denotes the Napierean logarithm of x. In
this case, as well as in some following examples, we
shall have recourse to the principle already employed in
§ 130, namely, that if v and 25 denote any functions of
a variable quantity x, then
141. By resolving a fluxion into an infinite series,
the object in view is to transform it into a series of
other fluxions, each of which may have its fluent deter¬
mined by known methods 5 but it is not always neces-
J'% V — V% —•J'V 25*
Let us therefore assume xmxxzvt and 1. x~2-, then,
cr”,+*
(§ 10,*)>'^p7=v» and (§ 57)i -^ = ^erefore»
substituting
art II.
Iimnc gubstituting these values of v, %, v, sa in the formula
Metkod. becomes
Inverse
Method.
. /'XmX xm+t
or, since /—— = ;;—-—r + const.
(1- Urr- c^T-}+M’K‘-
FLUXIONS. 75S
If we suppose n~I, then observing that J*o* *=r~
« J<-).
fa*xx—j
If n=2, then
*"+*
, § 101, and zrr (l.fl)o’AT, (§ 56.) therefore,
substituting these values of v, 2, v, k in the formula
/* vs:t;a! as, we get
Cm « * o" *"'*'* /^(l. o) a**H+,Ar
/ £f" AC* Af — “■“ / . r
»-{-I ^ »-{-I
therefore, substituting n—I everywhere instead of «,
/- . • a*** /'(l. a) c*#"*
a* jk’1-* x— /-   ;
« n
hence, bringing J'cfx'x to stand alone one side of the
equation
y-» • a* xn r» /»«.*
a’x% xzz    — fa* x 1 x.
i. a. 1. aj
y'aTx,xz
1. a (1. a)»
fa* xx.
const.
1. a
1. a*
Iset us next suppose that the proposed fluxion is
xm x (1. x)\ Put xmx~v, and (1. A?)“=a!, then (§ 101.)
Af'“+t n x (\. a;'!"'-*-
 —V, and (S cy.)  rrss, therefore,
gubstituting as before these values in the formula
.A v—v 25 —f » z, we get
r • , . *-+1(l. «)" r»A;mA: (I.ac)*-*
/ xmx (1. xyzs  * — / : .
J ' J m-\-l J 771-J-1
It is evident, that by this formula the determination
of the fluent of xm x (1. #)* is reduced to that of
x™ x (1. A?) which we have already found, and in
like manner that the determination of the fluent of
x (1. #)3 is reduced to that of Acm a? (1. x)*, and so on,
from which it appears that the fluent of Acm x (1. #)*
is expressible in finite terms when » is a whole positive
number. The formula, however, will not apply when
tn—— 1, because of the denominator *7* -f-1 rr—I 1 =0.
But in this case we have
f— (1. Af)"= —I— (1. at)"** 4- const.
.f x 7*-j-l
If n be negative or fractional, the fluent of xmx (1. Ac)*
can only be expressed by an infinite series.
143. As an example of an exponential function, let
it be required to find the fluent of o’ x* x. Here we
may put v for *" x, and z for a*, then we have
In this expression we substitute the value of f a* x x
just found, thus it becomes
ix
(1.0)*
2 I .
 rr y 4* const.
. o)»J
(1
Proceeding in this way, we may find the fluent when
77—3, or when 77=4, or in general, when t» is any in¬
teger number whatever, the number of terms in the
fluent being in this case always finite; it is not so how¬
ever when n is either negative or fractional.
Of the Fluents of such Fluxions as contain functions
related to a circle.
144. Let suppose that <z is an arch whose sine is at,
and that it is required to find the fluent of a xnx. Put
ac" x—v, then
fxxn x-xzj*% rrrz v—~f v z j
• . *"+*
but since vz=.xnx, we have t>=r , § 101, and since
77-J-l’ 5
arsrsin. *, we have *=25 cos. (1—-**) (§ 59.),
and therefore i thus we have
V (i-**)
/n • 2S A? ’r* I p * t»x
a xn ac= —     —- j
774-1 774-1 —* )
hence the determination of the proposed fluent is re-
f #*+**
duced toy ■' — n which we have already consider-
v'(I—**)
ed in § 133. By the same mode of reasoning we may
determine the fluent when * denotes the cosine of the
arch 2;.
145. It appears from § 59. that n 2$ being put to
denote any arch of a circle to radius unity, the fluxion
of the sine of that arch is t» a cos. 77 a; therefore, on
the contrary,
/25 cos. 77 *= - sin. 77 z 4* const.
77
?•
iC2 yi.i
In like manner, from the formulas of J 59. and § 60.
we find
sin.
75*5
Invesse
Method.
FLUX
y'js sin. n %— cos. ti « + const.
y-—^—=r - tan. w 4- const.
cos. n% n
C-—  n —- cot. w z 4- const.
^ sin.2 n% n
/z sin. n% \
 = - sec. » a 4- const.
cos.* n% n
/% cos. n z —I , .
 nr cosec. n z + const.
sin.2 n% n
146. By the second of these expressions we find the
fluent of
IONS.
Part II,
% (A-fB sin. 58+C sin. 2Z-{- &c.)
to be
A 53——B cos. z—Hi C cos. 2Z—&c» const.
and from the first expression we find the fluent of
2; (A-J-B COS. 53 + C COS. 2 58 + &C.)
to be
A z + B sin. z+f C sin. 2 z-f- &c. + const.
147. It has been shewn in the Arithmetic of Sines,
(see Algebra, § 356.) that
sin* z=-f- (—cos. 2z-f-0»
therefore, by what has been shewn in § 145.
J*z sin.* cos. 2Z-}-z)
= £ (— f sin. 2 z-f-z) + const.
It has also been shewn that
sin.3 z~-J (—sin. 3 *4*3 s^n* 2:)>
therefore, multiplying each term of this expression by
z, and taking the fluents,
fz sin.3 9t=l (f cos. 3 z—3 cos. z)-j- const.
In the same manner may the fluent of z sin."z be
found, n being any positive integer number whatever.
Again, it has been shewn (Algebra, § 356.)»
that
cos.* z=^ (cos. 2 z-j-1) i
therefore
f 58 COS.* co9*
zzl (i sin. 2Z+*) + const.
and because
cos.* z=! (cos. 3 z+3 cos. z)
therefore, multiplying by z, and taking the fluents, Jnveise
Methed.
J'z cos.3 zzrf (f sin. 3Z-J-3 sin. z) + const.
and proceeding in this way we may find the fluents of
z cos." », n being any positive integer number.
• •
148. The fluents of z sin." z, and z cos." z may be ex¬
pressed under another form, by proceeding as in § 142.
Thus, beginning with z sin.” z, and resolving it into z
sin. zxsin."-* z, if we put z sin. z=:t;, and sin.7*”1
zz=tt we have by § 145, fr:—cos. z, and (by § 26
and § 59) <=(72—1) z cos. z sin."“*z, therefore, sub¬
stituting in the formulaJ't'Oz=.i)t—-j'vtt we have
/z sin." z=:—cos. z sin."“Iz
4-(«—cos.*z sin."-*z,*
but cos.* z=i—sin.* z, therefore f z sin."z is equal to
—cos. z sin."-* z-{-(«—1)/z sin."~*z
—(«—1)J*« sin."z;
which expression, by bringing together the terms con¬
tainingf z sia.nz becomes
/z sin."z=r— - cos. z sin."”* z
n
4- -—- f« sin."-* z.
n J
By giving particular values to n we have
/,. . 1 . 1 /»*
z sin.*=:—- cos. z sin. z-f- -y z
=— - cos. z sin. z4- - z 4- const.
2 1 2 1
/z sin.3z=:— - cos. z sin.* z4- - fz sin. z
3 r
—— - cos. z sin.® z— - cos. z 4- cows#.
3' 3
We may proceed in this way as far as we please, dedu¬
cing the fluent of z sin.4z from that of z sin.* z, and
the fluent of z sin.* z from that of z sin.3 z, and so on.
If in the general formula we substitute every where
2—ft instead of ft, it becomes
/*
z sin.
z=
«—2
cos. z sin. z
ft—1 . .
1 / z sin.^z,
r ft—2*'
an
inverse
| Method
Tart II. FLUX
s an expression which, by bringing ^% sin. ~n% or
/» %
—-— to stand on one side of the equation, becomes
sin. 1
rJ-
J sin." *
cos. 2;
(«—1) sin.
n—2 n as
IONS. Ih*}
n z've substitute 4 *•—3 instead of (where \ * MeThod.
denotes a quadrant), and observe that
sin. (4sr—»)=cos. 25, cos. ({tt—2;)=sin. z,
and that the fluxion of (£*-—2:) is —ss, we shall imme¬
diately obtain
n—2 /» 2S
w-—I J sin.
'53
This formula is not applicable to the case of «m, be¬
cause then each of the terms of the fluent is divided by
«—1=0, and therefore becomes infinite. In order to
obtain the expression for the fluent in this particular
case, we proceed thus. It is evident that -r^ =
sin.2 23
1 , , 1 1 1
 —, but — L 
I—cos « I—C0S*2! 2(1—C0S.23 ^ 2(1-j-COS. k)
as will be found by reducing the fractions to a com¬
35 COS."53= — sm. 2; cos."
n
n—i r-
H / 2
n J
/V 25   I
^C0S.”25 n 1
ss COS."-* %
sm. %
cos.
25
, 2 r g
n—1^/ cos.”-!
mon denominator, therefore
sin. 25 2(1—cos. z)
+
and in like manner from the formula expressing the flu¬
ent
sm. 2;.
25
2(i+c.s. an<1 c»”sc4“e"lly.
25  I 25 sin.2: ( I y*2! sin. z
J sin. 25 ~ 2*^1 —COS.25 ' 2'' I+C0172S’
butif it be considered that the fluxion of cos. 2 is —25
sin. 2 (§ 59.) it will appear by 5 103 that /I.^ ?in‘_z
=1. (1—cos. 2), and that—l(i-fcos.2),
therefore
r 25 1. . . 1
J ~ — '• (x—-co3’ *) r. (i-fcos. 2) + const.
2
_£l /I—cos^N
2 \I -}-cos. z/ '
sin. z
we deduce
=u.(i±^) +consl.
™ cos. 2 \I—Sin. z/ ~
__1. \/(i + sin.z)
\/(i—sin. 2)
const.
sin.«
const.
_ j y/(i—cos. 2)
* \/( t -f-cos. 25)
const.
V'Ci+cos. 2)
If in the general formula for n— we suppose 2
we have
cos.2
sin. 2
150. It has been shewn in Algebra, § 357, that
16 cos. * 2 sin. — sin. 52-f.sin. 3Z + 2 sin. 2, there¬
fore
j* z cos. * z sin. ,z= cos* J 25— - cos. 3 2;
—■2 cos. 2) -J- const.
The same mode of finding the fluent will apply to any
fluxion of this form z sin.^z cos.” 2 ; or by resolving
the fluxion into two parts, the determination of its
fluent may be reduced to that of a fluxion in which the
exponents m and n are less than in the proposed flux¬
ion, by the method of proceeding already employed in
§ MS-
ISI‘ T<et us now denote sin. 2 by a?, then cos,
'/(I—•**), and since z cos. z—i (§ 59.) therefore 2
= — cotan.2 -f- const, which agree*
^/sin.* 2
with what has been already observed (§ 145.), and if
we suppose «=3, then
'S sin.1 z
COS. 2
COS. Z
2 sin. 2
+ T/-
1 O ci r
Z
2 ^ sin.2
I . /1 COS. 2\
-—— • . . 1 — I- 1 —: I 4- const.
2 sin. 2 4 \ 1-f-cos. 2/
In this way we proceed as far as we please, deducing
— from —, and so on.
y sin.4 2 4 sin.* 2
149. If in the general formulas for J~z siij.'z and
=:: * t,iese values being substituted in any
function involving 2, sin. 2 and cos. z will immediately
reduce it to an algebraic form. Thus, for example, we
shall have z sin. mz cos"z transformed to
x #m(i—x*)~
an expression which may have its fluent determined by
the formulas of § 133 and § 134.
Sect. II. Application of the Inverse Methodof Flux¬
ions to the Resolution of Problems.
To find the Areas of Curves.
152. It has been shewn in § 61, that if the abscissa.-
of a curve be denoted by a?, the ordinate by y, and the
area *
758
Inverse
Method.
Fi*. 19.
'N° 1.
FLUXIONS.
area by then a=y Therefore the general for¬
mula expressing the area of any curve will be
$—Jyx.
Hence to find the area of any curve, we must either
find from the equation of the curve the value of y in
terms of a?, or else the value of # in terms of y, and y,
and either the one or the other of these being substitut¬
ed in the above formula, and the fluent found by the
methods already explained, we shall have a general ex¬
pression for the curvilineal area as required.
F.x. 1. Let it be required to find the area of any
curve of the parabolic kind, of which, putting the ab¬
scissa AB=ir, and the ordinate BP=y, the equation is
iTrzn #
Then we haveysza7*# ", and
1 m
$—f y x
— m+n
na1
m-\-n
-f-C,
where C denotes the constant quantity that may be re¬
quired to complete the fluent. As in the present case,
it is required to find the area of the portion of the curve
next its vertex, so that when j~o, then a;~o, there-
- m\-n
ncr
fore, also Crro, and the area is simply
If it be required to find the area comprehended be¬
tween two ordinates PB, p b, put ABsrt/, then when
s~o, we have xzzdt therefore the general expression
i m+n “
— • ytOt fi
  # n 4-C becomes in this case o~—;—d
'm+n ^ m+n
- f7»+f»
+C,
hence Ciz-
and consequently the area BP jp b, or s, is equal to
.m-fn m+n*
no" n -d n
wi-f-n I-
area, viz. -—;—x
m-\-n
Part II.
on each side of the axis, corresponding the one to the inverse
positive, and the other to the negative ordinates. Method.
When the exponents m and n are both odd numbers,
m+n
the quantity x n has only one sign, and remains al¬
ways positive whatever be the sign of a?, but in this
case one of the two branches of the curve has its ab¬
scissas and its ordinates negative at the same time (as
in fig. 19. N° 2.) : it follows therefore that the areas ccxx.
corresponding to the negative abscissas and ordinates ig. i9.
ought to be regarded as positive. br° ».
m+o
When n is an even number, the expression for the
— m-f-ri
may be considered as negative
as well as positive, on account of the radical quantity
m+n
# 71 , or V A?m+", which has then a twofold value, it
may therefore have the sign =±= prefixed to it j but in
this case the same abscissa AB belongs to two branches
of the curve APp and AP'p', as in fig. 19. N® x, there-
1
nan
may
If n alone is odd, then the quantity x ” becomes
negative at the same time as #, but in this case the two
branches of the curve are on the same side of the line
in which the abscissas are taken (as in fig. 19. N° 3.)^ I9*
and the ordinates remain always positive. 3*
Upon the whole it may be concluded, that the area
of a curve is positive when the abscissas and the ordi¬
nates have the same sign, and negative when they have
contrary signs. *
If we suppose m=:l, and »=2, then the curve is the
common parabola, the area of which from the general
x. s
2 ^ ^
formula is found to be -a1* —-xy; hence it ap-
3 3
2
pears that the parabola is - of its circumscribing paral¬
lelogram.
Ex. 2. Suppose the curve to be a circle. Put Rg- *>•
ABzta?, BP=y, the diameter AD=a, the area ABPnj.
From the nature of the circle y*=:a x—x*, therefore
y—\f{ax—a;*), and
s—fy Z =y* v' (a*—AT1).
In this case the fluxion is not of such a form as to
admit of an algebraic fluent in finite terms, we must
therefore have recourse to the method of series, but we
have already found the fluent in this way in § 140,
therefore, from the series there brought out we have
/ (2X 1 2**__1,1 2x1
s_ V ° ^ g 250 2.4 7 a*
1.1.3 2x*
m-j-n
fore the two values of the expression "
be considered as indicating the two areas APB, AP'B,
 zc 3 ““ &c0
2.4.6 9 a3
this expression does not require a constant quantity to
be added to it, because wiien a?=zo we must also have
5=0.
If we suppose the arch AP to be f of the quadrant
AE, then it is known that PB=£ the rad. AC=f a,
therefore, if we suppose the radius = 1, we have in this
case BC=V3. and ^=1^^3 = 0.1339^6
nearly. If this number be substituted instead ot x, and
a few terms of the series computed, we shall find the
area ABP =*0452931} to this add the triangle
CBP=}X v/x=::0*2165063, and we have the sector
A.CP=*26l7994, which number when multiplied by
3 gives *7853982 for the area of the quadrant. This
number also expresses the area of a circle of which the
diameter is I.
Fx. 3. Suppose the curve to be an ellipse.
Pat Fig. a i*
the
Part II.
)n verse the transverse axis AD^o, the conjugate axis
j**c*bod-. 2CEs=3, also AB=a;, BP=:y,- then by the nature of
(lie curve y=-L j (o.v—*•), and ii=yi=L-
FLUXIONS.
~ * v/ (*>_*)_»= al i. £ liViy—°*) |
but if a straight line be drawn from C to P so as to form
(oa’—x*') ; but if a circle be described on AD as a
diameter, and BP the ordinate of the ellipse be produced
to meet the circle, it appears from last example that
* V (a is the fluxion of AQB the segment of
the circle corresponding to the elliptic area APB or s;
therefore, putting v for the segment AQB, we have
the triangle CBP, it is manifest that — x J (x* aM
is equal to 4 CBxBP, that is, to the triangle CBP,
therefore the excess of the triangle CBP above the
area s, that is the hyperbolic sector CAP, is equal to
the logarithmic function
759
Inverse
Melhod.
• b v bv . t
s— and here the constant quantity c must
be suppressed;, because e and v must vanish together.
Hence it appears that the area of any segment ef an
ellipse is to the area of the corresponding segment of
its circumscribing circle as the lesser axis of the ellipse
is to the greater; therefore the whole ellipse must be
to the whole circle in the same ratio.
Ex. 5. Let the curve be a hyperbola, of which C is
the centre. Put the semi-transverse axis CAxro, the
semiconjugate axis =6, CB=.v, BP=ry, the area
APBrrj?. From the nature of the curve ——
J a
V therefore
tf-f- V (a*—a*) *»
~~ i’
Ex. 5. Suppose the curve to be an equilateral by-Fig. 23.
perbola, that is a hyperbola whose axes are equal, and
that it is required to find the curvilineal area DCBP
comprehended between DC, a perpendicular from D
(a given point in the curve) to one of the asymptotes,
and PB, a perpendicular from any other point in the
curve to the same asymptote.
Let A be the centre, put AC=o, CD=6, AB=r*,
ftrea DCBP—From the property of
the asymptotes we have xy=,ab. and therefore y= ~
J x''
hence (§ 103.)
s=fy*~tfx</ (**—c»).
„ • />abx
S J y *=J— —Cib 1. X-f-Ca.
But it appears from formula B (§ 131.) that
y; v/ (**_a*) =i* S - wf 7, \
v \.x J
and again by $ 127,
// (**_«») =1# {Ar+^ + c,
therefore
3=1 2aXx/ a>) — ~^ V'(**“«*) ^ + c*
To discover the value of the constant quantity c, we
must consider that when xzxat then s=o, and in
this extreme case the general equation just found be¬
comes
hence czs ~ 1. a, and consequently, observing that
— T1"^ *+'/} +
oij r \/ (aj-—o*) T|
~““T * l a $
we get
>= A * ^ (*W) _ ^ 1. j i±^£-=£l> j.
It immediately follows from this formula that
To find the value of c, let us suppose x=:a, then sso
and the general formula becomes in this case
o=ra b 1. o-|-c, and hence err —a b 1. at
therefore
t—a b 1. x—a i 1. a~ab 1. —.
a
If we suppose a=A= i, then s=z\. x, from which it
appears that in this case the hyperbolic area DCBP
represents the Napierean logarithm of the number xf,
it was from the consideration of this property that the
logarithms originally invented by Napier were called
hyperbolical logarithms.
But the logarithms of any other system may also be
represented by areas of the same hyperbola; for this
purpose it is only necessary to determine the magni¬
tudes of o, and £, so that — “M, where M denotes
the modulus of the system, thus we shall have
and j=ra# M1. , or, putting cm, s=M 1. an ex¬
pression for the logarithm of x according to any sys¬
tem whatever of which the modulus is M (Algebra,
$ 287.)
. the curve be the cycloid of which AEFig.
is the axis and A the vertex, let a semicircle be de¬
scribed on AE as a diameter, draw AG perpendicular
to the axis, and from any point in the curve draw PB
perpendicular to AG and PD perpendicular to AE,
meeting the circle in Q, and draw QC to C the centre
of the circle. Put AC=c, ABm, BP=y, the area
ABPnrs, and put v for the angle ACQ, that is for
the arch of a circle which measures ACQ, the radius
ofi
^6
fluxions.
Inverse of that circle being unity, then AD=o (i—cos. v),
Method. DQ=fl sin. vf and arch AQ=av, and since from the
nature of the curve, PD=: arch BQ-j-DQ, therefore
PD=av4-o sin. v=a O-f-sin. v) j hence
Fig. i$-
xzza (u-f-sin. v), x^zav (i-fcos. t>), (§ 59.)
y—a (1—cos. v)
s—J'x y—J*aZ v C1—cos**t’)
=uzJ'v sin.* v—^a* v—f«a sin. v cos. t; (§ 148.)
ACx arch AQ—f CD X DQ}
and here no constant quantity is wanted to complete
the fluent j because upon the supposition that AQ=o
both sides of the equation vanish as they ought to do}
now it is obvious that -J ACxAQ—area of sector
ACQ, and f CDxDQ= area of triangle DCQ, there¬
fore
$=£ area of circ. seg. ADQ.
Let AG be the greatest value of x; complete the
parallelogram AGFE, then from the general expression
for the cycloidal area, it follows that the whole cycloi¬
dal space APFG is equal to the semicircle AQE ; but
from the nature of the curve, EF is equal to AQE,
half the circumference, therefore the rectangle EG is
equal to four times the semicircle AQE j from these
equals take away the external cycloidal space AGF,
and the semicircle AQE, which have been shewn to be
equal, and the remainders, viz. the internal cycloidal
space APFE, and three times the semicircle AQE,
are equal to each other.
Part II.
ion of a curvilinear area, in § 61, is not immediately inverse
applicable when the nature of a curve is expressed in Method,
this way, we shall therefore investigate another formula '■“■“■v——'
suited to this particular manner of considering curves.
Let us suppose that APR is a curve the position of Fig. ts,
any point P of which is determined by PF, its distance
from a given point F, and the angle which PF makes
with AF a line given by position. Let a circle be de¬
scribed on F as a centre with a rad. =1, then FP, as
also the area FAP, may be considered as functions of
BD the arch of that circle which measures the angle
PFA. From F draw FP' to any other point P' of
the curve meeting the circle BD in D\ Put FPnrr,
the area FAPrr.?, the angle AFP, or the arch BDiri',
then the area PFP', and the arch DD', will be the cor¬
responding increments of s and t>, therefore, § 21,
• “ limit of
area FPP'
DD'xFD*
Here DD' the increment of v is multiplied by FDm,
to render the terms of the ratio homogeneous. On F
as a centre, with FP as a radius, describe an arch of a
circle meeting FP' in Q, then, as the sectors FDD',
FPQ are similar, we have
FE
hence DD'xFD
FP*:: FD x HD': FPxFQ=2 sect. FPQ,
2FD
FP!
sect. FPQ sect. FPQ
T
s r* area FP'P
and t- = — x 1,m* Sect. FPQ *
v
153. In some cases it is more convenient to refer a
curve line to a fixed point than to an axis. Thus in¬
stead of expressing the nature of the circle by the equa¬
tion y^—a x—a?*, where y denotes a perpendicular from
any point of the curve upon a the diameter, and x the
distance of that perpendicular from one end of the
diameter, we may otherwise express it by the equa¬
tion fczrrt', where % denotes a variable arch of the
circle reckoned from one end of its diameter, r its
radius, and v the angle contained by a line drawn from
the centre of the circle through the extremity of a, which
angle is measured by an arch of a circle having its radius
unity.
The nature of the different conic sections may be de¬
fined in the same manner. Let P be any point in a
conic section, of which F is one focus, and FA a part
of the axis •, let DC the directrix of the section meet
FAin C, join PF, and draw PB perpendicular to the
axis, and PD to the directrix j then from the nature of
the curve (Conic Sections) PF has a given ratio to
PD, that is to FC—FB ; putFC=a, FP=r, the angle
PFC=u, and suppose PF : PD :: n : 1, then PF=
«.PD=:«.FC—n.FB, hence observing that FB=FP
, a n
X cos. v, we get r~a n—nr cos. t;, and r=:
but the point P' being supposed to approach continually
• HFGcl
to P, it is manifest that the limit of   is unity,
’ sect. rPQ
or 1, therefore
L — if, and s =-r*i\
V 2 ^
154. By means of this formula we may find the
areas of that class of curves called spirals. Let us take
for example the spiral of Archimedes, which may be
defined thus. Conceive a straight line FR to revolve Fig. *7*
about F the centre of a given circle, departing from
a given position FB $ conceive also a point P to move
in the revolving line, so that PF its distance from the
centre may be to BD the arch of the circle passed over
by the revolving line, as m to «, then the point P will
generate the spiral.
Put BF=a, the angle BFR=t;, the line FP=r,
and the area generated by the line FP=^, then the
arch BDr=a v, and since from the nature of the curve
71V * 71 V
r \ av V. m \ n. therefore v— , and vzz—, hence
am am
• 1 «* , • n T
the general formula sz= —r*t; becomes 5— ~2 a nT
i + tfcos. 1; therefore,
which equation expresses generally the nature of a conic
section.
/»n r%r n 1
J\zam 6 c
Mr3
m
154. The formula which we have found for the flux-
3
this fluent does not require a constant quantity to be
added*
Part II.
FLUXIONS.
Inrerse added, as both s and r evidently vanish at the same
Method, time.
F.'r i*.
Fir *9-
156. As the general expression for a curvilineal area
BCPD is /V x, where a?“AB the abscissa reckoned
from a given point A in the axis, and y=BC the ordi¬
nate, it follows that X being put to denote any function
of a variable quantity x, the fluent of may always
be exhibited by means of a curvilineal area. Thus let
CPp be a curve of such a nature that AD and DP the
co-ordinates being denoted by x and y, the equation of
the curve is y=X, then, assuming any ordinate BC as
given by position, we have evidently
A arzrarea CBDP.
As the ordinate BC (which is assumed as given by po¬
sition) may be taken any where, the fluxion of the area
being the same wherever it is taken, it appears, as has
been already observed (§ 101) that the function f Xa?
may be considered as indeterminate, for it admits of in¬
numerable values corresponding to any particular value
of x, and in this respect it differs from an algebraic
function, which for a given value of x has always a de¬
terminate number of values. If however x be supposed
to increase from any determinate magnitude c, to any
Other determinate magnitude a', then, taking the ab¬
scissa AD=o, and A d^La\ and drawing the ordinates
DP, dp, we have
when x~a, J'yixzz area CBDP,
and when *=a', xtz area CB dp,
therefore, while x increases from a to a', or receives the
increment a'—a, the function increases from area
CBDP to area CBJp, and thus receives the increment
area YD dp, which is of a determinate magnitude, as
the ordinates PD, p d have both a determinate position.
Hence it appears that in assigning the fluent of X#, we
only determine the change that takes place in the va¬
lue of the function while x passes from one par¬
ticular value to another particular value.
157. As there are general and known methods by
which an approximate value of any curvilineal area may
be found, when a fluent is expressed by such an area,
those methods may be applied to find an approximate
value of the fluent. Let PD ef/? be a curvilineal area,
supposed to represent the fluent f^x between the li¬
mits of #=: AD and x—A. d. Conceive D to be di¬
vided into a number of equal parts DD', D'D", Dd, and
the ordinates P'D', P^D" drawn, and the two sets of
parallelograms DE, D'E', D^E" and DV, D'V, d e" to
be completed, the former constituting a rectilineal figure
circumscribed about the curvilineal space DYY'Y" pd,
and the latter a rectilineal figure inscribed in that space;
then as the circumscribed figure must necessarily be
greater than the curvilineal space, that is, greater than
VOL. VIII. Part II. f
/x x taken between the limits of a;=:AD and «=A a,
and the inscribed figure must be less, it follows that if
we compute the areas of the circumscribed and inscribed
figures we shall obtain two limits, the one greater, and
the other less than J'^Ax. And as by increasing the
number of equal parts into which D J is divided we may
bring the circumscribed and inscribed rectilineal figures
as near to a ratio of equality as we please, it is always
possible to find two limits which shall differ from each
other, and consequently from J'^.x (which lies be¬
tween them), by less than any assignable quantity.
158. If we join P, P', P", py the tops of the ordinates,
the rectilineal space formed by the trapeziums DPP'D'
D'T" p d will be more nearly equal to the
curvilineal area, than the circumscribed rectilineal fi¬
gure formed by the parallelograms DE, D'E', D"E" ;
therefore, the sum of those trapeziums being found, it
will be equal to the fluent f^'x nearly.
Suppose, for example, that it is required to find the
-lue °f/-rrrr between the limits of #=0, and xzz 1.
I-f-iV
In this case X= —so that the equation of the
curve Yp is let us suppose Dd the distance
between the extreme ordinates to be divided into ten
equal parts, then putting o, *1, -2, &c. to I instead of 4;
76l
in the formula
i-f-w3’
we obtain eleven successive
values oiy, or eleven equidistant ordinates, the nume¬
ral values of which will be as follows,
The first =r i*ooooo
the 2d =r
the 3d rr
the 4th rr
the 5th —
the 6th r:
•99010
•96154
*9I743
•86207
•80000
the 7 th zr *73529
the 8th = '67114
the 9th ~ *60975
the 10th *55249
the nth oz *50000
By the elements of geometry the area of the recti¬
lineal figure formed by the trapeziums is found by
adding together all the ordinates except the first
and last, and half the sum of the first and last, and
multiplying that sum by the breadth of one of the tra¬
peziums j now the sum of the ordinates, with the ex¬
ception of the first and last, together with half the sum
of the first and last, is 7*84981, and the common breadth
of the trapeziums is *1, therefore■ ; = 7.84981 x
•1=,758<near,y» as required. It is evident from § 137,
that^/^-j—j taken between the limits of xzzo, and 1,
is accurately equal to an arch of 450, radius being unity,
which arch being will be found zr 7854 nearly.
If we recur to the series which has been found to ex¬
press the above fluent in § 137, and put 0=1, and
*=i, we shall haveA-7- ■ taken between the pre-
scribed limits equal to
5 B 1—I
Inverse
Method.
FLUXIONS
762
Inverse j—^ 4. f i + &C.
Method. T ^ 5 T ^
“ It Is impossible, however, to compute the fluent simply
by the addition of the terms of this series, on account
of the slowness of its convergency.
Part II,
*=/VO3 +^*)=f\f ( “r*+ S'*) . Methoc<-
Tig- 19.
ijp. As the curvilineal area DPp J is the limit of
the sum of the parallelograms DP', D'P^, &c. which
constitute the rectilineal figure inscribed in that area j
as also the limit of the sum of the parallelograms DE,
D'E, &c. which constitute the circumscribed figure,
the number of parts into which Dc? is divided being in
either case conceived to be increased indefinitely, so
that each may be continually diminished (and this being
the case it is of no consequence whether those parts be
conceived as all equal or as unequal) so from analogy
(«)
we may conclude that if a?", x"\...x be put to
denote successive values of a variable quantity #, and X',
X", X",... X^ the corresponding values of X any
function of x, the limit of the sum of the products X
(*'•—A?), X'(tf"—x'), X"(*w—tf"), &c. when the num¬
ber of successive values of x and X is continually in¬
creased, so that the difference between any two of them
immediately following each other may be continually
diminished, is equal to xi the fluent to be taken
between the two extreme values of n.
160. It was in this manner that the first writers on
the differential calculus conceived a fluent j as the dif¬
ference between any two of its succeeding values is the
product of the function X by xf—x the increment of x,
they called that product (when x'—x was conceived to
be infinitely diminished) the Differential of the fluent;
and as the fluent is the sum of all the products, or dif¬
ferentials, instead of calling it a fluent they called it
an Integral; the process by which an integral is found
from its differential or fluxion they called Integration.
The terms Integral and Integration are sometimes em¬
ployed by writers in applying the method of fluxions to
mathematical enquiries.
To find the Lengths of Curves.
161. It has been shewn in § 63. that if the abscissa
of a curve be denoted by x, the ordinate by y, and the
curve line by 25, then z=\/ (**-f-y*), hence the gene¬
ral formula for finding the length of a curve is
Therefore, if from the equation expressing the nature
of a curve we find the value of y in terms of x and x, or
else the value of x in terms of y and y, and substitute
the one or the other in the above general formula, we
shall obtain a fluxion the fluent of which will be the
length of the curve.
jE.v. 1. Suppose the curve to be a parabola, and that
ABiza:, BP~y, the arch AP—Z, the parameter ~a,
then the equation of the curve being axzzfi, we have
; = and
a
2
By comparing this expression with formula (B) in §
131, we find
/y V ^+^y%)=iy \/(«*+4y*)
+ia’£ i •
again by § 127,
therefore
z_ yVia'+iy1)
2a
+ ^1, {2y+^(a*+42*)}+c-
To determine the value of C, we must consider that
when y=0, then zzzo, so that then the general formula
will become simply
0=
- 1. a-4-C, and hence C=— - 1. a,
4 4
therefore, substituting the value of C, and bringing to¬
gether the logarithmic quantities,
rj_ y\/K-f4y2)
2 a
+ «i ;j>y+'/0*+4ya)|j
Ex. 2. Suppose the curve to be a circle, and that Cfjg, *o.
is its centre, and AE a quadrant of the circle. Put
CBrntf, BPrry, the arch EP=«, the radius of the
circle =a, then a;*-}-y*zr«*, and y=f (a*—**), and
• —xx
<J{a%—x'f
hence
i=fy(*J+y*)=/\/(**+
P ax
if {a*—a;*) ’
x* *s \
a1—#*/
This fluent can only be expressed by an infinite se¬
ries, under which form it has been already exhibited in
§ 140, the radius being there supposed unity.
Ex. 3. Let the curve be an ellipse, and let it be re-jrjg. u,
quired to find the length of the curve between E the
vertex of the lesser axis, and P any point in the curve.
To simplify the calculation, let us suppose that the se¬
mi-transverse axis AC=l \ put the semi-conjugate axis
Cli—b, the excentricity (that is -^/(l—b'^—e, the ab¬
scissa CB=», the ordinate PBzry, the arch EP=« ;
then, the equation of the curve being y2=6a(i—#*), we
have
lo'
Hi
F*i
Part II,
Inverse
Method, have ^6^/(1^*),
fore
and
y=
FLUXIONS.
—b xx h'Jt it is evident from § 62, that the limiting ratio of
and there' those arches must be the same as that of their chords,
J therefore,
Inverse
Method,
*=(*■+/)=f\> (*!+
--f-
\/(l—e*xx')
^/(l—,r3)
-r*= limit of
v
chord PP'
chord DD'
?
now the limit of the angle PQD being evidently a right
angle, we have
This fluent can only be expressed by means of an infi¬
nite series, and it has been already given in this form
in j 141.
If we take l,then all the quantities in that series
which are multiplied by v/(i—*2) will vanish, but in
this particular case 55 is the elliptic quadrant EA, and
A is a quadrant of the circumscribing circle, or f sr,
therefore the elliptic quadrant is equal to
r PP' ,• -v/CPQ’+QP'1)
lm' do7~ lm‘ ' un- J
= lim. \/ ^
PQ* , P'Q
i3D,J ' 13D'
■}
but
PQ3 __ FP*
2 an<^
p'Qa __
DD'3~
r*
v*
therefore
ig. it.
w Cl-— e*
2.2
1.1.3
r‘T»3-3-5
2.2.4*4" 2.2.4.4.6.6
e6—&c.)
This series converges very fast if e be a small fraction.
Ex. 4. Suppose the curve to be a cycloid. Let a
circle be described on its axis meeting the ordinate PB
in Q, and draw CQ to the centre of the circle. Put
ABzsat, BP~y, the cycloidal arch AP~ss, the radius
AC—a, the angle ACQ—t;, then AB=a (1—-cos.«;),
BQ—a sin. v, the circ. arch AQ—a so that x~o
(1—cos. ti), and from the nature of the curve y~~~n
(%»+ sin. ti), therefore (§ 59.)
xzza v sin. v, y~a n (i -f cos. v),
** +y*=o*^,|sin.s v-f(i -f cos.
rra*i;a(2-f-2 cos. v);
but 2+2C0S. i;=4cos.*f t! (Algebra, § 356.) there¬
fore
3—j*C*s+^*)—2 0^ucos. f v
= 40 sin. fu+C, (§ 145.)
but as when v=.oy then 2S—o, therefore C=o, and %
—4 ° s*ni‘ \ v > but if the chord AQ be drawn, 2 a sin.
f tizr chord AQ, therefore chord AQ.
, and 2; rry' v*7'2 j.
Let us apply this formula to the spiral of Archimedes, Fi* 17
the equation of which (§ 155.) is amv-nr, and
therefore
nr •
 , and v1 —
am
«2 r9
2 2 i hence
a* ni1
*=fv <>+r'v')=\j-rS(a'+
This fluent may be found by formula B, § 131, and it
is worthy of remark that the fluxion has the same form
as that which we have found in § 161 for an arch of a
parabola j thus the length of any portion of the spiral
of Archimedes may be exhibited by means of an arch
of a parabola.
To find the Contents of Solids.
163. If AX3 the abscissa of a curve be denoted by xt Fig- 4.
and PD the ordinate by y, and the solid generated by
the revolution of the curve APD about AD as an axis
by s, it has been shewn, in § 64, that s=vy2x, there¬
fore the general formula for finding the content of a
solid is
I. Jot
162. The formula %— yv(*. -f-#*) not being ap¬
plicable in its present form to curves of the spiral kind,
we shall here investigate another suited to that parti-’
eular class of curves.
Let APR be a curve of such a nature that the posi¬
tion of any point P jn the curve is determined by PF,
its distance from a given point F, and by the angle
which PF makes with AF a line given in position.
We shall employ the same construction and notation
here as in § I54> with the addition of drawing the
chords DD', PQ, PF, and putting the arch AP—<3;
then it is manifest that the simultaneous increments
and r will be the arches DD' PP', and the
Straight line P'Q respectively. Hence
*
£$
V
5= limit of
arch PP'
arch DD'
Ex. I. Suppose the solid to be a paraboloid, or that
which is generated by the revolution of a parabola about
its axis j in this case^a=a«, and taking the fluent so
that when xzzO, then srro,
•*=»/ya a f x Jr a x2,
or but nxf is the content of a cylinder
having y for the radius of its base and x for its altitude, •
therefore the content of a paraboloid is half that of a
cylinder having the same base and altitude.
Ex. 2. Suppose the solid to be a parabolic spindle,Fig
which is generated by the revolution of APB an arch *
of a parabola about AC an ordinate to its axis. In this
case let AD—DP=y, AB—£, the parameter of the
5 1^ 2 axis
*'»K- 3*-
and 3.3.
Kig. 4.
axis rrcr, then from the nature of the parabola AD X DB
(b—.v^x
and
rraxPD, thatis»(i—*)=:ay, hence y=
taking the fluent, so that s and x may vanish together j
rr irj'y2 x — ~x%(b—a^x
— - {b* x*x—2bx3x -\-x* x}
it f h~.v3 b x* | X* \
r+y/
or, since a‘
(h—,r)2*
'
b'x
1
•xy1 ^ b'x bx* | x9
= (^y>iT“^' + 7r
which expression (by supposing x—ACzz^b, and put
for
ting d for CE, the greatest value of y) gives
the content of half the solid generated by the curve
, . . 8 * a* £ ,
AEB, therefore the entire spindle is ——, or (by
observing that xd*b is the content of a cylinder having d
for the radius of its base and b for its length) it is x\-
of the circumscribing cylinder.
Kt. 3. Suppose the solid to be a spheroid produced
by the revolution of an ellipse about either of its axes j
put a for ^AB the axis round which the curve revolves,
h for fEF the other axis, x for AD the height of any
segment made by a plane perpendicular to the axis of
♦he solid, v for PD the radius of its base, and s for its
‘ b'
content. Then from the nature of the curve ya =~
(2aa‘—a'*), therefore taking the fluent upon the sup-
position that s and x vanish together,
s—x J'x — X'laxx—x* x)
xb% x*\
= —T* (ax )•
^ v 3 /
FLUXIONS. Part II.
perpendicular to that axis, meeting it in D, and put- Inverse
ting AD=j?, and the variable solid APQp (considered Method,
as a function of x') =:$, by proceeding as in § 64, we » 1 —J
,,, . , , . . increment of« ,
would have found the limit ot ^ 7—, and con-
mcrement or x
sequently A-, equal to the area of the section of the solid
x
made by the plane PQ/?; therefore putting V for that
function of x which expresses the area of the section, we
have szzVx, and szz J'V x.
Let us suppose for example that AEFG is a solid Tig. 34,
bounded by any plane figure EFG as a base, and by
the surface which will be generated if we suppose a
straight line drawn from A any given point above that
plane to revolve in the circumference of the base.
Let AC be a perpendicular drawn from the vertex
of the figure to its base, and let PQ/> be a section of
the solid by a plane parallel to the base, meeting the
perpendicular in D. Put arr the area of the base of
the solid, V= the area of the section PQ/J, £=AC the
altitude of the whole solid, #=:AD the altitude of the
part cut off by the plane PQ/>, and sz=. the content of
that part $ then, as from the nature of the solid it is
pretty evident that the part of it cut off by the plane
PQp is similar to the whole, and as the bases of similar
solids are as the squares of their altitudes, we have
d* b
7T
V &a : #a, hence V:
a x
~~9r
and
✓\r * a r 1' axi
s=fVx = ¥fx*=j^,
To find the content of the whole spheroid, we have
only to take x 2 a, thus the formula becomes
and as 2r>rb%a expresses the content of a cy-
3
linder having 2b for the diameter of its base, and 2 a
for its height, it follows that the contents of a spheroid
is x that of its circumscribing cylinder.
It is obvious that what has been found for the
spheroid will apply also to the sphere, by supposing
the axes equal, or a—b>
164. If instead of supposing the solid APQ/> to be
formed by the revolution of a curve round its axis (in
which case it is called, a solid of revolution) we had sup¬
posed it to have any figure whatever, then by referring
the solid to some straight line AC, given by position,
as an axis, and in which A is a given point, and sup¬
posing PQ^ to be a section of the solid made by a plane
this expression for s does not require the addition of any
constant quantity, for by putting *=0, we have 5—0 as
it ought to be. Suppose now x-=zb, then 5= -^=\aby
from which it appears that the content of the whole
solid is4»of the product of the base by the perpendi¬
cular. It is evident that pyramids and cones are solid#
of the kind we have been considering.
To find the Surfaces of Solids.
165. The altitude AD of a solid, generated by re-yig. ^
-volution of a curve about AD as an axis, being as be¬
fore denoted by x, and PD the radius of its base by y,
let us now put s to denote the curved surface of the
solid, then, as it has been shewn, § 65, that*' = 2 try
*J (** we have
s=2«-J'yv'C^+y2)
as a general formula for the surface of a solid.
Ex. I. Suppose the solid to be a sphere, generated by Fig. 35*
the revolution of a circle about its diameter AB, put
the radius of the sphere =a, then AD being denoted
by x, and PD by y, we have from the nature of the
curve y*=2ax—x*, therefore
, • (a—x)x
yrry'C20 *—"* )>  
*f(2ax—x') ’
and
x
art II*
1 averse
.lethod.
FLUXIONS.
I'S- ?•
«8+^* = ^(I +
(a—*)1
lax-
2\
i'J
a11 x*
 ax
2 a x—x'1 y*
therefore, y v/C^'1+ya) = o^v, and taking the fluent, so
that when x—o7 then 5=0,
:2w J1] ix*-\-y*') — 2 va x ;
now If It be considered that 2-x a\$ the circumference
of a great circle of the sphere, It will Immediately ap¬
pear that the surface of a segment of a sphere is equal
to the circumference of a great circle of the sphere
multiplied Into the height of the segment. Hence it
follows that the whole surface of the sphere Is equal to-
four times the area of one of its great circles.
ting
we "
Ex. 2. Suppose the curve to be a parabola, then put-
g AD =x, DP=y, the parameter of the axis =za,
have (§ 161. example 1.)
nple I.)
VO* y V C«9+4 y*)» therefore
*=2*yv \/(**+ya)
=-£/*;
(aa+4yaF+c» $ Io8-
To discover the value of the constant quantity C, we
must observe that when x~o, then y=o, and ^=o,
therefore putting o Instead of s and y, the above equa¬
tion becomes 0= -7- +C, hence C—
and
'=*{
(Qa + 4ya)T—Q3
6 a
l
(having weight), of which the centre of gravity is re¬
quired, and that PB, PD are co-ordinates drawn from
any point in the curve perpendicular to AB, AD two
axes at right angles to each other j let the arch AP re¬
ceive any increment P p, let C be the centre of gravity
of AP, G the centre of gravity of P p, and C' the centre
of gravity of APp. From C and G draw CE, CF,
GH, GK perpendicular to the axes AB, AD. Put
PD=.r, PB=y, CF=X, CE=Y, AP=3, also let the
arch APp—x', and let the distances of C' its centre of
gravity from the axes AD, AB be denoted by X',
and Y' respectively; then, observing that the arch
Pp by the proposition in last $,
sX-Ks'—sOxGKzzs'X';
hence -GK.
55'—a
If we now suppose the arch P p to be continually di¬
minished, and observe that ss'X'—aX, and ss'—a, are
the simultaneous increments of aX and a, it will ap¬
pear (§ 23.) that
7G5
Inverse
Method.
flux, of (aX)
limit of GK.
By the very same way of reasoning we find
flux, of (aY)
limit of GH,
but the point p approaching to P, it is manifest that
the point G will also approach to P, so that the limit
of GK is PD or .v, and the limit of GH is PB or y,
hence
flux. (aX) flux. (aY)
 . —x. .
=y.
To find the Centre of Gravity of any Line, Surface, or
Solid.
166. It belongs to the theory of Mechanics to ex¬
plain what is meant by the centre of gravity, and to de¬
monstrate its general properties, and here it is only ne¬
cessary to shew how the method of fluxions may be ap¬
plied to deduce from some one of those properties rules
for finding that centre in any proposed case.
The properties of centres of gravity which we shall
employ as the foundation of the application of the
method of fluxions to its determination may be enun¬
ciated shortly thus.
ig. jd. Let C be the centre of gravity of a mass of matter
denoted by M, and c the centre of gravity of another
mass m, and D the centre ,of gravity of the two masses
M and m, from these points let perpendiculars CA, c a,
DE be drawn to any straight line PQ, then
M X CA-f-m xc o=r(M-f»0 X DE.
g.37' 16’]. Let ui now suppose that AP is any curve line
flux. (*X)=:afx, flux. (jzY^zzyz.
Taking now the fluents of each side of these equations,
and dividing by »,
X=
it is evident that by these two equations the position of
C the centre of gravity is determined.
168. Let us next suppose that it is required to find C fig- 37>
the centre of gravity of the plane area APB. As the
arch AP was in last § supposed to receive the incre¬
ment Pp, so let the area APB now receive the incre¬
ment BP pi, and let C, C' and G (which in the former
case were supposed to be the centres of gravity of the
arches AP, APp, and Pp respectively) now be sup¬
posed to be the centres of gravity of the areas APB,
Apb, and BPpb; put the area APB=r.y, the area
A p b—sf, and let X, Y, X', Y', denote as before.
Then, reasoning exactly as in last case, we have
(by § 116.),
* X-f-(^—s) x GKrryX'
xY-K*'—*)xGH:=:yY'
hence
766
Inverse hence
Method-
Fig. 37'
yX' S X ^ s’Y'-
5= UK,  -7-
SJ—S
=GH j
and the point being supposed to approach to P, so
that ^X'—sX, «'Y'—sY, and .s'—the simulta¬
neous increments of X, Y and s, may be continually
diminished,
£i±4£2Q=lira. GK, ----I^Ulim. GH j
, 5 S
but as the ordinate pb approaches to PB, it is manifest
that the ultimate position of G, the centre of gravity of
the area BP/?£, will be the middle of PB, therefore
the limit of GK is x, and the limit of GH is fy, thus
we have
flux. (sX) flux. (sY)
 —;  =*,   : =Ty>
s s
and consequently,
V-fXS
FLUXIONS. Fart ll
jyo. If instead of the centre of gravity of the sur- Invem
face generated by AP, the centre of gravity of the Method
solid generated by the revolution of the plane figure '"—"V'*
APB about AB as an axis be required, the reasoning
will be the very same as in last §, substituting the
solid generated by the plane figure instead of the sur¬
face generated by the curve line $ so that putting i
for the content of the solid, and X for AE the di«
stance of its centre of gravity from the vertex, we have
also
or since srry .v, and $ zz fy x 6i.),
fy** Y_/y‘*
~fy* ’ 2/y*
169. Let it next be required to find the centre of
gravity of the surface of a solid generated by the revolu¬
tion of the curve AP about AB as an axis. Let the
surface of the solid be conceived to receive an incre¬
ment generated by Py) an arch of the curve. In this
case it is evident that the centres of gravity of the sur¬
face generated by the curve AP, the surface generated
by the curve APy>, and the surface generated by the
arch Pyj, will each be in AB, the axis of the solid j
suppose them to be at E, E' and H respectively. Put
AE=X, AE'—-X', also put s for the surface generated
by AP, and s' for the surface generated by APpt then
as before (from § 166.) we have
* X+ {s'—s) AHrrs'X',
hence ^=1?™ AH,
s'—s
and = lim. AH j
s
but the point p approaching to P, the limit of AH is
manifestly AB or #, therefore
flux, (s X) , v
  \ ■ ~ and Xrr
fX
or since szzl-xyz (§ 65.),
Z*JxyK
X=
ivj'yz
X=
-fx
but in this case s—vifx (§ 64.) therefore
V* *xx Jy*xx
X=
171. We shall now apply these formulas to some ex¬
amples.
Example 1. Let it be required to find the centre of Fig. 37,
gravity of AP an arch of a circle. Suppose AB to
be a part of the diameter, and in addition to the nota¬
tion of § 167. put a for the radius of the circle, then
from the nature of the curve, y*zz2ax—x*, hence
• CIX
(proceeding as in § 165. Ex. I.) we have 2= 'j'
therefore zyziax, and %xz: but from the equa-
tion y*—2ax—x9, by taking the fluxions we get
• XX Cl X • •
y 'yzzax—xx, and hence   = ■— — ySs;—y,
. y y
therefore i x—a{%—y) 5 substituting now the values
of kx and ssy in the formula of § 167, we have
x=
= ■Ly'(s-y)
%
(2—y+c)
/yZ. = iL/*
Y~
To discover the values of the constant quantities
c, c', we have from the equations in which they occur,
a crrXs;—a 2+ay, a c'—Y%—a x ;
but when 0, then x, y, X and Y are each
-therefore cs=o, and c'=o, thus we have simply
Xsr Y—
Ex? 2*
art II. FLUXIONS.
ifnverse Ex. 2. Tjet it be required to find the centre of
'VIethod. gravity of APB an area bounded by AP an arch of a
circle and PB, Bx\ its sine and versed sine. Let a de-
•57’ note the radius, and let the remaining notation be as
in § 168. Then, because At, we have xs'xzyxx,
but from the equation a x—xz (which expresses
the nature of the curve), we find
fy' XX fx (^2 ax*—x3~)
fy'x fx (2 ax—at*)
xxzzax—yyt therefore
a; s—ayx—y* y~a s—if y.
We have also y s=.yxx=z (2 a at—at*) at, therefore,
f xs f(a s—y*y)
X =: ~~    ■
767
Inverse
Method.
 4«at3—j-at4 -|-ct
axz—4*3 +c'’
and reasoning as in the last example, we find c=:o, and
c'—o, and therefore
 8 OAt—3 at2
12 a—4 x *
If the segment be a hemisphere, in which case x~at
then Xz=|o.
Sect. Ill, Of Flux tonal Equations.
Ty3+C)
Y=
fy* A 2ax—at*) at
2s
2 S
=— (aat*—f ati+c').
172. It has been shewn 49,)» how, from an equa¬
tion being given, expressing the relation between at a
variable quantity, and y a function of that quantity, we
may deduce the equation that expresses the relation of
their fluxions. We are now to show how from the lat¬
ter, or jluxional equation, we may return to the equa¬
tion of the fluents, which, relatively to the other, may
be called its primitive equation.
37<
By proceeding as in the last example we find c and ef
each =0, thus we have
a x*—x*
6 s
Ex. 3. Suppose now the figure to be the surface
generated by the revolution of AP an arch of a circle
about the diameter AB, and that the centre of gravity
of the generated surface is required. Then because
from the nature of the circle we have y 53= a x
y
and x y o& “ ax x, therefore, substituting these values in
the formula of § 169. it becomes
\x?-\-c
x-^-c' *
To find the values of the constant quantities ct c', we
have
c=:X (x-j~c')-»-f.r*t
i.r*-fc
but as when x=o, then X=o, it is manifest that c and
c' are each rro, thus we have
X=:4^.
Ex. 4. Let us now suppose that it is required to
find the centre of gravity of the solid generated by the
revolution of AP an arch of a circle about the diame¬
ter. In this case, because y'zzZax—x*, we have
from § 170,
173. As any primitive equation and the fluxional
equation derived from it both hold true at the same
time, and as the constant quantities which enter into
the former retain the same values in the latter, it fol¬
lows that by means of the two equations we may exter¬
minate any one of the constant quantities, and thus from
any proposed primitive equation deduce a fluxional equa¬
tion, in which one of the constant quantities contained
in that primitive shall not at all be found.
For example, let the primitive equation hey+ax
-\-bzzo, by taking the fluxions we have y-^-ax=o,
a fluxional equation in which b is not found; if, how¬
ever, it be required to find an equation in which a shall
be wanting, we have only to eliminate a by applying
the common rules of Algebra (Algebra, Sect, vii.)
to the two equations
y-f-aa’-f-fcrro, y-{-axzzO’,
and hence we have yx—xy-\-bx—o, thus it appears
that from the primitive equation y-J-aA;-j-^=ro we may
deduce a fluxional equation which may be expressed
under either of these forms,
y-j-OAzzo, yx—x y-\.bx=zo\
these hold true at the same time as the primitive equa¬
tion, they are alike related to, and any two of the
three being given the other necessarily follows from
them.
As a second example, suppose the primitive equation
to be .r2—2 ay—o*—irzo, bypassing to the fluxions
we immediately find xx—ay—0, an equation in which
b is not found. If, however, it be required that the
fluxional equation shall want a, we have only to apply
the common rules of elimination to the two equations j
thus from the second we get a— . , and this being
y
substituted in the first it becomes
.r
763
FLUXIONS.
Fart II,
lareise
M fcthoti.
lxy x x*x*
■ b =0,
t'roni which we have
—b') y*—-‘ixyy x-—xixtz:o
and taking the square root, having previously reduced
the equation to a proper form,
yV —yy—xx—o.
174. It is evident that by proceeding in this manner
we shall, in some cases, arrive at a fluxional equation in-
2/
volving the second and higher powers of —rj and when
this happens we can only find the value of by the re¬
solution of an equation ; but this may be avoided by
preparing the primitive equation in such a manner, that
the constant quantity to be eliminated may be entirely
separated from the variable quantities, so as to form one
of the terms of the equation, then, upon taking the
fluxions, this term being constant will vanish, and thus
we shall obtain an equation entirely free from the con¬
stant quantity contained in that term. Thus the primi¬
tive equation y-^-ax-^b—O has already such a form that
by taking the fluxions we gety-J-flwrro an equation in
which b is not found. If it be required, that upon ta¬
king the fluxions, a shall vanish j we must put the equa¬
tion under this form -f- a=o, and then taking the
fluxion, we find immediately
———————— u,
x*
contrary any fluxional equation being given, its primi¬
tive equation may contain one constant quantity more
than the fluxional equation, but it can contain only'
one, for no more than one constant quantity can be
made to disappear by returning from the primitive to
its fluxional equation.
an expression in which a is not found, and which by
rejecting the divisor x* becomes yx—xy-^bx—o, and
these two forms of the fluxional equation are the very
same as have been found in the last §. In the second
example, viz. x*—2 a y—a*—b—ot the equation has
already the form suited to the elimination of £, for the
fluxional equation is xx—oy=o, but in order that a
may vanish, we must resolve the equation with respect
to a, so as to give it this form,
y— ^(>*+y9—£)+«=0 j
passing now to the fluxional equation, a disappears, and
we have
y\/ O* -fy»—6)—yy—y.r
'/(y+y*—
It is evident that we have only to reject the denomina¬
tor to give the equation this form,
y v/0*+y*—£)—y y—**r=o,
the same as was found in the conclusion of last §.
Ib verse
Method.
If
Hei
176. The fluxional equation expressing the value of
which is derived from any primitive equation in¬
volving #, and y a function of x, may be called a flux¬
ional equation of the first order; and as from this equa¬
tion considered as a primitive, we may in like manner
derive an equation that shall involve -^-(§ 50.),thislast
x%
may be called a fluxional equation of the second order,
and the fluxional equation from which it is derived may
be called its primitive equation of the first order, to
distinguish it from the absolute primitive equation, from
which all the others are conceived to be derived. A
similar mode of definition is to be applied to the higher
orders.
177. As any primitive equation and the fluxional
equations of the first and second orders derived from it
must all hold true at the same time, it is evident, that
by means of the three equations, we may exterminate
any two of the constant quantities contained in them
that we please, and thus produce a fluxional equation of
the second order that contains two constant quantities
less than the primitive equation. There are however
two other ways by which we may arrive at the very
same fluxional equation of the second order. For as
from the given primitive equation we may deduce two
diflerent fluxional equations of the first order, one
of which shall contain one only of the two quantities to
be eliminated, and the other shall contain the other
quantity only j we may consider each of these equations
in its turn as a primitive, and, by proceeding in the
manner explained in § 173 an^ § I74» flerive from it a
fluxional equation, in which that particular constant
quantity which remained in its primitive, but which was
to be finally eliminated, shall not be found j thus, from
each of these primitives we shall deduce the very same
fluxional equation of the second order, that shall be
freed from two of the constant quantities contained in
the absolute primitive equation.
Let us take for example the equation
x*—2ay + b'zzO j
by proceeding as explained in § 173* or § 174» we
these two fluxional equations of the first order,
xx—ay—o, (^a+i*)y—ixyx—O,
in the one of these the constant quantity a is wanting,
and in the other b is wanting. Taking the first equa¬
tion xx—ayzzO, and proceeding as in § 50 (observing
that x is constant) we find**—a y z: o, if from this equa¬
XX
175. From what has been now shewn we may infer,
that as from any proposed primitive equation we can
deduce a fluxional equation that shall contain one con¬
stant quantity less than the primitive contains, so on the
3
tion we now eliminate a by putting instead of it -r
(deduced from the equation ar#—ay—.0) we£nd&fter
proper reduction
FLUXIONS.
Part II.
Inverse
Method.
y*—*y=o,
a fluxlonal equation of the second order, in ■which both
a and b are wanting, and having ar*—2ay-\.b* for its
absolute primitive equation.
Let us now take the other fluxional equation of the
first order which involves b, viz. (*2-f£2) y 2 x yx
=zo; by proceeding with this as with the former we
find y—2 y a,2zro } from the first of these
equations we find ;r2-f-£,—
2xy x
• »
y
and from the se¬
cond x^^b'zz
hence we have
2yx*
y
therefore,
2xyx ly x*
y ~ y ’
and
l6g
Now the fluent of is ml. # -f-c' ($ 103.), and in Method.
Inverse
like manner the fluent of —is n 1. therefore
m\. x +«l.y+c,-}-c"=:o,
or, transposing c-f-c", and putting a single constant
quantity for their sum, which, to be homogeneous with
the logarithmic quantities, may be — log. c, or — 1. c,
ml.tf-f/il.yrrl. c, or 1. (»n) +1. (y^ssl. <r,
or 1. (A?”y,)=:l. c, and hence xmynrzc1
which last is the primitive equation required.
yx—x y=o,
the same equation as before j and as we have arrived at
the very same conclusion by considering each of these
equations
xx—ay—o, —2xyxzzo
as a primitive, it follows that both these are to be con¬
sidered as primitive equations of the first order of the
fluxional equation y x—x y~0.
180. When a primitive equation is homogeneous,
that is, when the sum of the exponents of the variable
quantities x and y is the same in each term, as in this
example,
• _ • • •
ax x-\-b y x-\-dxy-\-e y y—O,
or (a x-\-b y} x(dx-\-ey^y—Q,
in which the variable part of each term is of the first
degree, as also in this equation
178. In general, every fluxional equation of the se«
coftd order has two primitive equations of the first or¬
der, and all three may be considered as originating
from one and the same absolute primitive equation j and
as a fluxional equation of the second order may contain
two constant quantities less than its absolute primitive
equation, and one less than either of its primitive equa¬
tions of the first order j so, on the contrary, a primitive
equation of the first order may contain one constant
quantity more than the fluxional equation of the second
order derived from it, and the absolute primitive may
contain two constant quantities which are not found in
the fluxional equation of the second order derived from
it ; and similar conclusions may be drawn relating to
fluxional equations of the third or any higher order.
Of Fluxional Equations of the first order.
179. When it is required to find the primitive equa¬
tion corresponding to a proposed fluxional equation of"
the first order, we may endeavour to separate the va¬
riable quantities, that is, to bring the equation to such
a form, that it may be composed of two parts, one of
which consists of x multiplied or divided by a function
of x only, and the other ofy multiplied or divided by a
function of y only. When this separation of the varia¬
ble quantities can be effected, we have only to take the
fluents according to the methods explained in Sect. I.
and put their sum =0, and we immediately have the
primitive equation required.
Ex. Suppose the fluxional equation to be
myx + nxy—o;
divide the terms of the equation by *y, and it become*
(a x* Jfb x y f-d yf) x
+0**-h/*y+gy*)y
in which the variable part of each terra is of the second
degree, such an equation may be always transformed
into another which will admit of the variable quantities
being separated. To take a particular example, let us
suppose the equation to be xx-\-yy=:ny x,oy{x mf)
x+y y=0* We assume y=x z (and the same assump¬
tion is to be made for any other homogeneous equation),
then y=zx-^-x z, thus the equation becomes transform¬
ed to
(#—nxz^x-^-x SB
but as the terms of this equation have a common factor
te, by leaving out that factor, it becomes
(1—/is) *;-}-» (jn x-\-x %)z=:o,
which also admits of being expressed thus
(1—n z + z2) ar-f-tf x b =0,
and, by division,
X z z
x 1—nz-j-z2
=0,
and taking the fluents
. A+f.
—(j
1—nz-j-zs ’
where C denotes a constant quantity, or, since
=1. *,
mx ^ ny  ^
VoL. VIII. Part II. y
z %
JE
*
=C,
t
H9W
77°
inverse
FLUX
AleUiod. now the particular form °f/i^ 1——a depends upon
the value of the number w; for if-t^l, it will be a
2
logarithmic function, and if-^cll, it will be expres*
sible by means of a circle, but if - = I, then it is an al-
gebraic function, and in each case it may be found by
the methods delivered in Sect. I. for finding the fluent
of a rational fraction. It may however be simplified in
its form, by observing, that since
IONS.
from which we get
%
v/,CI+iZ*)
Part II.
Inverse
Method.
szs;
2«Z—«25
+ £
n iz
I —/i i—nz-^-z2 ' * i—wis-J-z"
f* zz
therefore (§ lOS-)/—^ =
l I- (I—B Z + O + i
-n% + %%
If we limit our enquiry to the case of « + we ^ave
/> nz   /»225   2
i—nz-\-z2~ J (i—z)2~ i—2;’
let the terms be now collected into one expression, then
observing that •§ 1* (1—-2^-f-z2) r=i* (1—2>)2 =
1. (1—z), we have
l.a?+l. (1—z) 4-
= Cj
and, substituting instead of »,
(^) + ^=c>
1 \ x / x—y
or, substituting 1. c instead of C, and collecting the lo¬
garithmic functions into one,
x—7/   —x
!• ' —— 1
c x—y
therefore, passing from logarithms to numbers, by ob¬
serving that, as when a=l.^, we have by the nature of
logarithms eazzp, where e denotes the number of which
the Napierean logarithm is 1, so in the present case we
and taking the fluents of the terms, observing that each
being a logarithm function, their sum may be put equal
to a constant logarithm,
1. 1. ^z+ x/(i + z2) ^ = 1. C,
y
which expression, by substituting for z its value —,
becomes
,.I=1.C+, ^y+^f+r}].
If we now consider that
(y W**+?) (y—x/^+y*) = —*8»
and therefore that
.7+ \/Q* +.r) —x
« y—VO'+y1)’
it will appear, that the above equation may be other¬
wise expressed thus :
l.tf_l.c-fl.
from which, by passing from logarithms to their num¬
bers, we find y—v'(a*+y*) =—•<?, and hence, by so
ordering the equation that the radical may disappear,
we get «2=c24-2 cy, which is the primitive equation
required.
181. An equation which is not homogeneous, may in
some cases, by proper transformations, be rendered ho¬
mogeneous > this is the case in particular with the equa¬
tion
( o 4-+Hy>+(£+p?=<7y) y=o,
which is general of its kind $ for this purpose we assume
*=*4-*, and y=w4-/3, then x=zi, (and y=u ; by sub¬
stituting these values of a, y, x, y, in the proposed e-
quation it becomes
have
•r—y _
x—y
and hence the primitive equa¬
tion is found to be
(a+mct+nP+mt+nuyt
++Pc6u
Let us now suppose x and fi such that
1”
X
x—y
x—y—c e —O.
As a second example let the fluxional equation be
xy—yx—x—x ^{x2 4-y*)
which is also homogeneous. Assume as before y^.xz}
then y—xz-\-%x, and substituting these values of y
and y in the proposed equation, it becomes
^-^(i 4-a5*)—xz~Ot
a+mx-\-n/3=:o,
b+px+qP=oy
by these two equations the values of x and fi are deter¬
mined, and the transformed equation is reduced to
(mt-\-7iii)i+(pt-\-qu)u=oy
an equation which is homogeneous, and therefore may
be treated in the manner explained in last §.
This transformation will not apply, however, when mq
—fj p=o, because then the values of x and p would be
r infinite.
hrt II.
FLUXIONS.
Method, infinite. In this case we have y— —and therefore
hence the original equation
may be expressed thus,
Let us take a.particular case, and suppose the equa^
tion to be y-f-yar—then we have Psi, Q=:»",
an<^ ,/^> x:=x’ hence in this case the general formula
becomes
77C
Inverse
Method.
ci x y
-f(WA?-f/?y) (x+!Ly)
Assume nowmar-J-wy, theny+^ -l-x; the va¬
ra n
lues of mx-\-ny and y being now substituted in the
equation, and the whole reduced to a proper form, it
becomes
* ,   {hm-\-p %)%
st -f-  — —    ~0
a in n—b mt -}- (m n—p m) ss
The fluent of the second term of this expression will in¬
volve logarithms, except that m n—p m—o, in which
case the primitive equation is
2(a in n—b rai2)
182. When a fluxional equation has this form
y-f-Pyaf=Qi
where P and Q denote any functions of ar, the variable
quantities may be separated in the following manner.
Assume yriXsi, then, taking the fluxions, we have
y—zX-f-Xz, and by substitution, the proposed equa¬
tion becomes
z X-J-Xzs-J-PXzx~Q,x;
now as in this equation X and z may be supposed to
denote indeterminate functions of x, we may divide it
into two others, such, that the variable quantities in
each may be separable ; to effect this we assume
Xz-f-PXs x=o, zX=zQx;
hence, dividing the first equation by X, we have
«-j-P z *1=0, and —-J-Parrro, and taking the fluents,
l.*+/Pi=0 , and hence, by passing from logarithms
to their numbers,
—fPx
J8=e $
here no constant quantity is introduced, it being suffi¬
cient to add it at the end of the operation ; let this
value of z be substituted in the second equation, then
by deducing from it the value of X, we have
X=/P^Q^
and X=rf J2x Qx-f-c;
and since y=X z, therefore
y=g fPx Qx+c^*
I
y—e A?" ff-f-c J1.
The fluent J* (f xnx may be found by § 143 j let
us suppose for example that ra=2, then we have
e* a2 x=zex (a;2—2 x—2),
so that the fluxional equation being
y+yA;=A;2 *,
the primitive equation is
y=x*—2 a?-|-2-1-c e~*.
The general equationy-f-Py'A;=QA;, which involves
the simple power only of the variable quantity y, and its
fluxion, has been called a linear equation of the first
order } it has also, with more propriety, been called a
fluxional equation of the jirst degree, and of the first
order.
183. The equation
y+Py x— Qy™
where P and Q as before denote any functions of a?, is
easily reduced to the form we have been considering;
for assume yT-n=r(i—n) then y_ny=», and yrz^y”,
and y= (1—-ra) zyn ; if we now substitute the values
of y and y in the equation, it becomes
y” —n) P « y” x—Qynx ;
let the terms of this equation be divided by y", then,
including the factor (1—.») in the indeterminate func¬
tion P, the result is
z-f-P^Ar=:QA:,
an equation of the very same form as that which has
been considered in last
184. The most general form that can be given to a
fluxional equation of the first order, and consisting of
three terms only, is
yu 2;* b -J- £ ug z1 u — a u %■? u ;
to give this equation a more simple form, let all Its
terms be divided by yu , it then becomes
k—f * . ^ g—i h—f * & e—i •
5 Jz -J—ra6 z J u—-u «.
Suppose now
zk~~f z — -—^
 , j/-7' «-= 
then = y, ra8 <^'I=rAf,
5 E 2
and
772
Inverse
Method,
h-f
y (5—*+Oy
__ Ot—g_i+7 ^;
(#—'-f-Oy
FLUXIONS. Part II.
visor, which was common to them all, having disap- inverse
I^et us in order to abridge put
(£—t/H*1)/* /
’ U-*'+Oy“
e—g 
{g—i+^y
^-/+i
g-—i+r
then the eqviation becomes
peared. In such cases, however, if we can by any
means discover that factor, by restoring it we shall im- ’
mediately have a complete fluxion, the fluent of which,
with the addition of a constant quantity, when put =o,
will be the primitive equation.
For example, if the equation be ary—ya;=o, here
xy—yx cannot be immediately produced by taking the
fluxion of a function of x and y ; but, if we divide the
x y y x
equation by so as to give it this form —  =c,
we obtain the expression ■■-a— which is a complete
Method.
yJrhynx~axmx.
If we suppose n—iy the resulting equation y ^y a*
—a xm x may have its variable quantities separated by
the method explained in § 183 j but if we go only one
step farther, and suppose «=2, so that the equation
is
yJrbykx—axm *,
the difficulty of separating the variable quantities gene¬
rally is so great as to have hitherto baffled the utmost
efforts of the most expert analysts. This equation is
commonly called Riccati’s equation, on account of its
having been first treated of by an Italian mathematician
of that name, who succeeded in separating the variable
quantities in some particular cases, namely, when m is
equal to 4-—, where p denotes any whole positive
number.
185. If the separating of the variable quantities ge¬
nerally be a problem of insurmountable difficulty when
the equation consists of only three terms, its solution
can much less be expected, when the equation consists
of four, or any greater number. There are, however,
particular cases in which some of the most skilful ana¬
lysts have, by employing happy and peculiar artifices,
succeeded in resolving the problem, but the methods of
proceeding are, generally speaking, not reducible to
any determinate rules.
186. When the expression which constitutes a flux-
ional equation is such as would be produced by taking
the fluxion of some function of x and y, in which case
it may be said to be a complete fluxion, then, without
attempting to separate the variable quantities, we have
only to add a constant quantity to that function, and
the result put =0, will evidently be the primitive equa¬
tion required.
If, for example, the equation be wy+y tfrro, it is
obvious that the expression xy-\-yx is immediately pro¬
duced by taking the fluxion of the function xy (y being
also considered as a function of x), therefore the primi¬
tive equation is xy-{-c=zO.
From the view which has been given in § 174. of the
origin of fluxional equations it appears, that in passing
from a primitive equation to its fluxional equation, the
terms of the latter in many cases will not constitute a
complete fluxion, by reason of some multiplier^ or di«
3
V p V
fluxion, viz. that of the fraction-, therefore —+ c=c,
’ xx
ory-f-ca?=0, is the primitive equation.
In like manner, the equation mxy^ny x~o, which
does not in its present form express a complete fluxion,
yet becomes so when multiplied by «’*“* ym-1, for then
it is
m x* ym~% y -\-n xn'r't ym x—o,
from which it appears that the primitive equation in
this case must be xn ym -^czzo.
187. That we may be able to discover whether the
terms of any proposed fluxional equation constitute a
complete fluxion, and also from what expression such a
fluxion has been derived, we must attend to the process,
by which we find the fluxion of an expression composed
of two variable quantities, one of which is a function of
the other.
To avoid very general reasoning, we shall take for
granted what is evidently possible, that any function of
x and y may be generally expressed by a formula oi
this nature,
A xm yn=B y*+C xr y'-f- &c.
where A, B, C, &c. denote constant quantities, and
the exponents m, n, &c. given numbers, the number of
terms being supposed either finite or infinite. Now
the fluxion of the whole expression is the sum of the
fluxion of its terms, but in taking the fluxion of each
term, beginning with the first A xm yn, the fluxion of
which is
m Axm~t ynx-\-n A.xm y"-^,
it is evident that the result is composed of two parts,
one of which is the expression we would find for its
fluxion, if x only were considered as variable, and y as
constant, and the other is the expression for its fluxion,
if y only were considered as variable and x as constant j
hence it follows, that the sum of the fluxions of all the
terms will have the very same property j so that, if u
be put for the whole expression, we shall in every case
have
«=:MA;-j«Ny,
where M x denotes the result that will be found if the
fluxion of u be taken upon the hypothesis that x alone
*9
Pa:
In
III
Part II.
FLUX
Inrerse Is variable, and Ny is the fluxion of e/, supposing y alone
Method. t0 be variable> ^
188. Resuming the consideration of the general ex¬
pression
Axm y" +B Xp 7f -f CVy'-f &c.
let the fluxion of any one of its terms, for example,
Axm yn, be taken, supposing x alone variable, and the
result is mAxm~tynx. Again, let the fluxion of this
result be taken, supposing y alone variable, and we find
it to be tn n AKm~x yn~lxy. Now, if we first take
the fluxion of Axm y’\ supposing y variable, we get
n Axmyn~xy, and then, the fluxion of this result, con¬
sidering x alone as variable, we get mnAxm~tyn~tx yt
which is the very same expression as was found by pro¬
ceeding in a contrary order j and as the same must hold
true of all the terms, we may conclude, that if the fluxion
of u any function of at and y be taken, considering^ only
as variable, and then the fluxion of that result, consider¬
ing y only as variable, the very same final result will be
obtained as if we were first to take the fluxion of u sup¬
posing y variable, and then the fluxion of that result,
supposing x variable j but the fluxion of u being ex¬
pressed thus, Mar-f-Ny, it has been shewn that Ma? is
the fluxion of «, if x only be supposed variable and Ny
is its fluxion, if y only be variable, therefore, if we take
the fluxion of Ma; upon the supposition that y only is
variable, also the fluxion of Ny upon the supposition
that x only is variable, the results must be identical.
This property affords the following rule, by which we
may always determine whether any proposed expression
constitutes an exact fluxion or not. Let the expression
he put under this form, M x-j-Ny , let M'y be the flux¬
ion of M, supposing y alone variable, and N'x the flux¬
ion ofN, supposing x alone variable, then, if M/ and
N' are identical, Mx + Ny is a complete fluxion; and
if they are not, Mx-f-Ny is not a complete fluxion.
189. It is easy to see, how, from a complete fluxion
«=rMa;-{-Ny we may determine u its fluent j for as
M x has been deduced from u by considering x as va¬
riable, and y as constant, on which account all the terms
of u that involved y only must have vanished, it follows
on the contrary, that if we put Y to denote those terms,
we shall have
«=y^Mar-fY,
the fluent of Mar being taken, regarding x only as va¬
riable. The function Y may be determined, by com¬
paring the fluxion of the expression thus obtained with
the given fluxion Mar-j-Ny.
owJ- 2xx-\-yx-i-xy
Ex. 1. Let the fluxion be
expression when reduced to the form t/isMar-f-Ny is
* — , (fl-f.r)y
u~ 2V(.ay+*‘+xy)+ 2v'(oy+*'+*x)
IONS.
hence M ~
2*4-y
r, N=.
o+ar
773
 Inverse
2 v/(ay+•*“* +*y)’ 2v/C«y-j-«*-f-Xy)’ t Method. ^
the fluxion of M, supposing y only variable, gives us
MrrMVzr (cy2a ^0.7
4(«y+*2+*30i’
and in like manner the fluxion of N, supposing x only
variable, gives
N=N^= Qy-Ky—
4(«y-j-ara+.ry) * ’
hence it appears that M'zzrN', and therefore that the
proposed expression is an exact fluxion. To determine
its fluent, the formula uzz J'Mx-^-Y gives us
u= \f Oy+*a+*30 + Y;
the fluxion of this expression taken, upon the supposi¬
tion that both x and y are variable, is
u—
ay 2x x -\-y x -\-x y
(oy+*2+*y)
+Yj
this result, compared with the original fluxion, shews
that Y==o, and Yire, a constant quantity.
Lx. 2. Suppose the fluxion to be
AT ^/0*-fy*)-fy
(ai-t-xy-}-2yi)
Here M=v/ (a*+y*), N= , and by
proceeding as in last example, we shall find M'rrN'sr
■ ■  rv» hence it follows that the expression is a
complete fluxion, and the formula u =/M x-f-Y shews
that J'x y/ (a*-j-y*)-J-Y
f (o*+y*) + Y.
To determine Y, we take the fluxion of this ex¬
pression, supposing x and y both variable, and find it
to be
u—xf (a*+y*) -f-
*yy
+ Y,
V C“*+y2)
and this compared with the original fluxion
.l.ews lhat Y= > he"ee
Ja'+lff . ((J,+
therefore the fluent required is
774
Invei’s-e
Method.
FLUX
«=.r v/(a9+?8)+C
—(x'Vy) V
where C denotes a constant quantity.
190. It may be demonstrated, that as often as a
iluxional equation does not constitute a complete fluxion,
there is always an infinite-number of factors, such, that
if the equation were multiplied by any one of them,
the result would be a complete fluxion. A general
method of determining some one of these factors, how¬
ever, seems to be a problem of such difficulty, that its
solution, except in some particular cases, is not to be
expected.
IONS,
-4-z=p, we find
x
V'C1 -j-p3)—c />=!*»
Part II, fa
Inverse I"
Method.
y=:bpj(i Jrp*)—\ap«—b fp y/(i -fpl)
the fluent oip may be found by the formulas
given in § 130, and \ 131.
191. When a fluxional equation involves the second
or higher powers of x and y, as in this example,
y2.—o* x2—0.
which may be put under this form,
193. When we cannot by any means find an ex¬
pression for the relation between x andy in finite terms,
then we must, as a last resource, have recourse to ap¬
proximation, that is, we must express the value of y in
terms of x by means of a series.
When the form of the series is known, we may de¬
termine the coefficients of its terms, by substituting the
series and its fluxion instead of y and y in the proposed
equation.
Suppose, for example, that the equation is
X-a-o,
we may, by the theory of algebraic equations, deduce
from it the values of -L, considering this quantity as a
x
root of the equation *, thus, in the. present example, by
y-\-yx—m xnxzzo,
we may assume
y=A x* + B x*+l + C + &c.
. t* 1
resolving the quadratic equation K- —a2—o, we have
a?2
then y—kx* B x*x
"f" C*^I* + &c.
~*~n) so that y—and y-|-a#—0, hence
Substituting now the values of y and y in the equa¬
tion, and dividing the whole by a?, it becomes
y—fl«-|-c=o, y-ftftf + c1
./—,
are two primitive equations, from either of which the
fluxional equation y*--o2*2=o may be derived, and
it may also be deduced from their product
(y—a* + <0 (y+otf+cOzro.
* A**-1 + 0+0 B 1 ** + 0*+2) C1
-mxn+ AJ + B3 X
+ C-+3)^+&c.=o.
192. As often as the equation contains only one of
the two variable quantities, for example xt by the reso-
This equation becomes identical, if we assume
a—Ior «=«+!, and
V
lutiou of the equation we may obtain --=X (where X
x
denotes some function of #)» and hence y^=-f X x> but
if it be more easy to resolve the equation with respect to
x than to which we shall denote by p, then, instead
-m
m
, m p_ —^ c  
^ ot* «0+1)’ ®C*+1)0+^-)*
D=
-m
*0+0 0 + 2) Ca+3)
Hence we have
, &c.
of seeking the values of p from the equation, we may
find that of x, thus we shall have A?=rP, some function
of p, and hence a; = P, and since y=y .1?, therefore,
y=p P, and y=J^pV^Vp—J'~Pp. The relation
between x and y is now to be found by eliminating p
by means of the two equations
O+i)
,n+3
0+2)
O+0(»+2)(«+3)
*=rP, y—¥p—fv p.
As a particular example, let us suppose the equation
to be xx + o y~b ^/0*+y*), from which, by putting
In order that a primitive equation may be general, it
ought to contain an indeterminate constant quantity
more than is found in the fluxional equation, therefore,
this series which contains no such quantity, must be
considered as incomplete, or as exhibiting the value of
y, upon the supposition, that, when wrro, then yrro.
However, we may obtain a value of y that shall be ge¬
neral,
FLUXIONS.
Fart II.
nera,» by proceeding as follows. Let us suppose we
kno7 tbat when x==a, then ; assume x=a+t, and
y—b + u, then it is manifest, that if the value of w be
.boy denotes a s-“d i”dete™i"-——■
of x and y the equation
y=:xJfCX’Y c'
775
Inverse
Method.
y-\-yx—mx^x—o
becomes
u+(J’+u)t—m(a+t)tn—o.
Assume now
K=Ar+ Btae'|-r4.C^'l-2+ &c.
then, proceeding as before, we find
«Af* I + (*+i)B^+(«+2)Ct*+r+&c. 1
+5
+
Af“+
B,
w a—m
n n—i. n(n—\') n 2 » o I
—a t—m -a i8——&c. j
^=0.
I . 2
J
It is necessary, in this equation, to assume *—-i=o,
or tt~i, and hence we find
A=m an —b, B=
C-
&c.
m n (n—i)gn—2—mnan—x+man—b
2^3 ’
Asy P A;rrP x—JVx—xf X.%—f Xxx,
we have also
y—xj'x x—J*Xxx-\-c x-\-c'.
Suppose, for example, that the equation is y axx'zzc,
so that ~-—ax} here Xrza#, and therefore
V-vf 8^^—J'2 A?* X-\-C x-^c'
~\a x3—fa a;3-J-c ,r-j-c/
x3-\~c x-\-cJ.
In the very same manner we may deduce from the
equation of the third order
y—Xx3-o, or, -L=X
a-3
its primitive equation $ thus we have
i=x*>I=/x*=p+‘.
If we now substitute a?—-a, and y-—b for t and u re*
spectively, the result will have all the generality that
belongs to a primitive equation, expressing the relation
between r and y.
Of Fluxional Equations of the second or higher orders.
194. Whatever difficulties occur in finding the pri¬
mitive equation of a fluxional equation of the first or¬
der, it will easily be conceived, that these difficulties
must be greater and more numerous when we have to
consider fluxional equations of the second and higher
orders.
One of the most simple cases of an equation of the
second order is this,
y —X ^*=0, or =X,
x*
where X denotes a function of x, the variable quantity
whose fluxion is supposed to be constant $ in this case,
because -L =X x, we have =J'X x. Let P denote
x x
that function of which X# is the fluxion, and c, as usual,
an indeterminate constant quantity, then 4- = P4-Cj
x
and ynPtf+cff, and taking the fluents a second time
where P denotes such a function of x, that its fluxion
is X x, and c represents a constant quantity. Again
~ = P X-\-CXy
X
ri? x-\-cx-\-d;
here Q is put forand c' for a second constant
quantity. In like manner we have
• • • •
y—Q x -\-c x x-\-d xt
and yzx. J'Qx-^-^c x'^c'x-^-c1';
and as P and Q are functions of xt the fluents of P#
and Q# may be found by the methods formerly ex¬
plained.
195. Let us next consider such equations as involve
V V
only -v-j and constant quantities. In order to abridge
x x
V •
let us put =rp, then such an equation may be gene-
x
rally expressed thus -L=rP, where P denotes some
known
77g FLUXIONS. Part II.
jSl known function of f ; now no 4-=p, by taking the 2/V y+c, hence J)= 4-= -J (c^Jy y) and
fluxions, and observing that a? is constant, we have  p y
JL=JLt hence ^-=P, and and let
xx x P r
*=r—
+2/Yy)
7-+C',
where c and d denote twe constant quantities,
the value of x be substituted instead of it in the equa- To take a particular example, let us suppose the equa-
tlon y =p and It becomca j = and hence tion to he y-y*'=„>, or 4=u+y, here y=e+y.
y=f£f i thus It appears that If we can find the ^ S/Y^=2ny+y*, hmce (and b, § 127O,
 1 j
fluentsy^-and^^-, we shall have the primitive \/(c+2°3'+y ).
equation when we eliminate jp by means of these two
equations
3'=c'+ M
= 1. la+y+VO+^+y*)}+t'*
• * y y
107. When the equation contains -4-, -r- and x, it
y 1 xx*
, . , . may be transformed to a fluxional equation of the first
where c and d denote the two indeterminate constant i , . . . • , • • . . i *
quantities that ought to enter into the primitive equa- order, by substituting in it px and p *, instead ot y
and y; if we can find the primitive of that fluxional
equation, and thence the value of p in terms of x, we
shall have the value of y from the formula y=f y *, or
if we have the value of a? in terms of then, because
f P *=P x—fxp> we shall have
y=p x—fx p.
tion.
Suppose for example that the equation is
• ’ ’  ^ J
—* y
which, by putting p for ~, and for ~ becomes
X XX*
transformed to
hence we have
—ap
xzz
(i+P2)-®
• —app
y-p*- (I+/,.H
Suppose the equation to be
(»■+/)or_H±£.5ii=x,
—xy ’ P
where X denotes any function of xf then,
—P
JL= -P a„d /'*=-
X (i+p1H J x '
X—C 
ap
v/(i+rt ’ +!>■)’
when by means of these equations we eliminate wre
obtain (a?—c)*+(y—c0*=o*.
The fluxional equation is evidently formed by put¬
ting the general expression for the radius of curvature
(given in § 97.) equal to a constant quantity, and the eqUat;on evidently expresses the nature of a
primitive equation is accordingly an equation to a circle , v, , ?
having that constant quantity for its radius, as it ought curve gud^ that -——, its radius of curvature
Th-/h’ x-v(i+/y
rx . . v
Let us representy-^ by V, then^_ ^ ^ y»y
*=/
to be.
—(r y
. , .. _ fS q7.'), is equal to X a function of x one of its co-or-
196. Suppose now that the equation has this form dinates.
4=y,
198. If the proposed fluxional equation of the second
order contains 4-, -r- and y, to transform it we must
where Y denotes a function of y, then putting as belore x x*
—■—p, we have 4- —4- == ^4-—, hence the equation exterminate x by means of its value — deduced itom
a? x* x y . . .
4-=:Y becomes 4£. — Y, and jjjp = Yy, and p*
*' y
the equation y=p x, thus we shall have
IPart II.
FLUX
Invaf*e
Uelhad.
V = P = P P
x* x y
and the result will be an equation of the first order con¬
taining only/?,/7 and y ; when its primitive equation
can be found, and thence the value of in terms of y,
we may find x by the formula x-=. and by the
formula x— — when y is expressed by
of p.
a
a* A*v,+4
11 rViAi -L*- **
(n-f 2) + («+2) (2« + 3) (2«+4)
     , &c>
"(«+i)(/»+2)(2«+3)(2«+4)(.3«+5)(3;?+6)
Yol. VIII. Part II. t
IONS.
and the other
. aA^v"+,
Ax-
777
+
a*Axta+!
means
199. As an example of the manner in which fluxion-
al equations of the second order are to be resolved by
approximation, we shall take the particular equation
y a xnyxt=zo.
If the value ofy which satisfies the equation be sup¬
posed to have this form
A ** + -f &c.
and that the series of exponents goes on increasing, or
that } is positive, we may, by supposing a? to be a very
small quantity, conceive that the expression for y is re¬
duced to its first term, because in that case each of the
following terms will be inconsiderable in respect of that
term. According to this hypothesis we shall have
y=A a:*, y =CC 0—1) A xa~'i x\
and thus the proposed equation becomes
*0—I) A a?*-"2 + a A x^^—o.
It will not be possible to give to cc such a value that
the two exponents a,—2 and ec-\-n shall become equal,
except in the particular case of —2 j but if we sup¬
pose x very small, the equation may be satisfied in two
ways, namely, by taking «=:0, and ec— I, because upon
either supposition the term x («t—1) A a:* 3, which is
the greatest, vanishes, and therefore A is left indeter¬
minate thus we have two series, one beginning with
A, and the other with A X.
Assuming therefore successively
y—A -{- Bat^-}-Ca?2* &,c.
y=A a;-J-B a?i+*+ C*I+aS + &c.
and substituting these values as well as their correspond¬
ing values of y in the proposed equation, we shall find
by arranging the terms, that 5 ought to be =2; after¬
wards by determining the coefficients A, B, C, &e. in
the usual manner (Algebra, § 261.) we obtain two
series, one of these is
Inverse
Method.
(n+2)(»+3)'r («+2)(«+3X2n+4)(2n-f5)
 q3 A a;3"**
(«+2X«+3X2«+4)(2«+5X3 «+6)(3 M+7)
As a primitive equation in its general form ought to
contain two constant quantities which do not appear in
the fluxional equation of the second order derived from
it (§ 177.X the value of y to be complete ought to con¬
tain two arbitrary constant quantities, but as each of
these series contains only one such quantity, namely A,
it must be considered as expressing only a particular-
value ofy. The fluxional equation y+fl A?" y A;*=ro is
however of such a nature that from two particular va¬
lues of y we may deduce its general value ; for let us
denote these values by 2 and Z, then, as each of them
must satisfy the fluxional equation, we have
2J -j-a a?" % A?*=ro, Z-J-aar Za;*=o>
let c and C denote two arbitrary constant quantities,
then we have also
c z-\-c a xn z x*~o} CZ-f CflA?”Z*,=ro,
and as each of these equations is identical, their sum
must also be identical, that is
ciZ-j-CZ-fa A?"(c55-|-CZ)«*=ro j
but the very same result will be obtained if we substi¬
tute c 25-|-CZ instead of y in the proposed fluxional
equation, therefore cz-f-CZ is also a value of y, and as
it involves two arbitrary constant quantities, c and €,
it possesses all the generality of which the value of y
is susceptible. Hence it follows that if c be put in¬
stead of A in one of the two series which we have found
for the value of y, and C instead of A in the other se¬
ries, the sum of the two results will be a general ex¬
pression for the value of y.
200. Having now explained the theory of fluxional
equations at as great length as we conceive to be com¬
patible with the nature of this work, we shall conclude
this treatise by resolving a few problems which produce
fluxional equations.
Pi'ob. I. Having given any hyperbolic, or, as it may
more properly be called, Napiereun logarithm, it is re¬
quired to find a general expression for its corresponding
natural number.
Let the number be denoted by I-{-a;, and its lo¬
garithm by y, then y= ^- (§ 57.), or
V -f*y—*=c,
and the problem requires that from this equation we
deduce an expression for x.
As when y=o, then x=o, we may assume
A?=Ay + By*-f-Cy3+ &c.
then A;=:Ay=2Byy-f3Cy*y-f-8cc.
and our equation becomes
y+Ayy
Tig. 38.
y-f-+ + 7 =0.
—Ay—2Byy—3Cy2y—4Dy3y—&c. $
Hence, by comparing the coefficients of the like terms,
it appears that A=i, 2B=A, 3C=B, 4D=CK&c. so
that A=<, B=i, C= ^ D=—. &c.
FLUXIONS. Part II.
equation p .rm=:yn, where a? denotes the abscissa AB, Inverse
2.3-4
therefore .r=y-J- “ 'i-^CC* ant^
i+«=i4-y+
2*3
3
4-1- 4-
+ 2.3 +
2.3.4
.V4
&c.
and y the ordinate PB, and p an indeterminate quan
tity which is the same for the whole of any one of the
parabolas, but different for different parabolas j it is re¬
quired to find the nature of a curve that shall intersect
them all in a given angle.
Let the curve whose nature is required meet any one
of the parabolas in P, let PT, P t tangents to the two
curves meet the axis in T and t; then, from the nature
of the problem, the lines PT, P t must contain a given
angle, let a denote its numerical tangent.
Because PT touches the parabola, the tangent of the
Direct
2 ' 2.3 ' 2.3.4 '
Frob. 2. Let AB, AC, be two straight lines given
by position meeting each other at right angles in A,
let C be a given point in AC one ol the lines, and let
a straight line PQ meet them in P and Q, and cut off
from them equal segments AP, CQ adjacent to the
given points A, C, it is required to find the nature of 0f ^ two eqUations, we find 1- = ^1-’ therefore tan.
the curve to which PQ is a tangent. x nx
Let D be the point in which the tangent PQ meets
the curve, draw HE perpendicular to AC, and HI' to
AP, put CA=o, CE=.r, EH=y, then AE or HE
angle PTB will be equal to (§ 75.) the value of
x
this expression being supposed deduced from the equa¬
tion pxm—ijn} but taking the fluxion of this equation,
and eliminating the indeterminate quantity p by means
1% 50.
T= my.
Again, by considering x and y as the abscissa and
ordinate of the curve whose equation is sought, and to
which P £ is a tangent, we have the tangent of the
y
—a—*, and since EQ“^r ($ 73’) an(^ : *'
y
DF i FP, therefore FP= ; bence PA = angle ( eV.al to|-(§ 75-)- Now the angle TP< b.-
ing the difference of the two angles PTB, P B, it
follows from the formula for finding the tangent of the
difference of two angles, (Algebra, § 368.) that
(PF+FA=) ^ .x)'y- +y, and CQ= (CE—EQ—)
x
#___ Zf., and as by hypothesis AP=CQ, therefore
y
y
my_
n x
y*_%
y
This expression belongs to a class of fluxional equations
which have the singular property of being more easily
resolved by first taking their fluxion, considering the
fluxion of one of the variable quantities as constant j
thus, in the present case, making x constant, we find
(a—#)y
xy'—yxy
x
(«—_yxy.
or ; —
* y
hence dividing by y, the equation is easily reduced to
y   x
Jy
and taking the fluents
v'y=c—-/(c—.v)
but when ^=0, then y=o, therefore and
y'yrr »/a— \/{a—at), or x-zzlsjay—y,
which equation belongs to the common parabola.
Frob. 3. Let APQ be one of any number of curves
of the parabolic kind, having the same vertex A, and
axis AE, and the nature of which is defined by the
my y *
71 X X
hence we have
9 • • ®
a(nxx+myy')-\‘niyx-—nxyz=.o,
a fluxional equation expressing the nature of the curve,
which being homogeneous may be treated according to
the method explained in § 180.
If the curves be supposed to cut each other at right
angles, then, a being infinite, the part of the equation
which is not multiplied by a vanishes in respect of th«
other, which is multiplied by it j hence we have
7ixx-\-myy—o.
and taking the fluents
n x~ -J- m yx~c,
where c is put for a constant quantity. This equation
shews that the curve is an ellipse, the centre of which i#
at A the common vertex of all the parabolas.
The problem which we have here resolved is only a
particular case of one more general, and which has for
its object Tq determine the nature of the curve which
intersects all other cui ves of a given kind in a givett
angle. The problem thus generalised is known by th*
name of the Problem of Trajectories ; it was originally
proposed by Leibnit% as a challenge to the English
mathematicians, and resolved by Newtont on the day he
received it. See Fluents, Supplement.
FLY,
/
4
f
I
fir-
i-n
PltL
foil'
F L Y [ 779 ] FLY
Fly FLY, in Zoology, a large order of insects, the dt-
(J stinguishing characteristic of which is that their wings
B'iy-uee. are transparent. By this they are distinguished from
“ ^ ' beetles, butterflies, grashoppers, &c. Flies are subdi¬
vided into those which have four, and those which have
two wings. Of those with four wings there are several
genera or kinds ; as the ant, the bee, the ichneumon,
&c. Of those with two wings, there are likewise se¬
veral kinds, as the gad-fly, gnat, house-fly, &c. For
their classification and natural history, see Entomo¬
logy.
House Fly. See Muse a.
Pestilential Fly. See Abyssinia.
Fly, in mechanics, a cross with leaden weights at
its ends j or rather, a heavy wheel at right angles to
the axis of a windlass, jack, or the like $ by means of
which, the force of the power, whatever it is, is not
only preserved, but equally distributed in all parts of
the revolution of the machine. See Mechanics,
Flies for Fishing. See Fishing Fly.
Vegetable Fly, a curious natural production chiefly
found in the West Indies. “ Excepting that it has no
wings, it resembles the drone both in size and colour
more than any other British insect. In the month of
May it buries itself in the earth, and begins to vegetate.
By the latter end of July, the tree is arrived at its full
growth, and resembles a coral branch ; and is about
three inches high, and bears several little pods, which
dropping off become worms, and from thence flies, like
the British caterpillar.”
?hilTram. Such wTas the account originally given of this extra-
®r ordinary production. But several boxes of these flies
having been sent to Dr Hill for examination, his re¬
port was this : “ There is in Martinique a fungus of
the clavaria kind, different in species from diose hitherto
known. It produces soboles from its sides; I call it
therefore clavaria sobol/fera. It grows on putrid ani¬
mal bodies, as our fungus ex pede equino from the dead
horse’s hoof. The cicada is common in Martinique *,
and in its nympha state, in which the old authors call
it tettigometra, it buries itself under dead leaves to wait
its change •, and when the season is unfavourable, many
perish. The seeds of the clavaria find a proper bed on
this dead insect, and grow. The tettigometra is among
the cicadas in the British museum •, the clavaria is just
now known. This is the fact, and all the fact; though
the untaught inhabitants suppose a fly to vegetate, and
though there is a Spanish drawing of the plant’s growing
into a trifoliate tree, and it has been figured with the
creature flying with this tree upon its back.” See
Edwards’s Gleanings of Natural History.
Fly-Foot, or Flight, a large flat-bottomed Dutch
vessel, whose burden is generally from 600 to 1200
tons. It is distinguished by a very high stern, re¬
sembling a Gothic turret, and by very broad buttocks
below.
FLY-Catcher, in Zoology. See Muscicapa.
Venus^s FLY-Trap, a kind of sensitive plant. See
Dionma Muscipula, Botany Index.
Fl r-Tree, in Natural History, a name given by the
common people of America to a tree, whose leaves,
they say, at a certain time of the year produce^/cj.
On examining these leaves about the middle of sum¬
mer, the time at which the flies use to be produced,
there are found on them a sort of bags of a tough
matter, of about the size of a filbert, and of a dusky Fly-tree
greenish colour. On opening one of these bags with Flyers.
a knife, there is usually found a single full-grown fly, ' *—-
of the gnat kind, and a number of small worms, which
in a day or two more have wings, and fly away in the
form of their parent. The tree is of the mulberry
kind, and its leaves are usually very largely stocked
with these insect bags $ and the generality of them are
found to contain the insects in their worm state 5 when
they become winged, they soon make their way out.
The bags begin to appear when the leaves are young,
and afterwards grow with them ; but they never rumple
the leaf or injure its shape. They are of the kind of
leaf-galls, and partake in all respects, except size, of a
species we have frequent on the large maple, or, as it
is called, the sycamore.
FLYERS, in architecture, such stairs as go straight,
and do not wind round, or have the steps made tapering;
but the fore and back part of each stair and the ends
respectively parallel to one another : So that if one
flight do not carry you to your designed height, there
is a broad half space ; and then you fly again, with
steps everywhere of the same breath and length as
before.
Flyers, the performers in a celebrated exhibition
among the Mexicans, which was made on certain great
festivals, and is thus described by Clavigero in his Hi¬
story of that people. “ They sought in the woods for
an extremely lofty tree, which, after stripping it of its
branches and bark, they brought to the city, and fixed
in the centre of some large square. They cased the
point of the tree in a wooden cylinder, which, on ac¬
count of some resemblance in its shape, the Spaniards
called a mortar. From this cylinder hung four strong
ropes, which served to support a square frame. In the
space between the cylinder and the frame, they fixed
four other thick ropes, which they twisted as many
times round the tree as there were revolutions to be
made by the flyers. These ropes were drawn through
four holes, made in the middle of the four planks of
which the frame consisted. The four principal flyers,
disguised like eagles, herons, and other birds, mounted
the tree with great agility, by means of a rope which
was laced about it from the ground up to the frame ;
from the frame they mounted one at a time successively
upon the cylinder, and after having danced there a
little, they tied themselves round with the ends of the
ropes, which were drawn through the holes of the
frame, and launching with a spring from it, began their
flight with their wings expanded. The action of their
bodies put the frame and the cylinder in motion ; the
frame by its revolutions gradually untwisted the cords
by which the flyers swung; so that as the ropes length¬
ened, they made so much the greater circles in their
flight. Whilst these four were flying, a fifth danced
upon the cylinder, beating a little drum, or waving a
flag, without the smallest apprehension of the danger
he was in of being precipitated from such a height.
The others who were upon the frame (10 or 12 persons
generally mounted), as soon as they saw the flyers in
their last revolution, precipitated themselves by the
same ropes, in order to reach the ground at the same
time amidst the acclamations of the populace. Those
who precipitated themselves in this manner by the ropes,
that they might make a still greater display of their
5 F a agility,
FLY
[ ?8o ]
FLY
Fhen agilityt frequently passed from one rope to another, at
Flying, that part where, on account of the little distance be¬
tween them, it was possible for them to do so. The most
essential point of this performance consisted in propor¬
tioning so justly the height ot the tree with the length
of the ropes, that the flyers should reach the ground
with 13 revolutions, to represent by such number their
century of 32 years, composed in the manner we have
already mentioned. This celebrated diversion is still
in use in that kingdom*, hut no particular attention is
paid to the number of the revolutions of the flyers ; as
the frame is commonly hexagonal or octagonal, and the
flyers six or eight in number. In some places they put
a rail round the frame, to prevent accidents, which
were frequent after the conquest j as the Indians be¬
came much given to drinking, and used to mount the
tree when intoxicated with wine or brandy, and were
unable to keep their station on so great a height, which
was usually 60 feet.
FLYING, the progressive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, in the air.
The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying are the
wings and tail ; by the first, the bird sustains and wafts
himself along ; and by the second, he is assisted, in
ascending and descending, to keep his body poised and
upright, and to obviate the vacillations thereof.
It is by the size and strength of the pectoral
muscles, that birds are so well disposed for quick,
strong, and continued flying. These muscles, which
in men are scarcely a '70th part of the muscles of the
body, in birds exceed and outvyeigh all the other
muscles taken together j upon which IVIr YVhlloughby
makes this reflection, that if it be possible for a man to
fly, his wings must be so contrived and adapted, that he
may make use of his legs, and not his arms, in mana¬
ging them.
The tail, Messrs Willoughby, Ray, and many others,
imagine to be principally employed in steering and
turning the body in the air, as a rudder j but Borelli
has put it beyond all doubt, that this is the least use of
it, which is chiefly to assist the bird in its ascent and
descent in the air, and to obviate the vacillations of the
body and wings j for as to turning to this or that side,
it is performed by the wings and inclination of the
body, and hut very little by the help of the tail. The
flying of a bird, in effect, is quite a different thing from
the rowing of a vessel. Birds do not vibrate then
wings towards the tail, as oars are struck towards the
stem, but waft them downwards ; nor does the tail of
the bird cut the air at right angles as the rudder does
the water*, but is disposed horizontally, and preserves
the same situation what way soever the bird turns. In
effect, as a vessel is turned about on a centre of gravity
to the right, by a brisk application of the oars to the
left; so a bird, in beating the air with its right wing
alone towards the tail, will turn its forepart to the
left. Thus pigeons changing their course to the left,
would labour Tt with their right wing, keeping the
other almost at rest. Birds of a long neck alter their
course by the inclination of their head and neck j which
altering the course of gravity, the bird will proceed in
a new direction. ,
The manner of Flying is thus. The bird first bends
his legs, and springs with a violent leap from the
ground j then opens and expands the, joints of his
wings, so as to make a right line perpendicular to the Flying.
sides of his body : thus the wings, with all the feathers * y —
therein, constitute one continued lamina. Being now
raised a little above the horizon, and vibrating the
wings with great force and velocity perpendicularly
against the subject air, that fluid resists those succus-
sions, both from its natural inactivity and elasticity, by
means of which the whole body of the bird is protrud¬
ed. The resistance the air makes to the withdrawing
of the wings, and consequently the progress of the bird,
will he so much the greater, as the waft or stroke of
the fan of the wing is longer : but as the force of the
wing is continually diminished by this resistance, when
the two forces continue to he in equilibria, the bird will
remain suspended in the same place $ for the bird only
ascends so long as the arch of air the wing describes
makes a resistance equal to the excess of the specific
gravity of the bird above the air. If the air, therefore,
be so rare as to give way with the same velocity as it
is struck withal, there will be no resistance, and con¬
sequently the bird can never mount. Birds never fly
upwards in a perpendicular line, hut always in a para¬
bola. In a direct ascent, the natural and artificial ten¬
dency would oppose and destroy each other, so that the
progress would be very slow. In a direct ascent they
would aid one another, so that the fall would be too
precipitate.
Artificial Flying, that attempted by men, by the
assistance of mechanics.
The art of flying lias been attempted by several per¬
sons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of superstition,
are reported to have had a custom of precipitating a
man from a high cliff into the sea, first fixing feathers,
variously expanded, round his body, in order to break
the fall.
Friar Bacon, who lived near 500 years ago, not only
affirms the art of flying possible, but assures us that
he himself knew how to make an engine wherein a man
sitting might be able to convey himself through the
air like a bird j and further adds, that there was then
one who had tried it with success. I he seciet con¬
sisted in a couple of large thin hollow copper globes,
exhausted of air j which being much lighter than air,
would sustain a chair whereon a person might sit. Fa¬
ther Francisco Lana, in his Prodromo, proposes the
same thing as his own thoughts. He computes, that a
round vessel of plate brass, 14 feet in diameter, weigh¬
ing three ounces the square foot, will only weigh 1848
ounces 5 whereas a quantity of air of the same bulk will
wei^h 2155T ounces j so that the globe will not only
be sustained in the air, but will carry with it a weight
of 373|d ounces $ and by increasing the bulk of the
globe, without increasing the thickness of the metal^
he adds, a vessel might be made to carry a much great¬
er weight.—But the fallacy is obvious: a globe of the
dimensions he describes, Dr Hook shews, would not
sustain the pressure of the air, but be crushed inwards.
Besides, in whatever ratio the bulk of the globe were
increased, in the same must the thickness of the metal,
and consequently the weight be increased : so that there
would be no advantage in such augmentation. See
Aerostation.
The same author describes an engine for flying, inr
vented by the Sieur Besnier, a smith of Sable, in the
county of Maine. Vid* Phihsoph. Collect*
‘ The
Jlying
B
F«etus.
FOE [ ^81
The philosophers of King Charles the second’s reign
were mightily busied about this art. The famous
( Bishop Wilkins was so confident of success in it, that
he says, he does not question but in future ages it will
be as usual to hear a man call for his wings, when he is
going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots.
Flying Bridge. See Bridge.
Flying Fish, a name given to several species of fish,
which, by means of long fins, can keep themselves out
of the water for some time. See Exocoetus, Ichthy¬
ology Index.
Flying Pinion, is part of a clock, having a fly or fan
whereby to gather air, and so bridle the rapidity of the
clock’s motion, when the weight descends in the
striking part.
FO, or Foe *, an idol of the Chinese. He was ori¬
ginally worshipped in the Indies, and transported from
thence into China, together with the fables with which
the Indian books were filled. He is said to have per¬
formed most wonderful things, which the Chinese have
described in several volumes, and represented by cuts.
Sect of Fo. See China, N° 104.
Fo-Kien. See Fokien.
FOAL, or Colt and Filly; the young of the horse
kind. The word colt, among dealers, is understood of
the male, ^ filly is of the female. See Colt.
FOCUS, in Geometry and Conic Sections, is applied
to certain points in the parabola, ellipsis, and hyper¬
bola, where the rays reflected from all parts of these
curves concur and meet. See Conic Sections.
Focus, in Optics, a point in which any number of
rays, after being reflected or refracted, meet.
FODDER, any kind of meat for horses or other cattle.
In some places, hay and straw, mingled together, is pe¬
culiarly denominated fodder.
Fodder, in the civil law, is used for a prerogative
that the prince has, to be provided with corn and other
meals for his horses, by the subjects, in his warlike ex¬
peditions.
Fodder, among miners,, a measure containing 22
hundred and a half weight y in London the fodder is
only 20 hundred weight.
FODDERING a ship. See Fothering.
FOENUGREEK. See Trigonella, Botany
Index.
FOENUS nauticum. Where money was lent to
a merchant to be employed in a beneficial trade, with
condition to be repaid with extraordinary, interest,
in case such voyage was safely performed, the agree¬
ment was sometimes called fiznus nauticinn, sometimes
usura maritime. But as this gave an opening for usuri¬
ous and gaming contracts, 19; Geo. II. c. 37. enacts,
that all money lent on bottomry, or at respondentia, on
vessels bound to or from the East Indies, shall be ex¬
pressly lent upon the ship or merchandise ; the lender
to have the benefit of salvage, &c. Blackst. Com. ii.
459. Mol. de lour. Mar. 361.
FOETOR, in Medicine, fetid effluvia arising from
the body or any part thereof.
FOETUS, the young of all viviparous animals
whilst in the womb, and of oviparous animals before
being hatched : the name is transferred by botanists to
the embryos of vegetables.
Strictly, the name is applied to the young after it
]
FOG
is perfectly formed ; previous to which it is usually
called Embryo. See Anatomy Index.
In the human foetus are several peculiarities not to
be found in the adult 5 some of them are as follow’.
1. The arteries of the navel string, which are continu¬
ations of the hypogastrics, are, after the birth, shri¬
velled up, and form the ligamenta umbilic. infer.
2. The veins of the navel string are formed by the
union of all the venous branches in the placenta, and
passing into the abdomen become the falciform ligament
of the liver. 3. The lungs, before being inflated with
air, are compact and heavy, but after one inspiration
they become light, and as it were spongy j and it may
be noted here, that the notion of the lungs sinking in
water before the child breathes, and of their swimming
after the reception of air, are no certain proofs that the
child bad or had not breathed, much less that it was
murdered : for the uninflated lungs become specifically
lighter than water as soon as any degree of putrefaction
takes place in them ; and this soon happens after the
death of the child ; besides, where the utmost care hath
been taken to preserve the child, it hath breathed once
or twice and then died. 4. The thymus gland is very
large in the foetus, but dwindles away in proportion as
years advance. 5. The foramen ovale in the heart of,
a foetus, is generally closed in an adult.
FOG, or Mist, a meteor, consisting of gross vapours,
floating near the surface of the earth.
Mists, according to Lord Bacon, are imperfect con¬
densations of the air, consisting of a large proportion
of the air, and a small one of the aqueous vapour $ and
these happen in the winter, about the change of the
weather from frost to thaw, or from thaw to frost; but
in the summer, and in the spring, from the expansion
of the dew.
If the vapours which are raised plentifully from the
earth and waters, either by the solar or subterraneous
heat, do at their first entrance into, the atmosphere
meet with cold enough to condense them to a consider¬
able degree, their specific gravity is by that means
increased, and so they will be stopped from ascending ;
and either return back in form of dew or of drizzling
rain, or remain suspended some time in the form of a
fog. Vapours may be seen on the high grounds as
well as the low, but more especially about marshy
places. . They are easily dissipated by the wind, as
also by the heat of the sun. They continue longest
in the lowest grounds, because these places contain
most moisture, and are least exposed to the action of
the wind.
Hence we may easily conceive, that fogs are only
low clouds, or clouds in the lowest region of the air ;
as clouds are no other than fogs raised on high. See
Cloud.
When fogs stink, then the vapours are mixed with 1
sulphureous exhalations, which smell so. Objects view¬
ed through fogs appear larger and more remote than
through the common air. Mr Boyle observes, that
upon the coast of Coromandel, and most maritime parts
of the East Indies, there are, notwithstanding the heat
of the climate, annual fogs so thick, as to-occasion peo¬
ple, of other nations who reside there, and even the more
tender sort of the natives, to keep their houses close shut up.
Fpga are commonly strongly electrified, as appears
from i
F O K
F()ff from Mr Cavallo’s observations upon them. See Elec-
TRICITY.
Fukien. FOGAGE, in the forest law, is rank grass not eaten
' 1 up in summer.
EOGO, or Fuego. See Fuego.
FOHI. See Fe ; and China, N° 7.
FOIBLE, a French term, frequently used also in
our language. It literally signifies weak; and in that
sense is applied to the body of animals and the parts
thereof, as foible re\ns, foible sight, &c. being derived
from the Italian fievole, of the Latin flebilis, to be “ la¬
mented, pitied.”
But it is chiefly used with ns substantively, to denote
* defect or flaw in a person or thing. Thus we say,
Every person has his foible ; and the great secret con¬
sists in hiding it artfully : Princes are gained by flatte¬
ry, that is their foible. The foible of young people is
pleasure 5 the foible of old men is avarice j the foible of
the great and learned is vanity ; the foible of women
and girls, coquetry, or an affectation of having gallants:
You should know the forte and the foible of a man be¬
fore you employ him : We should not let people per¬
ceive that we know their foible.
FOIL, in fencing denotes a blunt sword, or one that
has a button at the end covered with leather, used in
learning the art of fencing.
Foil, among glass-grinders, a sheet of tin, with
quicksilver, or the like, laid on the backside of a look¬
ing glass, to make it reflect. See Foliating.
Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed
under a precious stone, in order to make it look trans¬
parent, and give it an agreeable different colour, either
deep or pale: thus, if you want a stone to be of a pale
colour, put a foil of that colour under it •, or if you
would have it deep, lay a dark one under it.
These foils are made either of copper, gold, or gold
and silver together. The copper foils are commonly
known by the name of Nuremberg or German foils;
and are prepared as follows : Procure the thinnest cop¬
per plates you can get *, beat these plates gently upon
a well-polished anvil, with a polished hammer, as thin
as possible j and placing them between two iron plates
as thin as writing paper, heat them in the fire $ then
boil the foil in a pipkin, with equal quantities of tartar
and salt, constantly stirring them till by boiling they
become white 5 after which, taking them out and dry¬
ing them, give them another hammering, till they are
made fit for your purpose : however, care must be taken
not to give the foils too much heat, for fear of melting $
nor must they be too long boiled, for fear of attracting
too much salt.
The manner of polishing these foils is as follows :
Take a plate of the best copper, one foot long and about
five or six inches wide, polished to the greatest perfec¬
tion j bend this to a long convex, fasten it upon a half
roll, and fix it to a bench or table $ then take some chalk
washed as clean as possible, and filtered through a fine
linen cloth, till it be as fine as you can make it ; and
having laid some thereof on the roll, and wetted the
copper all over, lay your foils on it, and with a polish¬
ing stone and the chalk polish your foils till they are as
bright as a looking-glass; after which they must be
dried, and laid up secure from dust.
FOKIEN, a province of China in Asia, commodi-
ously situated for navigation and commerce, part of it
2
F O L
bordering on the sea, in which they catch large quan- Fokiea
titles of fish, which they send salted to other parts of Folard. fo
the empire. Its shores are very uneven, by reason of v—k"
the number and variety of its bays •, and there are many
forts built thereon to guard the coast. The air is hot,
but pure and wholesome.
The mountains are almost everywhere disposed into
a kind of amphitheatres, by the labour of the inhabi¬
tants, with terraces placed one above another. Tbs
fields are watered with rivers and springs, which issue
out of the mountains, and which the husbandmen
conduct in such a manner as to overflow the fields of
rice when they please, because it thrives best in watery
ground. They make use of pipes of bamboo for this
purpose.
They have all commodities in common with the rest
of China \ but more particularly musk, precious stones,
quicksilver, silk, hempen cloth, callico, iron, and all
sorts of utensils wrought to the greatest perfection.
From other countries they have cloves, cinnamon, pep¬
per, sandal wood, amber, coral, and many other things.
The capital city is Fou-tcheou Fou $ or, as others would
have it written, Fucherofu. But as for Fokien, which
most geographers make the capital, Grosier informs us
there is no such place.
FOLARD, Charles, an eminent Frenchman, fa¬
mous for his skill and knowledge in the military art,
was born at Avignon in 1669, of a noble family, but
not a rich one. He discovered an early turn for the
sciences, and a strong passion for arms ; which last was
so inflamed by reading Cgesar’s Commentaries, that he
enlisted at 16 years of age. His father got him off,
and shut him in a monastery : but he made his escape
in about two years after, and entered himself a second
time in quality of cadet. His inclination for military
affairs, and the great pains he took to accomplish him¬
self in that way, recommended him to notice ; and ha
was admitted into the friendship of the first-rate offi¬
cers. M. de Vendome, who commanded in Italy in
1702, made him his aid-de-camp, having conceived the
highest regard for him : and soon after sent him with
part of his forces into Lombardy. He was entirely
trusted by the commander of that army ; and no mea¬
sures were concerted, or steps taken, without consult¬
ing him. By pursuing his plans, many places were
taken, and advantages gained j and such, in short, were
his services, that he had a pension of 500 livres settled
upon him, and was honoured with the cross of St
Louis. He distinguished himself greatly, August 15.
1705, at the battle of Cassano •, where he received a
wound upon his left hand, which deprived him of the
use of it ever after. It was at this battle that he con¬
ceived the first idea of the system of columns, which
he afterwards prefixed to his Commentaries upon Poly¬
bius. The duke of Orleans sending De Vendome again
into Italy in 1706, Folard had orders to throw himself
into Modena to defend it against Eugene; where,
though he acquitted himself with his usual skill, he was
very near being assassinated. The description which
he has given of the conduct and character of the go¬
vernor of this town, may be found in his Treatise of
the Defence of Places, and deserves to be read. He
received a dangerous wound on the thigh at the battle
of Malplaquet, and was some time after made prisoner
by Piince Eugene. Being exchanged in 1711, he was
made
[ 782 ]
[
F O L
Fokrd nia{*e governor of Bourbonrg. In 1714, lie went to
[j Malta, to assist in defending that island against the
Foil-mote. rulks. Upon his return to France, he embarked for
^ Sweden, having a passionate desire to see Charles XII.
He acquned the esteem and confidence of that famous
general, who sent him to trance to negotiate the re¬
establishment of James II. upon the throne of Eng¬
land j but that project being dropped, he returned to
Sweden, followed Charles XII, in his expedition to
Norway, and served under him at the siege of Frede-
rickshall, where that prince was killed, Dec. 11. 1718.
Folard then returned to France; and made his last
campaign in 1719, under the duke of Berwick, in qua¬
lity of colonel. Ironi that time he applied himself in¬
tensely to the study of the military art as far as it
could be studied at home ; and built his theories upon
the foundation of his experience a*nd observations on
facts. He contracted an intimacy with Count Saxe,
who, as he then declared, would one day prove a very
great general. He was chosen a fellow of the Royal
Society of London in 1749; and, in 1751, made a
journey to Avignon, where he died in 1752, aged 83
years. He was the author of several works, the princi¬
pal of which are; 1. Commentaries upon Polybius, in
six volumes, 4to. 2. A Book of New Discoveries in
War. 3. A Treatise concerning the Defence of Places,
&c. in French. Those who would know more of this
eminent soldier, may consult a French piece, entitled,
Memoires pour servir a l' Histoire de M. le Chevalier de
Folard. Ratisbone, 1753, i2mo.
FOLC lands, (Sax.) copyhold lands so called in
the time of the Saxons, as charter-lands were called
hoc-lands, Kitch. 174. Falkland was terra vulgi or
popularis; the land of the vulgar people, who had no
certain estate therein, but held the same, under the
rents and services accustomed or agreed, at the will
only of their lord the thane ; and it was therefore not
put in writing, but accountedrusticum et ig-
nobile. Spelm. of Feuds, c. 5.
FOLCMOTE, or Folkmote, (Sax. Folcgemote,
i. e. conventus populi), is compounded of folk, populus,
and mote, or gemote, convenire ; and signified originally,
as Somner in his Saxon Dictionary informs us, a gene¬
ral assembly of the people, to consider of and order
matters of the commonwealth. And Sir Henry Spel-
man says, the folcmote was a sort of annual parliament
or convention of the bishops, thanes, aldermen, and
freemen, upon every May-day yearly ; where the lay¬
men were sworn to defend one another and the king,
and to preserve the laws of the kingdom ; and then con¬
sulted of the common safety. But Dr Brady infers
from the laws of the Saxon kings of England, that it
was an inferior court, held before the king’s reeve or
steward, every month, to do folk right, or compose
smaller differences, from whence there lay appeal to the
superior courts ; Gloss, p. 48. Squire seems to think
the folcmole not distinct from the shiremote, or common
general meeting of the county. See his Angl. Sax. Gov.
155. n.
Manwood mentions folcmote as a court holden in
London, wherein all the folk and people of the city did
complain of the mayor and aldermen, for misgovern-
ment within the said city; and this word is still in use
among the Londoners, and denotes celebrem ex tota ci-
vitate conventum. Stow's Survey. According to Kea-
783 ] F O L
net, the folcmote was a common council of al! the inha- FalcmoU
bitants of a city, town, or borough, convened often SI
by sound of bell, to the Mote Mall av Mouse; or it was Foliating,
applied to a larger congress of all the freemen within a w"v‘—*
county, called the shiremote, where formerly all knights
and military tenants did fealty to the king, and elected
the annual sheriff on the 1st of October; till this popu¬
lar election, to avoid tumults and riots, devolved to the
king’s nomination, anno 1315, 3 Edw. 1. After which
the city folkmote was swallowed up in a select commit¬
tee or common council, and the comity folkmote in the
sheriff’s tourn and assizes.
The viov& folkmote was also used for any kind of po¬
pular or public meetings; as of all the tenants at the
court Icet, or court baron, in which signification it was
of a less extent. Paroch. Antiq. 120.
I QLENGIO, 1 heofhilus, an Italian poet, was a
native of Mantua. He was known also by the title of
flerhn Coccaye, a name which he gave to a poem, and
which has been adopted ever since for all trifling per¬
formances of the same species, consisting of buffoonery,
puns, anagrams, wit without wisdom, and humour without
good sense. His poem was called The Macaroni, from an
Italiancakeof thesamename, whichissweet to the taste,
but lias not the least alimentary virtue, on the contrary
palls the appetite and cloys the stomach. These idle
poems, however, became the reigning taste in Italy and
in I ranee ; they give birth to macaroni academies, and
reaching England, to macaroni clubs; till, in the end,
every thing insipid, contemptible, and ridiculous, in the
character, dress, or behaviour, of both men and wo¬
men, is now summed up in the despicable appellation
of a macaroni. Folengio died in 1544.
FOLIA, among botanists, particularly signify the
leaves of plants ; those of flowers being expressed by the
word petals. See Botany.
FOLIAGE, aclusteror assemblage of flowers, leaves,
branches, &c.
Foliage, is particularly used for the representations
of such flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &c. whether
natural or artificial, as are used for enrichments on ca¬
pitals, friezes, pediments, &c.
FOLIATING o/'Looking-glasses, the spreading
the plates over, after they are polished, with quicksil¬
ver, &c. in order to reflect the image. It is performed
thus: A thin blotting paper is spread on the table and
sprinkled with fine chalk; and then a fine lamina or
leaf of tin, called foil, is laid over the paper ; upon
this is poured mercury, which is to be distributed equal¬
ly over the leaf with a hare’s foot or cotton ; over thia
is laid a clean paper, and over that the glass plate,
which is pressed down with the right hand, and the pa¬
per gently drawn cut with the left; this being done,
the plate is covered with a thicker paper, and loaded
with a greater weight, that the superfluous mercury
may be driven out and the tin adhere more closely to
the glass. When it is dried, the weight is removed,
and the looking-glass is complete.
Some add an ounce of marcasite, melted by the fire ;
and, lest the mercury should evaporate in smoke, they
pour it into cold water; and when cooled, squeeze
through a cloth, or through leather.
Some add a quarter of an ounce of tin and lead to
the marcasite, that the glass may dry the sooner.
Foliating of Globe looking-glasses, is done as fol¬
lows :
F O L
[
Foliating lows: Take five ounces of quicksilver, and one ounce
H of bismuth ; of lead and tin, half an ounce each : first
Folkc«. pUt the iea(l and tin into fusion, then put in the bis-
mut|1 . and when you perceive that in fusion too, let it
stand till it is almost cold, and pour the quicksilver in¬
to it : after this, take the glass globe, which must be
very clean, and the inside free from dust: make a pa¬
per funnel, which put into the hole of the globe, as
near the glass as you can, so that the amalgam, when
you pour it in, may not splash and cause the glass to be
full of spots*, pour it in gently, and move it about,
so that the amalgam may touch everywhere : if you
find the amalgam begin to be curdly and fixed, then
hold it over a gentle fire, and it will easily How again ;
and if you find the amalgam too thin, add a little more
lead, tin, and bismuth to it. The finer and clearer
vour globe is, the better will the looking-glass be. .
" Dr Shaw observes, that this operation has consider¬
able advantages, as being performed in the cold ; and
that it is not attended with the danger of poisonous
fumes from arsenic, or other unwholesome matters usu¬
ally employed for this purpose : besides, how far it is ap¬
plicable to the more commodious foliating of the com¬
mon looking-glasses and other speculums, he thinks,
may deserve to be considered.
FOLIO, in merchants books, denotes a page, or ra¬
ther both the right and left hand pages, these being ex¬
pressed by the same figure, and corresponding to each
other. See Book-KEEPING.
Folio, among printers and booksellers, the largest
form of books, when each sheet is so printed that it may
be bound up in two leaves only.
FOLIS. See Follis.
FOLIUM, or Leaf, in Botang. See Leaf.
FOLKES, Martin, a philosopher and antiquarian
of considerable eminence, was born in Westminster
in the year 1690. A Mr Cappel, once professor of
Hebrew at Saumur, was his private tutor. When 17
years of age, he was sent to Clare-hall, Cambridge,
where he successfully applied himself to the study ot
philosophy and the mathematics; and when only twen¬
ty-three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the
Royal Society. His ingenious communications acquired
him so much applause, that he was frequently chosen
into its council. He was in habits of friendship with the
illustrious Newton, at that time president, and by his
influence was elected one of the vice-presidents in the
vear 1723. Mr Folkes became a candidate for the
chair on the death of Sir Isaac Newton j but the supe¬
rior interest of Sir Hans Sloane rendered his application
ineffectual. In 1733 and the two subsequent years,
his residence was for the most part in Italy, with the
view of improving himself in the knowledge of classical
antiquities. To ascertain the weight and value of an¬
cient coins, he carefully consulted the cabinets of the cu¬
rious ; and on his return home he presented to the Anti¬
quarian Society, of which he was a member, a dissertation
on this subject. He read before the same learned body,
a dissertation on the measurement of Trajan’s and Anto-
nine’s pillar, together with other remains of antiquity.
The fruits of his observations he presented to the Royal
Society j and, in particular, “ Remarks on the stand¬
ard measure preserved in the Capitol of Rome,” and
the model of an ancient globe in the Farnesian palace.
He visited Paris in 1739, where he was received with
3
784 ] F O L
great respect, and honoured with the company of the
most eminent literary characters in that metropolis. This
respect indeed he was entitled to by his unwearied appli¬
cation to many branches of knowledge which were both
curious and useful. His valuable work, entitled “ A
table of English silver coins, from the Norman Conquest
to the present time, with their weights, intrinsic values,
and some remarks upon the several pieces,” was printed
in the year 1745. Among the many honours conferred
upon Mr Folkes, he was created doctor of laws by both
universities, and chosen president of the Antiquarian
Society. He continued to furnish the Philosophical
Transactions with many learned papers, till his career
was stopped by a paralytic stroke, which terminated his
useful life in the year 1654. He was a man of very
extensive knowledge and great accuracy *, but the chief
benefit to science which resulted from his labours, was
his treatise on the intricate subject of coins, weights,
and measures. His cabinet and library were large and
valuable, and exposed to public sale after his death.
His private character was distinguished for politeness,
generosity, and friendship.
FOLKESTONE, a town of Kent, between Dover
and Hythe, 72 miles from London, appears to have
been a very ancient place, from the Roman coins and
British bricks often found in it. Stillingfleet and Tan¬
ner take it for the Lapis Tituli of Nennius. It was
burnt by Earl Godwin, and by the French in the reign
of Edward III. It had five churches, now reduced to
one. It is a member of the town and port of Dover;
and has a weekly market and an annual fair. It is
chiefly noted for the multitude of fishing boats that be¬
long to its harbour, which are employed in the season
in catching mackerel for London $ to which they are
carried by the mackerel boats of London and Barking.
About Michaelmas, the Folkestone barks, with others
for Sussex, go away to the Suftolk and Norfolk coasts
to catch herrings for the merchants of Yarmouth and
Leostofl’.—Folkestone gives the title of Viscount to
William Henry Bouverie, whose grandfather, Jacob,
was so created in 1747. It has been observed of some
hills in this neighbourhood, that they have visibly sunk
and grown lower within memory.
FOLKLAND, and Folkmote. See Folcland.
FOLL1CULUS, (from follis, “ a bag,”) a species
of seed-vessel first mentioned by Liumseus in his Deli-
ncatin Plantce, generally consisting of one valve, which
opens from bottom to top on one side, and has no suture
for fastening or attaching the seeds within it.
FOLLICULI are likewise defined by the same au¬
thor to be small glandular vessels distended with air,
which appear on the surface of some plants ; as at the
foot of water-milfoil, and on the leaves of aldrovanda.
In the former the leaves in question are roundish, and
furnished with an appearance like two horns $ in the
latter, pot-shaped, and semicircular.
FOLLIS, or Folis, anciently signified a little bag
or purse ; whence it came to be used for a sum ot mo¬
ney,.and very difl'erent sums were called by that name :
thus the scholiast on the Basilics mentions a follis of
copper which was worth but the 24th part of the nu-
liarensis ; the glossse nomicee, quoted by Gronovius and
others, one of 125 miliarenses, and another of 250 de¬
narii, which was the ancient sestertium j and three dif¬
ferent sums of eight, four, and two pounds of gold, were
each
PON [ 785 ]
each called follis. According to the account of the dious place.
scholiast, the ounce oi silver, which contained five mi-
liarenses of 60 in the pound, was worth 120 folles of
copper. The glossographer, describing a foil is of 250
denarii, says it was equal to 312 pounds 6 ounces of
copper \ and as the denarius ot that age was the 8th
part of an ounce, an ounce of silver must have been
worth 120 ounces of copper j and therefore the scho¬
liast’s follis was an ounce of copper, and equal to the
glossographer’s nummus. But as Constantine’s copper
money weighed a quarter of a Roman ounce, the scho¬
liast’s follis and the glossographer’s nummus contained
lour of them, as the ancient nummus contained four
asses.
FOLLY, according to Mr Locke, consists in the
drawing of false conclusions from just principles ; by
which it is distinguished from madness, which draws
just conclusions from false principles.
But this seems too confined a definition ; /o//y, in its
most general acceptation, denoting a weakness of intel¬
lect or apprehension, or some partial absurdity in senti¬
ment or conduct.
FOMAHAUT, in Astronomy, a star of the first
magnitude in the constellation Aquarius.
FOMENTATION, in Medicine, is a fluid exter¬
nally applied, usually as warm as the patient can bear
it, and in the following manner. Two flannel cloths
are dipped into the heated liquor, one of which is
wrung as dry as the necessary speed will admit, then
immediately applied to the part affected : it lies on un¬
til the heat begins to go off, and the other is in readi¬
ness to apply at the instant in which the first is remov¬
ed : thus these flannels are alternately applied, so as to
keep the aflected part constantly supplied with them
warm. This is continued 15 minutes or half an hour,
and repeated as occasion may require.
Every intention of relaxing and soothing by fomen¬
tations may be answered as well by warm water alone
as when the whole tribe of emollients are boiled in it;
but when discutients or antiseptics are required, such
ingredients must be called in as are adapted to that
end.
The degree of heat should never exceed that of pro¬
ducing a pleasant sensation ; great heat produces effects
very opposite to that intended by the use of fomenta¬
tion.
FONG YANG, a city of China, in the province of
KiANQ-Nang. It is situated on a mountain, which hangs
over the Yellow river, and encloses with its walls seve¬
ral fertile little hills. Its jurisdiction is very extensive:
for it comprehends 18 cities; five of which are of the
second, and 13 of the third class. As this was the
birth-place of the emperor Hong-vou, chief of the pre¬
ceding dynasty, this prince formed a design of rendering
it a famous and magnificent city, in order to make it
the seat of empire. After having expelled the Western
Tartars, who had taken possession of China, he transfer¬
red his court hither, and named the city Fong yang;
that is to say, “ The Place of the Eagle’s Splendour.”
His intention, as we have said, was to beautify and en¬
large it ; but the inequality of the ground, the scarcity
of fresh water, and above all the vicinity of his father’s
tomb, made him change his design. By the unanimous
advice of his principal officers, this prince established
his court at Nan-king, a more beautiful and commo-
Vol. VIII. Part II. t
B
Fontaine.
F O N
When he had formed this resolution, a Fong-Tang
stop was put to the intended works : the imperial pa¬
lace which was to have been enclosed by a triple wall,
the walls of the city to which a circumference of nine
leagues were assigned, and the canals that were begun,
all were abandoned ; and nothing was finished, but three
monuments that still remain. The extent and magnifi¬
cence of these sufficiently show what the beauty of this
city would have been, had the emperor pursued his ori¬
ginal design. The first is the tomb of the father of
Hong-vou, to decorate which no ex pence was spared ;
it is called Hoan-lin, or the Royal Tomb. The second
is a tower built in the middle of the citv, which is of
an oblong form, and 100 feet high. The third is a
magnificent temple erected to the god Fo. At first it
was only a pagod, to which Hong-vou retired after ha¬
ying lost his parents, and where he was admitted as an
infeiior domestic ; but having soon become weary of
this kind of life, he enlisted with the chief of a band of
banditti, who had revolted from the Tartars. As he
was bold and enterprising, the general made choice of
him for his son-in-law: soon after he was declared his
successor by the unanimous voice of the troops. The
new chief seeing himself at the head of a large party,
had the presumption to carry his views to the throne.
The lartars, informed of the progress of his arms, sent
a numerous army into the field ; but he surprised and
attacked them with so much impetuosity, that they were
obliged to fly ; and, though they several times returned
to the charge, they were still defeated, and at length
driven entirely out of China. As soon as he mounted
the throne, he caused the superb temple which we have
mentioned to be raised out of gratitude to the Bonzes,
who had received him in his distress, and assigned them
a revenue sufficient for the maintenance of 300 persons,
under a chief of their own sect, whom he constituted a
mandarin, with power of governing them, independent
of the officers of the city. This pagod was supported
as long as the preceding dynasty lasted ; but that of
the Eastern Tartars, which succeeded, suffered it to fall
to ruin.
Fong-CZioui, the name of a ridiculous superstition
among the Chinese. See China, N° 105.
FONT, among ecclesiastical writers, a large bason
in which water is kept for the baptizing of infants or
other persons.
Font, in the art of printing, denotes a complete as¬
sortment of letters, accents, &c. used in printing. See
Fount.
FONTAINE, John, a celebrated French poet,
and one of the first-rate geniuses of his age, was born
at Chateau-Thierri in Champagne, the 8th of July
1621, of a good family. At the age of 19 he en¬
tered amongst the Oratorians, but quitted that order
18 months after. He was 22 years of age before he
knew his own talents for poetry ; but hearing an ode
of Malherbe read, upon the assassination of Henry IV.
he was so taken with admiration of it, that the poeti¬
cal fire, which had before lain dormant within him,
seemed to be enkindled from that of the other great
poet. He applied himself to read, to meditate, to re¬
peat, in fine to imitate, the works of Malherbe. The
first essays of his pen he confined to one of his rela¬
tions who made him read the best Latin authors, Ho¬
race, Virgil, Terence, Quintilian, &c. and then the
J G best
F O N
FonUsne,
[786
best composition in French and Italian. He applied
himself likewise to the study of the Greek authors, par¬
ticularly Plato and Plutarch. Some time afterwards
his parents made him marry a daughter of a lieutenant-
general, a relation of the great Racine. This young
lady, besides her very great beauty, was remarkable
for the delicacy of her wit, and Fontaine never com¬
posed any work without consulting her. But as her
temper was none of the best, to avoid dissension, he se¬
parated himself from her company as often as he well
could. The famous duchess ol Bouillon, niece to Car¬
dinal Mazarine, being exiled to Chateau-1 hierri, took
particular notice of Fontaine. Upon her recal, he fol¬
lowed her to Paris-, where by the interest ot one
his relations, he got a pension settled upon him. He
met with great friends and protectors amongst the most
distinguished persons of the court, but Madame dela Sa-
bHere was the most particular. She took him to live
at her house, and it was then that 1‘ ontaine, divested
of domestic concerns, led a life conformable to his
disposition, and cultivated an acquaintance with all the
great men of the age. It was his custom, after he was
fixed at Paris, to go every year, during the month of
September, to his native place of Chateau-1 hierri, and
pay a visit to his wife, carrying with him Racine, Des-
preaux, Chapellp, or some other celebrated writers.
When he has sometimes gone thither alone by himself,
he has come away without remembering even to call
upon her 5 but seldom omitted selling some part of his
lands, by which means he squandered away a consider¬
able fortune. After the death of Madame de la Sa-
bliere, he was invited into England, particularly by
Madame Mazarine, and by St Evremond, who promi¬
sed him all the sweets and comforts of life -, but the
difficulty of learning the English language, and the
liberality of the duke of Burgundy, prevented his
voyage.
About the end of the year 1692 he fell dangerously
ill : and, as is customary upon these occasions in the
Romish church, be made a general confession of his
whole life to P. Poguet, an Oratorian -, and, before he
received the sacrament, he sent for the gentlemen of
the French Academy, and in their presence declared
his sincere compunction for having composed his Tales ;
a work he could not reflect upon without the greatest
repentance and detestation j promising that it it should
please God to restore his health, he would employ his
talents only in writing upon matters of morality or
piety. He survived this illness two years, living in
the most exemplary and edifying manner, and died the
13th of March 1695, being 74 years of age.. When
they stripped his body, they found next his skin a hair
shirt which gave room for the following expression
of the younger Racine:
Et V Auteur de Jaconde est or re d'un Cilice.
Fontaine’s character is remarkable for a simplicity, can¬
dour, and probity seldom to be met with. He was of
an obliging disposition ; cultivating a real friendship
with his brother poets and authors ; and what is very
rare, beloved and esteemed by them all. His conversa¬
tion was neither gay nor brilliant, especially when he
was not amongst his intimate friends. One day being
invited to a dinner at a farmer general’s, he ate a great
deal, but did not speak. Rising up from table very
] F O N
early, under pretext of going to the academy, one of Fontame
the company represented to him that it was not yet a 11
proper time: “ Well (says he), if it is not, I will stay Font^!iei-
a little longer.” He had one son by his wife in the
year 1660. At the age of 14, he put him into the
hands of M. de Harley, the first president, recommend¬
ing to him his education and fortune. It is said, that
having been a long time without seeing him, he hap¬
pened to meet him one day visiting, without recollect¬
ing him again, and mentioned to the company that he
thought that young man had a good deal of wit and
understanding. When they told him it was his own son,
he answered in the most tranquil manner, “ Ha ! truly
I am glad on’t.” An indifference, or rather an ab¬
sence of mind, influenced his whole conduct, and ren¬
dered him often insensible to the inclemency of the wea¬
ther. Madame de Bouillon going one morning to Ver¬
sailles, saw him, abstracted in thought, sitting in an ar*
hour returning at night, she found him in the same
place, and in the same attitude, although it was very
cold, and had rained almost the whole day. He carried
this simplicity so far, that he was scarcely sensible of
the bad effects some of bis writings might occasion,
particularly his Tales. In a great sickness, his confes¬
sor exhorting him to prayer and alms deeds : “ As for
alms deeds (replied Fontaine), I am not able, having
nothing to give ; but they are about publishing a new
edition of my Tales, and the bookseller owes me a hun¬
dred copies j you shall have them to sell, and distribute
their amount amongst the poor.” Another time P. Po¬
guet exhorting him to repent of his faults, “ If he has
committed any (cried the nurse), I am sure it is more
from ignorance than malice, for he has as much simpli¬
city as an infant.” One time having composed a tale,
wherein he made a profane application of those words
of the Gospel, “ Lord, five talents thou didst deliver to
me,” he dedicated it, by a most ingenious prologue, to
the celebrated Arnauld, telling him, it was to show to
posterity the great esteem he had for the learned doctor.
He was not sensible of the indecency of the dedication,
and the profane application of the text, till Boileau and
Racine represented it to him. He addressed another,
by a dedication in the same manner, to the archbishop
of Paris. His Fables are an immortal work, exceeding
every thing in that kind, both ancient and modern, in
the opinion of the learned. People of taste, the often-
er they read them, will find continually new beauties
and charms, not to be met with elsewhere. The des¬
cendants of this great poet were long exempted in France
from all taxes and impositions > a privilege which the
intendants of Soisson thought it an honour to confirm
to them.
FONTAINBLEAU, a town in the Isle of France,
and in the Gatinois, remarkable for its fine palace,
which has been the place where the kings of France
used to lodge when they went a hunting. It was first
embellished by Francis I. and every successive king has
added something to it; so that it may now be called the
finest pleasure house in the world. It stands in the
midst of a forest, consisting of 26,424 arpents of land,
each containing 100 square perches, and each perch 18
feet. F. Long. 2. 23* N. Lat. 40. 22.
FONTAINES, Peter Francis, a French critic,
was horn of a good family at Rouen in 1685. At 15,
he entered into the society of the Jesuits j and at 30,
quitted
run
fso
F O N C 787 ] F O N
Fontaines quitted It, for the sake of returning to the world. He
jj was a priest, and had a cure in Normandy : but left it,
Fontarabia.and was, as a man of wit and letters, some time with
the cardinal d’Auvergne. Having excited some at¬
tention at Paris by certain critical productions, the
Abbe Bignon in 1724 committed to him the Journal
des Spavans. He acquitted himself well in this depart¬
ment, and was peaceably enjoying the applauses of the
public, when his enemies, whom by critical strictures
in his Journal he had made such, formed an accusation
against him of a most abominable crime, and procured
him to be imprisoned. By the credit of powerful
friends, he was set at liberty in 15 days ; the magistrate
of the police took upon himself the trouble of justifying
him in a letter to the Abbe Bignon and this letter hav¬
ing been read amidst his fellow labourers in the Journal,
he was unanimously re-established in his former credit.
This happened in 1725. But with whatever repute
he might acquit himself in this Journal, frequent dis¬
gusts made him frequently abandon it. He laboured
meanwhile in some new periodical works, from which
he derived his greatest fame. In 1731, he began one
under the title of Nouvelliste du Parnasse, ou Reflections
sur les Ouvrages nouveaux : but only proceeded to two
volumes ; the work having been suppressed by autho¬
rity, from the incessant complaints of authors ridiculed
therein. About three years after, in 1735, he ob¬
tained a new privilege for a periodical production, en¬
titled, Observations sur les Ecrits Modernes ; which, af¬
ter continuing to 33 volumes, was suppressed again
in 1743* Yet the year following, 1744> published
another weekly paper, called, Jugemens sur les Ouv¬
rages nouveaux, and proceeded to 11 volumes : the two
last being done by other hands. In 1745, he was attack¬
ed with a disorder in the breast, which ended in a drop¬
sy that proved fatal in five weeks. “ He was (says
M. Freron) born a sentimental person ; a philosopher
in conduct as well as in principle ; exempt from ambi¬
tion ; and of a noble firm spirit, which would not sub¬
mit to sue for preferments or titles. In common con¬
versation he appeared only a common man : but when
subjects of literature, or any thing out of the ordinary
way, were agitated, he discovered great force of ima¬
gination and wit.” Besides the periodical works men¬
tioned above, he was the author of many others : his
biographer gives us no less than 17 articles ; many of
them critical, some historical, and some translations
from English writers, chiefly from Pope, Swift,
Fielding, &c. The Abbe de la Porte, published, in
1757, 1?Esprit de VAbbe des Fontaines, in 4 vols.
I 2mo.
FONTANA, Felix, a celebrated Italian physiolo¬
gist. See Supplement.
Fontana, Gregory, an eminent Italian mathemati¬
cian. See Supplement.
FONTANELLA, in Anatomy, imports the qua¬
drangular aperture found betwixt the os frontis and
ossa sincipitis, in children just born ; which is also call¬
ed fans pulsatilis.
FONTARABIA, a sea port town of Spain, in Bis¬
cay, and in the territory of Guipuscoa, seated on a
peninsula on the sea shore, and on the river Bidassoa.
It is small, but well fortified both by nature and art}
and has a good harbour, though dry at low water. It
is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the decli¬
vity of a hill, and surrounded on the land side by the Fontiuabia.
lofty Pyrenean mountains. It is a very important Konttnelle.
place, being accounted the key of Spain on that side.'■*"—v——■
W. Long. 1. 43. N. Lat. 43.
FONTENELLE, Bernard le Bovier de, was a
man of letters, born at Rouen in 1657, the most uni¬
versal genius of the age of Louis XIV. in the estima¬
tion of Voltaire. He received his education in the
college of Jesuits at Rouen, where the quickness of his
parts became conspicuous at a very early period. He
was capable of writing Latin verses when only 13,
which u'ere deemed worthy of being published. He
studied the law at the desire of bis father} but as be
lost the very first cause in which be was employed as
an advocate, he became disgusted with his profession,
and devoted himselyentirely to literature and philosophy.
He composed a considerable part of the operas of Psyche
and Beilerophon, which were printed under the name
of his uncle Thomas Corneille. He wrote a tragedy
called Aspar ; but as it did not succeed, he consigned
the manuscript to the flames, and never afterwards at¬
tempted that species of composition. His Dialogues of
the dead were published in the year 1683, which were
well received, as a specimen of elegant composition,
combining morality with the charms of literature. His
“ Lettres du Chevalier d’Her,” published in l68^
without his name, discovered much wit and ingenuity,
hut at the same time no small share of affectation. His
“ Entretiens sur la Pluralite des Mondes,” has been
regarded as one of his ablest performances, com¬
bining science and philosophy with vivacity and hu¬
mour, a talent which may he said to belong almost ex¬
clusively to the French. It was perused by all, and
translated into several foreign languages.
In I) is “ Flistory of Oracles,” he supported the opi¬
nion that oracles were forgeries, in opposition to those
who contended that they were supernatural operations of
evil spirits, put to silence by the appearing of Christ,
and of consequence he exposed himself to clerical ani¬
madversion. His “ Pastoral Poems” appeared in the
year 1688, with a discourse on the nature of the eclogue,
which were very much admired for their delicacy
of sentiment, as was also his opera of “ Thetis and
Peleus }” but his “./Eneas and Lavinia” was not so suc¬
cessful. In the year 1699, Fontenelle was chosen
secretary of the Academy of Sciences, which office he
Ireld during the long period of 42 years. He publish¬
ed a volume annually of the history of that; learned
body, filled with analyses of memoirs, and eulogiums on
deceased members.
As a poet, he did not rise above elegance and in¬
genuity } as a man of science, he rather excelled in
throwing light on the inventions of others, than in dis¬
covering any new truth himself, and as a general writer,
he united solid sense with the delicacy and refinement
of a man of wit. He studied his own happiness as much
as most men, but he never sacrificed to the promotion
of it, the duties of a man of honour and virtue. He
had many friends, and towards the close oflife, scarce¬
ly a single enemy. He was never married, and for
a man of letters he acquired considerable affluence.
Although of a delicate constitution, he reached the
great age of 90 without any complaint but dulness of
hearing. He died on the 9th of January 1757, being
almost a hundred years of age. When asked by a certain
5 G 3 person
F O O [ ?88 ] F O O
Fon'.enelle person how he could pass so easily through the world,
A he replied, “ hy virtue of these two axioms j All is
Food. possible, and every one is in the right.”
' PONTE NOY, a town or village of the Nether¬
lands, in the province of Hainault, and on the bor¬
ders of Flanders j remarkable for a battle tought be¬
tween the allies and the French on the first of May
1745. The French were commanded by Mareschal
Saxe, and the allies by the duke of Cumberland. On
account of the superior numbers of the French army,
and the superior generalship of their commander, the
allies were defeated with great slaughter. The British
troops behaved with great intrepidity, as their enemies
themselves acknowledged. It has been said, that the
battle was lost through the cowardice of the Dutch,
who failed in their attack on the village of Fontenoy,
on which the event of the day depended. E. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 50. 3S' '
FoNTENOY, a village of France, in the duchy of
Burgundy, remarkable for a bloody battle fought
there in 841, between the Germans and the French,
in which were killed above 100,000 men ; and the
Germans were defeated. E. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat.
47. 28.
FONTEVRAUD, or Frontevaux, Order of, in
ecclesiastical history, a religious order instituted about
the latter end of the nth century, and taken under
the protection of the holy see by Pope Pascal II. in
1106, confirmed by a bull'in II13, and invested by his
successors with very extraordinary privileges. The chief
of this order is a female, who is appointed to inspect
both the monks and nuns. The order was divided into
four provinces, which were those of France, Aquitaine,
Auvergne, and Bretagne, in each of which they had
formerly several priories.
FONTICULUS, or Fontanella, in Surgery, an
issue, seton, or small ulcer, made in several parts of the
body, in order to excite irritation, or to produce the
discharge of matter.
FONTINALIA, or Fontanalia, in antiquity, a
religious feast held among the Romans in honour of the
deities who presided over fountains or springs. Yarro
observes, that it was the custom to visit the wells on
those days, and to cast crowns into fountains. Scali-
ger, in his conjectures on Varro, takes this not to be
a feast of fountains in general, as Festus insinuates,
but of the fountain which had a temple at Rome, near
the Porta Capena, called also Poi'ta Fontinalis: he adds,
that it is of this fountain Cicero speaks in his second
book De Legibus. The Fontinalia were held on the
13th of October.
FONTINALIS, Water-moss, a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia class, and to the order of
nrusci. See Botany Index.
FOOD, in the most extensive signification of the
word implies whatever aliments are taken into the
body, whether solid or fluid j but in common language,
it is generally used to signify only the solid part of our
aliment.
We are told, that in the first ages men lived upon
acorns, berries, and such fruits as the earth spontane¬
ously produces j then they proceeded to eat the flesh
of wild animals taken in hunting : But their numbers
decreasing and mankind multiplying, necessity taught
them the art of cultivating the ground, to sow corn,
&c. By and by they began to assign to each other, by Food,
general consent, portions of land to produce them their w—y-w
supply of vegetables; after this, reason suggested the
expedient of domesticating certain animals, both to as¬
sist them in their labours and supply them with food.
Hogs were the first animals of the domestic kind that
appeared upon their tables ; they held it to be ungrate¬
ful to devour the beasts that assisted them in their la¬
bours.—When they began to make a free use of do¬
mestic animals, they roasted them only : boiling was a
refinement in cookery which for ages they were stran¬
gers to *, and fish living in an element men were unused
to, were not eaten, till they grew somewhat civilixed.
Menelaus complains, in the Odyssey, that they had
been constrained to feed upon them.
The most remarkable distinction of foods, in a me¬
dical view, is into those which are already assimilated
into the animal nature, and such as are not. Of the
first kind are animal substances in general j which if
not entirely similar, are nearly so, to our nature. The
second comprehends vegetables, which are much more
difficultly assimilated. But as the nourishment of all
animals, even those which live on other animals, can
be traced originally to the vegetable kingdom, it 18
plain, that the principle of all nourishment is in vege¬
tables.
Though there is perhaps no vegetable which Aots Cullen cn
not afford nourishment to some species of animals or i/5* Wat.
other-, yet, with regard to mankind, a very consider-^- nt
able distinction is to be made. Those vegetables which
are of a mild, bland, agreeable taste, are proper nou¬
rishment ; while those of an acrid, bitter, and nauseous
nature, are improper. We use, indeed, several acrid
substances as food j but the mild, the bland, and agree¬
able, are in the largest proportion in almost every ve¬
getable. Such as are very acrid, and at the same time
of an aromatic nature, are not used as food, but as
spices or condiments, which answer the purposes of
medicines rather than any thing else. Sometimes, in¬
deed, acrid and bitter vegetables seem to be admitted
as food. Thus celeri and endive are used in common
food, though both are substances of considerable acri¬
mony j but it must be observed, that when we use
them, they are previously blanched, which almost to¬
tally destroys their acrimony. Or if we employ other
acrid substances, we generally, in a great measure, de¬
prive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different
countries, the same plants grow with different degrees
of acrimony. Thus garlic here seldom enters our
food; but in the southern countries, where the plants
grow more mild, they are frequently used for that pur¬
pose. The plant which furnishes cassada, being very
acrimonious, and even poisonous, in its recent state,
affords an instance of the necessity of preparing acrid
substances even in the hot countries: and there are
other plants, such as arum root, which are so exceed¬
ingly acrimonious in their natural state, that they caa-
not be swallowed with safety ; yet, when deprived of
that acrimony, will afford good nourishment.
The most remarkable properties of different vegeta¬
ble, substances as food, are taken notice of under their
different names : here we shall only compare vegetable
foods in general with those of the animal kind.
I. In the Stomachy they differ remarkably, in that
the vegetables always have a tendency to acidity, while
animal
b'ooJ.
F O O [ ^89
animal food of all kinds rather tends to alkalescency
-' and putrefaction. Some animal foods, indeed, turn ma¬
nifestly acid before they putrify ; and it has been assert¬
ed, that some degree of acescency takes place in every
kind of animal tood before digestion. This acescency
of animal food, however, never comes to any morbid
degree, but the disease is always on the side of putres-
cency. The acescency of vegetables is more frequent,
and ought to be more attended to, than the alkalescen¬
cy of animal food ; which last, even in weak stomachs,
is seldom felt j while acescency greatly affects both the
stomach and system.
With regard to their difference of solution :—Heavi¬
ness, as it is called, is seldom felt from vegetables, ex¬
cept from tough farinaceous paste, or the most viscid
substances j while the heaviness of animal food is more
frequently noticed, especially when'in any great quan¬
tity. Difficulty of solution does not depend so much
on firmness of texture (as a man, from fish of all kinds,
is more oppressed than from firmer substances), as on
viscidity ; and hence it is more frequent in animal food,
especially in the younger animals.
With regard to mixture :—There is no instance of
difficult mixture in vegetables, except in vegetable oils $
while animal foods, from both viscidity and oiliness,
especially the fatter meats, are refractory in this re¬
spect. Perhaps the difference of animal and vegetable
foods might be referred to this head of mixture. For
vegetable food continues long in the stomach, giving
little stimulus: Now the system is affected in propor¬
tion to the extent of this stimulus, which is incompa¬
rably greater from the animal viscid oily food, than
from the vegetable, firmer, and more aqueous. How¬
ever, there are certain applications to the stomach,
which have a tendency to bring on the cold fit of fe¬
ver, independent of stimulus, merely by their refrige¬
ration : and this oftener arises from vegetables; as we
see, in those hot countries where intermittents prevail,
they are oftener induced from a surfeit of vegetable
than of animal food. A proof of this is, that when
one is recovering of an intermittent, there is nothing
more apt to cause a relapse than cold food, especially
if taken on those days when the fit should return, and
particularly acescent, fermentable vegetables, as salads,
melons,, cucumbers, See. acido-dulces, &c. which, ac¬
cording to Dr Cullen, are the most frequent causes of
epidemics; therefore, when an intermittent is to be
avoided, we shun vegetable diet, and give animal foods,
although their stimulus be greater.
' II. In the Intestines. When the putrescency of ani¬
mal food has gone too far, it produces an active stimu¬
lus, causing diarrhoea, dysentery, &.c. But these ef¬
fects are but rare ; whereas from vegetable food and
its acid, which, united with the bile, proves a pretty
strong stimulus, they more frequently occur j hut luckily
are of less consequence, if the refrigeration is not very
great. In the autumnal season, when there is a ten¬
dency to dysentery, if it is observed that eating of fruits
brings it on, it is rather to be ascribed to their cooling
than stimulating the intestines.
As to i-mo/.—Wherever neither putrefaction nor a-
cidity has gone a gr'**^ length, animal food keeps the
belly more regular. Vegetable food gives a greater
proportion of succulent matter; and, when exsiccated by
the stomach and intestines, is more apt to stagnate, and
T F o o
produce slow belly and costiveness, than animal stimu¬
lating food ; which, before it comes to the great guts, '
where stoppage is made, has obtained a putrefactive
tendency, and gives a proper stimulus : and thus
those who are costive from the use of vegetables j when
they have recourse to animal lood are in this respect
better.
HI. In the blood-vessels. They both give a blood of
the same kind, but of dillerent quality. Animal food
gives it in great quantity, being in great part, as the
expression is, convertible in succum et sanguinem, and
ot easy digestion j whereas vegetable is more watery,
and contains a portion of unconquerable saline matter,
which causes it to be thrown out of the body by some
excretion. Animal food allords a more dense stimula¬
ting elastic blood than vegetable j stretching and caus¬
ing a great resistance in the solids, and again exciting
their stronger action. It has been supposed that ace¬
scency of vegetable food is carried into the blood-ves¬
sels, and there exerts its effects j but the tendency of
animal fluids is so strong to alkalescency, that the exis¬
tence of an acid acrimony in the blood seems very im¬
probable. Animal food alone will soon produce, an
alkalescent acrimony ; and if a person who lives entire¬
ly on vegetables were to take no food for a few days,
his acrimony would be alkalescent.
IV. We are, next to take notice of the quantity of
nutriment these different foods afford. Nutriment is of
two kinds : the first repairs the waste of the solid fibres;
the other supplies certain fluids, the chief of wjiich i»
oil. Now, as animal food is easier converted, and also
retained longer in the system, and as it contains a.,
greater proportion of oil, it will afford both kinds of
nutriment more copiously than vegetables..
V. Lastly, As to the different degrees of perspirability
of these foods. This is not yet properly determined.
Sanctorius constantly speaks of mutton as the most
perspirable of all food, and of vegetables as checking
perspiration. This is a consequence of the different
stimulus those foods give to the stomach, so that per¬
sons who live on vegetables have not their perspiration
so suddenly excited.. In time of digestion, perspira¬
tion is stopped from whatever food, much more so from
cooling vegetables. Another reason why vegetables
are less perspirable is, because their aqceo-saline juices
determine them to go off by urine, while the more per¬
fectly mixed animal food is more equally diffused over
the system, and so goes off by perspiration. Hence
Sanctorius’s accounts may be understood ; for vegetable
aliment is not longer retained in the body, but mostly
takes the course of the kidneys. Both are equally per¬
spirable in this respect, viz. that a person living on ei¬
ther returns once a day to his usual weight; and if we
consider the little nourishment of vegetables, and the
great tendency of animal food to corpulency, vve must
allow that vegetable is more quickly perspired than a-
nimal food.
As to the question, Whether man was originally de¬
signed for animal or vegetable food, see the article
Carnivojious.
With regard to the effects of these foods on men, it
must be observed, that there are no persons who live
entirely on vegetables. The Pythagoreans themselves
ate milk ; and those who do so mostly, as these Py¬
thagoreans, are weakly, sickly, and meagre, laboi}j>
ing.
Food.
F O O
I 79° ]
F O O
Food under a constant diarrhoea anil several other ihs-
- gases. None of the hardy, robust, live on these *, but
chiefly such as gain a livelihood by the exertion of their
mental faculties, as (in the East Indies) factors and
brokers ; and this method of life is now confined to
the hot climates, where vegetable diet, without incon¬
venience, may be carried to great excess. Though it
be granted, therefore, that man is intended to live on
these different foods promiscuously, yet the vegetable
should be in very great proportion. Thus the Lap¬
landers are said to live entirely on animal food : but
this is contradicted by the best accounts ; for Linnaeus
says, that besides milk, which they take sour, to ob¬
viate the bad effects of animal food, they use also cala-
menyanthes, and many other plants, copiously. . So
there is no instance of any nation living entirely either
on vegetable or animal food, though there are indeed
some who live particularly on one or other in the great¬
est proportion. In the cold countries, e. g. the inha¬
bitants live chiefly on animal food, on account of the
rigour of the season, their smaller perspiration, and
little tendency to putrefaction.
Of more importance, however, is the following than
the former question, viz. In what proportion animal and
vegetable food ought to be mixed ?
I. Animal food certainly gives most strength to the
system. It is a known aphorism of Sanctorius, that
pondus addit robur; which may be explained from the
impletion of the blood-vessels, and giving a proper de¬
gree of tension for. the performance of strong oscilla¬
tions. Now animal food not only goes a greater way
in supplying fluid, but also gives the fluid more
dense and elastic. The art of giving the utmost
strength to the system is best understood by those who
breed fighting cocks. These people raise the cocks to
a certain weight, which must bear a certain proportion
to the other parts of the system, and which at the same
time is so nicely proportioned, as that, on losing a few
ounces of it, their strength is very considerably im¬
paired. Dr Robinson of Dublin has observed, that
the force and weight of the system ought to be deter¬
mined by the largeness of the heart, and its proportion
to the system: for a large heart will give large blood¬
vessels, while at the same time the viscera are less, par¬
ticularly the liver} which last being increased in size,
a greater quantity of fluid is determined into the cel¬
lular texture, and less into the sanguineous system.
Hence we see how animal food gives strength, by fill¬
ing the sanguiferous vessels. What pains we now
bestow on cocks, the ancients did on the athletse, by
proper nourishment bringing them to a great degree of
strength and agility. It is said that men were at first
fed on figs, a proof of which we have from their nutri¬
tious quality : however, in this respect they were soon
found to fall short of animal food ; and thus we see,
that men, in some measure, will work in proportion to
the quality of their food. The English labour more
than the Scots ; and wherever men are exposed to hard
labour, their food should be animal.—Animal food,
although it gives strength, yet loads the body j and Hip¬
pocrates long ago observed, that the athletic habit,
by a small increase, was exposed to the greatest ha¬
zards. Hence it is only proper for bodily labours,
and entirely improper for mental exercises $ for who¬
ever would keep his mind acute and penetrating,
will exceed rather on the side of vegetable food. Even
the body is oppressed with animal food ; a full meal al-
ways produces dullness, laziness, and yawning and
hence the feeding of gamesters, whose mind must be
ready to take advantage, is always performed by
avoiding a large quantity of animal food. Farther,
With regard to the strength of the body, animal food,
in the first stage of life, is hardly necessary to give
strength : in manhood, when we are exposed to active
scenes, it is more allowable j and even in the decline
of life, some proportion of it is necessary to keep the
body in vigour. There are some diseases which come
on in the decay of life, at least are aggravated by it ;
among these the most remarkable is the gout. This,
when it is in the system, and does not appear with in¬
flammation in the extremities, has pernicious effects
there, attacking the lungs, stomach, head, &c. Now,
to determine this to the extremities, a large proportion
of animal food is necessary, especially as the person is
commonly incapable of much exercise.
Animal food, although it gives strength, is yet of
many hazards to the system, as it produces plethora and
all its consequences. As a stimulus to the stomach and
to the whole system, it excites fever, urges the circula¬
tion, and promotes the perspiration. The system,
however, by the repetition of these stimuli, is soon worn
out; and a man who has early used the athletic diet, is
either early carried off by inflammatory diseases, or, if
he takes exercise sufficient to render that diet saluta-
such an accumulation is made of putrescent fluids,
F ood.
ry. . .
as in his after life lays a foundation for the most inve¬
terate chronic distempers. Therefore it is to be ques¬
tioned, whether we should desire this high degree of bo¬
dily strength, with all the inconveniences and dangers
attending it. Those who are chiefly employed in mental
researches, and not exposed to too much bodily labour,
should always avoid an excess of animal food. There
is a disease which seems to require animal food, viz.
the hysteric or hypochondriac $ and which appears to be
very much a-kin to the gout, affecting the alimentary
canal. All people affected with this disease are much
disposed to acescency : which sometimes goes so far,
that no other vegetable but bread can be taken in,
without occasioning the worst consequences. Here then
we are obliged to prescribe an animal diet, even to those
of very weak organs j for it generally obviates the
symptoms. However, several instances of scurvy in ex¬
cess have been produced by a long-continued use of this
diet, which it is always unlucky to be obliged to pre¬
scribe •, and when it is absolutely necessary to prescribe,
it should be joined with as much of the vegetable as
possible, and when a cure is performed we should gra¬
dually recur to that again.
2. Next, let us consider the vegetable diet. The chief
inconveniency of this is difficulty of assimilation; which,
however, in the vigorous and exercised, will not be li¬
able to occur. In warm climates, the assimilation of ve¬
getable aliment is more easy, so that there it may be
more used, and when joined to exercise gives a pretty
tolerable degree of (strength and vigour; and though
the general rule be in favour of animal diet, for giving
strength, yet there are many instances of its being re¬
markably produced from vegetable. Vegetable diet
has this advantage, that it whets the appetite, and
that we can hardly suffer from a full meal of it. Besides
the
F O O [ 791 ] F O O
the disorders it is liable to produce in the primce vice,
and its falling short to give strength, there seem to be
no bad consequences it can produce to the blood ves¬
sels; for there is no instance where its peculiar acri¬
mony was ever carried there, and it is certainly less
putrefiable than animal food ; nor, without the utmost
indolence, and a sharp appetite, does it give plethora,
or any of its consequences : so that we cannot here but
conclude, that a large proportion of vegetable food is
useful for the generality of mankind.
There is no error in this country more dangerous,
or more common, than the neglect of bread : for it is
the safest of vegetable aliments, and the best corrector
of animal food ; and, by a large proportion of this
alone, its bad consequences, when used in a hypochon¬
driac state, have been obviated. The French appar-
rently have as much animal food on their tables as the
British ; and yet, by a greater use of bread, and the
dried acid fruits, its bad effects are prevented ; and
therefore bread should be particularly used by the
English, as they are so voracious of animal food. Ve¬
getable food is not only necessary to secure health, but
long life: and, as we have said, in infancy and youth
we should be confined to it mostly: in manhood, and
decay of life, use animal food ; and near the end, ve¬
getable again.
There is another question much agitated, viz. What
are the effects of variety in food? Is it necessary and
allowable, or universally hurtful ? Variety of a certain
kind seems necessary ; as vegetable and animal foods
have their mutual advantages, tending to correct each
other. Another variety, which is very proper, is that
of liquid and solid food, which should be so managed
as to temper each other; and liquid food, especially of
the vegetable kind, is too ready to pass off before it is
properly assimilated, while solid food makes a long
stay. But this does not properly belong to the question,
whether variety of the same kind is necessary or pro¬
per, as in animal foods, beef, fish, fowl, &c. It doth
not appear that there is any inconvenience arising from
this mixture, or difficulty of assimilation, provided a
moderate quantity be taken. When any inconvenience
does arise, it probably proceeds from this, that one of
the particular substances in the mixture, when taken
by itself, would produce the same effects; and indeed it
would appear that this effect is not heightened by the
mixture, but properly obviated by it. There are few
exceptions to this, if any, e. g. taking a large propor¬
tion of acescent substances with milk. The coldness,
&c. acidity, flatulency, &o. may appear; and it is pos¬
sible that the coagulum, from the acescency of the
vegetables, being somewhat stronger induced, may give
occasion to too long retention in the stomach, and to
acidity in too great degree. Again, the mixture offish
and milk often occasions inconveniences. The theory
of this is difficult, though, from universal consent, it
must certainly be just. Can we suppose that fish gives
occasion to such a coagulum as runnet ? If it does so,
it may produce bad effects. Besides, fishes approach
somewhat to vegetables, in giving little stimulus ; and
are accused of the same bad effects as these, viz. bring¬
ing on the cold fit of fever. ^ ,
Thus much may be said for variety. But it also
has its disadvantages, provoking to gluttony ; this,
and the art of cookery, making men take in more than
they properly can digest : and hence, perhaps very
justly, physicians have universally almost preferred sim¬
plicity of diet ; for, in spite of rules, man’s eating will
only be measured by his appetite, and satiety is sooner
produced by one than by many substances. But this
is so far from being an argument against variety, that
it is one for it, as the only way of avoiding a full meal
of animal food, and its bad effects, is by presenting a
quantity of vegetables. Another mean of preventing
the bad effects of animal food, is to take a large pro¬
portion of liquid ; and hence the bad effects of animal
food are less felt in Scotland, on account of their drink¬
ing much with it, and using broths, which are at once
excellent correctors of animal food and preventives of
gluttony.
With regard to the difference between ANIMAL
FOODS, properly so called, the first regards their solubi¬
lity, depending on a lax or firm texture of their different
kinds.
I. Solubility of animal food seems to deserve less
attention than is commonly imagined; for there are
many instances of persons of a weak stomach, incapable
of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of
dissolving a light pudding, to whom hung beef, or a
piece of ham, was very grateful and easily digested.
None of the theories given for the solution of animal
food in the human stomach seem to have explained
the process sufficiently. Long ago has been discarded
the supposition of an active corrosive menstruum there ;
and also the doctrine of trituration, for which, indeed
there seems no mechanism in the human body; and,
till lately, physicians commonly agreed with Boerhaave
in supposing nothing more to be necessary than a wa¬
tery menstruum, moderate heat, and frequent agita¬
tion. This will account for solution in some cases, but
not entirely. Let us try to imitate it out of the body
with the same circumstances, and in ten times the time
in which the food is dissolved in the stomach we shall
not be able to bring about the same changes. Take
the coagulated white of an egg, which almost every
body can easily digest, and yet no artifice shall be able
to dissolve it. Hence, then, we are led to seek another
cause for solution, viz. fermentation ; a notion, indeed,
formerly embraced, but on the introduction of me¬
chanical philosophy, industriously banished, with every
other supposition of that process taking place at all in
the animal economy.
Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to
be putrefactive. But this we deny, as an acid is pro¬
duced ; though hence the fermentation might be rec¬
koned the vinous; which, however, seems always to be
morbid. Neither indeed is the fermentation purely
acetous, but modified by putrescence ; for Pringle has
observed, that animal matters raise and even expede the
acetous process. The fermentation, then, in the sto¬
mach is of a mixed nature, between the acetous and the
putrefactive, mutually modifying each other; though,
indeed, in the intestines, somewhat of the putrefactive
seems to take place, as may be observed from the state
of the feces broke down, and from the little disposition
of such substances to be so, which are not liable to the
putrefactive process, as the firmer parts of vegetables,
&c. Upon this view solution seems to be extremely
easy, and those substances to be most easily broke down
which
F O O
Faod. which are most subject to putrefaction. See Anato-
—v—' MY, and Gastric Juice.
But solution also depends on other circumstances, and
hence requires a more particular regard.
1. There is a difference of solubility with respect to
the manducation of animal food, for which bread is ex¬
tremely necessary, in order to keep the more slippery
parts in the mouth till they be properly comminuted.
From want of proper manducation persons are subject
to eructations $ and this more frequently from the
firm vegetable foods, as apples, almonds, &c. than from
the animal, though, indeed, even from animal food,
very tendinous, or swallowed in unbroken masses, such
sometimes occur. Manducation is so much connected
with solution, that some, from imperfectly performing
that, are obliged to belch up their food, remanducate
it, and swallow it again before the stomach can dis¬
solve it, or proper nourishment be extracted. Another
proof of our regard to solubility, is our rejecting the
firmer parts of animal food, as bull beef, and generally
carnivorous animals.
2. Its effects with regard to solubility seem also to
be the foundation of our choice between fat and lean,
young and old meats. In the lean although perhaps
a single fibre might be sufficiently tender, yet these,
when collected \n fasciculi, are very firm and compact,
and of difficult solution $ whereas in the fat there is a
greater number of vessels, a greater quantity of juice,
more interposition of cellular substance, and conse¬
quently more solubility. Again, in young animals,
there is probably the same number of fibres as in the
older, but these more connected : whereas, in the old¬
er, the growth depending on the separation of these,
and the increase of vessels and cellular substance, the
texture is less firm and more soluble j which qualities,
with regard to the stomach, are at that time too increas¬
ed, by the increased alkalescency of the animal. To
this also may be referred our choice of castrated ani¬
mals, viz. on account of their disposition to fatten af¬
ter the operation.
3. It is with a view to the solubility, that we make
a choice between meats recently killed, and tho?e
which have been kept for some time. As soon as
meat is killed, the putrefactive process begins $ which
commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that
process is the most effectual breaker down of animal
matters, and a great assistance to solution. The length
of time during which meat ought to be kept, is pro¬
portioned to the meat’s tendency to undergo the pu¬
trid fermentation, and the degree of those circum¬
stances which favour it: Thus, in the torrid zone,
where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours,
it is used much more x’ecent than in these northern cli¬
mates.
4. Boiled or roasted meats create a difference of so¬
lution. By boiling we extract the juices interposed
between the fibres, approximate them more to each
other, and render them of more difficult solubility;
which is increased too by the extraction of the juices,
which are much more alkalescent than the fibres : but
when we want to avoid the stimulus of alkalescent
food, and the quick solution, as in some cases of dis¬
ease, the roasted isiiot to be chosen. Of roasted meats
it may be asked, which are more proper, those which
are most or least roasted ? That which is least done is
3
F O O
certainly the most soluble : even raw meats are more Food,
soluble than dressed, as Dr Cullen was informed by a
person who from necessity was obliged, for some time,
to eat such. But at the same time that meats little
done are very soluble, they are very alkalescent ; so
that, wherever we want to avoid alkalescency in the
prbyice vice, the most roasted meats should be chosen.
Those who throw away the broths of boiled meat do
very improperly j for, besides their supplying a fluid,
from their greater alkalescency they increase the solu¬
bility of the meat. Here we shall observe, that pure
blood has been thought insoluble. Undoubtedly it is
very nutritious j and though out of the body, like the
white of eggs, it seems very insoluble, yet, like that
too, in the body it is commonly easily digested. Mo¬
ses very properly forbade it the Israelites, as in warm
countries it is highly alkalescent ; and even here,
when it was used in great quantity, the scurvy was
more frequent : but to a moderate use of it, in these
climates, no such objection takes place.
5. Solubility is varied from another source, viz. vis¬
cidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then,
appear more soluble than old, not only on account of
the compaction and firmness of texture in the latter,
but also their greater viscidity of juice. And nothing
is more common, than to be longer oppressed from a
full meal of veal, than from the same quantity of beef,
&c. Upon account, too, of their greater viscidity of
juice, are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of ani¬
mals longer retained than the purely muscular, as well
as on account of their firmness of texture. Even fishes,
whose muscular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on
account of their gluey viscosity, longer in solution in
the stomach. And eggs, too, which are exceedingly
nourishing, have the same effect, and cannot be taken
in great quantity : For the stomach is peculiarly sen¬
sible to gelatinous substances •, and by this means has
nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a sort of in¬
stinct, to limit ourselves in the quantity of such nutri¬
tive substances.
6. With regard to solution, we must take in the oils
of animal food; which, when tolerably pure, are the
least putrescent part of it, and, by diminishing the co¬
hesion of the fibres, render them more soluble. On
this last account is the lean of fat meat more easily dis¬
solved than other lean. But when the meat is expo¬
sed to much heat, this oil is separated, leaving the so¬
lid parts less easily soluble, and becoming itself empy-
reumatic, rancescent, and of difficult mixture in the stoi
mach. Fried meats, from the reasons now given, and
baked meats, for the same, as well as for the tenacity
of the paste, are preparations which diminish the solu¬
bility of the food. From what has been said, the pre¬
paration of food by fattening it, and keeping it for
some time after being killed, although it may administer
to gluttony, will yet, it must be confessed, increase the
solution of the food.
II. The second difference of animal food is with re¬
gard to Alkalescency.
Of this we have taken a little notice aheady under
the head of Solubility.
1. From their too great alkalescency we commonly
avoid the carnivorous animals, and the ferae; and
choose rather the granivorous. Some birds, indeed,
which live on insects, are admitted into cur food ; but
on
[ 792 1
Food.
( F 0 0 [ 793 ]
no man, without nausea^ can live upon these alone for tious.'
any length of time. Fishes, too, are an exception to
this rule, living almost universally on each other. But
in these the alkalescency does not proceed so far; whe¬
ther from the viscidity of their juice, their want of heat,
or some peculiarity in their economy, is not easy to
determine.
2. Alkalescency is determined by difference of age.
The older animals are always more alkalescent than the
young, from their continual progress to putrefaction.
Homberg always found in his endeavours to extract an
acid from human blood, that more was obtained from
the young than from the old animals.
3. A third circumstance which varies the alkalescen¬
cy of the food, is the wildness or tameness of the ani¬
mal ; and this again seems to depend on its exercise.
Dr Cullen knew a gentleman who was fond of cats for
food; but he always used to feed them on vegetable
food, and kept them from exercise; and in the same
manner did the Romans rear up their rats, when in¬
tended for food. In the same way the flesh of the
partridge and the hen seems to be much the same ;
only, from its being more on the wing, the one is more
alkalescent than the other. Again, tame animals are
commonly used without their blood; whereas the wild
are commonly killed in their blood, and upon that ac¬
count, as well as their greater exercise, are more alka¬
lescent.
4. The alkalescency of food may be determined from
the quantity of volatile salt it affords. The older the
meat is, it is found to give the greater proportion of
volatile salt.
5. The alkalescency of aliment may also, in some
measure, be determined from its colour, the younger
animals being whiter and less alkalescent. We also
take a mark from the colour of the gravy poured out,
according to the redness of the juices judging of the
animal’s alkalescency.
6. The relish of food is found to depend much on its
alkalescency, as does also the stimulus it gives and the
fever it produces in the system. These effects are also
complicated with the viscidity of the food, by which
means it is longer detained in the stomach, and the want
of alkalescency supplied.
Having mentioned animal food as differing in solu¬
bility and alkalescency, which often go together in the
same subject, we come to the third difference, viz.
III. Quantity of Nutriment. Which is either ab¬
solute or relative: absolute with respect to the quanti¬
ty it really contains, sufficient powers being given to
extract it; relative, with respect to the assimilatory
powers of those who use it. The absolute nutriment
is of some consequence : but the relative, in the robust
and healthy, and except in cases of extraordinary
weakness, may, without much inconvenience, be dis¬
regarded. In another case is the quantity of nourish¬
ment relative, viz. with regard to its perspirability;
for if the food is soon carried off by the excretions, it
is the same thing as if it contained a less proportion of
nourishment. For, giving more fluid, that which is
longer retained affords most; and, for the repair of the
solids, that retention also is of advantage. Now, gela¬
tinous substances are long retained ; and, besides, are
themselves animal substances dissolved; so that, both
absolutely and relatively, such substances are nutri-
Vol. VIII. Part II. f
F O O
Of this kind are eggs, shell fish, &c. In
adults, though it is disputed whether their solids need
any repair, yet at any rate, at this period, fluid is
more required ; for this purpose the alkalescent foods
are most proper, being most easily dissolved. They are,
at the same time, the most perspirable ; on one hand
that alkalescency leading to disease, while on the other
their perspirability obviates it. Adults, therefore, as
writers justly observe, are better nourished on the al¬
kalescent ; the young and growing, on gelatinous
foods. All this leads to a comparison of young and
old meats ; the first being more gelatinous, and the last
more alkalescent. This, however, by experience, is
not yet properly ascertained. Mr Geoffrey is the only
person who has been taken up with the analysis of
foods. 'SttMemoires del'Academic, 1731 & 1732.
His attempt was certainly laudable, and in some re¬
spects usefully performed ; but, in general, his experi¬
ments were not sufficiently repeated, nor are indeed
sufficiently accurate. He has not been on his guard
against the various circumstances which affect meats;
the cow-kind liking a moist succulent herbage, which
is not to be got in warm climates; while the sheep are
fond of dry food, and thrive best there. Again, some
of his experiments seem contradictory. He says, that
veal gives more solution than beef, while lamb gives less
than mutton, which is much to be doubted. If both
he and Sanctorius had examined English beef, the re¬
sult probably would have been very different as to its
perspirability, &c. Besides, Mr Geoffrey has only ana¬
lyzed beef and veal when raw; has made no proper
circumstantial comparisons between quadrupeds and
birds ; and has examined these last along with their
bones, and not their muscles, &c. by themselves, as
he ought to have done, &c. If a set of experiments
of this kind were properly and accurately performed,
they might be of great use; but at present, for the
purpose of determining our present object, we must
have recourse to our alkalescency, solubility, &c.
IV. The fourth difference of animal food is, The
Nature of the Fluids they afford. The whole of this
will be understood from what has been said on alkales¬
cency ; the fluid produced being more or less dense
and stimulating, in proportion as that prevails.
V. The fifth difference of animal foods is with re¬
spect to their
Perspirability. The sum of what can be said on
this matter is this, that such foods as promote an ac¬
cumulation of fluid in our vessels and dispose to ple¬
thora, are the least perspirable, and commonly give
most strength; that the more alkalescent foods are the
most perspirable, though the viscid and less alkalescent
may attain the same property by long retention in the
system. The authors on perspirability have determin¬
ed the perspiration of foods as imperfectly as Mr Geof-
froy has done the solubility, and in a few cases only.
We must not lay hold on what Sanctorius has said on
the perspirability of mutton, because he has not exa¬
mined in the same way other meats in their perfect
state; far less on what Keil says of oysters, as he him¬
self was a valetudinarian, and consequently an unfit
subject for such experiments, and probably of a pecu¬
liar temperament.
As to the effects of Food on the Mind, we have
already hinted at them above. It is plain, that deli-
5 H eacy
Food.
F O O [ 794 ]
Food c ity of feeling, liveliness of imagination, quickness of circumference.
f[ apprehension, and acuteness of judgment, more fre-
Foosht. quently accompany a weak state of the body.. Irue
' it is, indeed, that the same state is liable to timidity,
fluctuation and doubt J while the strong have that
steadiness of judgment, and firmness of purpose, which
are proper for the higher and more active scenes ot
life. The most valuable state of the mind, however,
appears to reside in somewhat less firmness and vigour
of body. Vegetable aliment, as never over-distending
the vessels or- loading the system, never interrupts the
stronger motions of the mind j while the heat,.fulness,
and weight, of animal food, are an enemy to its vigo¬
rous efforts. Temperance, then, does not so much con¬
sist in the quantity, for that always will be regulated
by our appetite, as in the quality, viz,, a large propor¬
tion of vegetable aliment.
A considerable change has now taken place in the
articles made use of as food by the ancients, by substi¬
tuting, instead of what were then used, particularly of
the vegetable kind, a number of more bland, agxeeable,
and nutritive juices. The acorns and nuts of the pri¬
mitive times have given way to a variety of sweeter fa¬
rinaceous seeds and roots. To the malvaceous tribe of
plants, so much used by the Greeks and Romans, has
succeeded the more grateful spinach-, and to the blite,
the garden orach. The rough borage is supplanted by
the acescent sorrel} and asparagus has banished a num¬
ber of roots recorded by the Roman writers under the
name of bulbs; bnt Linnaeus is of opinion, that the
parsnip has undeservedly usurped the place of the skir-
ret. The bean of the ancients, improperly so called, be¬
ing the roots as well as other parts ot the nymphxa ne-
lumbo, or Indian water-lily, is superseded by the kidney
bean. The garden rocket, eaten with and as an antidote
against the chilling qualities of the lettuce, is banished
by the more agreeable cress and tarragon \ the apium.
by the meliorated celery ; the pompion, and others of
the cucurbitaceous tribe, by the melon } and the sumach
berries, by the fragrant nutmeg. The silphium, or
succus Cyrenaicus, which the Romans purchased from
Persia and India at a great price, and is thought by
some to have been the asafoetida of the present time, is
no longer used in preference to the alliaceous tribe.
To turn from the vegetable to some of the animal
substitutes, we may mention the carp among fishes as
having excluded a great number held in high estima¬
tion among the Romans •, the change of oil for butter j
of honey for sugar j of mulsa, or liquors made of wine,
water, and honey, for the wines of modern times ; and
that of the ancient zythus for the present improved
malt liquors j not to mention also the Calhda of the
Roman taverns, analogous to our tea and coffee. See
Food and Dietetics, in the Supplement.
Foov of P/ants. See Agriculture Index.
FOOL, according to Mr Locke, is a person who
makes false conclusions from right principles-, where¬
as a madman, on the contrary, draws right conclusions
from wrong principles. See Folly.
Fool-Stones. See Orchis, Botany Lidex.
FOOSITT, an island in the Red sea situated, ac¬
cording to the observations of Mr Bruce, in N. Lat.
JB0 59' dS”- -^t ^ described by him as about five miles
in length from north to south, though only nine in
F O O
It is low and sandy in the southern
part, hut the north rises in a black bill of inconsider¬
able height. It is covered with a kind of bent grass,
which never arises at any great length by reason of
want of rain and the constant browzing of the goats.
There are great appearances of the black hill having
once been a volcano ; and near the north cape the
ground sounds hollow like the Solfaterra in. Italy.
There are a vast number of beautiful fish met with up¬
on the coasts, but few fit for eating j and onr traveller
observed, that the most beautiful were the most noxious
when eaten j none indeed being salutary food except¬
ing those which resembled the fish of the northern seas.
There are many beautiful shell-fish, as the concha ve¬
neris, of several colours and sizes j sea urchins, &c.
Sponges are likewise found all along the coast. There
are also pearls, but neither large nor of a good water j
in consequence of which they sell at no great price.
They are produced by a species of bivalve shells. Se¬
veral large shells, from the fish named bissery are met
with upon stones of ten or twelve tons weight along
the coast. They are turned upon their faces and sunk
into the stones, as into a paste, the stone being raised
all about them in such a manner as to cover the edge
of the shell j “ a proof (says Mr Bruce) that this stone
must some time lately have been soft or liquefied . for
had it been long ago, the sun and air would have worn
the surface of the shell *, but it seems perfectly entire,
and is set in that hard brown rock as the stone of a
ring is in a golden chasing.”—The water in this island
is very good. f
The inhabitants of Foosht are poor fishermen ot a
swarthy colour *, going naked, excepting only a rag
about their waist. They have no bread but what they
procure in exchange for the fish they catch. What
they barter in this manner is called seajan.^ But be¬
sides this they catch another species, which is flat, with
a long tail, and the skin made use of for shagreen, of
which the handles of knives and swords are made.
There is a small town on the island, consisting of about
30 huts, built with faggots of bent grass or sparturo,
supported by a few sticks, and thatched with grass of
the same kind of which they are built.
FOOT, a part of the body of most animals whereon
they stand, walk, &c. See Anatomy.
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or
measure, composed of a certain number of long and
short syllables. j n c 1 ' L
These feet are commonly reckoned 28 : of which
some are simple, as consisting of two or three syllables,
and therefore called dissijllubic or trisyllabic feet; others
are compound, consisting of four syllables, and are there¬
fore called tetrasyllable feet.
The dissyllabic feet are four in number, viz. the
pyrrichius, spondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See rYR-
rhichius, &c. . ,
The trisyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the
dactylus, anapsestus, tribrachys, molossus, amphibra¬
chys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibacchius. ee
Dactyl* &c.
The tetrasyllable are in number 10, viz. the pro-
celeusmaticus, dispondeus, choriamhus, antispastus, di-
ambus, dichoreus, ionicos a majore, ionicus a mmore,
epitritus primus, epitritus secundus, epitritus tertius,
s epifntus
Pooiht,
Foot.
[ 795 ] F O O
Poot epltritus quartus, paeon primus, paeon secundus, paeon
Foote tertius, and paeon quartus. See Proceleusmaticus,
    &c.
Foot is also a long measure consisting of 12 inches.
Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and the
digit into 10 lines.
FoOT-Ha/t, the name of a disorder peculiar to sheep.
It is occasioned by an insect, which when it comes to a
certain maturity, resembles a worm of two, three, or
four inches in length. See Farriery Index.
FooT-Square, is the same measure both in breadth
and length, containing 144 square or superficial
inches.
Cubic or Solid Foot, is the same measure in all the
three dimensions, length, breadth, and depth or thick¬
ness, containing 1728 cubic inches.
„ Foot of a Horse, in the manege, the extremity of
the leg, from the coronet to the lower part of the
hoof.
Foot Level, among artificers, an instrument that
serves as a foot rule, a square, and a level. See Level,
Rule, and Square.
FOOTE, Samuel, Esq. the modern Aristopha¬
nes, was born at Truro, in Cornwall $ and was descend¬
ed from a very ancient family. His father was member
of parliament for Tiverton, in Devonshire, and enjoyed
the post of commissioner of the prize office and fine-
contract. His mother was heiress of the Dinely and
Goodere families. In consequence of a fatal misunder¬
standing between her two brothers, Sir John Dinely
Goodere, Bart, and Samuel Goodere, Esq. captain of
his majesty’s ship the Ruby, which ended in the death
of both, a considerable part of the Goodere estate,
which was better that 5000I. per annum, descended to
Mr Foote.
He was educated at Worcester college, Oxford,
which owed its foundation to Sir Thornes Cookes
Windford, Bart, a second cousin of our author’s. On
leaving the university, he commenced student of law in
the Temple *, but as the dryness of this study did not
suit the liveliness of his genius, he soon relinquised it.
He married a young lady of a good family and some
fortune j but their tempers not agreeing, a perfect
harmony did not long subsist between them. He now
launched into all the fashionable foibles of the age, gam¬
ing not excepted, and in a few years spent his whole
fortune. His necessities led him to the stage, and he
made his first appearance in the character of Othello.
He next performed Fondlewife with much more ap¬
plause $ and this, indeed, W'as ever after one of his ca¬
pital parts. He attempted Lord Foppington likewise,
but prudently gave it up. But as Mr Foote was never
a capital actor in the plays of others, his salary was
very unequal to his gay and extravagant turn j and he
contracted debts which forced him to take refuge with¬
in the verge of the court. On this occasion, he reliev¬
ed his necessities by the following stratagem. Sir
Er s D« 1—1 had long been bis intimate friend, and
had dissipated his fortune by similar extravagance.
Lady N-ss-u P—let, who wms likewise an intimate ac¬
quaintance of Foote’s, and who was exceedingly rich,
was fortunately at that time bent upon a matrimonial
scheme. Foote strongly recommended to her to con¬
sult upon this momentous affair the conjuror in the Old
Bailey, whom be represented as a. man of surprising
skill and penetration. He employed an acquaintance
of his own to personate the conjurer ; who depicted
Sir 1 r s D—1—] at full length 5 described the time
when, the place where, and the dress in which she
would see him. The lady was so struck with the coin¬
cidence of every circumstance, that she married D 1 1
in a few days. For this service Sir Francis settled an
annuity upon Foote; and this enabled him once more
to emerge from obscurity.
In 1747 he opened the little theatre in the Ilay-
maiket, taking upon himself the double character of
author and performer ; and appeared in a dramatic piece
of his own composing, called the Diversions of the
Morning. 1 he piece consisted of nothing more than
the exhibition of several characters well known in real
life ; whose manner of conversation and expression this
author very happily hit off in the diction of his drama,
and still more happily represented on the stage, by an
exact and most amazing imitation, not only of the man¬
ner and tone of voice, but even of the very persons, of
those whom he intended to take off. In this perform¬
ance, a certain phy'sician, Dr L — n, well known for
the oddity and singularity of his appearance and con¬
versation, and the celebrated Chevalier Taylor, who
Was at that time in the height of his popularity, were
made objects of Foote’s ridicule ; the latter, indeed
very deservedly : and, in the concluding part of his
speech, under the character of a theatrical director,
Mr I note took oft, with great humour and accuracy,
the several styles of acting of every principal performer
on the English stage. The performance at first met
with some opposition from the civil magistrates of
Westminster, under the sanction of the act of parlia¬
ment for limiting the number of playhouses, as well
as from the jealousy of one of the managers of Drury-
lane playhouse: but the author being patronized by'
many of the principal nobility, and other persons of
distinction, this opposition was overruled: and having
altered the title of his performance, Mr Foote proceed¬
ed, without further molestation, to give Tea in a Morn¬
ing to his friends, and represented it through a run of
40 mornings to crowded and splendid audiences.—
The ensuing season he produced another piece of the
same kind, which he called An Auction of Pictures. In
this performance he introduced several new and popu¬
lar characters; particularly Sir Thomas de Veil, then
the acting justice of peace for Westminster, Mr Cock
the celebrated auctioneer, and the equally famous Ora¬
tor Henley. This piece also had a very great run.—
His Knights, which was the production of the ensuing
season, was a performance of somewhat more dramatic
regularity: but still, although his plot and characters
seemed less immediately personal, it was apparent that
he kept some particular real persons strongly in his eye
in the performance ; and the town took upon them¬
selves to fix them where the resemblance appeared to
be the most striking. Thus Mr Foote continued from
time to time to select, for the entertainment of the
public, such characters, as well general as indivi¬
dual, as seemed most likely to engage their attention.
His dramatic pieces, exclusive of the interlude called
Piety in Pattens, are as follows : Taste, the Knights,
The Author, The Englishman in Paris, The English¬
man returned from Paris, The Mayor of Garrat, The
Liar, The Patron, The Minor, The Orators, The
5 H 2 Commissary,
F O O
Foote. Commissary, The Devil upon two Sticks, Ihe Lame
——y- Lover, The Maid of Bath, Ihe Nabob, the Cozeners,
The Capuchin, the Bankrupt, and an unfinished co¬
medy called The Slanderer. All these works are only
to be ranked among the petites pieces of the theatre.
In the execution they are somewhat loose, negligent,
and unfinished •, the plots are often irregular, and the
catastrophes not always conclusive } but with all these
deficiencies, they contain more strength of character,
more strokes of keen satire, and more touches of tem¬
porary humour, than are to be found in the writings of
any other modern dramatist. Even the language spo¬
ken by his characters, incorrect as it may sometimes
seem, will on a closer examination he found entirely
dramatical j as it abounds with those natural minutiae
of expression which frequently form the very basis of
character, and which render it the truest mirror of the
conversation of the times in which he wrote.
In the year 1^766, being on a party of pleasure with
the late duke of York, Lord Mexborough, and Sir
Francis Delaval, Mr Foote had the misfortune to
break his leg, by a fall from his horse $ in consequence
of which he was compelled to undergo an amputation.
This accident so sensibly affected the duke, that he
made a point of obtaining for Mr Foote a patent for
life; whereby he was allowed to perform, at the little
theatre in the Haymarket, from the 15th of May to
the 15th of September every year.
He now became a greater favourite of the town
than ever : his very laughable pieces, with his more
laughable performance, constantly filled his house; and
his receipts were sometimes almost incredible. Par¬
simony was never a vice to be ascribed to Mr Foote j
his hospitality and generosity were ever conspicuous j he
was visited by the first nobility, and he was sometimes
honoured even by royal guests.
The attack made upon his character by one of his
domestics, whom he had dismissed for misbehaviour, is
too well known to be particularized here. Suffice it
to say, he was honourably acquitted of that charge :
but it is believed by some, that the shock which he re¬
ceived from it accelerated his death *, others pretend,
that his literary altercation with a certain then duchess,
or rather her agents, much affected him, and that from
that time his health declined. It is probable, however,
that his natural volatility of spirits could scarcely fail
to support him against all impressions from either of
these quarters.
Mr Foote, finding his health decline, entered into
an agreement with Mr Colman, for his patent of the
theatre j according to which, he was to receive from
Mr Colman, x6ool. per annum, besides a stipulated sum
whenever he chose to perform. Mr Foote made his
appearance two or three times in some oi the most ad¬
mired characters ; but being suddenly aflected with a
paralytic stroke one night whilst upon the stage, he
was compelled to retire. He was advised to bathe $
and accordingly retired to Brighthelmstone, where he
apparently recovered his former health and spirits, and
was what is called \\\e fiddle of the company who resort¬
ed to that agreeable place of amusement. A few weeks
before his death, he returned to London ; but, by the
advice of his physicians, set out with an intention to
spend the winter at Paris and in the south of France.
He had got no farther than Dover, when he was sud-
F O R
denly attacked by another stroke of the palsy, which Foote
in a few hours terminated his existence. He died on ||
the 21st of October 1777, in the 56th year of his age, ^orcc*
and was privately interred in the cloisters of Westmin- ~L" ^
ster abbey.
FOP, probably derived from the vappa of Horace,
applied in the first satire of his first book to the wild
and extravagant Neevius, is used among us to denote a
person who cultivates a regard to adventitious ornament
and beauty to excess.
FORAMEN, in Anatomy, a name given to several
apertures or perforations in divers parts of the body J
as, 1. The external and internal foramina of the cra¬
nium or skull. 2. The foramina in the upper and lower
jaw. 3. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen membranfe
tympani.
Foramen Ovale, an oval aperture or passage through
the heart of a foetus, which closes up after birth. It
arises from the coronal vein, near the right auricle, and
passes directly into the left auricle of the heart, serving
for the circulation of the blood in the foetus, till such*
time as the infant breathes, and the lungs are open :
in this the foetus differs from the adult $ although
almost all anatomists, Mr Cheselden excepted, assure
us, that the foramen ovale has sometimes been found in
adults. See Foetus.
FORBES, Duncan, Esq. of Culloden, lord presi¬
dent of the court of session in Scotland, was born in
the year 1685. In his early life, he was brought up
in a family remarkable for hospitality j which, perhaps,
led him afterwards to a freer indulgence in social plea¬
sures. His natural disposition inclined him to the ar¬
my : but, as he soon discovered a superior genius, by
the advice of his friends he applied himself to letters.
He directed his studies particularly to the civil law $ in
which he made a quick progress, and in 1709 was ad¬
mitted an advocate. From 1722 to I737> l'e repre¬
sented in parliament the boroughs oflnverness, Fortrose,
Nairn, and Forres. In 1725, he was made king’s ad¬
vocate; and in 1737 lord president of the courtof session.
In the rebellions which broke out in Scotland in 1715
and 1745 he espoused the roval cause ; but with so much
prudence and moderation did he conduct himself at this
delicate conjuncture, that not a whisper was at any time
heard to his prejudice. The glory he acquired in ad¬
vancing the prosperity of his country, and in contribu¬
ting to re-establish peace and order, was the only reward .
of his services. He had even impaired, and almost ruin¬
ed, his private fortune in the cause of the public : but
government did not make him the smallest recompense.
The minister, with a meanness for which it is difficult
to account, desired to have a state of his disbursements.
Shocked at the incivility and rudeness of this treatment,
he left the minister without making any reply. Through¬
out the whole course of his life he had a lively sense of
religion, without the least taint of superstition ; and his
charity was extended to every sect and denomination oi
religionists indiscriminately. He was well versed in the
Hebrew language ; and wrote in a flowing and orato-
rial style, concerning religion natural and revealed,
some important discoveries in theology and philosophy,
and concerning the sources of incredulity. He died in
1747, in the (>2d year of his age ; and his works have
since been published in two volumes octavo.
FORCE, in Philosophy, denotes the cause of the
change
[ 796 ]
F O It [
Force change in the state of a body, when, being at rest, it
—v-——' begins to move, or has a motion which is either not
uniform or not direct. While a body remains in the
same state, either of rest or of uniform and rectilinear
motion, the cause of its remaining in such a state is in
the nature of the body, and it cannot be said that any
extrinsic force has acted on it. Ibis internal cause or
principle is called inertia.
Mechanical forces may be reduced to two sorts : one
of a body at rest, the other of a body in motion.
The force of a body at rest, is that which we con¬
ceive to be in a body lying still on a table, or banging
by a rope, or supported by a spring, &c. and this is
called by the names of pressure, tension, force, or vis
mortua, solicitatio, conatus movendi, conamen, &.c.
To this class also of forces we must refer centripetal
and centrifugal forces, though they reside in a body in
motion j because these forces are homogeneous to
weights, pressures, or- tensions of any kind.
The force of a body in motion is a power residing
in that body so long as it continues its motion by
means of which it is able to remove obstacles lying
in its way •, to lessen, destroy, or overcome the force
of any other moving body which meets it in an oppo¬
site direction j or to surmount any dead pressure or re¬
sistance, as tensity, gravity, friction, &c. for some
time j but which will be lessened or destroyed by such
resistance as lessens or destroys the motion of the bo¬
dy. This is called moving force, vis matrix, and by
some late writers vis viva, to distinguish it from the
vis mortua spoken of before ; and by these appellations,
however different, the same thing is understood by all
mathematicians •, namely, that power of displacing,
of withstanding opposite moving forces, or of overcom¬
ing any dead resistance, which resides in a moving
1
FOR
body, and which, in whole or in part, continues to
accompany it, so long as the body moves. See Me-.
CHANICS.
We have several curious as well as useful observa¬
tions in Desaguliers’s Experimental Philosophy, con¬
cerning the comparative forces of men and horses, and
the best way of applying them. A horse draws with
the greatest advantage when the line of direction is le¬
vel with his breast; in such a situation, he is able to
draw 200lb. eight hours a-day, walking about two
miles and a half an hour. And if the same horse is
made to draw 2401b. he can work but six hours a-day,
and cannot go quite so fast. On a carriage, indeed,
where friction alone is to be overcome, a middling
horse will draw looolb. But the best way to try a
horse’s force, is by making him draw up out of a well,
over a single pulley or roller j and, in such a case, one
horse with another will draw 200lb. as already ob¬
served.
Five men are found to he equal in strength to one
horse, and can, with as much ease, push round the ho¬
rizontal beam of a mill, in a walk 40 feet wide ;
whereas three men will do it in a walk only 19 feet
wide.
The worst way of applying the force of a horse, is
to make him carry or draw up hill j for if the hill be
steep, three men will do more than a horse, each man
climbing up faster with a burden of loolb. weight,
than a horse that is loaded with 300lh. ", a difference
which is owing to the position ol the parts of the hu¬
man body being better adapted to climb than those of
a horse. ||
On the other hand, the he^t way of applying the Forcible,
force of a horse, is in a horizontal direction, wherein a v—
man can exert least force j thus a man weighing 1401b.
and drawing a boat along by means of a rope coming
over his shoulders, cannot draw above 271b. or exert
above one-seventh part of the force of a horse employed
to the same purpose.
The very best and most effectual posture in a man,
is that of rowing, in which he not only acts with more
muscles at once for overcoming the resistance, than in
any other position ; but as he pulls backward, the
weight of his body assists by way of lever. See Desa-
guiiers, Exp. Phil. vol. i. p. 241. where we have seve¬
ral other observations relative to force acquired by cer¬
tain positions of the body, from which that author ac¬
counts for most feats of strength and activity. See also
a Memoire on this subject by M. de la Hire, in Mem.
Koy. Acad. Sc. 1629 j or in Desagnliers, Exp. &c.
267, &c. who has published a translation of part of it,
with remarks.
Citizen Regnierhas invented an instrument for ascer¬
taining the relative strength of men and animals, for an
account of which, see Dynamometer ; and for a fuller
description of the apparatus, the reader may consult the
original paper on the subject in Jour, de PEcole Pohj-
ter/i. vol. ii. or the translation in Phil. Mag. vol. i.
Force, in Law, signifies any unlawful violence of¬
fered to things or persons, and is divided into simple
and compound. Simple force is what is so committed,
that it has no other crime attending it 5 as where a
person by force enters on another’s possession, without
committing any other unlawful act. Compoundforce,
is where some other violence is committed, with such
an act which of itself alone is criminal ; as if one en¬
ters by force into another’s house, and there kills a per¬
son, or ravishes a woman. There is likewise a force
implied in law, as in every trespass, rescue, or dissei¬
sin, and an actual force with weapons, number of per¬
sons, &c.—Any person may lawfully enter a tavern,
inn, or victualling-house 5 so may a landlord his te¬
nant’s house to view repairs, &c. But if, in these
cases, the person that enters commits any violence or
force the law will intend that he entered for that pur¬
pose.
FORCEPS, in Surgery, &c. a pair of scissars for-
cutting off, or dividing, the fleshy membranous parts of
the body, as occasion requires. See SURGERY.
FORCER, in Mechanics, is properly a piston, with¬
out a valve. For by drawing up such a piston, the air
is drawn up, and the water follows $ then pushing the
piston down again, the water, being prevented from de¬
scending by the lower valve, is forced up to any height
above, by means of a side branch between the two.
FORCIBLE ENTRY, is a violent and actual entry
into houses or lands •, and a forcible detainer, is where
one by violence withholds the possession of lands, &e.
so that the person who has a right of entry is barred,
or hindered, therefrom.
At common law, any person that had a right to en¬
ter into lands, &c. might retain possession of it by
force. But this liberty being abused, to the breach
of the peace, it. was therefore found necessary that the
same should be restrained: Though, at this day, he
who
FOR
Forcible, who is wrongfully dispossessed ol goods may by force
——y—■»' retake them. By statute no person shall make an en¬
try on any lands or tenements, except where it is given
by law, and in a peaceable manner, even though they
have title of entry, on pain of imprisonment j and where
a forcible entry is committed, justices of the peace are
authorized to view the place, and inquire of the force
bv a jury, summoned by the sheriff ot the county ; and
they may cause the tenements, &c. to be restored, and
imprison the offenders till they pay a fine. likewise a
writ of forcible entry lies, where a person seized of
freehold, is by force put out thereof.
Forcible Marriage, of a woman of estate, is felony.
For by the statute 3 H. VII. c. 2. it is enacted, “ That
if anv persons shall take away any woman having lands
or goods, or that is heir-apparent to her ancestor, by
force and against her will, and marnj or defile her j the
takers, procurers, abettors, and receivers, of the woman
taken away against her will, and knowing the same,
shall be deemed principal felons $ but as to procurers
and accessories before the fact, they are to be excluded
the benefit of clergy, by 39 Elizabeth, c. 9. The in¬
dictment on the statute Hen. VII. is expressly to set
forth, that the woman taken away had lands or goods,
or was heir apparent; and also that she wras married or
defiled, because no other case is within the statute j and
it ought to allege that the taking was for lucre. It is
no excuse that the woman at first was taken away with
her consent *, for if she afterwards refuse to continue
with the offender, and be forced against her will, she
may from that time properly be said to be taken against
her will j and it is not material whether a woman so
taken away be at last married or defiled with her own
consent or not, if she was under force at the time the
offenders being in both cases equally within the words
of the act.
Those persons who, after the fact, receive the of¬
fender, are but accessories after the offence, according
to the rules of common law > and those that are only
privy to the damage, but not parties to the forcible
taking away, are not within the act H. P. C. 119.
A man may be indicted for taking away a woman by
force in another country 5 for the continuing of the
force in any country, amounts to a forcible taking
there. Ibid. Taking away any woman child under
the age of 16 years and unmarried, out of the custody
and without the consent of the father or guardian, &c.
the offender shall suffer fine and imprisonment j and if
the woman agrees to any contract of matrimony wdth
F O K
such person, she shall forfeit her estate during life, to Forcible
the next of kin, to whom the inheritance should de- j)
scend, &c. stat. 4 & 5 P. &. M. c. 8. This is a force Fordwicb,
against the parents •, and an information will lie for se-
ducing a young man or woman from their parents, a-
gainst their consents, in order to marry them, &c. See
Marriage.
FORCING, in Gardening, a method of producing
ripe fruits from trees before their natural season. See
Gardening Index.
Forcing, in the wine trade, a term used by the wine
coopers, for the fining down wines, and rendering them
fit for immediate draught. The principal inconvenience
of the common way of fining down the white wines
with isinglass, and the red with whites of eggs, is the
slowness of the operation ; these ingredients not per¬
forming their office in less than a week, or sometimes a
fortnight, according as the weather proves favourable,
cloudy or clear, windy or calm : this appears to be
matter of constant observation. But the wine mer¬
chant frequently requires a method that shall, with
certainty, make the wines fit for tasting in a few hours.
A method of this kind there is, but it is kept in a few
hands a valuable secret. Perhaps it depends upon a
prudent use of a tartarised spirit of wine, and the
common forcing, as occasion is, along with gypsum,
as the principal *, all which are to be well stirred
about in the wine, for half an hour before it is suf¬
fered to rest.
FORDOUN, John of, the father of Scottish his¬
tory, flourished in the reign of Alexander III. to¬
wards the end of the 13th century. But of his life
there is nothing known with certainty, though there
was not a monastery that possessed not copies of his
work. The first five books of the history which bears
his name were written by him : the rest wrere fabrica¬
ted from materials left by him, and from new collec¬
tions by different persons. There is a manuscript in
vellum of Fordoun’s History, in the library of the uni¬
versity of Edinburgh.
FORDWICH, a town of Kent, called in Dooms¬
day Book “ the little borough of Fordwich,” is a mem¬
ber of the port of Sandwich, and was anciently incor¬
porated by the style of the barons of the town of Ford¬
wich, but more lately by the name of the mayor,
jurats, and commonalty, who enjoy the same privileges
as the cinque ports. This place is famous for excellent
trouts in its river Stour.
[ 798 ]
END OF THE EIGHTH VOLOME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of
Part I.
Plate CC. CCI. to face
ecu.
CCIIL—CCVI.
CCVII.—CCIX.
ccx.
Part II.
CCXL—CCXVI.
CCXVII.
CCXVIII.
CCXIX. ccxx.
Vol. VIII.
Page 10
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238
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