f recenthi 1V"*' 1*^ %'* See Asteria and Star-STONE. >—-y——f ASTROLABE, the name for a ftereographic pro- jedtion of the fphere, either upon the plane of the equa¬ tor, the eye being fuppofed to be in the pole of the wmrld ; or upon the plane of the meridian, when the eye is fuppofed in the point of the interfcdlion of the equinodtial and horizon. Astrolabe is alfo the name of an inftrument for¬ merly ufed for taking the altitude of the fun or ftars at fea. Astrolabe, among the ancients, w as the fame as our armillary fphere. ASTROLOGY, a conjedtural fcience, which teach¬ es to judge of the effedfs and influences of the ftars, and to foretel future events by the fituation and different af- pedfs of the heavenly bodies. This fcience has been divided into two branches, na¬ tural and judiciary. To the former belongs the pre- didfing of natural effedts} as, the changes of weather, winds, ftorms, hurricanes, thunder, floods, earthquakes, &c. This art properly belongs to natural philofophy 5 and is only to be deduced, d pojleriori, from phenomena and obfervations. Judiciary or judicial aftrology, is that which pretends to foretel moral events 5 i. e. fuch as have a dependency on the free will and agency of man ; as if they were dlredted by the flars. This art, which owed its origin to the pradlices of knavery on credulity. N now univerfally exploded by the intelligent part of m u kind. The proteffo- - of this kind of aftrology maintain, ^ That the heavens are one great volume or book, wherein God has written the hiftory of the world j and in which every man may read his own fortune, and the tranfadlions of his time. The art, fay they, had its rife from the fame hands as aftronomy itfelf : while the ancient Affyrians, whofe ferene unclouded Iky. favoured their celeftial obfervations, were intent on tracing the paths and periods of the heavenly bodies, they difeo- vered a conftant fettled relation or analogy between them and things below 5 and hence were led to con¬ clude tbefe to be the Parcae, the Heftinies, fo much talked of, wdiich prefideatour births, and difpofe of our future fate. “ I he laws, therefore, of this relation being afeer- tained by a feides of obfervations, and the ftrare each planet has therein •, by knowing the precife time of any perfon’s nativity, they were enabled, from their know¬ ledge in aftronomy, to rfreff a fcheme or horofeope of the fituation of the planets at this point of time j and, hence, by confidering their degrees of power and in¬ fluence, and how each was either (Lengthened or tem¬ pered by fome other, to compute what muft be the re- fult thereof.” 1 hus the aftrologers.—But the chief province now remaining to the modern profeffors, is the making of calendars or almanacks. Judicial aftrology is commonly faid to have been invented in Chaldea, and thence tranfmitted to the Greeks, and Romans though fome will have it of Egyptian origin, and aferibe the invention to Cham. But it is to the Arabs that we owe it. At Rome the Part I. Aftrolojy. ^]e people were fo infatuated witlr it, that the aftrolo- gets, or, as they were then called, the mathematicians, maintained their ground in fpite of all the edifts of the emperors to expel them out of the city. See Ge- NETHLtACI. Add, that the Bramins, who introduced and prafti- fed this art among the Indians, have thereby made them- felves the arbiters of good and evil hours, which gives them great authority: they are confulted as oracles, and they have taken care never to fell their anfwers but at good rates. The fame, fuperftition has prevailed in more modern ages and nations. The French hiftorians remark, that in the time of Queen Catherine de Medicis, aftrology was in fo much vogue, that the mod inconfiderable thing was not to be done without confulting the flars. And in the reigns of King Henry III. and I vh of France,, the predictions of aftrologers were the com- 9 mon theme of the court conveifation. This predomi- Aftronium nant humour in that court was well rallied by Barclay, II in his Argents, lib. ii. on occafion of an aftrologer, who^™“^' had undertaken to inftruCt King Henry in the event of L a war then threatened by the faClion of the Guifes. ASTRONIUM. See Botany Index. ASTRONOMICAL, fomething relating to A- STRONOM Y. Astronomical Calendar, an inftrument engraven on copperplates, printed on paper, and pafted on a board, with a brafs llider carrying a hair: it {hows by infpec- tion the fun’s meridian altitude, right afcenfion, decli¬ nation, rifing, fetting, amplitude, &c. to a greater de¬ gree of exaftnefs than the common globes. ASTRONOMICAL Seffor, a very ufeful mathematical inftrument, made by the late ingenious Mr Graham ; a defcription of which is given in the courfe of the following article. ASTRONOMY. AST R Q N O M Y. ASTRONOMY is that fcience which treats of the motions of the heavenly bodies, and explains the laws by which thefe motions are regulated. It is the moft fublime and the moft perfeCI of all the fciences. No fubjeCI has been longer ftudied, or has made greater progrefs. There is a, vaft interval be¬ tween the rude obfervations of the earlier aftronomers, and the precifion and general views which direCt our prefent obfervers. To afcertain the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies was a difficult taflc, and requi¬ red the united obfervations of ages. To unravel thefe intricate mazes, and deteft and demonftrate the real motions, demanded the moft patient perfeverance, judgment, and dexterity. To afcertain the laws of tbefe motions, and to refolve the whole of them in¬ to one general fact, required the exertions of a fagaci- ty fcarcely to be expeCted in human nature. Yet all this has been accomplifhed j and even the moft minute movement of the heavenly bodies has been ffiewn to depend upon the fame general law with all the reft, and even to be a confequence of that law. Aftrono- my, therefore, is highly interefling, were it only be- caufe it exhibits the fineft inftance of the length that the reafoning faculties can go. It is the triumph of philofophy and of human nature. But this is not all. It has conferred upon mankind the greateft benefits, and may truly be confidered as the grand improver and conductor of navigation. The following treatife will be divided into four parts. In the JirJl part, we (hall give a {ketch of the hiftory of aftronomy ; in the Jecond, we fliall treat of the appa¬ rent motions of the heavenly bodies ; in the third, of their real motions •, and in the fourth, of gravitation, or of that general faCI to which all their motions may be referred, and from which they proceed. PART I. HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY. Hiftory. Aftronomy fuppofed to be under- ftood by Adam and the Antedi¬ luvians. THE antiquity of this fcience may be gathered from what was fpoken by the Deity at the time of creating the celeftial luminaries, “ Let them be for figns and feafons,” &c. whence it is thought probable that the human race never exifted without fome knowledge of aftronomy among them. Indeed, befides the motives of mere curiofity, which of themfelves may be fuppofed to have excited people to a contemplation of the glori¬ ous celeftial canopy, as far as that was poffible, it iseafily to be feen that fome parts of the fcience anfvver fuch effential purpofes to mankind, that they could not poffi- bly be difpenfed with. By fome of the Jewifti rabbins, Adam, in his ftate of innocence, is fuppofed to have been endowed with a knowledge of the nature, influence, and ufes of the heavenly bodies ; and Jofephus afcribes to Seth and his pofterity an extenfive knowledge of aftronomy. But whatever may be in this, the long lives of the Antedi- Vol. III. Part I. luvians certainly afforded fuch an excellent opportunity for obferving the celeftial bodies, that we cannot but fuppofe the fcience of aftronomy to have been confider- ably advanced before the flood. Jofephus fays, that longevity was beftovved upon them for the very purpofe of improving the fciences of geometry and aftronomy. The latter could not be learned in lefs than 600 years : “ for that period (fays he) is the grand year.” By which it is fuppofed he meant the period wherein the fun and moon came again into the fame fituation as they were in the beginning thereof, with regard to the nodes, apogee of the moon, &c. “ This period (fays Caffini), whereof we find no intimation in any monu¬ ment of any other nation, is the fineft period that ever was invented : for it brings out the folar year more exaftly than that of Hipparchus and Ptolemy ; and the lunar month within about one fecond of what is determined by modern {fftronomers. If the Antedilu- B vians Hiftory. IO ASTRONOMY. Part I. Hiftory. vians had fuch a period of 600 years, they muft have 1——' known the motion of the fun and moon more exadlly than their defcendants knew them fome ages after the ^ flood.” Aftronomi- On the building of the tower of Babel, Noah is fup- cal know- pofed to have retired with his children born after the ledge of tlie flood, to the north-eaftern part of Afia, where his de- Chinde. fcendants peopled the vaft empire of China. “ This (fays Dr Long) may perhaps account for the Chinefe having fo early cultivated the ftudy of aftronomy ; their being fo well fettled in an admirable police, and continuing fo many hundred years as they did in the worlhip of the true God.” The vanity of that people indeed has prompted them to pretend a knowledge of aftronomy almoft; as early as the flood itfelf. Some of the Jefuit miflionaries have found traditional accounts among the Chinefe, of their having been taught this fcience by their firft emperor Fo-hi, fuppofedto be Noah j and Kempfer informs us, that this perfonage difcovered the motions of the heavens, divided time into years and months, and invented the twelve figns into which they divide the zodiac, which they diftinguifti by the following names, x. The moufe. 2. The ox or cow. 3 3. The tiger. 4. The hare. 5. The dragon. 6. The Their ierpent. 7. The horfe. 8. The ftieep. 9. The monkey. thfTfigns of I0' cock or !len- II* The dog j and, 12. The the zodiac, bear. They divide the heavens into 28 conftellations, four of which are afligned to each of the feven planets j fo that the year always begins with the fame planet ; and their conftellations anfwer to the 28 manfions of the moon uled by the Arabian aftronomers. Thefe conftellations, in the Chinefe books of aftronomy, are not marked by the figures of animals, as was in ufe among the Greeks, and from them derived to the other European nations, but by conne&ing the ftars by ftraight lines ; and Dr Long informs us, that in a Chinefe book in thin 410, fljown him by Lord Pem¬ broke, the ftars were reprefented by fmall circles joined by lines j fo that the Great Bear would be marked thus, v_xn To the emperor Hong-ti, the grandfon of Noah, they attribute the difcovery of the pole-ftar, the inven¬ tion of the mariner’s compafs, of a period of 60 years, and fome kind of fphere. This extraordinary antiqui¬ ty, however, is with good reafon fufpedfed, as is like- wife their knowledge in the calculation of eclipfes 5 of which Du Halde aflures us, that 36 are recorded by Confucius himfelf, who lived 551 years before Chrift j and P. Trigault, who went to China in 1619, and read more than 100 volumes of their annals, fays, “ It is certain that the Chinefe began to make aftronomical obfervations foon after the flood ; that they have ob- ferved a great number of eclipfes, in which they have noted down the hour, day, month, and year, when they happened, but neither the duration nor the quantity j and that thefe eclipfes have been made ufe of for re¬ gulating their chronology.” “ But out of this abundance (fays Dr Long), it is much to be regretted, that fo very few of their obfer¬ vations have been particularized ; for befide what has been mentioned above, we meet with no very ancient obfervations of the Chinefe, except a winter folftice in the year nix, and a fummer folftice in the year 882, Hiftory. before Chrift. Martini indeed fpeaks of a fummer fol- ——-v— ftice 2342 years before that period. But M. Cafiini, who calculated it, found that there mult have been an error in the Chinefe computation of 500 years at leaft. An error of equal magnitude appears to have been committed in the conjundlion of the five planets, which it is pretended they obferved between the years 2513 and 2435 before Chrift. In ftiort, fome have fuppo- fed, that none of thefe are real obfervations, but the refult of bungling calculations 5 and it has been hinted, but furely on too flight a foundation, that even thofe good fathers themfelves were greatly to be Lfpe6Ied. But let us come to things which are not contefted. “ P. Gaubil informs us, that at leaft 120 years before Chrift, the Chinefe had determined by obfervation the number and extent of their conftellations as they now ftand j the fituation of the fixed ftars with refpeft to the equinoctial and folftitial points j and the ob¬ liquity of the ecliptic. He farther fays, he cannot tell by what means it is that they foretel eclipfes : but this is certain, that the theory by which they do prediCl them was fettled about the fame time 5 and that they were acquainted with the true length of the folar year, the method of obferving meridian altitudes of the fun by the fhadow of a gnomon, and of learning from thence his declination and the height of the pole, long before. We learn, moreover, from the fame miffiona¬ ry, that there are yet remaining among them fome treatifes of aftronomy, which were written about 2CO years before Chrift, from which it appears, that the Chinefe had known the daily motion of the fun and moon, and the times of the revolutions of the planets, many years before that period. “ We are informed by Du Halde, that, in the pro¬ vince of Honan, and city Teng-foang, which is nearly in the middle of China, there is a tower, on the top of which it is faid that Tcheou-cong, the moft Ikilful aftro- nomer that ever China produced, made his obfervations. He lived 1200 years before Ptolemy, or more than 1000 years before Chrift, and paffed whole nights in obferving the celeftial bodies and arranging them into conftellations. He ufed a very large brafs table placed perfeCBy horizontal, on which was fixed a long-upright plate of the fame metal, both of which were divided into degrees, &c. By thefe he marked the meridian al¬ titudes 5 and from thence derived the times of the fol- ftices, which were their principal epocha.” Dr Long reprefents the ftate of aftronomy in China as at prefent very low j occafioned, he fays, prin¬ cipally by the barbarous decree of one of their em¬ perors *, to have all the books in the empire burnt, *See excepting fuch as related to agriculture and medicine. We are informed, however, by the Abbe Grofier, in his defeription of China, that aftronomy is cultivated in Pekin in the fame manner as in moft of the capital cities of Europe. A particular tribunal is eftabliftied there, the jurifdi£lion of which extends to every thing relating to the obfervation of celeftial phenomena. Its members are, an infpeftor ; two prefidents, one of them a Tartar and the other a Chinefe 5 and a certain number of mandarins who perform the duty of aflef- fors } but for near a century and a half the place of the Chinefe prefident has been filled by an European. Since that time particular attention has been paid to the Part I. Hiftory. the inftru£lion of the aftronomical pupils 5 and the pre- '——v——' fidents have always confidered it as their duty to make them acquainted with the fyftem and method of cal¬ culation made ufe of in Europe. 1 hus two-thirds of the aftronomical pupils, maintained at the emperor’s expence, in all about 200, have a tolerable notion of the fiate of the heavens, and underftand calculation fo well as to be able, to compofe ephemerides of fufficient exadtnefs. The miffionaries have never been the au¬ thors of any of thefe ephemerides : their employment is to revife "the labours of the Chinefe mathematicians, verify their calculations, and corredl any errors into which they have fallen. The Portuguefe million Hill continues to furnifh aftronomers for the academy, as it did at the firft. The aftronomical tribunal is fubordinate to that of ceremonies. When an eclipfe is to be obferved, in¬ formation mult be given to the emperor of the day and hour, the part of the heavens where it will be, &c. and this intelligence muft be communicated fome months before it happens ; the eclipfe muft alfo be calculated for the longitude and latitude of the capital city of every province of the empire. Thefe obfervations, as well as the diagram which reprefents the eclipfe, are preferved by the tribunal of ceremonies, and another called the calao, by whom it is tranfmitted to the dif¬ ferent provinces and cities of the empire. Some days before the eclipfe, the tribunal of ceremonies caufes to be fixed upon a public place, in large chara&ers, the hour and minute when the eclipfe will commence, the quarter of the heavens in which it will be vifible, with the other particulars relating to it. The mandarins are fummoned to appear in ftate at the tribunal of aftrono- my, and to wait there for the moment in which the phenomenon will take place. Each of them carries in his hand a fheet of paper, containing a figure of the eclipfe and every circumftance attending it. As foon as the obfervation begins to take place, they throw themfelves on their knees, and knock their heads againft the earth, and a horrid noife of drums and cymbals im¬ mediately commences throughout the whole city : a ceremony proceeding from an ancient fuperftitiuus no¬ tion, that by fuch a noife they prevented the luminary from being devoured by the celeftial dragon ; and though this notion is now exploded in China, as well as everywhere elfe, fuch is the attachment of the people to ancient cuftoms, that the ceremonial is {till obferved. While the mandarins thus remain proftrated in the court, others, ftationed on the obfervatory, examine, with all the attention poflible, the beginning, middle, and end of the eclipfe, comparing what they obferve with the figure and calculations given. They then write down their obfervations, affix their feal to them, and tranfmit them to the emperor } who, on his part, has been no lefs affiduous to obferve the eclipfe with accu¬ racy. A ceremonial of this kind is obferved through the whole empire. The Japanefe, Siamefe, and inhabitants of the Mo¬ gul’s empire, have alfo, from time immemorial, been ac¬ quainted with aftronomy $ and the celebrated obferva¬ tory at Benares, is a monument both of the ingenuity ^ of the people and of their (kill in the fcience. Indian Mr Bailly has been at great pains to inveftigate the aftronomy. progrefs of the Indians in aftronomical knowledge, and gives a fplendid account of their proficiency in the I I fcience, as well as of the antiquity of their obferva- Hiftory. tions. He has examined and compared four different aftronomical tables of the Indian philofophers. 1. Of the Siamefe, explained by M. Caffini in 1689. 2. I hofe brought from India by M. le Gentil of the Academy of Sciences. 3. and 4. Two other manufeript tables found among the papers of the late M. de Lille. All ■ of thefe tables have different epochs, and differ in form, being alfo conftru6ted in different ways j yet they all evidently belong to the fame aftronomical fy- ftern : the motions attributed to the fun and the moon are the fame, and the different epochs are fo well con- nedted by the mean motions, as to demonftrate that they had only one, whence the others Were derived by calculation. The meridians are all referred to that of Benares above mentioned. The fundamental epoch of the Indian aftronomy is a conjundlion of the fun and moon, which took place at no lefs a diftance of time that 3102 years before the Chriftian era. Mr Bailly informs us, that, according to our moft accurate aftro¬ nomical tables, a conjundlion of the (un and moon ac¬ tually did happen at that time. But though the bra- mins pretend to have afeertained the places of the two luminaries at that time, it is impoflible for us at this lime to judge of the truth of their affertions, by rea- fon of the unequal motion of the moon ; which, as {hall afterwards be more particularly taken notice of, now performs its revolution in a ffiorter time than form¬ erly. Our author informs us, that the Indians at prefent cal¬ culate eclipfes by the mean motions of the fun and moon obferved 5000 years ago *, and with regard to the folar motion, their accuracy far exceeds that of the. beft Gre¬ cian artronomers. The lunar motions they had alfo fettled, by computing the fpaces through which that lu¬ minary had paffed in 1,600,984 days, or fomewhat more than 4383 years. They alfo make ufe of the cycle of 19 years attributed by the Greeks to Melon ; and their theory of the planets is much better than that of Ptolemy, as they do not fuppofe the earth to be the centre of the celeftial motions, and they believe that Mercury and Venus turn round the fun. Mr Bailly alfo informs us, that their aftronomy agrees with the moft modern difeoveries of the decreafe of the obliquity of the ecliptic, the acceleration of the motion of the e- quinoflial points, with many other particulars too tedi¬ ous to enumerate in this place. 5 It appears alfo, that even the Americans were not Aftronomy unacquainted with aftronomy, though they made ufeofft}6-1^- only of the folar, and not of the lunar motions, in their mentans* divifion of time. The Mexicans have had a ftrange predileffion for the number 13. Their ffiorteft pe¬ riods confifted of 13 days; their cycle of 13 months, each containing 20 days ; and their century of four periods of 13 years each. This exceffive veneration for the number 13, according to Siguenza, arofe from its being fuppofed the number of their greater gods. What is very furprifing, though afferted as a faft by Abbe Clavigero, is that having difeovered the exccfs of a few hours in the folar above the civil year, they made ufe of intercalary days, to bring them to an equa¬ lity : but with this difference in regard to the method eftabliffied by Julius Caefar in the Roman calendar, that they did not interpofe a day every four years, but 13 days (making ufe even here of this favourite num- B 2 ber) ASTRONOMY. i2 ASTRO Hiftoiy. ber) every 52 years, which produces the fame regulation > 1 0f time. Among thofe nations who firft began to make any Chaldeans ancient hiilory, we find the Chaldeans and and Egyp- Egyptians mod remarkable for their aftronomical tians. knowledge. Both of them pretended to an extravagant antiquity, and difputed the honour of having been the firft cultivators of the fcience. The Chaldeans boaft- ed of their temple of Belus $ and of Zoroafter, whom they placed 5000 years before the deftrudlion of Troy : the Egyptians boafted of their colleges of priefts, where aftronomy was taught ; and of the monument of Ofy- mandyas, in which we are told was a golden circle 365 cubits in circumference and one cubit thick. The up¬ per face was divided into 365 equal parts, anfwering to the days of the year ; and on every divifion were written the name of the day, and the heliacal rifing of the feveral liars for that day, with the prognoftications from their rifing, principally, as Long conjedlures, for the weather. The Chaldeans certainly began to make obferva- tions very foon after the confufion of languages *, for ■when Alexander the Great took Babylon, Califthenes, by his order, inquired after the aftronomical obferva- tions recorded in that city, and obtained them for 1903 years back. Nothing, however, now remains of the Chaldean aftronomy excepting feme periods of years which they had formed for the more ready com¬ putation of the heavenly bodies. But though they mult have laboured under great difadvantages for want of proper inftruments, in thofe early ages, Ge- mina, as quoted by Petarius in his Uranologion, in¬ forms us, that they had determined, with tolerable exadlnels, the length both of a fynodical and periodi¬ cal month. They had alfo difcovered that the mo¬ tion of the moon was not uniform, and even attempt¬ ed to affign thofe parts of her orbit in which it was quicker or flower. Ptolemy alfo alfures us, that they were not unacquainted with the motion of the moon’s nodes and that of her apogee, fuppofing that the for¬ mer made a complete revolution in 6585^ days, or 18 years 15 days and 8 hours j which period, con¬ taining 223 complete lunations, is called the Chal¬ dean Saros. The fame author alfo gives us, from Hipparchus, feveral obfervations of lunar eclipfes which had been made at Babylon about 720 years be¬ fore Chrift ; but though he might very probably meet with many of a more ancient date, it was impoftible to mention them particularly, on account of the im- perfedl ftate of the Chaldean chronology, which com¬ menced only with the era of Nabonaftar, 747 years be¬ fore Chrift. Ariftotle likewife informs us, that they had many obfervations of the occultations of fixed ftars and planets by the moon ; and from hence, by a very natural and eafy inference, they were led to con¬ clude that the eclipfes of the fun were occafioned alfo by the moon, efpecially as they conftantly happened when the latter was in the fame part of the heavens with the fun. They had alfo a confiderable (hare in arranging the ftars into conftellations. Nor had the comets, by which aftronomers in all ages have been fo much perplexed, efcaped their obfervation : for both Diodorus Siculus and Appollinus Myndius, in Seneca, inform us, that many of the Chaldeans held thefe to be lafting bodies, which have ftated revolutions as N O M Y. Part 1. well as the planets, but in orbits vaftly more extenfive •, Hlftory. on which account they are only feen by us while near the ' v J earth, but difappear again when they go into the higher regions. Others of them were of opinion, that the co¬ mets were only meteors raifed very high in the air, which ' blaze for a while, and difappear when the matter of which they confift is confumed or difperfed. Dialling was alfo known among them long before the Greeks were acquainted with any fuch thing. It is evident, indeed, that the countries both of Chaldea and Egypt were exceedingly proper for aftro¬ nomical obfervations, on account of the general puri¬ ty and ferenity of the air. The tower or temple of Bolus, which was of an extraordinary height, with flairs winding round it up to the top, is fuppofed to have been an aftronomical obfervatory j and the lofty pyramids of Egypt, whatever they were ori¬ ginally defigned for, might poffibly anfvver the fame purpofe. Indeed thefe very ancient monuments {how the {kill of this people in practical aftronomy, as they are all fituated with their four fronts exactly facing the cardinal points. Herodotus afcribes the Egyptian knowledge in aftronomy to Sefoftris, whom Sir Ifaac Newton makes contemporary with .Solo¬ mon •, but if this was the cafe, he could not be the inftruclor of the Egyptians in aftronomical mat¬ ters, fince we find that Mofes, who lived 500 years before Solomon, was {killed in all the wifdom of the Egyptians, in which we are undoubtedly to include aftronomy. From the teftimony of fome ancient authors, we learn that they believed the earth to be fpherical, that they knew the moon was eclipfed by falling into its fhadow, and that they made their obfervations with the greateft exadtnefs. They even pretended to foretel the appear¬ ance of comets, as well as earthquakes and inundations j which extraordinary knowledge is likewife afcribed to the Chaldeans. They attempted to meafure the mag¬ nitude of the earth and fun 5 but the methods they took to find out the latter were very erroneous. It does not in¬ deed appear with certainty that they had any knowledge of the true fyftera of the univerfe ; and by the time of the emperor Auguftus, their aftronomical knowledge was entirely loft. ^ From Chaldea the fcience of aftronomy moft probably of the Phe- pafied into Phenicia } though lome are of opinion thatnicians. the Phenicians derived their knowledge of this fcience from the Egyptians. 'They feem, however, to have been the fit ft who applied aftronomy to the purpofes of navi¬ gation ; by which they became mailers of the fea, and of almoft all the commerce in the world. They became adventurous in their voyages, fleering their {hips by one of the ftars of the Little Bear ; which being near the immoveable point of the heavens called the Po/e, is the moft proper guide in navigation. Other nations made their obfervations by the Great Bear : which being too diftant trom the pole could not guide them in long voy¬ ages j and for this reafon they never durft venture far from the coafts. rl he firft. origin of aftronomical knowledge among a ft rone mx the Greeks is unknown. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes 0f the that moft. of the conftellations were invented about Greeks, the time of the Argonautie expedition : but Dr Long is of opinion that many of them muft have been of a much older date j and that the fhepherds, who were certainly ft Part I. ASTRONOMY. * 3 Hiftory. certainly the firft obfervers, gave names to them ac- cording to their fancy •, from whence the poets invent¬ ed many of their fables. Several of the conftellations are mentioned by Hefiod and Homer, the two molt ancient writers among the Greeks, who lived about 870 years before Cbrift : Hefiod defiring the farmer to regulate the time of fowing and harveft by the ri¬ ling and fetting of the Pleiades 5 and Homer inform¬ ing us, that obfervations from the Pleiades, Orion, and Ar&urus, were ufed in navigation. Their aftronomi- Improved ca^ knowledge, however, was greatly improved by by Thales. Thales the Milefian, who travelled into Egypt, and brought from thence the firft principles of the fcience. He is faid to have determined the height of the pyra¬ mids by meafuring their Ihadows at the time the fun was 45 degrees high, and when of confequenee the lengths of the Ihadows of objects are equal to their perpendicular heights. But his reputation was raifed to the higheft pitch among his countrymen, by the prediftion of an eclipfe, which happened juft at the time that the armies of Alyattes king of Lydia, and Cyaxares the Mede, were about to engage*, and being regarded as an evil omen by both parties, inclined them to peace. To him Callimachus attributes the form¬ ing of the conftellation of the Little Bear } the know¬ ledge of which he certainly introduced into Greece. He alfo taught the true length of the year *, determined the cofmical fetting of the Pleiades in his time to have been 25 days after the autumnal equinox *, divided the earth into five zones by means of the polar circles and tropics *, taught the obliquity of the ecliptic 5 and (bow¬ ed that the equinodlial is cut by the meridians at right angles, all of which interfe£l each other at the poles. He is alfo faid to have obferved the exatft time of the folftices, and from thence to have deduced the true length of the folar year; to have obferved eclipfes of the fun and moon ; and to have taught that the moon had no light but what fire borrowed from the fun. According to Stanley, he affo determined the diameter of the fun to be one-yioth part of his annual orbit. “ But (fays Dr Long) thefe things (hould be received with caution. There are fume reafons which might be afligned for fuppofing that the knowledge of Thales in thefe matters was much more circumfcribed : and indeed it is not unreafonable to fuppofe, that that veneration for the ancients which leads authors to write profefledly on the hiftory of ancient times, may have induced them to afcribe full as much knowledge to thofe who lived in them as was really their due.” _ ,10 . The fucceffors of Thales, Anaximander, Anaxime- Tvv Atiqvi,» 7 7 mander nes> an<^ Anaxagoras, contributed confiderably to the &C, ’ advancement of aftronomy. The firft is faid to have invented or introduced the gnomon into Greece ; to have obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic $ and taught that the earth was fpherical, and the centre of the univerfe, and that the fun was not lefs than it. He is alfo faid to have made the firft globe, and to have fet up a fun-dial at Lacedemon, which is the firft we hear of among the Greeks; though fome are of opi¬ nion that thefe pieces of knowledge were brought from Babylon by Pherycides, a cotemporary of Anaximan¬ der. Anaxagoras alfo predifled an eclipfe which hap¬ pened in the fifth year of the Peloponnefian war *, and taught that the moon was habitable, confiding of hills, valleys, and waters, like the earth. His cotemnorary, Pythagoras, however, greatly improved not only aftro- Hiftory. nomy and mathematics, but every other branch of phi-' lofophy. He taught that the univerfe was compofed of four dements, and that it had the fun in the centre j of Pytha_ that the earth was round, and had antipodes j and thatgoras. the moon refleded the rays of the fun ; that the ftara were worlds, containing earth, air, and ether ; that the moon was inhabited like the earth ; and that the comets were a kind of wandering ftars, difappearing in the fuperior parts of their orbits, and becoming vifible on¬ ly in the lower parts of them. The white colour of the milky-way he afcribed to the brightnefs of a great number of fmall ftars 5 and he fuppofed the diftances of the moon and planets from the earth to be in certain harmonic proportions to one another. He is faid alfo to have exhibited the oblique courfe of the fun in the eclip¬ tic and the tropical circles, by means of an artificial fphere ; and he firft taught that the planet Venus is both the evening and morning ftar. Phis philofopher is laid to have been taken prifoner by Cambyfes, and thus to have become acquainted with all the myfteries of the Perfian magi *, after which he fettled at Crotona in Ita¬ ly, and founded the Italian fe£t. About 440 years before the Chriftian era, Philolaus,. a celebrated Pythagorean, afferted the annual motion of the earth round the fun ; and foon after Hicetas, a Syracufan, taught its diurnal motion on its own axis. About this time alfo flourilhed Melon and Eu&emon at Athens, who took an exaft obfervation of the fum- mer folftice 432 years before Chrift 5 which is the oldefl: obfervation of the kind we have, excepting what is delivered by the Chinefe. Melon is faid to have com- pofed a cycle of 19 years, which ftiil bears his name *, and he marked the filings and feltings of the ftars, and what feafons they pointed out: in all which he was af- fifted by his companion Euftemon. The fcience, howr- ever, was obfcured by Plato and Ariftotle, who em¬ braced the fyftem afterwards called the Ptolemaic, which places the earth in the centre of the univerfe. Eudoxus the Cnidian w>as a cotemporary with A- riftotle, though confiderably older, and is greatly ce¬ lebrated on account of his (kill in aftronomy. He was the firft who introduced geometry into the fcience, and he is fuppofed to be the inventor of many propofitions attributed to Euclid. Having travelled into Egypt in the earlier part of his life, and obtained a recom¬ mendation from Agefilaus to Ne&anebus king of Egypt, he, by his means, got accefs to the priefts, who had the knowledge of aftronomy entirely among them, after which he taught in Alia and Italy. Seneca tells us that he brought the knowledge of the planetary mo¬ tions from Egypt into Greece *, and x'Mchimedes, that he believed the diameter of the fun to be nine times that of the moon. He was alfo well acquainted with the method of drawing a fun-dial upon a plane ; from whence it may be inferred that he underftood the doc¬ trine of the projedtion of the fphere: yet, notwithftand- ing what has been faid concerning the obfervations of Eudoxus, it is not certain that his fphere was not taken from one much more ancient, afcribed to Chiron the Centaur. The reafon given for this fuppofition is, that had the places of the ftars been taken from his own obfervations, the conftellations mull have been half a fign farther advanced than they are faid to be in his writings. Soon ASTRO Soon after Eudoxus, Calippus flourifhed, whofe fy- J flem of the celeftial fphere is mentioned by Ariftotle j but he is better known from a period of 76 years, con¬ taining four eorredled metonic periods, and which had its beginning at the fummer folftice in the year 330 before Chrift. But about this time, or rather earlier, the Greeks having begun to plant colonies in Italy, Gaul, and Egypt, thefe became acquainted with the Pythagorean fyftem, and the notions of the ancient Druids concerning aftronomy. Julius Caefar informs us, that the latter were {killed in this fcience 5 and that the Gauls in general were able failors, which at that time they could not be without a competent knowledge of aftronomy : and it is related of Pythoas, who lived at Marfeilles in the time of Alexander the Great, that he obferved the altitude of the lun at the fummer folftice by means of a gnomon. He is alfo faid to have travelled as far as Thule to fettle the cli- Ia mates. State of After the death of Alexander the Great, fcience aftronomy flouriftied in Egypt more than in any other part of the in Egypt world ; and a famous fchool was fet up at Alexandria death''of under the aufpices of Ptolemy Philadelphus, a prince Alexander, inftrufled in all kinds of learning, and the patron of all thofe who cultivated them; and this fchool conti¬ nued to be the feminary of all kinds of literature, till the invafion of the Saracens in 650. Timocharis and Aryftillus, who firft cultivated the aftronomical (cience in this fchool, began to put it on a new footing; being much more careful in their obfervations, and exa£t in noting down the times when they were made, than their predeceffors, Ptolemy affures us, that Hippar¬ chus made ufe of their obfervations, by means of which he difcovered that the ftars had a motion in longitude of about one degree in an hundred years; and he cites many of their obfervations, the oldeft of which is before the eredtion of this fchool, in the year 295, when the moon juft touched the northern ftar in the forehead of the Scorpion ; and the laft of them was in the 13th year of Philadelphus, when Venus hid the former ftar of the four in the left wing of Virgo. From this time the fcience of aftronomy continued greatly to advance. Ariftarchus, who lived about 270 years before Chrift, ftrenuoufly alferted the Pythago¬ rean fyftem, and gave a method of determining the di- ftance of the fun by the moon’s dichotomy. Eratof- thenes, born at Cyrene in 271 B. C. determined the meafure of a great circle of the earth by means of a gnomon. Plis reputation was fo great, that he was invited from Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euer- getes, and made by him keeper of the royal library at that place. At his inftigation the fame prince fet up thofe armillas or fpheres, which Hipparchus and Pto¬ lemy the aftronomer afterwards employed fo fuccefsful- ly in obferving the heavens. He alfo found the diftance between the tropics to be eleven fuch parts as the whole meridian contains eighty-three. About the fame time Berofus, a native of Chaldea, flouriftied at A- thens. He is by feme faid to have brought many ob¬ fervations from Babylon, which are afcribed to the Greeks ; while others contend, that the latter owe T3 . little or nothing of their aftronomical knowledge to ofArchU^ ^ie Bstbykmians. The celebrated Archimedes, who tnedes. next to ^aac Newton holds the firft place among N O M Y. Fart I. mathematicians, was nothing inferior as an aftronomer Hiftory. to what he was as a geometrician. He determined v— the diftance of the moon from the earth, of Mercury from the moon, of Venus from Mercury, of the fun from Venus, of Mars from the fun, of Jupiter from Mars, and of Saturn from Jupiter ; as likewife the di¬ ftance of the fixed ftars from the orbit of Saturn. That he made aftronomical obfervations, is not to be doubt¬ ed ; and it appears from an epigram of the poet Clau- dian, that he invented a kind of planetarium, or orrery, to reprefent the phenomena and motions of the heavenly bodies. 14 Hipparchus was the firft who applied himfelf to the Of Hippar- ftudy of every part of aftronomy, his predeceffors ha-ca¬ ving chiefly confidered the motions and magnitudes of the fun and moon. Ptolemy alio informs us, that he firft difcovered the orbits of the planets to be eccen¬ tric, and on this hypothefis wrote a book againft Eu¬ doxus and Calippus. Fie gives many of his obferva¬ tions : and fays, that by comparing one of his with another made by Ariftarchus 145 years before, he was enabled to determine the length of the year with great precifion. Hipparchus alfo firft found out the anticipation of the moon’s nodes, the eccentricity of her orbit, and that ftie moved flower in her apogee than in her perigee. He collected the accounts of fuch ancient eclipies as had been oblerved by the Chal¬ deans and Egyptians. He formed hypotheles con¬ cerning the celeftial motions, and conftrmftea tables of thofe of the fun and moon, and would have done the fame with thofe of the other planets if he could have found ancient obfervations fufficient for the purpofe ; but, thefe being wanting, he was obliged to content himfelf with colledling fit obfervations for that purpofe,. and endeavouring to form theories of the five planets. By comparing his own obfervations on the Spica Vir- ginis with thofe of Timochares at Alexandria made ico years before, he difcovered that the fixed ftars changed their places, and had a flow’ motion of their own from w7eft to eaft. He corredfed the Calippic period, and pointed out fome errors in the method laid down by Eratofthenes for meafuring the circumference of the earth. By means of geometry, which was now great¬ ly improved, he was enabled to attempt the calculation of the fun’s diftance in a more corredl manner than any of his predeceffors ; but unhappily it required fo much accuracy in obfervation as was found impradli- cable. His greateft work, how’ever, was his catalogue ^ of the fixed ftars, which he was induced to attempt by cata- the appearance of a new ftar. The catalogue is pre-logue offix- ferved by Ptolemy, and contains the longitudes and la-ed titudes of 1022 ftars, with their apparent magnitudes. He wrote alfo concerning the intervals between eclipfes both folar and lunar, and is faid to have calculated all that were to happen for no lefs than 600 years from his time. 16 Little progrefs was made in aftronomy from the timesyftemof of Hipparchus to that of Ptolemy, who flourifhed in Ptolemy, the firft century. The principles on which his fyftem is built are indeed erroneous : but his work will al¬ ways be valuable on acount of the number of ancient obfervations it contains. It was firft tranflated out of the Greek into Arabic in the year 827, and into La¬ tin from the Arabic in 1230. The Greek original w’as unknown in Europe till the beginning of the 15th century, [. Part I. ASTRONOMY. i r | Hiftory. century, when it Was brought from Conftantinople, then j .< taken by the Turks, by George a monk of Trapezond, who tranflated it into Latin. Various editions were af¬ terwards publHhed : but little or no improvement was 17 made by the Greeks in this fcience. Agronomy Daring the long period from the year 800 to the feiaiir I"" beginning of the 14th century, the weftern parts of Europe were immerfed in deep ignorance and barbarity. However, feveral learned men arofe among the Arabians. The caliph A1 Manfur was the firft who introduced a tafte for the fciences in his empire. His grandfon A1 Mamun, who afcended the throne in 814, was a great encourager of the fciences, and devoted much of his own time to the ftudy of them. He made many attronomi- cal obfervations himfelf, and determined the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 230 35k He employed many able mechanics in conftru&ing proper inftruments, which he made ufe of for his obfervations; and under his aufpices a degree of the earth was meafured a fecond time in the plain of Singar, on the border of the Red fea. From this time aftronomy was ftudioufly cultivated by the Arabians •, and Elements of Altronomy were written by Alferganus, whs was partly cotemporary with the caliph A1 Mamun. But the moft celebrated of all their aftronomers is Albategnius, who lived about the year of Chriit 88c. He greatly reformed aflronomy, by comparing his own obfervations with thofe of Ptole¬ my. Thus he calculated the motion of the fun’s apo¬ gee from Ptolemy’s time to his own j determined the preceffion of the equinoxes to be one degree in 70 years ; and fixed the fun’s greateft declination at 23.35'. Find¬ ing that the tables of Ptolemy required much correc¬ tion, he compofed new ones of his own fitted to the meridian of Arafta, which were long held in eftimation by the Arabians. After his time, though feveral emi¬ nent aftronomers appeared among the Saracens, none made any very valuable obfervations for feveral centu¬ ries, excepting Ebn Younis aftronomer to the caliph of Egypt; who obferved three eclipfes with fuch care, that by means of them we are enabled to determine the quantity of the moon’s acceleration fince that time. Other eminent Saracen aftronomers were, Arzachel a Moor of Spain, who obferved the obliquity of the eclip¬ tic, and conftru&ed tables of fines, or half chords of dou¬ ble arcs, dividing the diameter into 300 parts; and Al- hazen, his cotemporary, who firft (bowed the importance of the theory of refractions in aftronomy ; writing alfo upon the twilight, the height of the clouds, and the phe¬ nomenon of the horizontal moon. Ulug Beg, a grandfon of the famous Tartar prince Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, was a great proficient in practical aftronomy. He is faid to have had very large inftruments for making his obfervations; particularly a quadrant as high as the church of Sanfta Sophia at Con- ttanlinople, which is 180 Roman feet. He compofed aftronomical tables from his own obfervations for the me¬ ridian of Samarcand his capital, fo exaCt as to differ very little from thofe afterwards conftruCted by Tycho Brahe ; but his principal work is his catalogue of the fixed ftars, made from his own obfervations in the year of Chrift 1437. The accuracy of his obfervations may be gather¬ ed from his determining the height of the pole at Sa- marcand to be 390 37' 23". Befides thefe improvements, we are indebted to the Arabians for the prefent form of trigonometry. Me- Hiftory. nelaus, indeed, an eminent Greek aftronomer who -v—~ flourithed about the year 90, had publiftied three books of Spherics, in which he treated of the geometry ne- ceffary to aftronomy, and which (how great (kill in the fciences ; but his methods were very laborious, even after they had been improved and rendered more fim- ple by Ptolemy : but Geber the Arabian, inftead of the ancient method, propofed three or four theorems^ which are the foundation of our modern trigonome¬ try. The Arabians alfo made the praftice (till more fimple, by ufing fines inftead of the chords of double arcs. The arithmetical characters they had from the Indians. ^ During the greateft part of this time, almoft all Eu-Revivai 0f rope continued ignorant not only of aftronomy but of aftronomy every other fcience. The emperor Frederick II. firft in Europe, began to encourage learning in 1230; reftoring fome univerfities, and founding a new one in Vienna. He alfo caufed the works of Ariftotle, and the Almageft or Aftronomical Treatife of Ptolemy, to be tranflated into Latin j and from the tranflation of this book we may date the revival of aftronomy in Europe. Two years after its publication, John de Sacro Bofco, or of Halifax, an Engliftiman, wrote his four books De Sp/uera, which he compiled from Ptolemy Albateg¬ nius, Alferganus, and other Arabian aftronomers : this work was fo much celebrated, that for 300 years it was preferred in the fchools to every other; and has been thought worthy of feveral commentaries, parti¬ cularly by Clavius in 1531. In 1240, Alphonfo king of Caitile caufed the tables of Ptolemy to be correct¬ ed : for which purpofe he affembled many perfons (kill¬ ed in aftronomy, Chriftians, Jews, and Moors ; by whom the tables called Alphonjine were compofed, at the expence of 40,000, or according to others 400,000 ducats. About the fame time Roger Bacon, an Englith monk, publiftied many things relative to aftronomy ; par¬ ticularly of the places of the fixed ftars, folar ray-, and lunar afpeCts. Vitellio, a Polander, wrote a treatife on Optics about 1270, in which he (bowed the ufe of re¬ fractions in aftronomy. From this time to that of Purbach, who was born 19 * c • _ . _ improve- in 1423, tew or no improvements were made in aftro- tsof nomy. He wrote a commentary on Ptolemy’s Al- furbach. mageft, fome treatifes on Arithmetic and Dialling, with tables for various climates. He not only ufed fpheres and globes, but conftruCted them himfelf; and formed new tables of the fixed ftars, reduced to the middle of that age. He compofed alfo new tables of fines for every ten minutes, which Regiomontanus af¬ terwards extended to every (ingle minute, making the whole fine 60, with 6 ciphers annexed. He iikewife correCted the tables of the planets, making new equa¬ tions to them, becaufe the Alphonfine tables were very faulty in this refpeCt. In his folar tables he placed the fun’s apogee in the beginning of Cancer ; but retained the obliquity of the ecliptic 230 33^', to which it had been reduced by the lateft obfervations. He made new tables for computing eclipfes, of which he obferved fome, and had juft publifhed a theory of the planets, when he died in 1461. John Muller of Monteregio (Koninglherg), a town,ofRe% of Franconia, from whence he was called Regiomonta- aonunus. nus, i<5 ASTRO Hiftory. waS Hie fcliolar and {‘ucceffor of Purbach. He fe—completed the epitome of Ptolemy’s Almageft which Purbach had begun j and after the death of the latter, went to Piome, where he made many adronomical ob- fervations. Having returned to Nuremberg in 1471, he was entertained by a wealthy citizen named Ber¬ nard Wa/ther, who having a great love for aftronomy, caufed feveral inflruments to be made under the direc¬ tion of Regiomontanus, for obferving the altitude of the fun and ftars, and other celeftial phenomena. A- ftiong thefe was an armillary aftrolabe, like that which had been ufed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy at Alexan¬ dria, and with which many obfervations were made. He alfo made ephemerides for 30 years to come, (bow¬ ing the lunations, eclipfes, &c. fie wrote the Theory of the Planets and Comets, and a Treatife of Triangles yet in repute for feveral extraordinary cafes. He is laid to have been the firft who introduced the ufe of tangents into trigonometry \ and to have publifhed in print (the art of printing having been lately invented) the works of many of the mod celebrated ancient aftronomers. After his death, which happened at Rome, Walther made a diligent fearch for all his inftruments and papers which could be found ; and continued his obfervations with the inftruments he had till his death. The obfer¬ vations of both were collefled by order of the fenate of Nuremberg, and publiftied there by John Schoner in 1544 ; afterwards by Snellius at the end of the Obfer¬ vations made by the landgrave of Heffe in 1618 ; and laftly, in 1666, with thofe of Tycho Brahe. Walther, however, as we are told by Snellius, found fault with his armilla, not being able to give any obfervation with certainty to lefs than ten minutes. He made ufe of a good clock, which alfo was a late invention in thofe days. Of Werner John Werner, a clergyman, fucceeded Walther as aftronomer at Nuremberg ) having applied himfelf with great affiduity to the ftudy of that fcience from his in¬ fancy. He obferved the motion of the comet in 1500 ; and publiftied feveral trails, in which he handled ma¬ ny capital points of geometry, aftronomy, and geo¬ graphy, in a mafterly manner. Pie publiftied a tranf- lation of Ptolemy’s Geography, with a commentary, which is (till extant. In this he firft propofed the me¬ thod of finding the longitude at fea by obferving the moon’s diftance from the fixed ftars ; which is now fo fuccefsfully put in prailice. He alfo pubiiftied many other treatifes on mathematics and geography ; but the moft remarkable of all his treatifes, are thofe concern¬ ing the motion of the eighth fphcre or of the fixed ftars, and a (liort theory of the fame. In this he (how- ed, by comparing his own obfervations of the ftars Re- gulus, Spica Virginis, and the bright ftar in the fouth- ern fcale of the Balance, made in 1514, with the pla¬ ces afiigned to the fame ftars by Ptolemy, Alphonfus, and others, that the motion of the fixed ftars, now called the prece/Jion of the eqinno&ial points, is one de¬ gree ten minutes in 100 years, and not one degree on¬ ly, as former aftronomers had made it. He made the obliquity of the ecliptic 230 28', and the firft: ftar of Aries 26° diftant from the equino&ial point. He alfo conftrudted a planetarium reprefenting the celeftial mo¬ tions according to the Ptolemaic hypothefis, and made a great number of meteorological obfervations with a view towards the prediflion of the weather. The ob- N O M Y. Part I. liquity of the ecliptic was lettled by B5ominic Tvlaria Hiftoryi the friend of Copernicus, at 230 29', which is ftill held v- > to be juft. _ 2 z The celebrated Nicholas Copernicus next makes his Pythago- appearance, and is undoubtedly the great reformer of^J-^y the aftronomical fcience. He was originally bred to CoperniCUg, the practice of medicine, and had obtained the degree of dodtor in that faculty : but having conceived a great regard for the mathematical fciences, efpecially aftro¬ nomy, he travelled into Italy, where he for fome time was taught by Dominic Maria, or rather aftifted him in his aftronomical operations. On his return to his own country, being made one of the canons of the church, he applied himfelf with the utmoft aflidui- ty to the contemplation of the heavens, and to the ftu¬ dy of the celcftial motions. He foon perceived the de¬ ficiency of all the hypothefes by which it had been at¬ tempted to account for thefe motions •, and for this rea- fon he fet himfelf to ftudy the works of the ancients, with all of whom he alfo was diffatisfied excepting Py¬ thagoras j who, as has been already related, placed the fun in the centre, and fuppofed all the planets, with the earth ilfelf, to revolve round him. He in¬ forms us, that he began to enteitain thefe notions about the year 1507 ; but not being fatisfied with dating the general nature of his hypothefis, he became defirous of determining the feveral periodical revolutions of the planets, and thence of conftructing tables of their mo¬ tions which might be more agreeable to truth than thofe of Ptolemy and Alphonfus. The obfervations he was enabled to make, however, muft have been ex¬ tremely inaccurate : as he tells us, that if with the in¬ ftruments he made ufe of he ftiould be able to come within ten minutes of the truth, he would rejoice no lefs than Pythagoras did when he difcovered the pro¬ portion of the hypothenufe to the other two fides of a right-angled triangle. His work was completed in the year 1530-, but he could not be prevailed upon to publifn it till towards the end of his life, partly through diffidence, and partly through fear of the offence which might be taken at the Angularity of the doc¬ trines fet forth in it. At laft, overcome by the im¬ portunities of his friends, he fuffered it to be publilhed at their expence, and under the infpedlion of Schoner and Oiiander, with a dedication to Pope Paul III. and a preface, in which it was attempted to palliate as much as poffible the extraordinary innovations it con¬ tained. During the time of its publication, the au¬ thor himfelf was attacked with a bloody flux, fucceeded by a palfy ; fo that he received a copy only a few hours before his death, which happened on the 23d of Ma7 I543- After the death of Copernicus, the aftronomical fcience was greatly improved by Schoner, Nonius, Ap- pian, and Gemma Frifius. Schoner furvived Coper¬ nicus only four years ; however, he greatly improved the methods of making celeftial obfervations, reformed and explained the calendar, and publiftied a treatife of cofmography. Nonius bad applied himfelf very early to the ftudy of aftronomy and navigation *, but finding the inftruments at that time in ufe exceflively inaccu¬ rate, he applied himfelf to the invention of others which (hould be lefs liable to inconvenience. Thus he invented the aftronomical quadrant, in whicli he divid¬ ed the degrees into minutes by a number of concentric circles. ASTRONOMY. 23. Several il- luftrious perfons ap¬ ply to the ftudy of a- ftronomy. 24 ©bferva- tions of Tycho Brahe. circles. The firft of thefe was divided into 90 equal parts, the fecond into 89, the third into 88, and fo on, as low as 46 ; and thus, as the index of the qua¬ drant would always fall upon one or other of the divi- fions, or very near it, the minutes might be known by computation. He publifhed many treatifes on ma¬ thematical fubje&s, particularly one which dete&ed the errors of Orontius, who had imagined that he could fquare the circle, double the cube, &c. by find¬ ing two mean proportionals betwixt two right lines. Appian’s chief work was entitled The Cls 0l,ler* towers of 32 feet diameter each. The inftrumentsVUtor'V' were larger and more folid than had ever been feen be¬ fore by any altronomer. They confifted of quadrants, fextants, circles, femicircles, armillaeboth equatorial and zodiacal, paralladlic rulers, rings, aftrolabes, globes, clocks, and fun-dials. Thefe inftruments were fo di¬ vided as to {how fingle minutes j and in fome the arch might be read off to 10 feconds. Moft of the divifions were diagonal: but he had one quadrant divided ac¬ cording to the method invented by Nonius; that is, by 47 concentric circles. The whole expence is faid to have amounted to 200,000 crowns. The method of dividing by diagonals, which Tycho greatly admired, was the invention of Mr Richard Chanceler, an Eng- lifhman : Tycho, however, {hows, that it is not accu¬ rately true when ftraight lines are employed, and the circles at equal diftances from each other 5 but that it may be corre61ed by making circular diagonals, which if continued would pafs through tire centre. Tycho employed his time at Uraniburg to the beft advantage ; but falling into difcredit on the death of the king, he was obliged to remove to Holftein, and at laft found means to get himfelf introduced to the em¬ peror, with whom he continued to his death. He is well known to have been the inventor of a fyftem of aftronomy, which bears his name ; and which he vainly endeavoured to eftablilh on the ruins of that of Copernicus : but the fimplicity and evident confo- nancy to the phenomena of nature, difplayed in all parts of the Copernican fyftem, foon got the better of the unnatural and complicated fyftem of Tycho. His works, however, which are very numerous, difcover him to have been a man of vaft abilities. After his death the caftle of Uraniburg quickly fell to decay, and in¬ deed feems to have been purpofely pulled down j for, in 1652, when Mr Huet went to Sw'eden, it rvas almoft level with the ground, and few traces of the walls could be difcerned. None of the neighbouring inhabitants had ever heard of the name of Tycho or Uraniburg, excepting one old man, whom Mr Huet found out with great difficulty, and who had been a fervant in the family ! All the difcoveries of Purback, Regiomon¬ tanus, and Tycho, were collefled and publiflied in the year 1621, by Longomontanus, who had been Tycho’s favourite fcholar. While Tycho refided at Prague with the emperor, Bifcoverles he invited thither John Kepler, afterwards fo famousKepler, for his difcoveries. Under the tuition of fo great an aftronomer, the latter quickly made an amazing C progrefs. i8 Hiftory. 27 Invention of teie- fcopes, and oonfequeut difcovei'ies. ASTRONOMY. Part I. progress. He found that his predeceifors had erred in fuppofing the orbits of the planets to be circular, and their motions uniform : on the contrary, he per¬ ceived, from his own obfervations, that they were el¬ liptical, and their motions unequal, having the fun in one of the foci of their orbits j but that, however they varied in abfolute velocity, a line drawn from the cen¬ tre of the fun to the planet, and revolving with it, would always defcribe equal areas in equal times. He difcovered, in the year 16x8, that the fquares of the periodical times are as the cubes of the diftances of the planets j two laws which have been of the greateft im¬ portance to the advancement of aftronomy. He feems to have had fome notion of the extenfive power of the principle of gravity : for he tells us, that gravity is a mutual power betwixt two bodies j that the moon and earth tend towards each other, and would meet in a point nearer the earth than the moon in the proportion of the fuperior magnitude of the former, were they not hindered by their prqjedlile motions. He adds alfo, that the tides arife from the gravitation of the waters towards the moon : however, he did not adhere fteadily to thefe principles, but afterwards fubftituted others as the caufes of the planetary motions. Cotemporary with Kepler were Mr Edward Wright, and Napier baron of Merchifton. To the former we owe feveral very good meridional obfervations of the fun’s altitude, made with a quadrant of fix feet radius, in the years 1594, 1595, and 1596} from which lie greatly improved the theory of the fun’s motion, and computed more exadt tables of his declination than had been done by any perfon before. He publilhed alfo, in 1599, an excellent treatife, entitled, “ Cer¬ tain Errors in Navigation difcovered and detected.” To the latter we are indebted for the knowledge of logarithms j a difcovery, as was jullly obferved by Dr Halley, one of the moft ufeful ever made in the art of numbering. John Bayer, a German, who lived about the fame time, will ever be memorable for his work, entitled, Uranometria, which is a very complete ce- leftial atlas, or a colledtion of all the confiellations vifi- ble in Europe. To this he added a nomenclature, in which the ftars in each conftellation are marked with the letters of the Greek alphabet; and thus every liar in the heavens may be referred to with the utmof! pre- cifioti and exadfnefs. About the fame time alfo, agro¬ nomy was cultivated by many other perfons ; abroad, by Maginus, Mercator, Maurolycus, Hcmelius, Sebul- tet, Stevin, &c. •, and by Thomas and Leonard Digges, John Dee, and Robert Flood, in England : but none of them made any confiderable improvement. The beginning of the 17th century was diftinguifh- ed not only by the difcovery of logarithms, but by that of telefcopes; a fort of inftruments by which aftronomy was brought to a degree of perftdfion utter¬ ly inconceivable by thofe who knew nothing of them. The queilion concerning the inventor isdifcuffed under the article Optics ; but whoever was entitled to this merit, it is certain that Galileo was the firft who brought them to fuch perfedfion as to make any con¬ fiderable difcoveries in tbe celtflial regions, With in- flruments of his own making, Galileo difcovered the inequalities in the moon’s furface, the fatellites of Ju¬ piter, and the ring of Saturn ; though this laft was unknown to him after he had feen it, and the view he 4 got made him conclude that the planet had a threxfold body, or that it was of an oblong fhape like an olive. He difcovered fpots on the fun, by means of which he found out the revolution of that luminary on his axis ; and he difcovered alfo that the milky way and nebulae were full of fmall tlars. It was not, however, till fome time after thefe difcoveries were made, that Ga- Htftory, lileo and others thought of applying the obfervaticns on Jupiter’s fatellites to the purpofe of finding the lon¬ gitude of places on the furface of the earth ; and even after this was thought of, altronomers found it fo dif¬ ficult to conftrudt tables of their motions, that it was not till after many obfervations had been made in diftant places of the world, that Caffini was able to determine what pofitions of the fatellites were moft proper for finding out the longitude. At laft he per¬ ceived that the entrance of the firft fatellite into the fhadow of Jupiter, and the exit of it from the fame, were the moft proper for this purpofe : that next to thefe the conjunctions of the fatellites with Jupiter, or with one another, may be made ufe of; efpecially when any two of them, moving in contrary directions, meet with each other : and laftly, that obfervations on the fhadows of the fatellites, which may be feen on the difk of Jupiter, are ufeful, as alfo the fpots which are feen upon his face, and are carried along it with greater velocity than has hitherto been difcovered in any of the other heavenly bodies. 2g While aftronomers were thus bufy in making new Logaritb- difcoveries, the mathematicians in different countriesmic tables were no lefs earneftly employed in conftruCling loga-coml,ottd* rithmic tables to facilitate their calculations. Benja¬ min Urfinu1-, an excellent mathematician of Branden¬ burg, calculated much larger tables of logarithms than had been done by their noble inventor, and publilbed them in 1625. They were improved by Henry Briggs, Savilian profeffor of Oxford ; who by making unity the logarithm of ten, thus rendered them much more con¬ venient for the purpofes of calculation. Logarithmic tables of fines and tangents were alio compofed by Mr Briggs and Adrian Vlacq at Goude, fo that the bufi- nefs of calculation was now rendered nearly as eafy as poffible. -25 In 1633, Mr Horrox, a young aflronomer of very Tranfu of extraordinary talents, difcovered that Venus would pafs Venus firft over the difk of the fun on the 24th of November^ 1639. This event he announced only to one friend,1 a Mr Crabtree ; and thefe two were the only perfons in the wror!d who obferved this tranfit the firft time it had ever been viewed by human eyes. Mr Horrox made many ufeful obfirvations at the time ; and had even formed a new theory of the moon, fo ingenious as to attraff the notice of Sir Ifaac Newton : but the hopes of aftronomers from the abilities of this excellent young man were blafted by his death in the beginning of Ja¬ nuary 1640. 70 About the year 1638 many learned men began to Foundation affemble at Palis in order to hold conferences on dif-of the Aca- ferent fcientifie fubjedls, which was the firft foundation returned to it in I737> after having fully A S T R O fully accompliflied their errand. On the foulhern ex- pedition were defpatched 1VI. Godn’, Condarnine, and Bouguer, to whom the king of Spain joined Don George Juan and Don Anthony de Ulloa, two very ingenious gentlemen and officers of the marine, i nty left Europe in 1735; and after enduring innumerable hardthips and difficulties in the execution of their com- miffion, returned to Europe at different times, and by different ways, in the years 1744’ 1745’ anc^ .l74^*. The refult of this arduom taffc was a confirmation of Newton’s inveftigation. Picart’s meafure was revifed by Caflini and De la Caille 5 and, after his errors were correfted, it was found to agree very well with the other two. On this occafion too it was difcovered, that the attraction of the great mountains of Peru had an effeft on the plumb-line of one of their largeft inftru- xnents, drawing it feven or eight feconds from the true perpendicular. Dr Halley, dying in 1742, was fucceeded by Dr Bradley, who, though inferior as a mathematician, greatly exceeded him as a practical aftrbnomer. He was the firft who made obfervations with an accuracy fufficient to deleft the leffer inequalities in the motions of the planets and fixed ftars. Thus he difcovered the aberration of light, the nutation of the earth’s axis, and was able to make the lunar tables much more perfeft than they had ever been. Pie alfo obferved the places, and computed the elements of the comets which ap¬ peared in the years 1723, 1736, 1743, and I757; He made new and moll accurate tables of the motions of Jupiter’s fatellites, from his own obfervations and thofe of Dr Pound ; and from a multitude of obfervations of the fun, moon, and ftars, was enabled to give the moft accurate table of mean refraftions yet extant, as well as the beft methods of computing the variations of thofe re¬ fraftions arifing from the different ftates of the air as in¬ dicated by the thermometer and barometer. In 1750, having procured a very large tranfit inftrument made by Mr Bird, and a new mural quadrant of brafs eight feet radius, he began to make obfervations with redoubled induftry; fo that betwixt this time and his death, which happened in 1762, he made obfervations for fettling the places of all the ftars in the Britifii catalogue, to¬ gether with near 1500 places of the moon, much the greater part of which he compared with the tables of Mr Mayer. In the mean time the French aftronomers were affi- duous in their endeavours to promote the fcience of the French aftronomy. The theory of the moon, which had been aftrono- given in a general way by Sir Ifaac Newton, began to be particularly confidered by Meffrs Clairault, D’Alem¬ bert, Euler, Mayer, Simpfon, and Walmfly ; though Clairault, Euler, and Mayer, diftinguiftied themfelves beyond any of the reft, and Mr Euler has been particu¬ larly happy in the arrangement of his tables for the eafe and expedition of computation. He was excelled in exaftnefs, however, by Mayer, who publilhed his ta¬ bles in the Gottingen Afts for 1753. In thefe the errors in longitude never exceeded two minutes ; and having yet farther improved them, he fent a copy to the lords of the Britilh admiralty in 1755 ; and it was this copy which Dr Bradley compared with his ob¬ fervations, as already mentioned. His laft correftions ef them were afterwards fent over by his widow ; for which ftie and her children received a reward of 3000!., 35 Improv ments by mers. N O M Y. 21 Accurate tables for Jupiter’s fateiliies were alfo com- Hiftory. pofed by Mr Wargentin, a moft excellent Svvedilh aftro- v ~~~J nomer, and publiffied in the Upfal Aftsin 1741 ; which have fince been correfted by the author in luch a man¬ ner as to render them greatly fuperior to any ever pub¬ lilhed before. _ 36 Among ft the many French aftronomers who contri-Of M. de la buted to the advancement of the feience, we are parti- cularly indebted to M. de la Caille, for a moft excel¬ lent fet of folar tables, in which he liastnade allowances for the attraftions of Jupiter, Venus, and the moon. In 1750 he went to the Cape of Good Hope, in order to make obfervations in concert with the moft celebrated aftronomers in Europe, for determining the parallax of the moon, as well as of the planet Mars, and from thence that of the fun ; from whence it appeared that the parallax of the fun could not greatly exceed 10 fe¬ conds. Here he re-examined and adjufted the places of the fouthern ftars with great accuracy, and mea- fured a degree of the meridian at that place. In Italy the fcience was cultivated with the greateft affiduity by Signior Bianchini, Father Bofcovich, Frifi, Manfredi, Zanotti, and many others; in Sweden by Wargen¬ tin already mentioned, Blingenftern, Mallet, and Plan- man ; and in Germany, by Euler elder and younger, Mayer, Lambert, Grifchow, &c. In the year 1760 all the learned focieties in Europe began to prepare for obferving the tranfit of Venus over the fun, foretold by Dr Halley upwards of 80 years before it happened, Ihowing, at the fame time, the important ufe which might be made of it. Unfortunately, however, for the caufe of fcience, many of the aftronomers fent out to obferve this phenomenon were prevented by un¬ avoidable accidents from reaching the places of their deftination, and others were difappointed by the bad- nefs of the weather. It happened alfo, that the cir- cumftances of the phenomenon were much lefs favour¬ able for the purpofe of determining the fun’s parallax than had been expefted by Dr Halley, owing to the faults of the tables he made ufe of: fo that, notwith- ftanding all the labours of aftronomers at that time, they were not able to determine the matter : and even after their obfervations in 1769, when the circumftances of the tranfit were more favourable, the parallax of the fun remained ftill uncertain. Dr Bradley was fucceeded in his office of aftrono- mer-royal by Mr Blifs, Savilian profeffor of afironomy at Oxford ; who, being in a very declining ftate of health at the time of his aeeeffion to the office, did not enjoy it long. He was fucceeded by the learned Nevil Malkelyne, D. D. the prefent aftronomer-royal, whofe name will be rendered immortal by his affiduity and fuc- cefs in bringing the lunar method of determining the- longitude at fea into general praftiee. Such was the general ftate of aftronomy, when Dr Herfchel’s great difcovery of augmenting the power of telefcopes, beyond the moft fanguine hopes of afirono- mers, opened at once a fcene altogether unlooked for. By this indefatigable obferver we are made acquainted with a new primary planet attended by fix feconda- ries belonging to our folar fyftem ; fo that the latter now appears to have double the bounds formerly affign- ed to it; this new planet being at leaft twice the di- ftance of Saturn from the fun. In the ftill farther di- ftant celeftial regions, among the fixed ftars, his obfer¬ vations'. A S T R O N O xM Y. Part II. 22 Hi (lory, vations are equally furprifing ; of which we (hall only liarly calculated to infpire an ardent defire of feeing fo Hiftory. * v-~- ■ fay with Dr Prieftley*, “Mr Herfchel’s late difeo- great a feene a little more unfolded. Such difeoveries— * Exper veries in and beyond the bounds of the folar fyftem, as thefe give us a higher idea of the value of our be- vol vi ^ 8reat views that he has given of the arrangement ing, by raifing our ideas of the fyftem of uhich we are I>rek • of the liars, their revolutions, and thofe of the im- a part ; and with this an earneft wifh for the continu- menfe fyflems into which they are formed, are pecu- ance of it.” PART II. OF THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. WHEN we call our eyes up towards the heavens, we perceive a vaft hollow hemifphere at an unknown di- ftance, of which our eyes feem to conflitute the centre. 'The earth ilretches at our feet like an immenfe plain, and at a certain diftance appears to meet and to bound 37 the heavenly hemifphere. Now the circle all around, ance of the '"'here the earth and the heavens feem to meet and touch heavens. each other, is called the horizon. We can fcarcely avoid fuppoling, that befides the hemifphere which we per¬ ceive, there is another, exactly fimilar, concealed from our viewr by the earth, and that the earth, therefore, is fomehow or other fufpended in the middle of this heavenly fphere, with all its inhabitants. A little ob- fervation turns this fufpicion into certainty. For in a clear evening the heavenly hemifphere is feen fludded with liars, and its appearance is changing every inftant. New liars are continually rifing in the call, while others in the mean time are fetting in the wrell. Thofe liars, that, towards the beginning of the evening, were juft feen above the eadern horizon, late at night are feen in the middle of the Harry hemifphere, and may be traced moving gradually weft ward, till at laft they fink altogether under the horizon. If we look to the north, we foon perceive that many liars in that quarter never fet at all, but move round and round, deferibing a com¬ plete circle in 24 hours. Thefe liars deferibe their circles round a fixed point in the heavens; and the circles are the fmaller, the nearer the liar is to the fix¬ ed point. This fixed point is called the north pole. There mult be a fimilar fixed point in the fouthern he¬ mifphere, called the foulh pole. Thus the heavenly fphere appears to turn round two fixed points, called the poles, once every 24 hours. The imaginary line which joins the points is called the axis of the world. In order to have precife notions of the motions of the heavenly bodies, it is necefiary to be able to affign precifely the place in which they are. This is done by means of feveral imaginary lines, or rather circles, fuppofed deferibed upon the furface of the fphere $ and thefe circles, as is ufual with mathematicians, are di¬ vided into 360 equal parts called degrees. Every degree is divided into 60 minutes j every minute into 60 feconds, and fo on. That great circle of the fphere, which is perpendicular to the axis of the world, and of courfe 90° diftant from either pole, is called the equator. The fmaller circles, which the ftars deferibe in conftquence of their diurnal motions, are called parallels, becaufe they are obvioufly parallel to the e- quator. The equator divides the heavenly fphere into two equal parts, the north and the fouth j but to be able to affign the pofition of the ftars, it is neceflary to have a- nother circle, palling through the poles, and cutting the equator perpendicularly. This circle is called a meridian. It is fuppofed, not only to pafs through the poles, but to pafs aifo through the point diredlly over the head of the obferver, and the point of the fphere exaftly oppofite to that. The firft of thefe points is called the %enith, the fecond is called the nadir. The meridian divides the circles deferibed by the ftars into two equal parts ; and when they reach it they are either at their greateft height above the horizon, or they are at their leaft height. The fituation of the pole is eafily determined ; for it is precifely half way between the greateft and leaft height of thofe flars which never fet. When we advance towards the north We perceive that the north pole does not remain fta- tionary, but rifes towards the zenith, nearly in propor¬ tion to the fpace w'e pafs over. On the other hand it finks juft as much when we travel towards the foulb. Hence wre learn that the furfaee of the earth is not plane, as one would at firft: fuppofe, but curved. All the heavenly bodies appear to deferibe a com¬ plete circle round the earth in 24 hours. But be¬ fides thefe motions which are common to them all, there are feveral of them which poffefs motions pecu¬ liar to themfelves. The fun, the moil brilliant of all the heavenly bodies, is obvioufly much farther to the fouth during winter than during fummer. He does not, therefore, keep the fame flation in the heavens, nor deferibe the fame circle every day. The moon not only changes her form, diminifhes, and increafes ; but if we obferve the ftars, near which fhe is fituated one evening, the next evening we fhall find her confider- ably to the eaftward of them ; and every day {he re¬ moves to a ftill greater diftance, till in a month, fire makes a complete tour of the heavens, and approaches them from the weft. There are eight other ftars, be¬ fides, which are continually changing their place ; fome- times we obferve them moving to the weftward, fome- times to the eaftward, and fometimes they appear fta- tionary for a confiderable time. Thefe ftars are called planets. There are other bodies which appear only occafionally, move for fome time with immenfe celerity, and afterwards vanifh. The bodies are called comets. But the greater number of the heavenly bodies always retain nearly the fame relative diftance from each o- ther, and are therefore called fixed fars. It will be neceflary for us to confider the nature and apparent motions of all thefe bodies. We fhall, therefore, di- 38 vide this firft part of our treatife, into the following Arrangc. heads : metu. 1. Of the Sun. 4. Of the Comets. 2. Of the Moon. 5. Of the Fixed Stars. 3. Of the Planets. 6. Of the figure of the Earth. Thefe topics fhall be the fubje&s of the following chapters. Chap, Part II. ASTRO Apparent Motions of Chap. I. Of the Sun. the Heaven¬ ly Bodies. The fun, as the moft confpicuous and moft important of all the heavenly bodies, would naturally claim the firft place in the attention of aftronomers. According¬ ly its motions were firft ftudied, and they have had con- liderable influence on all the other branches of the fci- ence. We ftiall fubdivide this part of our fubjetft into three parts. In the firft, we {hall give an account of the apparent motions of the fun •, in the fecond, we fhall treat of the divifion of time, which is regulated by thefe apparent motions •, and in the third, we {hall confider the figure and ftrudlure of the fun, as far as they have been determined by aftronomers. Thefe {hall be the fubjedts of the following fedtions. Sect. I. Apparent Motions of the Sun. Annual That the fun has a peculiar motion of its own, in¬ motion of dependent of the diurnal motion common to all the tlie fun. heavenly bodies, and in a diredlion contrary to that motion, is eafily afcertained, by obferving with care the changes which take place in the ftarry hemifphere during a complete year. If we note the time at which any particular ftar rifes, we {hall find that it rifes fome- what fooner every fucceflive day, till at laft we lofe it altogether in the weft. But if we note it after the interval of a year, we fhall find it riling precife- ly at the fame hour as at firft:. Thofe ftars which are fituated nearly in the track of the fun, and which fet foon after him, in a few evenings lofe themfelves alto¬ gether in his rays, and afterwards make their appear¬ ance in the eaft before funrife. The fun then moves towards them in a diredlion contrary to his diurnal motion. It was by obfervations of this kind that the ancients afcertained his orbit. But at prefent this is done with greater precifion, by obferving everyday the height of the fun when it reaches the meridian, and the inter¬ val of time which elapfes between his palling the meri¬ dian and that of the liars. The firft of thefe obferva¬ tions gives us the fun’s daily motion northward or fouth- ward, in the direction of the meridian 5 and the fecond gives us his motion eaftward in the direction of the pa¬ rallels; and by combining the two together, weobviouf- ly obtain his orbit: But it will be neceflary to be fome- what more particular. Method of Thefe obfervations cannot be made without drawing drawing a a meridian line, or a line, which, if produced, would meridian pafg through both the poles of the earth, and the fpot where the obferver is placed. It is obvious, that futh a line is in the fame plane with the meridian as the the heavenly hemifphere. A meridian line may be found thus: On an horizontal plane defcribe three or four concentric circles, as E, G, H, fig. 1. Plate LIX. and in the common centre fix perpendicularly a wire CB, having a well-defined point. When the fun (bines in the morning, obferve where the ftradow of the top of the wire, as CD, touches one of the circles ; and in the afternoon mark where the extremity of the (ha- dow CF juft touches the fame circle: then through the centre C draw the line CE, hifefting the arc DF, and CE will be a meridian, as required. If the fame be done with as many of the circles as the fhining of the fun will admit of, and the mean of' all the bift&ing lines CE be chofen as a meridian, there will be no N O M Y. 23 doubt of its accuracy, particularly if the obfervations Apparent be made about midfummer, which is the beft; time. Motions of After a meridian line is thus found, another parallel • t 1 ly Bodies, it may be readily drawn at any convenient diitance : . the method is this : Hang a thread and plummet ex¬ actly over the fouth end of the known meridian line, and let another thread and plummet be hung over the fouth end of the plane upon which a meridian b to be drawn ; then let a perfon obferve when the {hadow of the thread falls on the given meridian, and immedi¬ ately give a fignal to another perfon, who muft at that moment mark two points on the (hadow of the fecond thread, through which two points the new meridian- muft be defcribed. The height of the fun from the horizon, when it Altitude of pafles the meridian, or the arch of the meridian between the fun. the fun and the horizon, is called the fun's altitude. The ancients afcertained the fun’s altitude in the following manner : They credfted an upright pillar at the fouth end of a meridian line, and when the lhadow of it exact¬ ly coincided with that line, they accurately meafured the fhadow’s length, and then, knowing the height, of the pillar, they found, by an eafy operation in plane trigo¬ nometry, the altitude of the fun’s upper limb: whence,, after allowing for the apparent femidiameter, the altitude of the fun’s centre was known. But the methods now adopted are much more accurate. In a known latitude, a large aftronomical quadrant, of fix, eight, or ten feet radius, is fixed truly upon the meridian ; the limb of this quadrant is divided into minutes, and fmaller fub- divifions, by means of a vernier ; and it is furnifhed with a telefcope (having crofs hairs, &c. turning proper¬ ly upon the centre). By this inftrument the altitude of the fun’s centre is very carefully meafured, and the proper dedmffions made.. ^ With a fimilar inftrument we may afcertain the ap- Method of parent motions of the fun in the following manner, be-afcertain- ginning our obfervations about the 20th of March. irT ^ On this day we muft note fome fixed fiar which comesnj0°’ to the meridian exa£lly at the fame time as the fun does; for the ftars may be feen in the daytime with an aftronomical telefcope. On the following day, both the altitude of the fun, and the fituation of the ftars when the fun is on the meridian, muft be obferved ; the fun’s meridian altitude will be about 23' 40" great¬ er than on the former day, and the ftar will be found on the meridian about 3 m. 39 fee. in time before the fun. Make fimilar obfervations for a few days, and it will be found, at the end of a week, that the fun’s meridian altitude will be increafed 2° 46', and the ftar will be on the meridian 25 m. 26 fee. in time be¬ fore the fun, or it will be 6° 1\~ weft ward of the me¬ ridian when the fun is upon it. During this period of feven days, therefore, the fun has been moving to¬ wards the eaft, and has increafed his altitude by re¬ gular gradations. In fig. 2. let EO reprefent a por¬ tion of the equator, C^S the meridian on which the fun is, QS his altitude above the equator, E the place of the ftar, and ES part of the path of the fun : then, in the fpherical triangle EQS, right-angled at £), there are given EQ=i60 21^', and QS=:20 46', to find, the angle E. By the rules of fpherical trigonometry, we have, tangt. of E= tangt. of S£ -0483 250 fine of QE -4107463 •4364479 24 ASTRO N O M Y. Part II. Apparent Motions of the Heaven¬ ly Bodies. 43 Ecliptic. •4364479—Of 23e quired. ' The orbit in which the fun moves is called the ecliptic. It does not coincide with the equator, but cuts it, forming with it an angle, which in the year 1769 was determined by Dr Maflcelyne, at 23 28 10 , or 230 .46944. This angle is called the obliquity of the 44 ecliptic. Seafons es- The different feafons of the year are occafioned by plained. combination of this proper motion of the fun with ■his diurnal motion. The two points in which the ecliptic cuts the equator, are called the equinoxes, or equinoctial points ; becaufe on the days that the fun is in them, he deferibes by his diurnal motion the equator, which being divided into two equal parts by the horizon, the day is then equal to the night in every part of the earth. One of thefe equinoxes is called .the vernal, becaufe the fun is in it about the 20th of March, or the beginning of the fpring. As the lun advances in his orbit from that point, his meridian al¬ titude becomes greater and greater every day. The vifible arches of the parallels which it deferibes, be¬ come continually greater and with them the length of the day increafes, till the fun reaches his greatelt altitude, or diftance from the equator : then the day is the longeft of the year. And as at that period the va¬ riations in the fun’s altitude are fcarcely fenfible for fome time, as far at leaft as it affefts the length of the day ; the point of the orbit, where the fun’s altitude is a maximum, has for that reafon been called the fummer foljlice. The parallel which the fun deferibes when in that point, is called the tropic of Cancer. From the fol- ftice the fun defeends again towards the equator, croffes it ao-ain at the autumnal equinox, and goes fouthward till its altitude becomes a minimum. This point of the orbit is called the winter foljlice. The day is then the thorteft of the year, and the parallel which the fun de¬ feribes, is called the tropic of Capricorn. From the winter folftice the fun again approaches the equator, and returns to the vernal equinox. Such is the conftant courfe of the fun and of the feafons. The interval between the vernal equinox and the fummer lolftice, is called the fpring; the interval between this folftice and the autumnal equinox, is called fummer; that between the autumnal equinox and the winter folftice, is autumn ; and that between this folftice and the vernal equinox, is winter. The different altitudes of the pole in different cli¬ mates, occafion remarkable peculiarities in the fea¬ fons, with which it is proper to be acquainted. At the equator the poles are fituated in the horizon, which laft circle cuts all the parallels into two equal parts. Hence the day and the night are coitilantly of the fame length all the year round. On the equinoxes the fun is in the zenith at noon. His altitude is the leaft poflible at the folftices, and is then equal to the com¬ plement of the inclination of the ecliptic. During the fummer folftice, the. ftiadows of bodies illuminated by the fun are dire&ed towards the fouth j but they are diretted towards the north at the winter folftice j changes which never take place in our northern cli¬ mates'. Under the equator then there are in reality two fummers and two winters. The fame thing takas place in all countries lying between the ironies. Be¬ yond t)ieai there on^7 one ,’jramcr and one winter 34' 43'/, the angle E re- in the year. The fun is never in the zenith. The Apparent length of the longeft day increafes, and that of the Motions of fhorteft day diminithes, as we advance toward the poles i and when the diftance between the zenith and the pole . is only equal to the inclination of the ecliptic, the fun does not fet at all on the days of the fummer folftice, nor rife on that of the winter folftice. Still nearer the pole, the period in which he never fets in fummer, and never rifes in winter, gradually increafes from a few days to feveral months \ and, under the pole itfelf, the equator then coinciding with the horizon, the fun never fets when it is upon the fame fide of the equator with the pole, and never rifes Avhile it is in the oppofite fide. . _ 45 The intervals of time between the equinoxes and Motion not folftices are not equal. There are about feven days more un^orin’ between the vernal and autumnal equinox, than between the autumnal and Vernal. Hence we learn, that the motion of the fun in its orbit is not uniform. Nume¬ rous obfervations, made with precifion, have afeertained, that the fun moves fafteft in a point of his orbit fitu¬ ated near the winter folftice, and floweft in the oppofite point of his orbit near the fummer folftice. When in the firft point, the fun moves in 24 hours i°.oi943 ; in the fecond point, he moves only o0.953i9. The daily motion of the fun is conftantly varying in every¬ place of its orbit, between thefe two points. The me¬ dium of the two is o0.98632, or 59' ll'', which is the daily motion of the fun about the beginning of Ofto- ber and April. It has been afeertained, that the va¬ riation in the angular velocity of the fun, is very near¬ ly proportional to the mean angular diftance of it from the point of its orbk where its velocity is greateft. It is natural to think, that the diftance of the fun 4. . from the earth varies as well as its angular velocity. var;es# This is demonftrated by meafuring the apparent dia¬ meter of the fun. Its diameter increafes and diminilhes in the fame manner, and at the fame time, with its an¬ gular velocity ; but in a ratio twice as fmall. About the beginning of January, his apparent diameter is about 32' 39", and at the beginning of July it is about 31'34", or more exaflly, according to De la Place, 32' 35"=: 195 5" in the firft cafe, and 31' in the fe¬ cond. _ 47 Opticians have demonftrated, that the diftance of sun’s di- any body is always reciprocally as its apparent diame-ftance va- ter. The fun muft follow the fame law' ; therefore, ries. its diftance from the earth increafes in the fame pro¬ portion that its apparent diameter diminilhes. That point of the orbit in which the fun is neareft the earth, is called perigeon, or perigee ; and the point of the or¬ bit in which that luminary is fartheft diftant from the earth, is called apogee. When the fun is in the firfi: of thefe points, his apparent diameter is greateft, and his motion fwifteft 5 but rvhen he is in the other point, both his diameter and the rapidity of his motion are the fmalleft ppflible. From thefe remarks it is obvious that if the orbit of the fun be a circle, the earth is not fituated in the cen¬ tre of that circle, otherwife the diftance of the fun from the earth would remain always the fame, which is contrary to faft. It is poflible therefore, that the variation in his angular velocity may not be real, but only apparent. Thus in fig. 3. let AMPN be the' orbit art II. A S T R O N O M Y. 25 Apparent orbit of the fun, C the centre of that orbit, and E the Muttons of pofition of the earth at fome diftance from the centre. theHeaven- jt js obvious that P is the fun’s perigee, and A its a- .pogee. Now as the fun’s apparent orbit is a circle hav¬ ing the earth in its centre, it is evident that this orbit mult be AMPN, and that the angular motion of the fun will be meafured upon that circle. Suppofe now that the fun in his apogee moves from A to A', it is obvious that his apparent or angular motion will be the fegment a a' of the apparent orbit, confiderably fmaller than AA', fo that at the apogee the angular motion of the fun will be lefs than his real motion. A- gain: let the fun in his perigee move from P to P', de- fcribing a fegment precifely equal to the fegment AA'. This fegment as feen from the earth will be refer¬ red to pp', which in that cafe will be the fun’s angular motion, evidently conliderably greater than his real mo¬ tion. Hence it is obvious that even on the fuppofition that the fun moved equably in his orbit, his angular motion as feen from the earth would ftill vary, that is, would be fmallefl at the apogee, and greatefi. at the perigee; and that the angular and real motion would only coin¬ cide in the points M and N, where the real and appa¬ rent orbits cut each other. From the figure it is obvi¬ ous alfo, that the angular velocity would increafe gra¬ dually from the apogee to the perigee, and diminilh gradually from the perigee to the apogee, which like- wife correfponds with obfervation. Now the line EC, which is the diftance of the earth from the centre of the fun’s orbit, is called the eccentricity of that orbit. The variation in the angular motion of the fun may be owing to this eccentricity. Sun’s mo- But if it were owing to this caufe alone, it is eafy tioa varies, to demonftrate that in that cafe the diminution of his angular velocity would follow the fame ratio as the di¬ minution of his diameter. The fa& however is, that the angular velocity diminifhes in a ratio twice as great as the diameter of the fun does. The variation of the angular velocity cannot then be owing to the eccen¬ tricity alone. Hence it follows, that the variation of the motion of the fun is not merely apparent, but real; and that its velocity in its orbit aftually diminifiies, as his diftance from the earth increafes. Two caufes then combine to produce the variation in the fun’s an¬ gular velocity j namely, I. The increafe and diminution of his diftance from the earth; and, 2. The real increafe and diminution of his velocity in proportion to this variation of diftance. Fhefe two caufes combine in fuch a manner that the daily angular motion of the fun di- minifties as the fquare of his diftance increafes, fo that the produft of the angular velocity multiplied into the fquare of the diftance is a eonftant quantity. But this law is fo important that it will be neceffary to be more particular. The obfervation that the fun’s angular motion in his orbit is inverfely proportional to the fquare of his dif¬ tance from the earth, was firft made by Kepler. The difcovery was made by a careful comparifon of the fun’s diurnal motion with his apparent diameter, which were found to follow that law; and it is evident that the one is the angular motion of the fun, and the other his dif¬ tance from the earth, which is inverfely proportional to his apparent diameter. Let A SB (fig. 4.) be the fun’s orbit, E the earth, and S the fun. Suppofe a line ES Vol. III. Part I. joining the centres of the earth and fun to move round Apparent along with the fun. This line is called the radius vec- Motions of tor. It is obvious, that when S moves to S', ES, moving along with it, is now in the fituation ES', hav- < ing described the fmall fedftor ESS'. In the fame time that S performs one revolution in its orbit, the radius vedtor ES will defcribe the whole area AES, enclofed within the fun’s orbit. Let SS' be the fun’s angular motion during one day. It is obvious that the fmall fedtor ESS' is proportional to the fquare of ES, mul¬ tiplied by SS': for the radius vedtor is the fun’s dif¬ tance from the earth, and SS' his angular motion. Hence this fedtor is a conftant quantity, whatever the ^ angular motion of the fun be ; and the whole area Defcnbes SEA increafes as the number of days which the fun area.s Pro- takes in moving from S to A. Hence refults that re- PorU to iCs, on the fide of the globe next the eye; and MNOP, &c. the fouthern half on the oppofite fide from W to and F on the ecliptic, mull be nearer the meridian than a degree, or any correfponding number of degrees, on the equator from qp to f; and the more fo, as they are the .more oblique : and there¬ fore the true fun comes fooner to the meridian every day whilft he is in the quadrant F, than the ficti¬ tious fun does in the quadrant in the interval which elapfed between the reformation of Julius Caefar and the year 1582, had accumulated till it amounted to 10 days; of courfe the year began 10 days later than it ought to have begun ; and the fame error had taken place refpefting the feafons and the equinoftial points. Various attempts had been made to corredt this«error ; at laft it was corrected by Pope Gregory XIII. The Gregorian calendar com¬ menced in the year 1582; the changes which he intro¬ duced were two in number. He ordered, that after the 4th of O&ober 1582, ten days (hould be omitted, fo that the day which fucceeded the 4th was reckoned not the 5th but the 15th of the month. This correct¬ ed the error which bad crept into the Julian year. To prevent any fuch error from accumulating again, he ordered that the fecular years 1700, 1800, 1900, {hould not be biflextile but common years; that the fecular year 2000 {hould be biflextile, the next three fecular years common, the fourth again biflextile, and fo on, as in the following table. 64 and by Gregory XIII. 1600 biflextile. 1700 common. 1800 ib. 1900 ib. 2000 biflextile. 2100 common. 2200 ib. 2300 ib. 2400 biflextile. 2500 common. 2600 common. 2700 ib. 2800 biflextile. 2900 common. 3000 ib. ' In fhort thefe fecular years only are biflextile whofe number, omitting the cyphers, is divifible by 4. The Gregorian calendar is fufficiently exaft for the purpofes of common life, though it does not correfpond precifely with the revolution of the fun. The error will amount to a day in 3600 years, fo that in the year 5200 it will be neceflary to omit the additional day which ought to be added according to the rule laid down above. The Gregorian calendar was immediately adopted by all the Roman Catholic kingdoms in Europe, but the Proteftant ftates refufed at firft to accede to it. It was adopted by moft of them on the continent about the beginning of the 18th century ; but in England the change did not take place till 1752. From that year 11 days were omitted; the omiflion of the addi¬ tional day in 1700 having made the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendar amount to 11 days. The Julian calendar is called the oldJlyle, the Grego¬ rian, the new Jlyle. At prefent the difference between them is 12 days, in confequence of the omiffion of the additional day in 1800. Sect. III. Of the Nature of the Sun. Apparent ^ Motions of The fmallnefs of the fun’s parallax is a demonftra-tbeHeaven- tion of its immenfe fize. We are certain that at the ^ Bodies., dillance at which the fun appears to us under an angle of o°.53424, the earth would be feen under an angle not exceeding o°.oo9. Now, as the fun is obvioully a fpherical body as well as the earth ; and as fpheres are to each other as the cubes of their diameters, it follows from this, that the fun is at leaf! 200,000 times bigger than the earth. By the exadteft obfervations it has been afcertained, that the diameter of the fun is nearly 883,000 miles. Dark fpots are very frequently obferved upon the furface of the fun. Thefe were entirely unknown be¬ fore the invention of telefcopes, though they are fome- times of fufficient magnitude to be difcerned by the naked eye, only looking through a fmoked glafs to pre¬ vent the brightnefs of the luminary from deftroying the fight. The fpots are faid to have been firft difcovered Solar fpots in the year 1611 ; and the honour of the difcovery is when firft difputed betwixt Galileo and Scheiner, a German Jefuitdlfcoverttl* at Ingolftadt. But whatever merit Scheiner might have in the priority of the diicovery, it is certain that Gali¬ leo far exceeded him in accuracy, though the work of Scheiner has confiderable merit, as containing obferva¬ tions feledled from above 3000, made by himfelf. Since his time the fubjedt has been carefully ftudied by all the aftronomers in Europe. 7 The folar fpots move from weft to eaft. O N O M Y. 31 its coming on at tf, and going off at /?, it appears as Apparent fmall as a thread, the thin edge being then all that we Motions of fee. Thefe fpots have made us acquainted with a very important phenomenon, namely the rotation of the fun upon its axis. Amidft the changes which thefe fpots are continually undergoing, regular motions may be detected, agreeing exaftlv with the motion of the furr face of the fun, on the fuppofition that this luminary revolves round an axis almoft perpendicular to the ecliptic in the fame direction with its motion in its or¬ bit round the earth. By a careful examination of the motion of thefe fpots, it has been afeertained that the fun turns round its axis in about 25 days and a half, and that its equator is inclined to the ecliptic about 7°-5- The fpots on the fun’s dilk are almoft always con¬ fined to a zone, extending about 30°.5 on each fide of the equator. Sometimes, however, they have been obferved at the diftance of 39°.5 from the equator of the fun. Bouguer demonftrated, by a number of curious ex¬ periments on the fun’s light, that the intenfity of the light is much greater toward the centre of the fun’s dilk than towards its circumference. Now, when a portion of the fun’s furface is tranfported by the rota¬ tion of that luminary from the centre to the circumfe¬ rence of his dilk, as it is feen under a fmaller angle, the intenfity of its light, inftead of diminilhing, ought to increafe. Hence it follows, that part of the light which iffues from the fun towards the circumference of his dilk, mull be fomehow or other prevented from making its way to the earth. This cannot be account¬ ed for, without fuppofing that the fun is furrounded by a denfe atmofphere, which, being traverfed obliquely by the rays from the circumference, intercepts more of them than of thofe from the centre which pafs it per¬ pendicularly. The phenomena of the folar fpots, as delivered by Account of Scheiner and Hevelius, may be fummed up in the the ph®- following particulars. 1. Every fpot which hath a||0^ien^^ nucleus, or confiderably dark part, hath alfo an umbra, obl-ervers or fainter fliade, furrounding it. 2. The boundary between the nucleus and umbra is always diftinft and well defined. 3. The increafe of a fpot is gradual, the breadth of the nucleus and umbra dilating at the fame time. 4. In like manner, the decreafe of a fpot is gra¬ dual, the breadth of the nucleus and umbra contracting at the fame time. 5. The exterior boundary of the umbra never confifts of lharp angles ; but is always curvilinear, how irregular foever the outline of the nu¬ cleus may be. 6. The nucleus of a fpot, whilft on the decreafe, often changes its figure by the umbra encroaching irregularly upon it, infomuch that in a fmall fpace of time new encroachments are difcernible, whereby the boundary between the nucleus and um¬ bra is perpetually varying. 7. It often happens, by thefe encroachments, that the nucleus of a fpot is di¬ vided into two or more nuclei. 8. The nuclei of the fpots vanifti fooner than the umbra. 9. Small umbrae are often feen without nuclei. 10. An umbra of any confiderable fize is feldom feen without a nucleus in the middle of it. 11. When a fpot which confided of a nucleus and umbra is about to difappear, if it is not fuc- ceeded 4 6S 3 32 astronomy. Apparent ceeded by a facula, or fpot brighter than the reft of Motions of tjie djfl, t{ie piace where it was is foon after not di- theHeaven- - - - - Part IT. Iv RnA^T* ftin^uiihabie from the reft. ry ' In the Philofophical Tran£a£Hons, vol. Ixiv. ^ Dr Wilfon, profeflbr of aftronomy at Glafgnw, hath given a differtation on the nature of the folar fpots, and men¬ tions the following appearances, i. When the Ipot is about to difappear on the weftern edge of the fun’s limb, the eaftern part of the umbra firft contra&s, then va- nilhes, the nucleus and weftern part of the umbra re¬ maining; then the nucleus gradually contrails and va- nifties, while the weftern part of the umbra remains. At laft this difappears alfo ; and if the fpot remains long enough to become again vilible, the eaftern part of the umbra firft becomes vifible, then the nucleus j and when the fpot approaches the middle of the dilk, the nucleus appears environed by the umbra on all fides, as already mentioned. 2. When two fpots lie very near to one another, the umbra is deficient on that fide which lies next to the other fpot : and this will be the cafe, though a large fpot ftrould be contiguous to one much fmaller ; the umbra of the large fpot will be totally wanting on that fide next the fmall one. If there are little fpots on each fide of the large one, the umbra does not totally vanith; but appears Hattened or prefled in towards the nucleus on each fide. When the little fpots difappear, the umbra of the large one extends it- felf as ufual. This circumftance, he obferves, may fome- times prevent the difappearance of the umbra in the manner above mentioned j fo that the weftern umbra may difappear before the nucleus, if a fmall fpot bap* pens to break out on that fide. In the fame volume, p. 337. Mr Wollafton obferves, that the appearances mentioned by Dr Wilfon are not conftant. He pofitively affirms, that the faculae or bright fpots on the fun are often converted into dark ones. “ I have many times (fays he) obferved, near the eaftern limb, a bright facula juft come on, which has the next day ftiown itfelf as a fpot, though I do not recoiled! to have feen fuch a facula near the weftern one after a fpot’s difappearance. Yet, I believe, both thefe circumftances have been obferved by others; and perhaps not only near the limbs. The circumftance of the faculae being converted into fpots, I think I may be fure of. That there is generally (perhaps always) a mottled appearance over the face of .the fun, when carefully attended to, I think I may be as certain. It is moft vifible towards the limbs, but I have undoubt¬ edly feen it in the centre \ yet I do not recoiled! to have obferved this appearance, or indeed any fpots, to¬ wards the poles. Once I faw, with a twelve inch re- fledlor, a fpot burft to pieces while I was looking at it. I could not exped! fuch an event, and therefore cannot be certain of the exad! particulars ; but the appearance, as it ftruck me at the time, was like that of a piece of ice when dallied on a frozen pond, which breaks to pieces and Aides in various diredlions.” He alfo ac¬ quaints us, that the nuclei of the fpots are not always in the middle of the umbrae *, and gives the figure of one feen in November 13th 1773, which is a remarkable in- 'Mr Dunn’s fiance to ^ contrary. Mr Dunn, however, in his new account! Atlas of the Mundane Syftem, gives fome particulars very different from the above. “ The face of the fun (fays he) has frequently many large black fpots, of various forms and dimenfions, which move from eaft to weft, and round the fun, according to fome obferva-Apparent tions in 25 days, according to others in 26, and accord- Motions of ing to fome in 27 days. The black or central part of each fpot is in the middle of a great number of very v fmall ones, which permit the light to pafs between them. The fmall fpots are fcarce ever in contad! with the central ones : but, what is moft remarkable, when the whole fpot is near the limb of the fun, the fur¬ rounding fmall ones form nearly a ftraight line, and the central part projedls a little over it, like Saturn in his ring.” # < 7o Dr Herfchel, with a view of afcertaining more ac-Herfchel’* curately the nature of the fun, made frequent obferva-obfsrva- tions upon it from the year 1779 to the year i794.tlons- He imagines that the dark fpots on the fun are moun¬ tains on its furface, which, confidering the great at- tradlion exerted by the fun upon bodies placed at its furface, and the flow revolution it has upon its axis, he thinks may be more than 300 miles high, and yet ftand very firmly. He fays, that in Auguft 1792> examined the fun with feveral powers from 90 to 500 j and it evidently appeared that the dark fpots are the opaque ground or body of the fun ; and that the lu¬ minous part is an atmofphere, which, being interrupted or broken, gives us a view of the fun itfelf. Hence he concludes, that the fun has a very extenfive atmofphere, which confifts of elaftic fluids that are more or lefs lucid and tranfparent ; and of which the lucid ones fur- nilh us with light. This atmofphere, he thinks, is not lefs than 1843, nor rnore tlian 27^5 miles in height \ and, he fuppofes, that the denfity of the luminous folar clouds need not be much more than that of our aurora borealis, in order to produce the effedls with which we are acquainted. The fun then, if this hypothefis be ad¬ mitted, is fimilar to the other globes of the folar fyftem, with regard to its folidity—its atmofphere—its furface diverfified with mountains and valleys—its rotation on its axis—and the fall of heavy bodies on its furface ; it therefore appears to be a very eminent, large, and lu¬ cid planet, the primary one in our fyftem, diffemina- ting its light and heat to all the bodies with which it is cwnnefled. Dr Herfchel has lately given up the ufe of the old terms fuch as fpots, nuclei, penumhrce, &c. and has in¬ troduced a number of new terms, which he confiders as more precife. It will be neceffary, before we proceed farther, to infert his explanation of thefe terms. “ The expreffions,” fays he, “ which I have ufed Explana- are openings, /hallows, ridges, nodules, corrugations, of his indentations, and pores. terms. “ Openings are thofe places where, by the accidental removal of the luminous clouds of the fun, its own folid body may be feen ; and this not being lucid, the open¬ ings through which we fee it may, by a common tele- fcope, be miftaken for mere black fpots, or their nuclei. “ Shallows are extenfive and level deprcflions of the luminous folar clouds, generally furrounding the open¬ ings to a confiderable diftance. As they are lefs lumi¬ nous than the reft of the fun, they feem to have fome diftant, though very imperfefl refemblance to penum- brce ; which might occafion their having been called fo formerly. “ Ridges are bright elevations of luminous matter, extended in rows of an irregular arrangement. “ Nodules are alfo bright elevations of luminous mat¬ ter, Part II. ASTRO Apparent ter, but confined to a imall fpace. Thefe nodules, and Motions of ridges, on account of their being brighter than the ge- tiieHeaven-nerai furface of the fun, and alfo differing a little from ,ly Ew*‘es- ^ in colour, have been called faculae, and luculi. “ Corrugations, I call that very particular and re¬ markable unevennefs, ruggednefs, or afperity, which is peculiar to the luminous folar clouds, and extends all over the furface of the globe of the fun. As the de- preffed parts of the corrugations are lefs luminous than the elevated ones, the difk of the fun has an appearance which may be called mottled. Indentations are the depreffed or low parts of the cor¬ rugations ; they alfo extend over the whole furface of the luminous folar clouds. Pores are very fmall holes or openings, about the middle of the indentations. From the numerous obfervations of this philofopher he -72 has drawn the following conclufions :— Openings. 1. Openings are places where the luminous clouds of the fun are removed : large openings have generally (hallows about them ; but fmall openings are generally without (hallows. They have generally ridges and nodules about them, and they have a tendency to run into each other. New openings often break out near other openings. Hence he fuppofes that the openings are occafioned by an elaftic but not luminous gas, which comes up through the pores and incipient openings, and fpreads itfelf on the luminous clouds, forcing them out of its way, and widening its paffage. Openings fometimes differ in colour j they divide when decayed j fometimes they increafe again *, but when divided they ufually decreafe and vanilh *, fometimes they become large indentations, and fometimes they turn into 73 pores. Shallows. 2. Shallows are depreffed below the general furface of the fun, and are places from which the luminous fo¬ lar clouds of the upper regions are removed. Their thicknefs is vifible •, fometimes they exift without open¬ ings in them. Incipient (hallows come from the open¬ ings, or branch out from (hallows already formed, and go forward. He fuppofes that the (hallows are occa¬ fioned by fomething coming out of the openings, which, by its propelling motion, drives away the luminous clouds from the place where it meets with the lead re- fiftance ; or which, by its nature, diffolves them as it comes up to them. If it be an elaftic gas, its levity muft be fuch as to make it afcend through the inferior region of the folar clouds, and diffufe itfelf among the ^ fuperior luminous matter. Ridges. 3. Ridges are elevations above the general furface of the luminous clouds of the fun. One of them, which he meafured, extended over an angular fpace of 2' 4jw*9, which is nearly 75,000 miles. Ridges generally accompany openings: but they often alfo exift in places where there are no openings. They ufually difperfe very foon. He fuppofes, that the openings permit a tranfparent elaftic fluid to come out, which dirturbs the luminous matter on the top, fo as to occafion ridges and nodules ; or, more precife- ly, that fome elaftic gas, afting below the luminous clouds, lifts them up, or increafes them ; and at laft forces itfelf a paffage through them, by throwing them afide. 4. Nodules are fmall, but highly elevated luminous Vol. III. Part I. „ 75 Nodules. N O M Y. 33 places. He thinks that they may be ridges fore-(hort- Apparent ened. # Motions of 5. Corrugations confift of elevations and depreflions.'*” They extend all over the furtace of the fun} they change 2. v-— < their (hape and fituation ; they increafe, diminifh, divide, and vanilh quickly. Difperfed ridges and nodules form corrugations. 76 6. The dark places of corrugations are indentations. P°res* Indentations are ufually without openings, though in fome places they contain fmall ones. They change to openings, and are of the fame nature as (hallows. I hey are low places, which often contain very fmall open¬ ings. They are of different fizes, and are extended all over the furt. With low magnifying powers they appear like points. The low places of indentations are pores. Pores increafe fometimes, and become openings : they vanifh quickly. “ It muft be fufficiently evident,” fays Dr Herf- chel, “ from what we have (hown of the nature of openings, (hallows, ridges, nodules, corrugations, in¬ dentations, and pores, that thefe phenomena could not appear, if the (hining matter of the fun were a liquid ; fince, by the laws of hydroftatics, the openings, (hal¬ lows, indentations, and pores, would inftantly be fill¬ ed up ; nor could ridges and nodules preferve their elevation for a (Tngle moment. Whereas, many open¬ ings have been known to laft for a whole revolution of the fun ; and fextenfive elevations have remained fupported for feveral days. Much lefs can it be an elaftic fluid of an atmofpheric nature : this would be ftill more ready to fill up the low places, and to ex¬ pand itfelf to a level at the top. It remains, therefore, only for us to admit this (hining matter to exift in the manner of empyreal, luminous, or phofphoric clouds, refiding in the higher regions of the fdlar atmo- fphere,” 77 From his obfervations, Dr Herfchel concludes, that Two re- there are two different regions of folar clouds j that theSl0ns lo” inferior clouds are opaque, and probably not unlike i‘l1 c oa thofe of our planet j while the fuperior are luminous, and emit a vaft quantity of light : that the opaque inferior clouds probably fuffer but little of the light of the felf-luminous fuperior clouds to come to the body of the fun. “ The (hallows about large openings,” he obferves, “ are generally of fuch a fize, as hardly to permit any direft illumination from the fuperior clouds to pafs over them into the openings •, and the great height and clofenefs of the (ides of fmall ones, though not often guarded by (hallows, muft alfo have nearly the fame effeft. By this it appears, that the planetary clouds are indeed a moft effeftual curtain, to keep the brightnefs of the fuperior regions from the body of the fun. “ Another advantage arifing from the planetary clouds of the fun, is of no lefs importance to the whole folar fyftem. Corrugations are everywhere difperfed over the fun j and their indentations may be called (hallows in miniature. From this we may conclude, that the immenfe curtain of the planetary folar clouds is everywhere clofely drawn ; and, as our photometri- cal experiments have proved that thefe clouds refleft no lefs than 469 rays out of 1000, it is evident that they muft add a moft capital fupport to the fplendour of the fun, by throwing back fo great a (hare of the E brightne& 3* Apparent Motions of the Heaven, ly Bodies. 7s r Theory of the folar phenome- tia. ASTRO briglitnefs coming to them from the illumination of the tv hole fuperior regions.” Thefe obfervations are fufficient to prove, that the fun has an atmofphere of great denfity, and extending to a great height. Like our atmofphere, it is obvi- oufly fubjedf to agitations, fimilar to our winds} and it is alfo tranfparent. The following is Dr Her- fchel’s theoretical explanation of the folar pheno¬ mena. “ We have admitted,” fays he, “ that a tranfparent elaftic gas comes up through the openings, by forcing itfelf a palfage through the planetary clouds. Our obfervations feemed naturally to lead to this fuppoli- tion, or rather to prove it ; for, in tracing the (hal¬ lows to their origin, it has been Ihown, that they al¬ ways begin from the openings, and go forwards. W e have alfo feen, that in one cafe, a particular bias gi¬ ven to incipient (hallows, lengthened a number of them out in one certain dirtftion, which evidently de¬ noted a propelling force afting the fame way in them all. I am, however, well prepared to diftinguilh be¬ tween fa£ts oblerved, and the confequences that in rea- foning upon them we may draw from them •, and it will be eafy to feparate them, if that (hould hereafter be required. If, however, it be now allowed,' that the caufe we have affigntd may be the true one, it will then appear, that the operations which are carried on in the atmofphere of the fun are very fimple and uni¬ form. “ By the nature and conftruftion of the fun, an ela¬ ftic gas, which may be called empyreal, is conftantly formed. This afeends everywhere, by a fpecific gra¬ vity lefs than that of the general folar atmofpheric gas contained in the lower regions. When it goes up in moderate quantities, it makes itfelf fmall paflages among the lorver regions of clouds : thefe we have frequently obferved, and have called them pores. We have (hewn that they are liable to continual and quick changes, which muft be a natural confequence of their fleeting generation. “ When this empyreal gas has reached the higher regions of the fun’s atmofphere, it mixes with other gafes, which, from their fpecific gravity, have their refidence there, and occafions decompofitions which produce the appearance of corrugations. It has been ihown, that the elevated parts of the corrugations are fmall felf-luminous nodules, or broken ridges j and I have ufed the name of felf-luminous clouds, as a gene- jt.1 expreffion for all phenomena of the fun, in what (liape foever they may appear, that (liine by their own light. Thefe terms do not exaflly convey the idea af¬ fixed to them *, but thofe of meteors, corufcations,. in¬ flammations, luminous wifps, or others, which I might have fele&ed, would have been liable to (fill greater objections. It is true, that when fpeaking of clouds, we generally conceive fomething too grofs, and even too permanent, to permit us to apply that expreflion properly to luminous decompofitions, which cannot float or fvvim in air, as we are ufed to fee our plane¬ tary clouds do. But it (hould be remembered, that, on account of the great compreflion arifing from the force of the gravity, all the elaftic folar gafes muft be much condenfed ; and that, confequently, phenomena in the fun’s atraofphere, which in ours would be mere tranfi- N O M Y. Part II. tory corufcations, fuch as thofe of the aurora borealis, Apparent will be fo compreffed as to become much more effica- Motions of , 1 , theHeaven- cious and permanent. Bodies. “ The great light occafioned by the brilliant fupe rior regions, muft fcatter itfelf on the tops of the infe¬ rior planetary clouds, and, on account of their great denfity, bring on a very vivid reflection. Between the interftices of the elevated parts of the corrugations, or felf-luminous clouds, which, according to the ob¬ fervations that have been given, are not clofely con¬ nected, the light reflected from the lower clouds' will be plainly viiible, and, being confiderably lefs intenfe than the direCt illumination from the upper regions, will occafion that faint appearance which we have call¬ ed indentations. “ This mixture of the light reflected from the inden¬ tations, and that which is emitted direCtly from the higher parts of the corrugations, unlefs very attentively examined by a fuperior telefcope, will only have the re- femblance of a mottled furface. “ When a quantity of empyreal gas, more than what produces only pores in afeending, is formed, it will make itfelf fmall openings ; or, meeting perhaps with (ome refiftance in palling upwards, it may exert its aCtions in the production of ridges and nodules. “ Laftly, If (till further an uncommon quantity of this gas (hould be formed, it will burft through the pla¬ netary regions of clouds, and thus will produce great openings ; then, fpreading itfelf above them, it will oc¬ cafion large (hallows, and, mixing afterwards gradual¬ ly with other fuperior gafes, it will promote the in- creafe, and aflift in the maintenance, of the general lu¬ minous phenomena. “ If this account of the folar appearances ftiould be well founded, we (hall have no difficulty in afeertain- ing the aCtual (late of the fun, with regard to its ener¬ gy in giving light and heat to our globe ; and nothing will now remain, but to decide the queftion which will naturally occur, whether there be aCLially any confiderable difference in the quantity of light and heat emitted from the fun at different times.” This queftion he decides in the affirmative, confidering the great number of fpots as a proof that the fun is emit¬ ting a great quantity of light and heat, and the want of fpots as the contrary. The firft is conneCied with a warm and good feafon ; the fecond, on the contrary, produces a bad one’ Chap. II. Of the Moon. Phil. Tranf- l$oi part ii. P 265. Next to the fun, the moft confpicuous of all the heavenly bodies is the moon. The changes which it undergoes are more ftriking and more frequent than thofe of the fun, and its apparent motions much more rapid. Hence they were attended to even before thofe of the fun were known *, a faCt which explains why the firft inhabitants of the earth reckoned their time by the moon’s motions, and of courfe followed the lunar inftead of the folar year. In confidering the moon, we (hall follow the fame plan that we obferved with refpefl to the fun. We (hall firft give an account ‘ of her apparent motions ; and, fecondly, of her nature as far as it has been afeertained. Thefe topics (hall oc¬ cupy the two following fe£lions.- SECT. / Part II. Apparent Motions of the Heaven¬ ly Bodies. Sect. I. Of the Apparent Motions of the Moon. ASTRONOMY. 35 Even the elliptical orbit of the moon reprefents but Apparent orbit, The moon, like the fun, has a peculiar motion from eaft to weft. If we obferve her any evening when ftie is fituated very near any fixed ftar, we ftiall find her. Moon’s mo-in 24 hours, about 130 to the eaft of that ftar; and tion in her her diftance continually increafes, till at laft, after a certain number of days, (he returns again to the fame ftar from the weft, having performed a complete revo¬ lution in the heavens. By a continued feries of obfer- vations it has been afcertained, that the moon makes a complete revolution in 27.32166118036 days, or 27 days 7 hours 43' 11" 3I,,, 35//". Such at lealt was the duration of its revolution at the commencement of 1700. But it does not remain always the fame. From a comparifon between the obfervations of the ancients and thofe of the moderns, it appears, that the mean motion of the moon in her orbit is accelerating. This acceleration, but juft fenfible at prefent, will gradually become more and more obvious. It is a point of great importance to difcover, whether it will always conti¬ nue to increafe, or whether, after arriving at a certain maximum, it will again diminifh. Obfervations could be of no fervice for many ages in the refolution of this queftion ; but the Newtonian theory has enabled aftro- nomers to afcertain that the acceleration is periodi¬ cal. The moon’s motion in her orbit is ftill more unequal than that of the fun. In one part of her orbit (he moves fafter, in another flower. By knowing the time of a complete revolution, we can eafily calculate the mean motion for a day, or any given time ; and this mean motion is called the mean anomaly. The true motion is called the true anomaly: the difference between the two is called the equation. Now the moon’s equation forae- times amounts to 6° 18' 32". Her apparent diameter varies with the velocity of her angular motion. When ftie moves fafteft, her dia¬ meter is largeft ; it is fmalleft when her angular motion is floweft. When fmalleft, the apparent diameter is 0.489420° ; when biggeft, it is 0.558030°. Hence it follows, that the diftance of the moon from the earth varies. By following the fame mode of reafoning, which we have detailed in the laft chapter, Kepler af¬ certained that the orbit of the moon is an ellipfe, having the earth in one of its foci. Her radius, veftor defcribes equal areas in equal times ; and her angular motion is inverfejy proportional to the fquare of her diftance from the earth. The eccentricity of the elliptic orbit of the moon, has been afcertained to amount to 0.0550368, (the mean diftance of the earth being reprefentedby unity); or the greater axis is to the fmaller, nearly as 100,000 to 99,848. That point of the moon’s orbit which is nearefl the earth, is called the perigee; the oppofite point is the apogee. The line which joins thefe oppofite points, is called the line of the moon’s apfides. It moves {lowly eaft ward,completing a fidereal revolution in 3232.46643 days, or nearly 9 years. The inclination of the moon’s orbit is alfo va- riable : the greateft inequality is proportional to the cofine of twice the fun’s angular diftance from the afeending node, and amounts when a maximum to 0.14679°. So Elliptical. St Its eccen¬ tricity. Moon’s ir¬ regulari¬ ties. imperfeftly her real motion round the earth ; for that Motions oi luminary is fubje&ed to a great number of irregularities, ^° evidently connedled with the pofitions of the fun, which f -v confiderably alter the figure of her orbit. The three following are the principal of thefe. 85 1. The greateft of all, and the one which was firft af- The cvec- certained, is called by aftronomers the moon’s eve£iion.mn' It is proportional to the fine of twice the mean angular diftance of the moon from the fun, minus the mean an¬ gular diftance of the moon from the perigee of its orbit. Its maximum amounts to 1.3410°. In the oppofitions and conjunctions of the fun and moon it coincides with the equation of the centre, which it always diminifties. Hence the ancients, who determined that equation by means of the eclipfes, found that equation fmaller than it is in reality. 2. There is another inequality in the motion of the Variation, moon, which difappears during the conjunftions and oppofitions of the fun and moon ; and likewife when thefe bodies are 90° diftant from each other. It is at its maximun when their mutual diftance is about 45°, and then amounts to about 0.594°. Hence it has been concluded to be proportional to the fine of twice the mean angular diftance of the moon from the fun. This inequality is called the variation. It difappears during the eclipfes. §. 3. The moon’s motion is accelerated when that of Annual the fun is retarded, and the contrary. This occafions ecl,iatl0n- an irregularity called the annual equation. It follows exactly the fame law with that of the equation of the centre of the fun, only with a contrary fine. At its maximum it amounts to 0.18576°. During eclipfes, it coincides with the equation of the fun. The moon’s orbit is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of 6.14692°. The points where it interfecls the ecliptic are called the vodes. Their pofition is not fix¬ ed in the heavens. They have a retrograde motion, that is to fay, a motion contrary to that of the fun. This motion may be eafily traced by marking the fuc- ceffive ftars which the moon paffes when {he crofles the ecliptic. They make a complete revolution of the Revolution heavens in 6793.3009 days. The afeending node is of her that in which the moon rifes above the ecliptic towards nodes, the north pole, the defeending node that in which (he finks below the equator towards the fouth pole. The motion of the nodes is fubjedled to feveral irregulari¬ ties, the greateft of which is proportional to the fine of twice the angular diftance of the fun from the afeend¬ ing node of the lunar orbit. When at a maximun, it amounts to 1.62945°. The inclination of the orbit itfelf is variable. Its greateft inequality amounts to O.146790. It is proportional to the cofine of the fame angle on which the irregularity in tjre motion of the nodes depends. The apparent diameter of the moon varies as well as that of the fun, and in a more remarkable manner. When fmalleft, it meafures 29.5'; when largeft, 34'. This muft be owing to the diftance of the moon from the earth being fubjefl to variations. The great diftance of the fun from the earth renders Moo^7s it difficult to determine its parallax, on account of itsraliax. 1 * minutenefs. This is not the cafe with the moon. The diftance of that luminary from the earth may be deter¬ mined without much difficulty. .E 2 - Let 36 ASTRO Apparent Let BAG (fig. io.) be one half of the earth, AC Motions of Its femldlameter, S the fun, m the moon, and EKOL theHeaven- a qLiarter of the circle defcribed by the moon in re- ly Bodies. vojvjng frorn tlie meridian to the meridian again. Let CHS be the rational horizon of an obferver at A, ex¬ tended to the fun in the heavens $ and H AO, his fen- lible horizon extended to the moon’s orbit. ALC is the angle under which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from the moon at L y which is equal to the angle OAL, becaufe the right lines AO and CL, which in¬ clude both thofe angles, are parallel. ASC is the angle under which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from the fun at S : and is equal to the angle O A/, becaufe the lines AO and CRS are parallel. Now, it is found by obfervation, that the angle OAL is much greater than the angle OA/; but OAL is equal to ALC, and OA/is equal to ASC. Now as ASC is much lefs than ALC, it proves that the earth’s femidiameter AC appears much greater as feen from the moon at L than from the fun at S; and therefore the earth is much farther from the fun than from the moon. The quan¬ tities of thefe angles may be determined by obfervation in the following manner. Let a graduated inftrument, as DAE (the larger the better), having a moveable index with fight-holes, be fixed in fuch a manner, that its plane furface may be parallel to the plane of the equator, and its edge AD in the meridian : fo that when the moon is in the equinoctial, and on the meridian ADE, ftie may be feen through the fight-holes when the edge of the moveable index cuts the beginning of the divifions at O, on the graduated limb DE •, and when (lie is fo feen, let the precife time be noted. Now as the moon re¬ volves about the earth from the meridian to the meri¬ dian again in about 24 hours 48 minutes, (he will go a fourth part round it in a fourth part of that time, viz. in 6 hours 12 minutes as feen from C, that is, from the earth’s centre or pole. But as feen from A, the obferver’s place on the earth’s furface, the moon will feem to have gone a quarter round the earth when (he comes to the fenfible horizon at O ; for the index through the fights of which Ihe is then viewed will be at d, 90 degrees from D, where it was when (lie was feen at E. Now let the exact moment when the moon is feen at O (which will be when file is in or near the fenfible horizon) be carefully noted (g) that it may be known in what time {he has gone from E to O ; which time fubtraCled from 6 hours 12 minutes (the time of her going from E to L) leaves the time of her going from O to L, and affords an eafy method for finding the angle OAL (called the moon’s horizontal parallax, which is equal to the angle ALC) by the following analogy : As the time of the moon’s defcribing the arc EO is to 90 degrees, fo is 6 hours 12 minutes to the degrees of the arc D number of eclipfes of both lumi- eclipfes in naries cannot be lefs than two, nor more than feven; a year. the moft ufual number is four, and it is very rare to have more than fix. For the fun paffes by both the nodes but once a-year, unlefs he paffes by one of them in the beginning of the year ; and, if he does, he will pafs by the fame node again a little before the year be finiftied ; becaufe, as thefe points move 19^- degrees backwards every year, the fun will come to either of them 173 days after the other. And when either node is within 17 degrees of the fun at the time of new moon, the fun will be eclipfed. At the fubfequent oppofition, the moon will be eclipfed in the other node, and come round to the next conjun&ion again ere the former node be 17 degrees paft the fun, and will there¬ fore eclipfe him again. When three eclipfes fall about either node, the like number generally falls about the oppofite as the fun comes to it in 173 days afterwards ; and fix lunations contain but four days more. Thus, there may be two eclipfes of the fun and one of the moon about each of her nodes. But mentioned. Eclipfes of the fun are more frequent than of the why more moon, becaufe the fun’s ecliptic limits are greater than eclipl'es of the moon’s ; yet we have more vifible eclipfes of the moon than of the fun, becaufe eclipfes of the moon Jie h times of the equinoxes and folftices. 109 In the fame diagram, let FG be part of the eclip-Eclipfes tic, and IK, tk, ik, ik, part of the moon’s orbit ,by both feen edgewife, and therefore projedled into rightitlon lines j and let the interfedfions NODE be one and theeart}ps axjs> fame node at the above times, when the earth has the forementioned different pofitions } and let the fpaces included by the circles H? ppp be the penumbra at thefe times, as its centre is palling over the centre of the earth’s dilk. At the winter folftice, when the earth’s axis has the pofition NNS, the centre of the penumbra P touches the tropic of Capricorn / in N at the middle of the general eclipfe •, but no part of the penumbra touches the tropic of Cancer T. At the fummer folftice, when the earth’s axis has the pofition NDS (7D£ being then part of the moon’s orbit whofe node is at D), the penumbra p has its centre at D, on the tropic of Cancer T, at the middle of the general eclipfe, and then no part of it touches the tro¬ pic of Capricorn t. At the autumnal equinox, the earth’s axis .has the pofition NOS (f O k being then part of the moon’s orbit), and the penumbra equally includes part of both tropics T and t, at the middle of the general eclipfe : at the vernal equinox it does the fame, becaufe the earth’s axis has the pofition NES ; but, in the former of thefe twro laft cafes, the penum¬ bra enters the earth at A, north of the tropic of Can¬ cer T, and leaves it at tn fouth of the tropic of Capri¬ corn t, having gone over the earth obliquely fouthward, as its centre defcribed the line AO m: whereas, in the latter cafe, the penumbra touches the earth at «, fouth of the equator iE£), and defcribing the line « E ^ (fi- milar to the former line AOm in open fpace), goes ob¬ liquely northward over the earth, and leaves it at q, north of the equator. In all thefe circumftances the moon has been fup- pofed to change at noon in her defcending node : Had (he changed in her afcending node, the phenomena would have been as various the contrary way, with re- fpeft to the penumbra’s going northward or fouthward over the earth. But becaufe the moon changes at all hours, as often in one node as in the other, and at all diftances from them both at different times as it hap¬ pens, the variety of the phafes of eclipfes are almofi: innumerable, even at the fame places ; confidering alfo how varioufty the fame places are fituated on the enlightened dilk of the earth, with refpeft to the pen¬ umbra’s motion, at the different hours when eclipfes happen. When the moon changes 17 degrees Ihort of her de¬ fcending node, the penumbra P 18 juft touches the northern part of the earth’s dilk, near the north pole N ; and as feen from that place, the moon appears to touch the fun, but hides no part of him from fight. Had the change been as far (hort of the afcending node, the penumbra would have touched the fouthern part of the dilk near the fouth pole S. When the moon changes 12 degrees Ihort of the defcending node, more than a third part of the penumbra P 12 falls on the northern parts of the earth at the middle of the gene¬ ral eclipfe : Had Ihe changed as far pall the fame node, as ASTRONOMY. Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. Duration of eclipfes in different parts of the earth. ASTRO as much of the other fide of the penumbra about P would have fallen on the fouthern parts of the earth j all the reft in the expanfum, or open fpace. When the moon changes 6 degrees from the node, almoft the whole penumbra P 6 falls on the earth at the middle of the general eclipfe. And laftly, when the moon changes in the node at N, the penumbra PN takes the longeft courfe poflible on the earth’s dilk : its centre falling on the middle thereof, at the middle of the ge¬ neral eclipfe. • The farther the moon changes from ei¬ ther node, vrithin IJ degrees of it, the fhorter is the penumbra’s continuance on the earth, becaufe it goes over a lefs portion of the dilk, as is evident by the figure. The nearer that the penumbra’s centre is to the equator at the middle of the general eclipfe, the longer is the duration of the eclipfe at all thofe places where it is central 5 becaufe, the nearer that any place is to the equator, the greater is the circle it defcribes by the earth’s motion on its axis ; and fo, the place moving quicker, keeps longer in the penumbra, whole motion is the fame way with that of the place, though fafter, as has been already mentioned. Thus (fee the earth at D and the penumbra at 12) whilft the point in the polar circle abed is carried from to c by the earth’s diurnal motion, the point d on the tropic of Cancer T is carried a much greater length from to D } and therefore, if the penumbra’s centre goes one time over c and another time over D, the penumbra wdll be longer in palling over the moving place d than it was in palling over the moving place b. Confequently, central eclip¬ fes about the poles are of the Ihorteft duration j and about the equator, of the longeft. In the middle of fummer, the whole frigid zone, in¬ cluded by the polar circle abed, is enlightened : and if it then happens that the penumbra’s centre goes over the north pole, the fun will be eclipfed much the fame number of digits at 0 as at c ; but whilft the penumbra moves eaftward over c, it moves eaftward over a ; be¬ caufe, with refpedl to the penumbra, the motions of a and c are contrary : for c moves the fame way with the penumbra towards d, but a moves the contrary way to¬ wards b ; and therefore the eclipfe will be of longer du¬ ration at c than at a. At a the eclipfe begins on the fun’s eaftern limb, but at c on his weftern : at all places lying without the polar circles, the fun’s eclipfes begin on his weftern limb, or near it, and end on or near his eaftern. At thofe places where the penumbra touches the earth, the eclipfe begins with the rifing fun, on the top of his weftern or uppermoft edge ; and at thofe pla¬ ces where the penumbra leaves the earth, the eclipfe ends with the fetting fun, on the top of his eaftern edge, which is then the uppermoft, juft at its difappearing in the horizon. About the new moon, that part of the lunar difk which is not illuminated by the fun is perceptible, owing to the feeble light reflefted on it by the hemi- fphere of the earth that is illuminated. Sect. II. Of the Nature of the Moon. Moon’s fize ^ave ^een t^at t^ie moon about 39 times fmall- ler than the earth. Her diameter is generally rec¬ koned about 2180 miles. This is to the diameter of the earth nearly as 20 to 73 } therefore, the furface of the moon is to that of the earth (being as the fquares of N O M Y. 4 their diameters) nearly as 1 to iq’. And, admitting Apparent the moon’s denfity to be to that of the earth as 5 to 4, tj^Hp^ven- their refpeftive quantities of matter will be as I to 39 ]y Tj0dies. very nearly. v""*’ 1 Bouguer has fhown, by a fet of curious experiments, uz that the light emitted by the full moon is 300,000 lt- times lefs intenfe than that of the fun. Even when concentrated by the moft powerful mirrors, it produces no effedl on the thermometer. Many dufkilli fpots may be feen upon the moon’s Spots on dilk, even with the naked eye ; and through a tele-her furtac«. fcope, their number is prodigioufly increafed : Ihe alfo appears very plainly to be more protuberant in the mid¬ dle than at the edges, or to have the figure of a globe and not a flat circle. When the moon is horned or gibbous, the one fide appears very ragged and uneven, but the other always exaflly defined and circular. The fpots in the moon always keep their places exactly j never vanithing, or going from one fide to the other, as thofe of the fun do. We fometimes fee more or lefs of the northern and fautbern, and eaftern and weftern part of the difk or face •, but this is owing to what is called her libration, and will hereafter be explained. The aftronomefs Florentius, Langrenus, John Heve- lius of Dantzic, Grimaldus, Ricciolus, Caflini, and M. de la Hire, have drawn the face of the moon as fhe is feen through telefcopes magnifying between 200 and 300 times. Particular care has been taken to note all the fhining parts in her furface $ and, for the better diftinguifhing them, each has been marked with a pro¬ per name. Langrenus and Ricciolus have divided the lunar regions among the philofophers, aftronomers, and other eminent men *, but Hevelius and others, fearing left the philofophers fhould quarrel about the divifion of their lands, have endeavoured to fpoil them of their property, by giving the names belonging to different countries, ifiands, and feas on earth, to different parts of the moon’s furface, without regard to fituation or figure. The names adopted by Ricciolus, however, are thofe which are generally followed, as the names of Hipparchus, Tycho, Copernicus, &c. are more pleafing to aftronomers than thofe of Africa, the Mediterranean fea, Sicily, and Mount Ai,tna. Fig. 17. is a tolerably exafl reprefentation of the full moon in her mean libra¬ tion, with the numbers to the principal fpots according to Ricciolus, Caflini, Mayer, &c. The afterilk refers to one of the volcanoes difeovered by Dr Herfchel, to be afterwards more particularly noticed. The names are as follow : 16 Timocharis. 17 Plato. Archimedes. Infula Sinus Medii. Pitatus. 21 Tycho. 22 Eudoxus. 23 Ariftoteles. 24 Manilius. 25 Menelaus. 26 Hermes. 27 Poflidonius. 28 Dionyfius. 29 Plinius. C Calharina Cyrillus. 3° 2 Theophilus. F 2 31 Fracaftorius. Herfchel’s Volcano. Grimaldus. Galilaeus. Ariftarchus. Keplerus. Gaffendus. Shikardus. Harpalus. Heraclides. Lanfbergius. Reinoldus. Copernicus. Helicon. 13 Capuanus. 14 Bullialdus. 15 Eratofthenes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 *9 20 44 Apparent 31 Fracaftorius. ASTRONOMY. Part II. Motions of. 40 Taruntius. ^ Promontorium acutum. A Mare Humorum. 34 35 36 37 38 B Mare Nubium. C Mare Imbrium. D Mare Neftaris. £ Mare Tranquillitatis. F Mare Serenitatis. G Mare Foecunditatis. H Mare Crifium. of the Moon. theHeaven- ^ 2 ^ Cenforinus. 1lLlt!f!L33 Mefala* Promontorium Somnii. Proclus. Cleomedes. Snellius et Furnerius. Petavius. 39 Langrenus. Greattne l^ere are Prodigi°us inequalities on her furface, quafitieTon is proved by looking at her through a tdefcope, at the furface any other time than when (he is full j for then there is no regular line bounding light and darknefs : but the confines of thefe parts appear as it were toothed and cut with innumerable notches and breaks : and even in the dark part, near the borders of the lucid furface, there are feen fome fmall fpaces enlightened by the fun’s beams. Upon the fourth day after new moon, there may be perceived fome Ihining points like rocks or fmall iflands within the dark body of the moon j but not far from the confines of light and darknefs there are obferved other little fpaces which join to the en¬ lightened furface, but run out into the dark fide, which by degrees change their figure, till at lafl they come wholly within the illuminated face, and have no dark parts round them at all. Afterwards many more fhin- ing fpaces are obferved to arife by degrees, and to ap¬ pear within the dark fide of the moon, which before they drew near to the confines of light and darknefs were invifible, being without any light, and totally im- merfed in the flradow. The contrary is obferved in the decreafing phafes, where the lucid fpaces which joined the illuminated furface by degrees recede from it, and, after they are quite feparated from the confines of light and darknefs, remain for fome time vifible, till at laft they alfo difappear. Now it is impoffible that this ftiould be the cafe, unlefs thefe finning points were higher than the reft of the furface, fo that the light of the fun may reach them. Now content with perceiving the bare exiftence of thefe lunar mountains, aftronomers have endeavoured to meafure their height in the following manner. Let EGD be the hemifphere of the moon illuminated by the fun, ECD the diameter of the circle bounding light and darknefs, and A the top of a hill within the dark part when it firft begins to be illuminated. Obferve with a telefcope the proportion of the right line AE, or the diftance of the point A from the lucid furface to the diameter of the moon ED •, and becaufe in this cafe the ray of light ES touches the globe of the moon, AEG will be a right angle by 16th prop, of Euclid’s third book •, and, therefore, in the triangle AEG ha¬ ving the two fides AE and EC, we can find out the third fide AC ; from which fubdu&ing EG or EC, there will remain AB the height of the mountain. Ric- ciolus affirms, that upon the fourth day after new moon he has obferved the top of the hill called S/ Ca¬ tharine's to be illuminated, and that it was diftant from the confines of the lucid furface about a fixteenth part of the moon’s diameter. Therefore, if CF=:8, A E will be 1, and AC^CE^ AE* by prop. 47^ of Eu¬ clid’s firft book. Now, the fquare of CE being 64, and the fquare of AE being 1, the fquare of AC will be 65, whofe fquare root is 8,062, which expreffes the 115 , Method of meafuring the lunar mountains. Fig. 20. length of AC. From which deducing BC=8, there Apparent will remain AC=:o,o62. So that CB or CE is there- Motions of fore to AB as 8-is to 0,062, that is, as 8000 is to 62. If the diameter of the moon therefore was known, the , y. - K~ ‘i height of this mountain would alfo be known. This de- monftration is taken from Dr Keill, who fuppofes the femidiameter of the moon to be 1182 miles $ according to which, the mountain muft be fomewhat more than nine miles of perpendicular height: but aftronomers ha¬ ving now determined the moon’s femidiameter to be only 1090 miles, the height of the mountain will be nearly 8£ miles. XI that, befides the light refledted from the fun, the moon hath alfo fome obfeure light of her own, by which die would be vifible without being illuminated Part II. by the funbeams. In proof of this it is urged, that Apparent during the time of even total eclipfes the moon is dill Motions of vifible, appearing of a dull red colour, as if obfeured theHeaven- by a great deal of fmoke. In reply to this it bath , been advanced, that this is not always the cafe ; the , moon fometimes difappearing totally in the time of an eclipfe, fo as not to be difcernible by the bed glaf- fes, while little dars of the fifth and fixth magnitudes were didindtly feen as ufual. This phenomenon was obferved by Kepler twice, in the years 1580 and 1583; and by Hevelius in 1620. Ricciolus and other Je- fuits at Bologna, and many people throughout Hol¬ land, obferved the fame on April 14. 1642 : yet at Venice and Vienna fhe was all the time confpicuous. In the year 1703, Dec. 23. there was another total obfeuration. At Arles, the appeared of a yellowith brown ; at Avignon, ruddy and tranfparent, as if the fun had (hone through her ; at Marfeiiles, one part was reddilh and the other very dufky ; and at length, though in a clear Iky, fhe totally difappeared. The general reafon for her appearance at all during the time of eclipfes fiiall be given afterwards : but as for thefe particular phenomena, they have not yet, as far as we know, been fatisfaftorily accounted for. Different conjeftures have alfo been formed concern¬ ing the fpots on the moon’s furface. Some philofophers have been fo taken with the beauty of the brighted places obferved in her difk, that they have imagined them to be rocks of diamonds ; and others have com¬ pared them to pearls and precious ftones. Dr Keill and the greateft part of aftronomers now are of opi¬ nion, that thefe are only the tops of mountains, which by reafon of their elevation are more capable of re- fle61ing the fun’s light than others which are lower. The dufkifh fpots, he fays, cannot be feas, nor any thing of a liquid fubftance ; becaufe, when examined by the telefcope, they appear to confift of an infinity of caverns and empty pits, whofe Ihadoevs fall within them, which can never be the cafe with feas, or any liquid fubftance : but, even within thefe fpots, bright¬ er places are alfo to be obferved ; which, according to his hypothefis, ought to be the points of rocks ftanding up within the cavities. Dr Long, how'ever, is of opi¬ nion, that feveral of the dark fpots on the moon are really water. May not the lunar feas and lakes (fays he) have iflands in them, wherein there may be pits and caverns ? And if fome of thefe dark parts be brighter than others, may not that be owing to the feas and lakes being of different depths, and to their having rocks in fome places and flats in others ? It has alfo been urged, that if all the dark fpots ob¬ ferved on the moon’s furface were really the fhadows of mountains, or of the fides of deep pits, they could not poffibly be fo permanent as they are found to be ; but would vary according to the pofition of the moon with regard to the fun, as we find thadows on earth are varied according as the earth is turned towards or from the fun. Accordingly it is pretended, that va¬ riable fpots are actually difcovered on the moon’s difk, and that the dire&ion of thefe is always oppofite to the fun. Hence they are found among thofe parts which are fooneft illuminated in the increafing moon, and in the decreafing moon lofe their light fooner than the intermediate ones; running round, and appearing fometimes longer, and fometimes fhorter. The per¬ manent ASTRONOMY. 4 Part II. jnofphere. Apparent manent dark fpots, therefore, it is faid, muft be fome Motions of matter which is not fitted for reflecting the rays of the tJie^e^ven" fun fo much as the bright parts do : and this property, .1^ we know by experience, belongs to water rather than land *, whence thefe philofophers conclude, that the moon, as well as our earth, is made up of land and rai feas* Whether It has been a matter of difpute whether the moon the moon has any atmofphere or not. The following argu- has any at- ments have been urged by thofe who take the nega¬ tive fide. x. The moon conftantly appears with the fame brightnefs when there are no clouds in our atmofphere j which could not be the cafe if fhe were furrounded with an atmofphere like ours, fo variable in its denfity, and fo frequently obfcured by clouds and vapours. 2. In an appuife of the moon to a ftar, when fhe comes fo near it that part of her atmofphere is interpofed be¬ tween our eye and the ftar, refraction would caufe the latter to feem to change its place, fo that the moon would appear to touch it later than by her own mo¬ tion fhe would do. 3. Some philofophers are of opi¬ nion, that becaufe there are no feas or lakes in the moon, there is therefore no atmofphere, as there is no water to be raifed up in vapours. All thefe arguments, however, have been anfwered by other aftronomers in the following manner. 1. It is denied that the moon appears always with the fame brightnefs, even when our atmofphere appears equally clear. Hevelius relates, that he has feveral times found in Ikies perfectly clear, when even ftars of the fixth and feventh magnitude were vifible, that at the fame altitude of the moon, and the fame elongation from the earth, and with one and the fame telefcope, the moon and its maculae do not appear equally lucid, clear, and confpicuous at all times; but are much brighter and more diftinCt at fome times than at others. From the circumftances of this obfervation, fay they, it is evi¬ dent that the reafon of this phenomenon is neither in our air, in the tube, in the moon, nor in the fpeftator’s eye j but muft be looked for in fomething exifting about the moon. An additional argument is drawn from the different appearances of the moon already mentioned in total eclipfes, which are fuppofed to be owing to the different conftitutions of the lunar atmo¬ fphere. To the fecond argument Dr Long replies, that Sir Ifaac Newton has fhown {Vrincip. prop. 37. cor. 5.), that the weight of any body upon the moon is but a third part of what the weight of the fame would be upon the earth *, now the expanfion of the air is reci¬ procally as the weight that compreffes it: the air, therefore, furrounding the moon, being preffed toge¬ ther, by a weight, or being attracted towards the centre of the moon by a force equal only to one-third of that which attraCts our air towards the centre of the earth, it thence follows, that the lunar atmofphere is only one-third as denfe as that of the earth, which is too little to produce any fenfible refraCtion of the ftars light. Other aftronomers have contended that fuch refraCtion was fometimes very apparent. M. Caflini' fays that he frequently obferved Saturn, Jupiter, and the fixed ftars, to have their circular figure, changed in¬ to an elliptical one, when they approached either to the moon’s dark or illuminated limb j though they ASTRONOMY. 47 that in other occultations no fuch change could Apparent 122 Why the light is not refracted by the moon’s at- mofphere. own, be obferved. With regard to the fixed ftars, indeed, Motions o^ it has been urged, that, granting the moon to havetjie^e®yen“ an atmofphere of the fame nature and quantity as ours, y wies.^ no fuch effeCt as a gradual diminution of light ought to take place 5 at leaft, that we could by no means be capable of perceiving it. Our atmofphere is found to be fo rare at the height of 44 miles as to be incapable of refraCling the rays of light. This height is the 180th part of the earth’s diameter; but fince clouds are never obferved higher than four miles, we muft conclude that the vaporous or obfcure part is only one 1980th. The mean apparent diameter of the moon is 31' 29", or i889feconds: therefore the obfcure parts of her armofphere, when viewed from the earth, muft fubtend an angle of lefs than one fecond ; which fpace is paffed over by the moon in lefs than two feconds of time. It can therefore hardly be expeCted that obferva¬ tion fhould generally determine whether the fuppofed obfcuration takes place or not. I The third argument is neceffarily inconclufive, be¬ caufe we know not whether there is any water in the moon or not ; nor though this could be demonftrated, would it follow that the lunar atmofphere anfwers no other purpofe than the railing of water into vapour. 123 There is, however, a ftrong argument in favour of^u inovs the exiftence of a lunar atmofphere, taken from ther:r1^ 0,bler" appearance of a luminous ring round the moon in the moon1 time of folar eclipfes. In the eclipfe of May 1. l7o6,intotal Captain Stanyan, from Bern in Switzerland, writes, eciipfes. that “ the fun was totally darkened there for the fpace of four minutes and a half: that a fixed ftar and planet appeared very bright: that his getting out of the eclipfe was preceded by a blood-red ftreak of light from his left limb, which continued not longer than fix or feven feconds of time ; then part of the fun’s difk appeared all on a fudden, brighter than Venus was ever feen in the night ; and in that very inftant gave light and fhadow to things as ftrong as moon light ufes to do.” The publifher of this account obferves that the red ftreak of light preceding the emerfion of the fun’s body, is a proof that the moon has an atmofphere; and its fhort continuance of five or fix feconds fhows that its height is not more than the five or fix hundredth part of her diameter. Fatio, who obferved the fame eclipfe at Geneva, tells us, that “ there was feen during the whole time of the total immerfion, a whitenefs which feemed to break out from behind the moon, and to encompafs her on all fides equally : this whitenefs was not well defined on its outward fide, and the breadth of it was not a twelfth part of the diameter of the moon. The planet appeared very black, and her difk very well de¬ fined within the whitenefs which encompaffed it about, and was of the fame colour as that of a white crown or halo, of about four or five degrees in diameter, which accompanied it, and had the moon for its centre. A little after the fun had begun to appear again, the whitenefs, and the crown which had encompaffed the moon, did entirely vanifh.” “ I muft add (fays Dr Long), that this defeription is a little perplexed, ei¬ ther through the fault of the author or of the tranf- lator ; for I fuppofe Fatio wrote in French : however, it plainly appears by it that the moon’s atmofphere was vifible, furrounded by a light of larger extent, which I 48 ASTRO Apparent l think mud be that luminous appearance (the zodiacal Motions of light) mentioned from Ca^Iini.,, Flamftead, who pub- theHeaven-^ account, takes notice, that, according to ,iy B°dies- thefe obfervations, the altitude of the moon’s atmo- fphere cannot be well fuppofed lefs than 180 geogra¬ phical miles ; and that probably this atmofphere was never difcovered before the eclipfe, by reafon of the fmallnefs of the refradlion, and the want of proper ob¬ fervations. An account of the fame eclipfe, as it appeared at Zurich, is given by Dr Scheuchzer, in the following words : u We had an eclipfe of the fun, which was both total and annular j total, becaufe the whole fun was covered by the moon ; annular, not what is pro¬ perly fo called, but by refraftion: for there appeared round the moon a bright fhining, which was owing to the rays of the fun refracted through the atmofphere of the moon.” Dorn. Caflini, from a number of accounts fent him from different parts, fays, that in all thofe places where it was total, during the time of total darknefs, there was feen round the moon a crown or broad circle of pale light, the breadth whereof was about a I2th part of the moon’s diameter: that at Montpelier, where the obfervers were particularly attentive to fee if they could diftinguifh the zodiacal light already mentioned, they took notice of a paler light of a larger extent, which furrounded the crown of light before mentioned, and fpread itfelf on each fide of it, to the diflance of four degrees. He then mentions Kepler’s opinion, that the crown of light which appears round the moon du¬ ring the total darknefs in an eclipfe of the fun is caufed by fome celeftial matter furrounding the moon, of fuffi- cient denfity to receive the rays of the fun and fend them to us-, and that the moon may have an atmo¬ fphere fimilar to that of our earth, which may refradf the fun’s light. , A total eclipfe of the fun was obferved on the 22d Sco^ntTApril O.S. in the year 1715, by Dr Halley at Lon- a folar don, and by M. Louville of the Academy of Sciences eclipfe In at Paris. Dr Halley relates, that “ when the firft part I7IS‘ of the fun remained on his eali fide, it grew very faint, and was eafily fupportable to the naked eye even through the telefcope, for above a minute of time before the total darknefs j whereas, on the contrary, the eye could not endure the fplendour of the emerging beams through the telefcope even from the firft moment. To this, two caufes perhaps concurred : the one, that the pupil of the eye did neceifarily dilate itfelf during the dark¬ nefs, which before had been much contradled by look¬ ing on the fun : the other that the eaftern parts of the moon, having been heated with a day near as long as 30 of ours, mull of necelfity have that part of its atmofphere replete with vapours raifed by the fo long continued aftion of the fun; and, by confequence, it was more denfe near the moon’s furface, and more capable of obftru&ing the fun’s beams j whereas at the fame time the weftern edge of the moon had fuf- fered as long a night, during which there might fall in dews all the vapours that were raifed in the preced¬ ing long day j and for that reafon, that that part of its atmofphere might be feen much more pure and tranf- parent. “ About two minutes before the total immerfion, the remaining part of the fun was reduced to a very N O M Y. Part IT. fine horn, whofe extremities feemed to lofe their acute- Apparent nefs, and to become round like ftars ; and for the Motions of fpace of about a quarter of a minute a fmall piece °f the fouthern horn of the eclipfe feemed to be cut off ^ from the reft by a good interval, and appeared like an oblong Itar rounded at both ends ; which appearance w'ould proceed from no other caufe but the inequalities of the moon’s furface*, there being fome elevated parts thereof near the moon’s fouthern pole, by whofe inter- pofition part of that exceedingly fine filament of light was intercepted. A few feconds before the fun was totally hid, there difcovered itfelf round the moon,a luminous ring, about a digit, or perhaps a tenth part of the moon’s diameter in breadth. It was of a pale vvhite- nefs, or rather of a pearl colour, feeming to me a little tinged with the colour of the iris, and to be concentric with the moon ; whence I concluded it the moon’s at¬ mofphere. But the great height of it, far exceeding that of our earth’s atmofphere, and the obfervations of fome who found the breadth of the ring to increafe on the weft fide of the moon as the emerfion approached, together with the contrary fentiments of thofe whofe judgments I (ball always revere, make me lefs con¬ fident, efpecially in a matter to which I gave not all the attention requifite. , I2^ “ Whatever it was, the ring appeared much brighter Flafhes of and whiter near the body of the moon than at a di- light ap- ftance from it *, and its outward circumference, which was ill defined, feemed terminated only by the extreme h™n™ ^ " rarity of the matter of which it was compofed, and inmoon. all refpetffs refembled the appearance of an enlightened atmofphere feen from far : but whether it belonged to the fun or moon, I ftiall not pretend to determine. During the whole time of the total eclipfe, I kept my telefcope conftantly fixed on the moon, in order to ob- ferve what might occur in this uncommon appearance *, and I faw perpetual flafhes or corufcations of light, which feemed for a moment to dart out from behind the moon, now here, now there, on all fides, but more efpecially on the weftern fide, a little before the emerfion 5 and about two or three feconds before it, on the fame weftern fide, where the fun was juft coming out, a long and very narrow ftreak of dufky but ftrong red light feemed to colour the dark edge of the moon, though nothing like it had been feen immediately after the emerfion. But this inftantly vaniftied after the ap¬ pearance of the fun, as did alfo the aforefaid lumi¬ nous ring.” _ _ l26 Mr Louville relates, that a luminous ring of a filver Mr Lou- colour appeared round the moon as foon as the fun was ville’s ob- entirely covered by her dilk, and difappeared the mo-fervatl0nSa ment he recovered his light *, and this ring was bright- eft near the moon, and grew gradually fainter towards its outer circumference, where it was, however, de¬ fined j that it was not equally bright all over, but had feveral breaks in it: but he makes no doubt of its be¬ ing occafioned by the moon’s atmofphere, and thinks that the breaks in it were occafioned by the mountains of the moon j he fays alfo, that this ring had the moon, and not the fun, for its centre, during the whole time of its appearance. Another proof brought by him of the moon having an atmofphere is, that, to¬ wards the end of the total darknefs, there was feen on that fide of the moon on which the fun was going to appear, a piece of a circle, of a lively red, which might Part IT. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- iy Bodies. 127 Lightning fuppofed to be frequent in the *See 114. et feq, i»3 Great height of the lunar atmofphere accounted for. be owing to the red rays that are leaft refrangible be¬ ing tranfmitted through the moon’s atmofphere in the greateft quantity : and that he might be affured this rednefs did not proceed from the glades of his telefcope, he took care to bring the red part into the middle of his glaffes. He lays great ft refs on the ftreaks of light which he faw dart inftantaneoufty from different places of the moon during the time of total darknefs, but chiefly near the eaftern edge of the dilk : thefe he takes to be lightning, fuch as a fpeflator would fee flashing from the dark hemifphere of the earth, if he were placed upon the moon, and faw the earth come between him- felf and the fun. “ Now (fays Dr Long) it is highly probable, that if a man had, at any time, a view of that half of the earth where it is night, he would fee lightning in fume part of it or other.” Louville farther obferves, that the moft mountainous countries are moft liable to tempefts 5 and that mountains being more fre¬ quent in the moon, and higher, than on earth*, thun¬ der and lightning muft be more frequent there than with us ; and that tlje eaftern fide of the moon would be moft: fubjeft to thunder and lightning, thofe parts having been heated by the fun for half the month immediately preceding. It muft here be obferved, that Halley, in mentioning thefe flafties, fays they feemed to come from behind the moon ; and Louville, though he fays they came fometimes from one part and fome- times from another, owns, that he himfelf only faw them near the eaftern part of the difk j and that, not knowing at that time what it was that he faw, he did not take notice whether the fame appearance was to be feen on other parts of the moon or not. He tells us, however, of an Englifti aftronomer, who presented the Royal Society with a draught of what he favv in the moon at the time of this eclipfe ; from which Lou¬ ville feems to conclude, that lightnings had been ob¬ ferved by that aftronomer near the centre of the moon’s difk. “ Now (fays Dr Long) thunder and lightning would be a demonftration of the moon having an at¬ mofphere fimilar to ours, wherein vapours and exhala¬ tions may be fupported, and furnifh materials for clouds, ftorms, and tempefts. But the ftrongeft proof brought by Louville of the moon having an atmofphere is this, that as foon as the eclipfe began, thofe parts of the fun which were going to be hid by the moon grew fenfibly palifti as the former came near them, fuffering beforehand a kind of imperfect eclipfe or diminution of light; this would be owing to nothing elfe but the atmofphere of the moon, the eaftern part whereof going before her reached the fun before the moon did. As to the great height of the lunar atmofphere, which from the breadth of the luminous ring, being about a whole digit, would upon a calculation come out 180 miles, above three times as high as the atmofphere of the earth, Louville thinks that no objection $ fince if the moon were furrounded with an atmofphere of the fame nature with that which encompafles the earth, the gravitation thereof towards the moon would be but one third of that of our atmofphere towards the earth ; and confequently its expanfion would make the height of it three times as great from the moon as is the height of cur atmofphere from the earth.” The fame luminous ring has been obferved in other total eclipfes, and even in fuch as are annular, though VOL. III. Part I. ASTRONOMY. 49 without the luminous ftreaks or flafhes of lightning Apparent above-mentioned ; it is even taken notice of by Plutarch : Motions of however, fome members of the academy at Paris have ^e^veri- endeavoured to account for both thefe phenomena ^ . 1 without having recourfe to a lunar atmofphere ; and for this purpofe they made the following experiments : 12p The image of the fun coming through a (mall hole in- fhefe phe- to a darkened room, was received upon a circle of wood or metal of a diameter a good deal larger than that of^.c0unted the fun’s image ; then the ftiadow of this opaque circle for> was caft upon white paper, and there appeared round it, on the paper, a luminous circle fuch as that which fur- rounds the moon. The like experiment being made with a globe of wood and with another of ftone not po- lithed, the ftiadovvs of both thefe caft upon paper were furrounded with a palifh light, molt vivid near the ftiadows, and gradually more diluted at a diftance from them. They obferve alfo, that the ring round the moon was feen in the eclipfe of 1706 by Wurzelbaur, who caft: her fhadow upon white papen The fame appear¬ ance was obferved on holding an opaque globe in the fun, fo as to cover his whole body from the eye •, for, looking at it through a fmoked glafs, in order to pre¬ vent the eye From being hurt by the glare of light it would otherwife be expofed to, the globe appeared with a light refembling that round the moon in a total eclipfe of the fun. Thus they folve the phenomenon of the ring feen round the moon by the inflection, or diffraBion as they call it, of the folar rays parting near an opaque fub- ftance. As for the fmall ftreaks of light above-men¬ tioned, and which are fuppofed to be lightning, they explain thefe by an hypothefis concerning the cavities of the moon themfelves; which they confider as con¬ cave mirrors reflecting the light of the fun nearly to the fame point; and as thefe are continually changing their fituation with great velocity by the moon’s motion from the fun, the light which any one of them fends to our eye is feeh but for a moment. This, however, will not account for the flafhes, if any fuch there are, feen near the centre of the dilk, though it doe's, in no very faftisfaCtory manner, account for thofe at the edges. 130 It has already been obferved, that the occultations of Oceulta- the fixed ftars and planets by the moon, in general hap- t^e pen without any kind of refraftion of their light by i^the ^ the lunar atmofphere. The contrary, however, has tn0on. fometimes been obferved, and the ftars have been feen tnanifeftly to change their ftiape and colour on going behind the moon’s difk. An inftance of this happen¬ ed on the 28th of June N. S. in the year 171$, when an occultation of Venus by the moon happened in the day-time. Some aftronomers in France obferving this with a telefcope, faw Venus change colour for about a minute before Ihe was hid by the moon $ and the fame change of colour was obferved immediately after her emerlion from behind the dilk. At both times the edge of the dilk of Venus that was neareft the moon appeared reddifh, and that which was moft diftant of a bluilh colour. Thefe appearances, however, which might have been taken for proofs of a lunar atmo¬ fphere, were fuppofed to be owing to the obfervers ha¬ ving direCled the axis of their telefcopes towards the moon. This would neceflarily caufe any planet or ftar near the edge of the moon” dilk to be feen through thofe parts of the glaffes which are near their circum- G ference. 5o ASTRO Apparent ference, ami confequentiy to appear coloured. This Motions of was evidently the cafe from other obfervations of an tlJeI^ven*occultatiGn of Jupiter by the moon the fame year, . y ^ 'es' when no fuch appearance of refraction could be per¬ ceived while he was kept in the middle of the tele- fcope. Maraldi alfo informs us, that he had obferved before this two other occultations of Venus and one of Jupiter; and was always attentive to fee whether thofe planets changed their figure or colour either up¬ on the approach of the moon to cover them, or at their firft coming again into fight ; but never could perceive any fuch thing. Nor could he, in a great number of occultations of the fixed ftars, perceive » the fmalleft apparent change in any of them, except¬ ing once that a fixed liar feemed to increafe its di- ftance a little from the moon as it was going to be co¬ vered by her ; but this, he fufpeCted, might be owing to his telefcope being direCted fo as to have the ftar feen too far from the middle of its aperture. He con¬ cludes, therefore, that the moon has no atmofphere : and he remarks, that at Montpelier, perhaps becaufe the air is clearer there than at London, the luminous ring round the moon appeared much larger than at London ; that it was very white near the moon, and gradually decreafing in brightnefs, formed round her a circular area of about eight degrees in diameter. If, fays he, this light was caufed by the atmofphere of the moon, of what a prodigious extent muft that at- 131 mofphere be ? Moon has \ye have related all thefe opinions at full length, in no fenfible or(jer {.0 pUl. our reac[ers in poffeflion of the arguments atmoip ere. been advanced upon this fubjeCt ; but it is now generally admitted, and indeed, fcarcely can be denied, that the atmofphere of the moon, if it really 132 has any, is almoft entirely infenfible. Turns From the fpots upon the moon’s dilk it has been af- axh. ier certained, that the fame hemifphere of that luminary is always directed towards the earth. Hence it follows that (he turns round her axis once during every revolu- 133 tion round the earth. Libration Exa£t obfervations have afcertained that flight va- of the moon. pjace refpeftjng the appearances of the moon’s dilk. The fpots are obferved alternately to approach towards and recede from the edge of the moon. Thofe that are very near the edge appear and difappear alternately, making periodical ofcillations, which are diflinguilhed by the name of the libration of the moon. To form a precife idea of the nature of this libration, we muft confider that the dilk of the moon, feen from the centre of the earth, is terminated by the circumference of a great circle of the moon, perpendi¬ cular to a line drawn from the earth’s centre to that of the moon. The lunar hemifphere is proje&ed upon the plane of this circle turned towards the earth, ^md its appearances are due to the movements of ro¬ tation of that body relative to its radius veftor. If the moon did not revolve round her axis, this radius ve£lor would defcribe a great circle on the moon’s furface, all the points of which would prefent themfelves fuccef- fively to us. But the moon, revolving in the fame time that this radius veflor defcribes the great circle, always keeps the fame point of the circle nearly upon the ra¬ dius, and of courfe the fame hemifphere turned towards the earth. The inequalities of her motion produce the N O xM Y. Part II. flight variations in her appearance : for the rotation Apparent of the moon does not partake fenfibly of thefe irregula- Motions of rities. Hence it varies fomewhat relatively to the ra-tj16^6^611" dius vector, which accordingly cuts fucceflively different, y. ^ ies,f points of the furface. Of courfe the globe of the moon makes ofcillations relatively to that radius correfpending to the inequalities of her motions, which alternately con¬ ceal from our view and difcover to us fome parts iff her furface. Farther : the axis of rotation of the moon is not ex- a£tly perpendicular to the plane of her orbit. If we fuppofe the pofition of this axis fixed, during a revolu¬ tion of the moon it inclines more or lefs to the radius veftor, fo that the angle formed by thefe two lines is acute during one part of her revolution, and obtufe du¬ ring another part of it. Hence the poles of rotation are alternately vifible from the earth, and thofe parts of her furface that are near thefe poles. Befides all this, the obferver is not placed at the centre of the earth, but at its furface. It is the radius drawn from his eye to the centre of the moon, which determines the middle point of her vifible himifplmre. But in confequence of the lunar parallax, it is obvious that this radius muft cut the furface of the moon in points fenfibly different according to the height of that luminary above the horizon. All thefe caufes concur to produce the libration of the moon, a phenomenon which is merely optical, and not connected with her rotation, which relatively to us is perfedly equable, or at leaft if it be fubjefted to any irregularities, they are too fmall to be obferved. ... I34 This is not the cafe with the variations in the plane Theory of of the moon’s equator. While endeavouring to de-it. termine its pofition by the lunar fpots, Caflini was led to this remarkable conclufion, which includes the whole aftronomical theory of the real libration of that lumi¬ nary. Conceive a plane palling through the centre of the moon perpendicular to her axis of rotation, and of courfe coinciding with the plane of her equator ; con¬ ceive a fecond plane, parallel to the ecliptic, to pafs through the fame centre ; and alfo a third plane, which is the mean plane of the lunar orbit : thefe three planes have a common interfe&ion ; the f^cond, placed be¬ tween the two others, fornjs with the firft an angle of i°.^03, and with the third an angle of 5°.i4692 ; therefore the interfedlions of the lunar equator with the ecliptic coincide always rvith the mean nodes of the lunar orbit, and like them have a retrograde motion, which is completed in the period of 6793 3009 days. During that interval the two poles of the equa¬ tor and lunar orbit defcribe fmall circles parallel to the ecliptic, enclofing between them the pole of the eclip¬ tic, fo that thefe three poles are conftantly upon a great circle of the heavenly fphere. Chap. III. Of the Planets. Amidst the infinite variety of ftars which occupy a place in the fphere of the heavens, and which occupy nearly the fame relative pofition with refpeft to each other, there are eight which may be obferved to move in a very complicated manner, but following cer¬ tain precife laws, for they always commence the fame motions again after every period. The motions of thefe Part II. ASTRO Apparent thefe ftars, called planets, conftitute one of the principal Motions of objefts of aftronomy. Thefe planets are called tfee Heaven- „ ly Bodies. I. Mercury. 5. Pallas. 2. Venus. 6. Jupiter. 3. Mars. 7- Saturn. 4. Ceres. 8. Herfchel. Mercury and Venus never feparate from the fun farther than certain limits j the reft feparate to all the poffible angular diftances. The movements of all thefe bodies are included in a zone of the heavenly fphere called the zodiac. This zone is divided into two equal parts by the ecliptic. Its breadth was formerly conlidered as only about 160; but it mult be much increafed if the orbits of Ceres and Pallas, the two newly difcovered planets, are to be comprehended in it. It will be pro¬ per to confider the motions and appearances of each of thefe planets. This will be the fubjefl of the follow¬ ing fe&ions. Sect. I. Of Mercury. Mercury is a fmall ftar, but emits a very bright white light: though, by reafon of his always keeping near the fun, he is feldom to be feen ; and when he does make his appearance, his motien towards the fun is fo fwift, that he can only be difeerned for a ftiort time. He appears a little after funfet, and again a little 135 before funrife. appar- Mercury never goes to a greater diftance from the lotions, ftm than about 2’]°.$ ; fo that he is never longer in fetting after the fun than an hour and 50 minutes 5 nor does he ever rife fooner than 1 hour and 50 mi¬ nutes before that luminary. Very frequently, he goes fo near the fun as to be loft altogether in his rays. When he begins to make his appearance in the even¬ ing after funfet, he can fcarcely at firft be diftinguilh- ed in the rays of the twilight. But the planet difen- gages itfelf more and more, and is feen at a greater di-~ ftance from the fun every fucceflive evening j and hav- ing got to the diftance of about 22°.5, it begins to re¬ turn again. During this interval, the motion of Mer¬ cury referred to the ftars is direh place of a fpot, and at the fame hour next evening M7 find the fpot advanced 150, he would not be able to Doubts determine whether the fpot had advanced only 150, °r had gone once quite round with the addition of I50flie takes more in part of another rotation. Mr Bianchini, how-in revol- ever, fuppofes Venus to revolve in 24 days eight hours jving round the principal proof adduced for which is an obfervation ^er a3ds* of three fpots, ABC, being fituated as in fig. 26. when they were viewed by himfelf, and feveral perfons of di- ftindtion, for about an hour, during which they could not perceive any change of place. The planet being then hid behind the Barbarini palace, they could not have another view of her till three hours after, when the fpots ftill appeared unmoved. “ Now (fays Mr Bian¬ chini) if her rotation were fo fwift as to go round in 23 hours, in this fecond view, three hours after the former, the fpots muft have advanced near 50 degrees j fo that the fpot C would have been gone oft' at R, the fpot B would have fucceeded into the place of C, the fpot A into the place of B, and there would have been no more but two fpots, A and B, to have been feen.” ... ,148 Caflini, the fon, in a memoir for 1732» denies the Difpute be» conclufion of Bianchini to be certain. He fays, thattween (:af* during the three hours interval, the fpot C might be^1”31?. . gone oii the diik, and the ipot B got into the place thereof, where, being near the edge, it would appear lefs than in the middle. That A, fucceeding into the place of B, would appear larger than it had done near the edge, and that another fpot might come into the place of A j and there were other fpots befides thefe three on the globe of the planet, as appears by the fi¬ gures of Bianchini himfelf, particularly one which would naturally come in the place of A. That if the rotation of Venus be fuppofed to be in 23 hours, it will agree with Bianchini’s obfervations, as well as with thofe of his father ; but that, on the other fuppofition, the latter muft be entirely rejefted as erroneous: and he concludes with telling us, that Venus had frequent¬ ly been obferved in the moft favourable times by Mr Maraldi and himfelf with excellent telefcopes of 80 and IOO feet focus, without their being able to fee any di- ftinft fpot upon her dilk. “ Perhaps (fays Dr Long) thofe feen by Bianchini had dilappeared, or the air in France was not clear enough ; which laft might be the reafon why his father could never fee thofe fpots in France which he had obferved in Italy, even when he made ufe of the longeft telefcopes.” Neither of thefe aftronomers take notice of any indentings in the curve which divides the illuminated part from the dark in the dilk of Venus, though in fome views of that planet by Fontana and Ricciolus, the curve is indented ; and it has from- thence been concluded, that the furface of the planet is mountainous like that of the moon. This had alfo been fuppofed by Burratini, already mention¬ ed ; and a late writer has obferved, that, “ when the air is in a good fiate for obfervation, mountains like thofe of the moon may be obferved with a very power¬ ful telefcope.” Caflini, befides the difcovery of the fpots on the difk Caffini dif- of Venus, by which he was enabled to afcertain her re- covers her- volution 54- Apparcnt Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. ASTRONOMY. Part II. . Ts° Difcovered alfo by Mr Short. volution on an axis, had alfo a view of her fatellite or moon, of which he gives the following account.— “ A. D. 1686, Auguft 28th, at 15 minutes after four in the morning, looking at Venus with a telefcope of 34 feet, I faw, at the diftance of one-third of her dia¬ meter eaftward, a luminous appearance, of a fhape not well defined, that feemed to have the fame phafe with Venus, which was then gibbous on the weftern fide. The diameter of this phenomenon was nearly equal to a fourth part of the diameter of Venus. I obferved it attentively for a quarter of an hour, and having left off looking at it for four or five minutes, I faw it no more 5 but daylight was then advanced. I had feen a like phenomenon which refembled the phafe of Venus, Jan. 25th, A. D. 1672, from 52 minutes after fix in the morning to two minutes after feven, when the brightnefs of the twilight made it difappear. Venus was then horned ; and this phenomenon, the diameter whereof was nearly a fourth part of the diameter of Venus, was of the fame ftiape. It was diftant from the fouthern horn of Venus, a diameter of the planet, on the weftern fide. In thefe two obfervations, I was in doubt whether it was not a fatellite of Venus of fuch a confiftence as not to be very well fitted to refledt the light of the fun.} and which, in magnitude, bore near¬ ly the fame proportion to Venus as the moon does to the earth, being at the fame diftance from the fun and the earth as Venus was, the phafes whereof it refem¬ bled. Notwithftanding ail the pains I took in looking for it after thefe two obfervations, and at divers other times, in order to complete fo confiderable a difcovery, I was never able to fee it. I therefore fufpended my judgment of this phenomenon. If it ftiould return of¬ ten, there will be thefe two epochas, which, compared with other obfervations, may be of ufe to. find out the periodical time of its return, if it can be reduced to any rule.” A fimilar obfervation was made by Mr Short on the 23d of Oflober 1740, about funrife. He ufed at this time a refle.dling telefcope of about 16.5 inches, which magnified between 50 and 60 times, with which he perceived a fmall ftar at about 10' diftance from Ve¬ nus, as meafured by the micrometer} and, putting on a magnifying power of 240 times, he found the ftar put on the fame appearance with the planet herfelf. Its diameter was fomewhat lefs than a third of that of the primary, but its light was lefs vivid, though ex¬ ceedingly tbarp and well defined. I he fame appear¬ ance continued with a magnifying power of 140 times. A line, palling through the centre of Venus and it, made an angle of 18 or 20 degrees with the equator : he faw it feveral times that morning for about the fpace of an hour, after which he loft fight of it, and could never find it again. From this time the fatellite of Venus, though very frequently looked for by aftronomers, could never be perceived, which made it generally believed that Cafli- ni and Mr Short had been miftaken } but as the tran- fits of the planet over the fun in 1761 and 1769 feem¬ ed to promife a greater certainty of finding it, the fa¬ tellite was very carefully looked for by almoft every one who had an opportunity of feeing the tranfit, but generally without fuecefs. Mr Baudouin at Paris had provided a telefcope of 25 feet, in order to obferve the paffage of the planet over the fun, and to look for its fatellite} but he did not fucceed either at that time or in the months of April and May following. Mr Mon¬ taigne, however, one of the members of the Society of Limoges, had better fuccefs. On the 3d of May 1761, he perceived, about half an hour after nine at night, at the diftance of 20' from Venus, a fmall cref- cent, with the horns pointing the fame Way as thofe of the planet} the diameter of the former being about one-fourth of that of the latter ; and a line drawn from Venus to the fatellite making an angle with the verti¬ cal of about 20° towards the fouth. But though he repeated this obfervation feveral times, fome doubt re¬ mained whether it was not a imall ftar. Next day he faw the fame ftar at the fame hour, diftant from Venus about half a minute or a minute more than before, and making with the vertical an angle of io° below on the north fide j fo that the fatellite feemed to have deferibed an arc of about 30°, whereof Venus was the centre, and the radius 2o'. The two following nights were hazy, fo that Venus could only be feen ; but on the 7th of May, at the fame hour as before, he faw the fatellite again above Venus, and on the north fide, at the diftance of 25' or 26' upon a line which made an angle of about 450 with the vertical towards the right hand. The light of the fatellite was always very weak, but it had the fame phafes with its primary, whether viewed together with it in the field of his telefcope or by itfelf. The telefcope was nine feet long, and mag¬ nified an objedl between 40 and 50 times, but had no micrometer } fo that the diftances above mentioned are only from eftimation. Fig. 27. reprefents the three obfervations gf Mr Mon- taipme.. V is the planet Venus j ZN the vertical. EC, a parallel to the ecliptic, making them an angle with the vertical of 450 } the numbers, 3, 4, 7, mark the fituations of the fatellite on the refpedive days. From the figure it appears that the points 3 and 7 would have been diametrically oppofite, had the fatel¬ lite gone 1 50 more round the point V at the laft obfer¬ vation j fo that in four days it went through^ 1550. Then, as 1550 is to four days or 96 hours, fo is 360 to a fourth number, which gives 9 days. 7 hours for the whole length of the fynodical revolution. Hence Mr Baudouin concluded that the diftance of this fa¬ tellite was about 60 of the femidiameters of Venus from its furface } that its orbit cut the ecliptic nearly at right angles •, had its afeending node in 22® of Vir¬ go } and was in its greateft northern digreffion on the 7th at nine at night} and he fuppofed that at the tran¬ fit of the primary the fatellite would be feen accompa¬ nying it. By a fubfequent obfervation, however, on the nth of May, he corredled his calculation of the periodical time of the fatellite, which he now enlarged to 12 days 5 in confequence of which he found that it would not pafs over the difk of the fun along with its primary, but go at the diftance of above 20' from his fouthern limb } though if the time of its revolution fhould be 1 } hours longer than 12 days, it might then pafs over the fun after Venus was gone off. He ima¬ gined the reafon why this fatellite was fo difficult to be obferved might be, that one part of its globe was crufted over with fpots, or otherwife unfit to refieft the light of the' fun. By comparing the periodical time of this fatellite with that of our moon, he com¬ puted the quantity of matter in Venus to be nearly equa^ Apparent Motions of tho Heaven¬ ly Bodies. IS* Seen by Mr Montaigne at the tran¬ fit in 1761. I52. Why this fateilite is fo difficult to be feeo* Part II. Apparent eflua^ to ^iat our eart^ » *n cafe it muft have Motions ofconfiderable influence in changing the obliquity of the theHeaven-ecliptic, the latitudes and longitudes of liars, &c. ly Bodies jt js now ^no^vn that this fuppofed fatellite of Caflini ' was merely an optical deception. Obferva- In the Philof iphical Tranfa61ions for 1761, Mr Hirft tions con- gives an account of his having obferved an atmofphere cerning therouri(j planet Venus. The obfervations were made o^Venus^ Ii'ort St George ; and looking attentively at that part of the fun’s dilk where he expedled the planet would enter, he plainly perceived a faint fhade or pe¬ numbra •, on which he called oui to his two afliilants, “ ’Tis a coming !” and two or three feconds after, the firft external contact took place, in the moment where¬ of all the three agreed •, but he could not fee the pe¬ numbra after the egrefs j and of the other two gentle¬ men, one had gone home, and the other loft the pla¬ net out of the field of his telefcope. Mr Dunn at Chel- fea faw a penumbra, or fmall diminution of light, that grew darker and darker for about five feconds before the internal contact preceding the egrefs j from whence he determines that Venus is furrounded with an atmo¬ fphere of about 50 geographical miles high. His ob¬ fervations, he tells us, were made with an excellent fix-feet Newtonian refle^flor, with a magnifying power of 110, and of 220 times j he had a clear dark glafs next his eye, and the fun’s limb appeared well defined ; but a very narrow waterilh penumbra appeared round Venus. The darkeft part of the planet’s phafis was at the diftance of about a fixth part of her diameter from its edge ; from which an imperfeft light increafed to the centre, and illuminated round about. In the northern parts of Europe this penumbra could not be feen. Mr Wargentin, who communica¬ ted feveral obfervations of the firft external contact, fays, that he could not mark the time exaftly, be- caufe of the undulation of the limb of the fun ; but thought it very remarkable that, at the egrefs, the limb of Venus that was gone off the fun (howed itfelf with a faint light during almoft the whole time of emerfion. Mr Bergman, who was then at the obfer- vatory at Upfal, begins his account at the time when three-fourths of the dilk of the planet was entered up¬ on that of the fun •, and he fays, that the part which was not come upon the fun was vifible, though dark, and furrounded by a crefcent of faint light, as in fig. 28.: but this appearance was much more remarkable at the egrefs ; for as foon as any part of the planet was got off the fun, that part was vifible with a like crefcent, but brighter, fig. 29. As more of the planetary dilk went off that of the fun, however, that part of the crefcent which was fartheft from the fun grew fainter, and vaniftied, until at laft only the horns could be feen, as in fig. 30. The total ingrefs was notinftanta- neous ; but, as two drops of water, when about to part, form a ligament between them j fo there was a dark fwelling ftretched nut between Venus and the fun, as in fig. 31. ; and when this ligament broke, the planet appeared to have got about an eighth part of her diameter from the neareft limb of the fun, fig. 32.: he faw the like appearance at going off, but not fo di- ftinft, fig. 33. Mr Chappe likevvife tot k notice, that the part of Venus which was not upon the fun was vi¬ fible during part of the time of ingrefs and egrefs; that it was farther furrounded by a fmall luminous 4 55 ring of a deep yellow near the place that appeared in Apparent the form of a crefcent, which was much brighter at Motions of the going off than coming upon the fun ; and that, du- ring the whole time the dilk of Venus was upon the . y fun, he faw nothing of it. The time of total ingrefs was inftantaneous like a flalh of lightning ; but at the egrefs the limb of the fun began to be obfcured three feconds before the interior contadl. Some of the French altronomers attributed this luminous ring round Venus to the inflexion of the lun’s rays, as they alfo do the light feen round the moon in folar eclipfes ; but Mr Chappe fuppofes it to have been owing to the fun enlightening more than one half of the planetary globe, though he owns this caufe not to be altogether fuffi- cient. Mr Fouchy, who obferved the tranfit at La Muette in France, perceived, during the whole time, a kind of ring round Venus, brighter than the reft of the fun, which became fainter the farther it. went from the planet, but appeared more vivid in proportion as the fun was clearer. Mr Ferner, who obferved at the fame place, confirms the teftimony of Mr Fouchy. “ During the whole time (fays he) of my obferving with the telefcope, and the blue and green glafles, I perceived a light round about Venus, which followed her like a luminous atmofphere, more or lefs lively, ac¬ cording as the air was more or lefs clear. Its extent altered in the fame manner ; nor was it well termi¬ nated, throwing out, as it were, fome feeble rays on all fides.” “ I am not clear (fays Dr Long) as to the mean- Dr Long’s ing of the luminous circle here mentioned ; whether, opinion on when the whole planet was upon the fun, they faw a °bfer" ring of light round it, diftindt from the light of thevat*ons* fun; or whether they mean only .the light which fur¬ rounded that part of Venus that was not upon the fun.” Mr Chappe takes this and other accounts of the obfervations made in France in this latter fenfe ; and though he fometimes called the luminous part of the crefcent that furrounded the part of the planet not upon the fun a ring, he explains himfelf that he did fo, becaufe at the coming upon the fun he perceived it at one fide of the planet, and on the oppofite fide on its going off: for which reafon he fuppofed that it furrounded it on all fides. See fig, 34, 33. Sect. III. Of Mars. The two p’anets which we have juft deferibed, ap-. pear to accompany the fun like fatellites, and their mean motion round the earth is the fame with that lu¬ minary. The remaining planets go to all the poflible angular diftances from the fun. But their motions have obvioufly a connexion with the fun’s pofition. Mars is of a red fiery colour, and always gives a much duller light than Venus, though fometimes he equals her in fize. He is not fubjeft to the fame li¬ mitation in his motions as Mercury or Venus; but ap¬ pears fometimes very near the fun, and fometimes at a great diftance from him ; fometimes rifing when the fun fets, or fetting when he rifes. Of this planet it is remarkable, that when he approaches any of the fixed ftars, which all the planets frequently do, thefe ftars,,, change their colour, grow dim, and often become totally invifible, though at fome little diflancefrom the body of the planet: but Dr Herfchel thinks this has been exag¬ gerated by former aftronomers. ASTRONOMY. Mars S6 ■ ASTRO Apparent Mars appears to move From weft to eaft round the Motions of earth. I'he mean duration of his fidereal revolution tkeHeaven-js 686.979579 days. His motion is tfery unequal. ,ly Eo(l|t-,s-i When we begin to perceive this planet in the morning v "' when he begins to feparate from the fun, his motion is direft and the moft rapid poftible. This rapidity dimi- rrifties gradually, and the motion ceafes altogether when the planet is about 1370 dirtant from the fun j then his motion becomes retrograde, and increafes in rapidity till he comes into oppofition with the fun. It then gra¬ dually diminilhes again, and becomes nothing when Mars approaches within 137° ^in* I hen tne motion becomes dired after having been retrograde for 73 days, during which interval the planet deferibed an arch of about 160. Continuing to approach the fun, the planet at laft is loft in the evening in the rays of that luminary. All thefe different phenomena are re¬ newed after every oppofition of Mars •, but there are confiderable differences both in the extent and duration of his retrogradations. Mars does not move exa&ly in the plane of the eclip¬ tic, but deviates from it feveral degrees. His apparent diameter varies exceedingly. His mean apparent dia¬ meter is 27", and it increafes fo much, that when the planet is in oppofition, the apparent diameter is 81". Then the parallax of Mars becomes ftnlible, and about double that of the fun. The dilk of Mars changes its form relatively to its pofition with regard to the fun, and becomes oval. Its phafes (bow that it derives its light from that luminary. The fpots obferved on its furface have informed aftrono- mers that it moves round its axis from weft to eaft in 1.02733 days, and its axis is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of about . *55 They were firft obferved in 1666 by Caflini at Bo- firlUeen onlogna with a telefcope of Campani about 165- feet Mars. long and continuing to obferve them for a month, he found they came into the fame fituation in 24 hours and 40 minutes. The planet was obferved by fome aftronomers at Rome with longer telefcopes made .by Euftaehio Divini j but they aftigned to it a rotation in 13 hours only. This, however, was afterwards ftiown by Mr Caflini to have been a miftake, and to have arifen from their not diftinguilhing the oppofite fides of the planet, which it feems have fpots pretty much alike. He made further obfervations on the fpots of this planet in 1670 ; from whence he drew an additional confirmation of the time the planet took to revolve. The fpots were again obferved in fubfequent oppofitions *, particularly for feveral days in 1704 by Maraldi, who took notice that they were not always well defined, and that they not only changed their fhape frequently in the fpace between two oppofitions, but even in the fpace of a month. Some of them, however, continued of the fame form long enough to afeertain the time of the planet’s revolution. Among thefe there appeared this year an oblong fpot, refem- bling one of the belts of Jupiter when broken. It did not reach quite round the body of the planet 5 but had, not far from the middle of it, a fmall protuberance to¬ wards the north, fo well defined that he was thereby enabled to fettle the period of. its revolution at 24 hours 39 minutes-, only one minute lefs than what Caflini had determined it to be. See fig. 45. . V Xhe near approach of Mars to the earth in 1719, N O M Y. Part II. gave a much better opportunity of viewmjj him than Apparent had been obtained before j as he was then within 2^° Motions of of his perihelion, and at the lame time in oppofition to the fun. His apparent magnitude and brightnels . - were thus fo much increafed, that he was by the vul¬ gar taken for a new ftar. His appearance at that time, as feen by Maraldi through a telefcope of 34 feet longj is reprefented in fig. 37. There was then a long belt that reached half way round, to the end of which ano¬ ther Ihorter belt was joined, forming an obtufe angle with the former, a? in fig. 38. This angular point was obferved on the 19th and 20th of Auguft, at 11 hours 15 minutes, a little eaft of the middle of the dilk ; and 37 days after, on the 25th and 26th of Sep¬ tember, returned to the fame fituation. This interval, divided by 36, the number of revolutions contained in it, gives 24 hours 40 minutes for the period of one re¬ volution ; which was verified by another fpot of a tri¬ angular fhape, one angle whereof was towards the north pole, and the bafe towards the fouth, which on the 5th and 6th of Auguft appeared as in fig. 39. and after 72 revolutions returned to the fame fituation on the 16th and 17th of Oftober. The appearances of Mars, as delineated by Mr Hook, when viewed through a 36 feet telefcope, are reprefented in fig. 40. He ap¬ peared through this inftrument as big as the full moon. Some of the belts of this planet are faid to be parallel to his equator ; but that feen by Maraldi was very much inclined to it* 156 Befides thefe dark fpots, former aftronomers took Bright notice that a fegment of his globe about the fouth P°^e fh^poleTof exceeded the reft of his dilk fo much in brightnefs,Mar^ that it appeared beyond them as if it were the .fegment of a larger globe. Maraldi informs us, that this bright fpot had been taken notice of for 60 years, and was more permanent than the other fpots on the planet* One part of it is brighter than the reft, and the leaft bright part is fubjeft to great changesj and has fome- times difappeared. A fimilar brightnefs about the north pole of Mars was alfo fometimes obferved 5 and thefe obfervations are now confirmed by Herfchel, who has viewed the planet with much better inftruments, and much higher magnifying powers, than any other aftronomer ever was in poffeffion of. His obfervations were made Dr Her- with a view to determine the figure of the planet, t^ie^c^ts0fC” pofition of his axis, &c. A very particular account of them is given in the 74th volume of the Philofophi- cal Tranfaftions, but which our limits will not allow us to infert. Fig. 41. to 64. Ihow the particular appear¬ ances of Mars, as viewed on the days there marked. The magnifying powers he ufed were fometimes as high as 932 and with this the fouth polar fpot was found to be in diameter 41"'. Fig. 65. Ihows the connexion of the other figures marked 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, which complete the whole equatorial fuccelfion of- fppts on the dilk of the planet. The centre of the circle marked 57 is placed on the circumference of the inner circle, by making its diftance from the circle marked 59 anfwer to the interval of time between the two ob¬ fervations, properly calculated and reduced to fidereal meafure. The fame is done with regard to the circles marked 58, 59, &c. and it will be found by placing any one of thefe connefled circles in fuch a manner as to have its contents in a fimilar fituation with the fi- " gures Part II. ASTRO Apparent gures in the Tingle reprefentation, which bears the Motions of fame number, that there is a fufficient reiemblance be- theHeaven- tween them j theugh feme allowance muft undoubted- ]y Bodies ma£je for diftortions occafioned by this kind j^g of projection. Caufes of With regard to the bright fpots themfelves, Dr Her- the appear-fchel informs us, that the poles of the planets are not ance and eXa£tly in the middle of them, though nearly fo. anceofaF" “ From the appearance and difappearance (fays he) of tliefe fpots. the bright north polar fpot in the year 1781, We col¬ led that the circle of its motion was at fome conlider- able diftance from the pole. By calculation, its lati¬ tude muft have been about 76° or 770 north j for I find that, to the inhabitants of Mars, the declination of the fun, June 25th, I2h. 13m. of our time was about 90 36' fouth ; and the fpot muft have been fo far removed from the north pole as to fall a few degrees within the enlightened part of the diik to become vifible to us. The fouth pole of Mars could not be many degrees from the centre of the large bright fouthern fpot of the year 1781 *, though this fpot was of fuch a magnitude as to cover all the polar regions farther than the 70th or 63th degree j and in that part which was on the me¬ ridian, July 3d, at 10 h. 34 minutes, perhaps a little farther. “ From the appearances of the fouth polar fpot in 1781, we may conclude that its centre was nearly po¬ lar. We find it continued vifible all the time Mars revolved on his axis ; and to prefent us generally with a p-etty equal (hare of the luminous appearance, a fpot which covered from 430 to 6c° of a great circle on the globe of the planet, could not have any confi- Of the ex- derable polar diftance. From the obfervations and a<£t iiofition calculations made concerning the poles of Mars, We conc^U(^e t^iat nor|F P°ie muft be direded to- 1 ’ wards fome point of the heavens, between 9s 240 33' and o* 70 13'} becaufe the change of the fituation of the pole from left to right, which happened in the time the planet pafled’ from one place to the other-, is a plain indication of its having gone through the node of its axis. Next, we may alfo conclude, that the node muft be confiderably nearer the latter point of the ecliptic than the former •, for whatever be the inclination of the axis, it will be feen under equal angles at equal diftances from the node. But by a trigono¬ metrical procefs of folvirrg a few triangles, we foon dif- covered both the inclination of the axis, and the place where it interfeds the ecliptic at redangles (which, for want of a better term, I have perhaps improperly called its node). Accordingly I find by calculation, that the node is in 170 47' of Pifces, the north pole of Mars being direded towards that part of the heavens; and that the inclination of the axis to the ecliptic is 390 40'. By further calculations vre find that the pole of Mars on the 17th of April 1777, was then adually 8i° 27' inclined to the ecliptic, and pointed towards the left as feen from the fun. “ The inclination and fituation of the node of the axis of Mars, with refped to the ecliptic, being found, may be thus reduced to the orbit of- the planet’ him- felf. Let EC (fig. 66.) be a part oP the ecliptic, ©M part of the orbit of Mars, PEO a line’drawn from P, the celeftial pole of Mars, through E, that point which has been determined: to be the place of Vol. III. Part I. N O M Y. 57 the node of the axis of Mars in the ecliptic, and con- Apparent tinued to O, where it interfeds his orbit. Nowy if, Motn&nsof according to M. de la Lande, w’e put the node of the orbit of Mars for 1783 in Is 170 38', we have from y , ^ the place of the node of the axis, that is, 11s 17° 47' to the place of the node of the orbit, an arch EN of 6o° 11'. In the triangle NEO, right-angled at E^ there is alfo given the angle ENO, according to the fame author, i° 31', which is the inclination of the orbit of Mars to the ecliptic.. Hence we find the angle EON 89° 3', and the fide ON 6o° I2\ Again, when Mars is in the node of its orbit N, we have by calculation tire angle PNEr=63° 7'5 to which adding the angle EN0=:i03i', we have PNOrrb^0 38''; from which two angles, PON and PNO, with the diftance ON, we obtain the inclination of the axis of friars, and place of its node with refped to its own orbit j the inclination being 6i° 18', and the place of the node of the axis 38° 31' preceding the interfedion of the ecliptic with the orbit of friars, or in our 190 28' of Pifces.” , Our author next proceeds to (how how the feafons of the fea- in this planet may be calculated, &c. Which con- ions in jedures, though they belong properly to the next fee- Mars, tion, yet are fo much conneded with what has gone before, that we ftiall infert here what he fays upon the fubjed. “ Being thus acquainted with what the inhabitants of Mars will call the obliquity of their ecliptic^ and the fituation of their equinodial and folftitial points, we are furniftied with the means of calculating the feafons on that planet, and may account, in a manner which I think highly probable, for the remarkable appearance about its polar regions. “ But firft, it may not be improper to give an in- ftance how to refolve any query concerning the Mar¬ tial feafons. Thus, let it be required to compute the declination of the fun on Mars, June 23. 1781, at , midnight of our time. If CY’, if, n, 95, &c. (fig. 67.) reprefent the ecliptic of Mars, and T1 25 >3 the ecliptic of our planet, A a, b B the mutual interfedion of the Martial and terreftrial ecliptics j then there is given the heliocentric longitude of friars, ;«ra 9S io° 30'} then taking away fix figns, and /i or «Y' orri.s 170 38', there remains b mziis 22° 32'. From this arch, with the given inclination i° 31' of the orbits to each other, we have cofine of inclination to radius, as tangent of b m to tangent of BM32 t Is 22° 33'. And taking away B 'Y’r^i8 i° 29', which is the complement to vy B (or ® A, already fhown to be Is 28° 3-1/), there will remain M= os 2i° 4', the place of Mars in its own orbit j that is, on the time above mentioned, the Ibn’s longitude on Mars will be 6s 21° 4^; and the obliquity of the Martial ecliptic, 28° 4.2', being alfo given, we find, by the ufual method, the fun’s declination 90 36' fouth. . » “ The analogy between Mars and the earth is per- Confider- haps by far the greateft in the whole folar fyftem. able refem. Their diurnal motion is nearly the fame ; the obliqui- blance be- ty of their refpedive ecliptics not very different: of all the fuperior planets, the diftance of Mars from the Mars, fun is by far the neareft alike to that of’ the earth ; nor will the length of the Martial year appear very H different 58 ASTRO Apparent different from what we enjoy, when compared to the Motions of furprifing duration of the years of Jupiter, Saturn, the Heaven-an(j Georgium Sidus. If we then find that the ,ly Bodies. gi0ke we inhabit has its polar region frozen and co- vered with mountains of ice and fnow that only partly White fpotsmelt when alternately expofed to the fun, I may well about the be permitted to furmife, that the fame caufes may pro- MaTs°fu bably have the fame effe6t on the globe of Mars ; that pofe'd'to^bethe bright polar fpots are owing to the vivid reflexion sccafioned of light from frozen regions j and that the 'reduftion of by fnow. thofe fpots is to be afcribed to their being expofed to the fun. In the year 1781, the fouth polar fpot was extremely large, which we might well expedl, as that pole had but lately been involved in a whole twelve¬ month’s darknefs and abfence of the fun 5 but in 1783* I found it confiderably fmaller than before, and it de- creafed continually from the 20th of May till about the middle of September, when it feemed to be at a Hand. During this laft period the fouth pole had already been above eight months enjoying the benefit of fummer, and ftill continued to receive the fun-beams, though, towards the latter end, in fuch an oblique diredtion as to be but little benefited by them. On the other hand, in the year 1781, the north polar fpot, which had then been its twelvemonth in the funfliine, and was but lately re¬ turning into darknefs, appeared fmall, though undoubt¬ edly increafing in fize. Its not being vifible in the year 1783, is no objection to thefe phenomena, being owing to the pofition of the axis, by w'hich it was re- 163 moved out of fight. Of the “ That a planetary globe, fuch as Mars, turning on fpheroidical an axJs> fhould be of a fpheroidical form, will eafily find Rl^rs °* admittance, when two familiar inftances in Jupiter and the earth, as well as the known laws of gravitation and the centrifugal force of rotatory bodies, lead the way to the reception of fuch dodlrines. So far from creating difficulties, or doubts, it will rather appear fingular, that the fpheroidical form of this planet has not al¬ ready been noticed by former aftronomers *, and yet, refiedting on the general appearance of Mars, we foon find, that opportunities of making obfervations on its real form cannot be very frequent: for when it is near enough to view it to an advantage, we fee it generally gibbous, and its appdfitions are fo fcarce, and of fo fliort a duration, that in more than two years time, we have not above three or four weeks for fuch obfer¬ vations. Befides, aftronomers being generally accuftom- ed to fee this planet diftorted, the fpheroidical form 164 might eafily be overlooked. Difference u September 25. 1783. At 9 h. 50 m. the equatorial equatorial16 diameter of Mars meafured 21" 53,,,j the polar diame- andpolar ter 2l" 1$'" full meafure; that is, certainly not too diameters fmall. This difference of the diameters was (hown, on »i Mars, the 28th of the fame month, to Mr Wilfon of Glafgowq who faw it perfe&ly well, fo as to be convinced that it was not owing to any defedl or diftortion occafioned by the lens •, and becaufe I wilhed him to be fatisfied of the reality of the appearance, I reminded him of feveral precautions \ fuch as caufing the planet to pafs direflly through the centre of the field of view, and judging of its figure when it was moft diftin£t and beft defined, &c. Next day the difference between the two diameters was fhown to Dr Blagden and Mr Au- bert. The former not only faw it immediately, but thought the flattening almoft as much as that of Jupi- 3 N O M Y. Part II. ter. Mr Aubert alfo faw it very plainly, fo as to en- Apparent tertain no manner of doubt about the appearance. Motions of “ September 30th, 10 h. 52 m. the equatorial diame-1^^®^11- ter was 22" 9"', with a magnifying power of 278. By . ^ a fecond meafure it was 22" 3t/,/, full large 5 the polar diameter, very exa61, was 21" 26'". On the firft of 0£tober, at 10 h. 50 m. the equatorial diameter meafured 103 by the micrometer j and the polar 98 ; the value of the divifions in feconds and thirds not being well determined, on account of fome changes .lately made in the focal length of the object metals of the tele- fcope. On the 13th, the equatorial diameter was ex- a£tly 22" 35'": the polar diameter 21" 35'".” In a great number of fucceeding obfervations, the fame ap¬ pearance occurred j but on account of the quick changes in the appearance of this planet, Dr Herfchel thought proper to fettle the proportion betwixt the equatorial and polar diameters from thofe which were made on the very day of the appofition, and which were alfo to be preferred on account of their being repeated with a very high power, and in a fine clear air, with two different inftruments of an excellent quality. Irom thefe he de¬ termined the proportions to be as 103 to 98, or 1355 to 1272. It has been commonly related by aftronomers, that Of twear- the atmofphere of this planet is poffeffed of fuch Arong™0^^ refraftive powers, as to render the fmall fixed ftars near which it pafles invifible. Dr Smith relates an ob- fervation of Caffini, where a ftar in the water of Aqua¬ rius at the diftance of fix minutes from the dilk of Mars, became fo faint before its oceultation, that it could not be feen by the naked eye, nor with a three- feet telefcope. This would indicate an atmofphere of a very extraordinary fize and denfily : but the follow¬ ing obfervations of Dr Herfchel feem to fhow that it is of much fmaller dimenfions. “ 1783, 061. 26th. There are two fmall ftars preceding Mars, of different flzes j with 460 they appear both dulky red, and are pretty unequal; with 218 they appear confiderably unequal. The diftance from Mars of the neareft, which is alfo the largeft, with 227 meafured 3^ 26" 20'". Some time after, the fame evening, the diftance was f 8" 55"'i Mars being retrograde. Both of them were feen very diftindtly. They were viewed with a new 20 feet refle61or, and appeared very bright. Oc¬ tober 27th, the fmall ftar is not quite fo bright in pro¬ portion to the large one as it was. laft night, being a good deal nearer to Mars, which is now on the fide of the fmall ftar; but when the planet was drawn afide, or out of view, it appeared as plainly as ufual. 1 he di¬ ftance of the fmall ftar was 2! 5" 25'". The largeft of the two ftars (adds he), on which the above obfer¬ vations were made, cannot exceed the 12th, and the fmalleft the 13th or 14th magnitude ; and .1 have no reafon to fuppofe that they were any otherwife affefted by the approach of Mars, than what the brightnefs of its fuperior light may account for. From other pheno¬ mena it appears, however, that this planet is not without a eonfiderable atmofphere ; for befides the permanent fpots on its furface, I have often noticed occafional changes of partial bright belts, and alfo once a darkilh one in a pretty high latitude ; and thefe alterations we can hardly afcribe to any other caufe than the variable difpofition of clouds and vapours floating in the atmo¬ fphere of the planet,” Secx Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly bodies. Sect. IV. Of Jupiter. _ Jupiter is the brighteft of all the planets except '' ^ " Venus. He moves from weft to eaft in a period of 4332.602208 days, exhibiting irregularities fimilar to thofe of Mars. Before he comes into oppofition, and when diftant from the fun about 1150, his motion be¬ comes retrograde, and increafes in fwiftnefs till he comes into oppofition. The motion then becomes gradually flower, and becomes direft when the planet advances within 1150 of the fun. The duration of the retrograde motion is about 121 days, and the arch of retrogradation defcribed is about io°. But there is a confiderable dif¬ ference both in the amount and in the duration of this retrograde motion. Belts of Ju- Jup*ter has the fame general appearance with Mars, piter when only that the belts on his furface are much larger and iirft difco- more permanent. Their general appearance, as defcribed vered. j)r Long, is reprefented fig. 68—yi.j but they are not to be feen but by an excellent telefcope. They are faid to have been firft difcovered by Fontana and two other Italians; but Caflini was the firft who gave a good account of them. Their number is very variable, as fometimes only one, and at others no fewer than eight, may be perceived. They are generally parallel to one another, but not always fo \ and their breadth is likewife variable, one belt having been obferved to grow narrow, while another in its neighbourhood has increafed in breadth, as if the one had flowed into the other : and in this cafe Dr Long obferves, that a part of an oblique belt lay between them, as if to form a communication for this purpofe. The time of their continuance is very uncertain, fometimes remaining unchanged for three months 5 at others, new belts S oMome ^ave been formed in an hour or two. In fome of times ap- thefe belts large black fpots have appeared, which moved fwiftly over the difk from eaft to weft, and returned in a ftiort time to the fame place j from whence the rotation of this planet about its axis has been determined. On the 9th of May 1664, Dr Hook, with a good 12 feet telefcope, obferved a fmall fpot in the biggeft of the three obfcure belts of Jupiter j and obferving it from time to time, found that in two hours it had moved from eaft to weft about half the vifible diameter of the planet. In 1665, Caflini obferved a fpot near the largeft belt of Jupiter which is moft fre¬ quently feem It appeared round, and moved with the greateft velocity when in the middle, but appeared narrower, and moved flower, the nearer it was to the circumference. “ Thefe circumftances (fays Dr Long) ftiowed that the fpot adhered to the body of Jupiter, and was carried round upon it. It continued there¬ on till the year following •, long enough to determine the periodical time of Jupiter’s rotation upon his axis Account of *° ke 9 h. 56 m.” This principal, or ancient fpot «ne of thefe as it is called, is the largeft, and of the longeft con- fpots. tinuance of any hitherto known, and has appeared and vanilhed no fewer than eight times between the years 1665 and from the year laft mentioned it was invifible till 1713. The longeft time of its con¬ tinuing to be vifible was three years $ and the longeft time of its difappearing was from 1708 to 1713 : it feems to have fome connexion with the principal fou- thern belt j for the fpot has never been feen when that pear in them. 168 ASTRONOMY. 59 difappeared, though that belt has often been vifiblfc Apparent without that fpot. Befides this ancient fpot, Caflini, in Motions of the year 1669, faw one of lefs liability that did not^Ueayen- continue of the fame ftiape or dimenfions, but broke into feveral fmall ones, whereof the revolution was but 9 h. 51 m. •, and two other fpots that revolved in 9 h. 52^ m. The figure of Jupiter is evidently an oblate fpheroid, the longeft diameter of his dilk being to the fhorteft as 13 to 12. His rotation is from weft to eaft, like that of the fun, and the plane of his equator is very nearly coincident with that of his orbit j fo that No difter- there can fcarcely be any difference of feafons in that ence of fea- planet. His rotation has been obferved to be fome-u what quicker in his aphelion than his perihelion. I he axis of rotation is nearly perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, and the planet makes one revolution in 0,4I377 <^a)r’ or about 9 h. 35' and 37". The changes in the appearance of thefe fpots, and the difference in the time of their rotation, make it probable that they do not adhere to Jupiter, but are clouds tranfported by the winds with different velocities in an atmofphere fubjedl to vio¬ lent agitations. The apparent diameter of this planet is a maximum during his oppofition to the fun, it is then equal to about 46" } when in conjun£tion it is fmaller, being only about 31": his mean apparent diameter is equal to 36". _ # 179 Four little ftars are obferved around Jupiter, which Is attendei conftantly accompany him. Their relative fituationby four is continually changing. They ofcillate on both fides rc100115, of the planet, and their relative rank is determined by the length of thefe ofcillations. That one in which the ofcillation is (horteft is called the frjl fatellite, and fo on. Thefe fatellites are analogous to our moon. See fig. 18. and J 86. They are all fuppofed to move in ellipfes \ though the eccentricities of all of them are too fmall to be meafured, excepting that of the fourth ; and even this amounts to no more than 0.007 of its mean diftance from the primary. The orbits of thefe planets were thought by Galileo to be in the fame plane with that of their primary : but Mr Caflini has found that their orbits make a fmall angle with it; and, as he did not find any difference in the place of their nodes, he concluded that they were all in the fame place, and that their afeending nodes were in the middle of Aquarius. After obferving them for more than 36 years, he found their greateft latitude, or deviation from the j>jX plane of Jupiter’s orbit, to be 2° 55'. The firft of thefe Diftances fatellites revolves at the diftance of 5.697 of JuPiter,s^cdalPtirme’s femidiameters, or T 51" as meafured by proper-inftru-ofJupiter,5 ments j its periodical time is 1 d. 18 h. 2*]' 34,/. Them0ons. next fatellite revolves at the diftance of 9.017 femidia¬ meters, or 2' 56", in 3 d. 13 h. 13' 43"the third at the diftance of 14.384 femidiameters, or 4' 42", in 7d. 3I1. 42' 36" 5 and the fourth at the diftance of 25.266, or 8' i6,/, in 16 d. 16 h. 32' 09". Since the time of Caflini it has been found that the nodes of Jupiter’s fatellites are not in the fame place j and from the different points of view in which we have an opportunity of obferving them from the earth, W'e fee them fometimes apparently moving in ftraight lines, and at other times in elliptic curves. All of them, by reafon of their immenfe diftance, feem to keep near their primary, and their apparent motion is a kind of ofcillation like that of a pendulum, going alternate- H 2 Ij 6o ASTRONOMY. Part IT. *7* Occupa¬ tions and ealipfes of Jupiter’s latellites. 173 pear as dark fpots. Apparent their greateft diflance on one fide to the Motions of greateft diftance on the other, fometimes in a ftraight theHeaven-]jne} and fometimes in an elliptic curve. When a fa- ,ly Bodies.^ js jn ;ts fUper;0r femicircle, or that half of its ^"""^"""orbit which is more diftant from the earth than Jupi¬ ter is, its motion appears to us direft, according to the order of the figns; but in its inferior femicircle, when it is nearer to us than Jupiter, its motion ap¬ pears retrograde 5 and both thefe motions feem quicker the nearer the fatellites are to the centre of the prima¬ ry, (lower the more diftant they are, and at the greateft diftance of all they appear for a ftiort time to be fta- tionary. From this account of the fyftem of Jupiter and his fatellites, it is evident, that occultations of them muft frequently happen by their going behind their primary, or by coming in betwixt us and it. The former takes place when they proceed towards the middle of their up¬ per femicircle; the latter, when they pafs through the fame part of their inferior femicircle. Occultations of the former kind happen to the firft and fecond fatellite 5 at every revolution, the third very rarely efcapes an oe- cultation, but the fourth more frequently by reafon of its greater diftance. It is feldom that a fatellite can be difcovered upon the diik of Jupiter, even by the beft telefcopes, excepting at its firft entrance, when by rea¬ fon of its being more diredftly illuminated by the rays of the fun than the planet itfelf, it appears like a lucid The fatel- fpot upon it. Sometimes, however, a fatellite in paf- lites feme- fing over the di(k, appears like a dark fpot, and is times ap- ea£ly. to be diftinguiftied. This is fuppofed to be ow¬ ing to fpots on the body of thefe fecondary planets j and it is remarkable, that the fame fatellite has been known to pafs over the dilk at one time as a dark fpot, and at another fo luminous that it could not be diftin¬ guiftied from Jupiter himl'elf, except at its coming on and going off. To account for this, we muft fay, that either the fpots are fubjeft to change ; or if they be permanent like thofe of our moon, that the fatellites at different times turn different parts of their globes to¬ wards us. Poflibly both thefe caufes may contribute to produce the phenomena juft mentioned. For thefe their light reafons alfo both the light and apparent magnitude of and appa- ^ fate]i|tes are variable ; for the fewer fpots there are upon that fide which is turned towards us, the brighter it will appear 5 and as the bright fide only can be feen, a fatellite muft appear larger the more of its bright fide it turns towards the earth, and the lefs fo the more it happens to be covered with fpots. The fourth fatellite, though generally the fmalleft, fometimes ap¬ pears bigger than any of the reft : the third fometimes feems leaft, though ufually the largeft j nay, a fatellite may be fo covered with fpots as to appear lefs than its lhadow pafling over the di(k of the primary, though we are certain that the (hadow muft be fmaller than the body which cafts it. To a fpeftator placed on the furface of Jupiter, each of thefe fatellites would put on the phafes of the moon ; but as the diftance of any of them from Jupiter is but fmall when compared with the diftance of that planet from the fun, the fatellites are therefore illuminated by the fun very nearly in the fame manner with the primary itfelf-, hence they ap¬ pear to us always round, having conftantly the greateft part of their enlightened half turned towards the earth: *pd indeed they are fo fmall, that were they to put on V ' a 174 Why they vary in rent mag¬ nitude. the phafes of the moon, thefe phafes could fcarce be Apparent difcerned through the beft telefeopes. Motions of When the fatellites pafs through their inferior circles, they may caft a (hadow upon their primary, h' Bod.es.^ and thus caufe an eclipfe of the fun to his inhabitants ^ if there are any j and in feme fituations this (hadow Their iha- may be obferved going before or following the fatel-dows feme- lite. On the other hand, in pafling through their fuperior femicircles, the fatellites maybe eclipfed indifkofJu- the fame manner as our moon by palling through the piter. (hadow of Jupiter : and this is aftually the cafe with the firft, feeond, and third of thefe bodies; but the Three of fourth, by reafon of the largenefs of its orbit, paffes Jupiter’s fometimes above or below the ftvadow, as is the cafe tr!°?ns . with our moon. The beginnings and endings of thefe ever^revo- eclipfes are eafily feen by a telefcope when the earth lution. is in a proper fituation with regard to Jupiter and the ^ fun ; but when this or an-y other planet is in conjunc-At what tion with the fun, the fuperior brightnefs of that lumi-time the nary renders both it and the fatellites invifible. From eclipfes, oci the time of its firft appearing after a conjunftion until near the appofition, only the immerfions of the fatel-pitpr>s lites into his fhadow, or the beginnings of the eelipfes,tellites are are vifible ; at the appofition, only the occultations ofvifible. the fatellites, by going behind or coming before their primary, are obfervable ; and from the appofition to the conjunftion, only the emerfions, or end of the eclipfes, are to be feen. This is exa&ly true in the firft fatellite, of which we can never fee an immerfiort with its immediately fubfequent emerfion : and it is but rarely that they can be both feen in the fecond ; as in order to their being fo, that fatellite muft be near one of its limits, at the fame time that the planet is near his perihelion and quadrature with the fun. With re¬ gard to the third, when Jupiter is more than 46 de¬ grees from conjunftion with, or appofition to, the fun, both its immerfions and immediately fubfequent emer¬ fions are vifible; as they likewife are in the fourth, when the diftance of Jupiter from conjundUon or appo¬ fition is 24 degrees. Whe Jupiter is in quadrature with the fun, the earth is fartheft out of the line that paffes through the centres of the fun and Jupiter, and therefore the ftiadow of the planet is then molt expofed to our view : but even then the body of the planet will hide from us one fide of that part of the (hadow which is neareft to it, through which the firft fatellite paffes •, which is the reafon that though we fee the entrance of that fatellite into the ftiadow, or its coming out from thence, as the earth is fituated on the eaft or weft fide thereof, we cannot fee them both ; whereas the other fatellites going through the (hadow at a greater diftance from Jupiter, their ingrefs and egrefs are both vifible. Sect. V. Of Saturn. Saturn is likewife a very confpicuous planet, though not fo brilliant as Jupiter. The period of his fidereal revolution round the earth, is 10759.077213 days. He moves from weft to eaft nearly in the plane of the ecliptic, and exhibits irregularities fimilar to thofe of Jupiter and Mars. He becomes retrograde both before and after his oppofitionj nhen at the diftance of about 109° from the fun. His retrograde motion continues- about 139 days, and during its continuance he deferibes an 179 His ring firft difco- vered by Huygens. Part II. ASTRO Apparent an arc of about 6°. His diameter is a maximum at bis irJmens of oppofition, and bis mean apparent diameter is 18". theHeaven- Saturn, when viewed through a good tekfcope, ly Bodies, a remarkable appearance than any of the other planets. Galileo firft difcovered his uncommon Telefcopic fhape, tvhich be thought to be like two fmall globes, appearance one on each fide of a large one ; and he publiftied his of Saturn, diftiovety in a Latin fentence : the meaning of which Avas, that he had feen him appear with three bodies *, though, in order to keep the difcovery a fecret, the letters were tranfpofed. Having viewed him for two years, he was furprifed to fee him become quite round without thefe appendages, and then after fome time to affume them as before. Thefe adjoining globes were what are now called the anfee of his ring, the true fliape of which was firft difcovered by Huygens about 40 years after Galileo, firft with a telefcope of 12 feet, and then with one of 23 feet, which magnified objefts 100 times. From the difeoveries made by him and other aftronomers, it appears that this planet is far- rounded by a broad thin ring, the edge of which re- fiefts little or none of the fun’s light to us, but the planes of the ring refledl the light in the fame manner that the planet itfelf does; and if we fuppofe the dia¬ meter of Saturn to be divided into three equal parts, the diameter of the ring is about feven of thefe parts. The ring is detached from the body of Saturn in fuch a manner, that the diftance between the innermoft part of the ring and the body is equal to its breadth. If we had a view of the planet and his ring, with our eyes, per¬ pendicular to one of the planes of the latter, we Ihould fee them as in fig. 72. : but our eye is never fo much ele¬ vated above either plane as to have the vifual ray ftand at right angles toil, nor indeed is it ever elevated more than about 30 degrees above it *, fo that the ring, be¬ ing commonly viewed at an oblique angle, appears of an oval fcrm, and through very good telefcopes double, as reprefented fig. 73. and 74. Both the outward and inward rim is proje&ed into an ellipfis, more or lefs oblong according to the different degrees of obli¬ quity with which it is viewed. Sometimes our eye is in the plane of the ring, and then it becomes invifible; either becaufe the outward edge is not fitted to refieft the fun’s light, or more probably becaufe it is too thin to be feen at fuch a diftance. As the plane of this ring keeps always parallel to itfelf, that is, its fituation in one part of the orbit is always parallel to that in any other part, it difappears twice in every revolution of the planet, that is, about once in 15 years j and he fome- times appears quite round for nine months together. At other times, the diftance betwixt the body of the planet and the ring is very perceptible j infomuch that Mr Whifton tells us of Dr Clarke’s father having feen a ftar through the opening, and fuppofed him to have bexn the only perfon who ever faw a fight fo rare, as the opening, though certainly very, large, appears very fmall to us. When Saturn appears round, if our eye be in the plane of the ring, it will appear as a dark line acrofs the middle of the planet’s difk; and if our eye be elevated above the plane of the ring, a (hadowy belt will be vifible, caufed by the fhadow of the ring as well as by the interpofition of part of it betwixt the eye and the planet. The fhadow of the ring is broad- eft when the fun is moft elevated, but its obfcure parts appear broadeft when our eye is moft elevated above N o M Y, <5i the plane of it. When it appears double, the ring Apparent next the body of the planet appeats brighteft } tfhen Motions of the ring appears of an elliptical form, the parts ab°u*l]y the fends of the largeft axis are c ailed the anfee, as has ■ ^ ■ been already mentioned. Thefe, a little before and after the difappearing of the ring, are of unequal mag¬ nitude : the largeft anfa is longer vifible before the pi a- igo net’s round pha-fe, and appears again fooner, than the Ring of Sa, other. On the firft of Oftober 1714, the largeft anfa turn pra- was on the eaft fide, and on the 12th on the weft fidebably bass of the difk of the planet, which makes it probable that the ring has a rotation round an axis. Herfchel has demonftrated, that it revolves in its own plane in 10 hours 32' The obfervations of this philofopher have added greatly to our knowledge of Saturn’s ring. According to him there is one fingle, dark, confidera- bly broad line, belt, or zone, which be has conftant- ly found on the north fide of the ring. As this dark belt is fubje£t to no change whatever, it is probably owing to fome permanent conftruftion of the furface of the ring: this conftruftion cannot be owing to the fha¬ dow of a chain of mountains, fince it is vifible all round on the ring •, for there could be no fhade at the ends of the ring : a fimilar argument will apply againft the opinion of very extended caverns. It is pretty evident that this dark zone is contained between two concentric circles \ for all the phenomena correfpond with the proje6tion of fuch a zone. The nature of the ring Dr Herfehel thinks no lefs folid than that of Sa¬ turn itfelf, and it is obferved to call a ftrong fhadow upon the planet. The light of the ring is alfo gene¬ rally brighter than that of the planet 5 for the ring ap¬ pears fuffieiently bright when the telefcope affords fcarcely light enough for Saturn. The doftor concludes that the edge of the ring is not flat, but fpherical or fpheroidical. The dimenfions of the ring, or of the two rings with the fpace between them, Dr Herfchel gives as below : Miles. Inner diameter of fmaller ring 146345 Outfide diam. of ditto *^4393 Inner diam. of larger ring 190248 Outfide diam. of ditto 204883 1 Breadth of the inner ring 20000 Breadth of the outer ring 7200 Breadth of the vacant fpace, or dark zone 2839 There have beetv various conje£ture§ relative to the nature of this ring. Some perfons have ima¬ gined that the diameter of the planet Saturn was once equal to the prefent diameter of the outer ring, and that it was hollow } the prefent body being con¬ tained \Vithin the former furface, in like manner as a kernel is contained within its fhell : they fuppofe that, in confequence of fome concuffion, or other caufe, the outer fhell all fell down to the inner body, and left only the ring at the greater diftance from the centre, as we now perceive it. This conjefture is in fome meafure corroborated by the confideration, that both the planet and its ring perform their rotations about the fame common axis, and in very nearly the fame time. But from the obfervations of Dr Herfchel, he thus concludes : “ It does not appear to me that there is fufficient ground for admitting the ring of Saturn to be of a very changeable nature, and I guefs that its phenomena will hereafter be fo fully explained, as to reconcile . 62 ASTRO Apparent reconcile all obfervations. In the meanwhile we muft Motions of withhold a final judgment of its conftrudtion, till |we tJie Bodies'1*030 ^ave more obfervations. Its divifion, however, . into two very unequal parts, can admit of no doubt.” The diameters of Saturn are not equal: that which is perpendicular to the plane of his ring appears lefs by one-eleventh than the diameter fituated in that plane. If we compare this form with that of Jupiter, we have reafon to conclude that Saturn turns rapidly round his fhorter axis, and that the ring moves in the plane of his equator. Herfchel has confirmed this opinion by adlual obfervation. He has afcertained the duration of a re¬ volution of Saturn round his axis to amount to 0.428 day. Huygens obferved five belts upon this planet nearly parallel to the equator. His feven Saturn is ftill better attended than Jupiter (fee fig. 18. fatellites. end 186.) ; having, befides the ring above-mentioned, no fewer than feven moons continually circulating round him. The firfl, at the diftance of 2.097 femidiameters of his ring, and 4.893 of the planet itfelf, performs its revolution in 1 d. 21 h. 18' ; the fecond, at 2.686 femidiameters of the ring, and 6.268 of Saturn, re¬ volves in 2d. 17 11.41' 22" j the third, at the di¬ ftance of 8.754 femidiameters of Saturn, and 3.752 of the ring, in 4 d. 12 h. 25' 12" 5 the fourth, called the Huygenian fatellile, at 8.698 femidiameters of the ring, and 20.295 of Saturn, revolves in 15 d. 22 h. 41' 12"; while the fifth, placed at the vaft diftance of 59.154 femidiameters of Saturn, or 25.348 of his ring, does not perform its revolution in lefs than 79 d. 7 h. 47' 00". The orbits of all thefe fatellites, except the fifth, are nearly in the fame plane, which makes an angle with the plane of Saturn’s orbit of about 310 j and by reafon of their being inclined at fuch large angles, they cannot pafs either acrofs their primary or behind it with refpeft to the earth, except when very near their nodes 5 fo that eclipfes of them happen much more feldom than of the fatellites of Jupiter. There is, however, an account in the Philof. Tranfaft. of an occultation of the fourth fatellite behind the body of Saturn j and there is a curious account by Caflini in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy for 1692, of a fixed ftar being covered by the fourth fatellite, fo that 182 for 13 minutes they appeared both as one ftar. By htefome^" reaf°n of their extreme fmallnefs, thefe fatellites cannot times difap-be feen unlefs the air be very clear; and Dom. Caflini pears, and for feveral years obferved the fifth fatellite to grow lefs why. an(i iefs as it went through the eaftern part of its or¬ bit until it became quite invifible ; while in the weftern part it gradually became more and more bright until it arrived at itsgreateft fplendour.—“ This phenomenon (fays Dr Long) cannot be better accounted for than by fuppofing one half of the furface of this fatellite to be unfit to refieft the light of the fun in fufficient quantity to make it vifible, and that it turns round its axis nearly in the fame time as it revolves round its primary; and that, by means of this rotation, and keeping always the fame face toward Saturn, we upon the earth may, during one half of its periodical time, be able to fee fucceflively more and more of its bright fide, and during the other half of its period have more and more of the fpotted or dark fide turned towards us. In the year 1705, this fatellite unexpefledly became .vifible in all parts of its orbit through the very fame N O M Y. Part II. telefcopes that were before often made ufe of to view it Apparent in the eaftern part without fuccefs : this ftiowsthe fpots Motions of upon this fatellite, like thofe upon Jupiter and fome t'‘ieHe^yen_ other of the primary planets, are not permanent, but ,ly ^RS'. fubjedl to change.” The two other fatellites were difcovered by Dr Her¬ fchel in 1787 and 1788. They are nearer to Saturn than any of the other five. But in order to prevent con- fufion, they have been called the 6th and 7th fatellit'es. The fifth fatellite has been obferved by Dr Herfchel to turn once round its axis, exadlly in the time in which it revolves round Saturn. In this refpedl it re- fembles our moon. Sect. VI. Of Herfchel. The planets hitherto defcribed have been known from the remoteft antiquity ; but the planet Herfchel, called alfo the Georgium Sidus, and Uranus, efcaped the attention of the ancient aftronomers. Flamftead, Mayer, and Le Mounier had obferved it as a fmall ftar; but in 1781 Dr Herfchel difcovertd its motion, and afcertained it to be a planet. Like Mars^ Jupi¬ ter, and Saturn, it moves from weft to call round the fun. The duration of its fidereal revolution is 30689 days. Its motion, which is nearly in the plane of the ecliptic, begins to be retrograde before and after the oppofition, when the planet is 103.50 from the fun; its retrograde motion continues for about 151 days; and the arc of retrogradation amounts to 3.6°. If we judge of the diftance of this planet by the flownefs of its motions, it ought to be at the very confines of the planetary fyftem. The apparent magnitude of this planet is fo fmall its fatel- that it can feldom be feen with the naked eye. It is lites, accompanied by fix fatellites : two of them, which were difcovered by Dr Herfchel in 1787, revolve about that planet in periods of 8 d. J 7 h. x m. 19. fee. and 13 d. 11 h. 5 m. 14 fee. refpe&ively, the angular di- ftances from the primary being 33" and 44-I" : their orbits are nearly perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. The hiftory of the difeovery of the other four, with fuch elements as could then be afcertained, are given in the Pbilofophical Tranfadlions for 1798, Part I. The precife periods of thefe additional fatel¬ lites cannot be afcertained without a greater number of obfervations than had been made when Dr Herfchel fent the account of their difeovery to the Royal Society ; but he gave the following eftimates as the moft probable which could be formed by means of the data then de¬ termined. Admitting the diftance of the interior fatel¬ lite to be 25".$, its periodical revolution will be 5 d. 21 h. 25 m. If the intermediate fatellite be placed at an equal diftance between the two old fatellites, or at 38".57, its period vvill be 10 d. 23 h. 4 m. The neareft exterior fatellite is about double the diftance of the fartheft old one ; its periodical time will therefore be about 38 d. 1 h. 49 m. The mnft diftant fatellite is full four times as far from the planet as the old fecond fatellite; it will therefore take at leaft 107 d. 16 h. 40 m. to complete one revolution. All thefe fatellites perform their revolutions in their orbits contrary to the order of the figns; that is, their real motion is retro¬ grade. Sect. Part II. ASTRONOMY. Apparent Motions of Sect. VII. Of Ceres and Pallas. theHeaven- ,ly B°dies-> These two planets, lately dlfcovered by Piazzi and Olbers, two foreign aftronomers, ought to have follow¬ ed Mars in the order of defcription, as their orbits are placed between thofe of Mars and Jupiter •, but as they have been obferved only for a very fhort time, we judged it more proper to referve the account of them till we came to the words Ceres and Pallas, when the elements of their orbits will in all probability be determined with more precifion than at prefent. They are invifible to the naked eye ; and Dr Herfchel has afcertained that their fize is extremely fmall. For that reafon, together with the great obliquity of their orbits, he has propofed to diftinguifh them from the planets, and to call them aferoids. Chap. IV. Of the Comets. The planets are not the only moving bodies vifible in the heavens. There are others which appear at un¬ certain intervals, and with a very different afpeft from the planets. Thefe are very numerous, and no fewer than 450 are fuppofed to belong to our folar fyftem. They are called Comets, from their having a long tail, fomewhat refembling the appearance of hair. This, however, is not always the cafe j for fome comets have appeared which were as well defined, and as round as planets : but in general they have a luminous matter dif- fufed around them, or proje&ing out from them, which to appearance very much refembles the Aurora Borea¬ lis. When thefe appear, they come in a direft line to¬ wards the fun, as if they were going to fall into his body; and after having difappeared for fome time in con- fequence of their proximity to that luminary, they fly off again on the other fide as faft as they came, project¬ ing a tail much greater and brighter in their recefs from him than when they advanced towards him $ but, getting daily at a farther diftance from us in the hea¬ vens, they continually lofe of their fplendour, and at laft totally difappear. Their apparent magnitude is ve¬ ry different; fometimes they appear only of the bignefs of the fixed ftars 5 at other times they will equal the diameter of Venus, and fometimes even of the fun or moon. So, in 1652, Hevelius obferved a comet which feemed not inferior to the moon in fize, though it had not fo bright a fplendour, but appeared with a pale and dim light, and had a difmal afpeCt. Thefe bodies will alfo fometimes lofe their fplendour fuddenly, while their apparent bulk remains unaltered. With refpeCl: to their apparent motions, they have all the inequalities of the planets 5 fometimes Teeming to go forwards, fometimes backwards, and fometimes to be flationary. The comets, viewed through a telefcope, have a very different appearance from any of the planets. The nu¬ cleus, or ftar, feems much more dim. Sturmius tells us, that obferving the comet of 1680 with a telefcope, it appeared like a coal dimly glowing j or a rude mafs of matter illuminated with a dufky fumid light, lefs fen- fible at the extremes than in the middle ; and not at all like a ftar, which appears with a round difk and a vivid light. FUvelius obferved of the comet in 1661, that its body was of a yellowifh colour, bright and confpieuous, Apparent but without any glittering light. In the middle was a Motions of denfe ruddy nucleus, almoft equal to Jupiter, encom* palled with a much fainter thinner matter.—February . y ieS’. 5th. The nucleus was fomewhat bigger and brighter, of a gold colour, but its light more dufky than the reft of the ftars j it appeared alfo divided into a number of parts.—Feb. 6th. The nuclei ftill appeared, though lefs than before. One of them on the left fide of the lower part of the difk appeared to be much denfer and brighter than the reft ; its body round, and reprefenting a little lucid ftar 5 the nuclei ftill encompaffed with an¬ other kind of matter.—Feb. 10th. The nuclei more obfcure and confufed, but brighter at top than at bot- tom.^—Feb. 13th. The head diminifhed much both in brightnefs and in magnitude.—March 2d. Its round- nefs a little impaired, and the edges lacerated.—March 28th. Its matter much difperfed j and no diftidl nu¬ cleus at all appearing. Wiegelius, who faw through a telefcope the comet of 1664, the moon, and a little cloud illuminated by the fun, at the fame time, obferved that the moon ap¬ peared of a continued luminous furface, but the comet very different, being perfedtly like the little cloud en¬ lightened by the fun’s beams. 184 The comets, too, are to appearance furrounded with Atmo- atmofpheres of a prodigious fize, often rifing ten times higher than the nucleus. They have often likewife dif- comets, ferent phafes, like the moon. 185 “ The head of a comet (fays Dr Long) to the eye, Ur Long’s unaflifted by glaffes, appears fometimes like a cloudy ftar 5 fometimes fliines with a dull light like that of the planet Saturn : fome comets have been faid to equal, fome to exceed, ftars of the firft magnitude ; fome to have furpaffed Jupiter, and even Venus $ and to have caft a fhadow as Venus fometimes does. “ The head of a comet, feen through a good tele¬ fcope, appears to confift of a folid globe, and an at- mofphere that furrounds it. The folid part is fre¬ quently called the nucleus ; which through a telefcope is eafily diftinguifhed from the atmofphere or hairy ap¬ pearance. “ A comet is generally attended with a blaze or tail, whereby it is diftinguifhed from a ftar or planet.; as it is alfo by its motion. Sometimes the tail only of a co¬ met has been vifible at a place where the head has been all the while under the horizon ; fuch an appearance is called a beam. “ The nucleus of the comet of 1618 is faid, a few Appearan- days after coming into view, to have broken into three ces 0^t^e or four parts of irregular figures. One obferver com¬ pares them to fo many burning, coals ; and fays they changed their fituation while he was looking at them, as when a perfon ftirs a fire ; and a few days after were broken into a great number of fmaller pieces. Another account of the fame is, that on the ill and 4th of De¬ cember, the nucleus appeared to be a round, folid, and luminous body, of a dufky lead colour, larger than any ftar of the firft magnitude. On the 8th of the fame month it Avas broken into three or four parts of irregu¬ lar figures ; and on the 20th Avas changed into a duller of fmall ftars. “ As the tail of a comet is Giving to the heat of thqphenorae- fun, it grows larger as the comet approaches near to,naof their andtails* comet of 1618. 187 64 Apparent and (hortens 33 it recedes from, that luminary. If the Motions of tail of a comet were to continue of the fame length, it the Heaven-would appear longer -or fhorter according to the differ- ly Bodies. ent vje^'s 0f tl)e fpedfator j for if his eye be in a line '““~v drawn through the middle of the tail lengthwife, or nearly fo, the tail will not be diftinguithed from the reft of the atmofphere, but the whole will appear round ; if the eye be a little out of that line, the tail will appear Ihort^as in fig. 75.', and it is called a bearded comet when the tail hangs down towards the horizon, as in that figure. If the t?,il of a comet be viewed fidewife, the whole length of it is feen. It is obvious to remark, that the nearer the eye is to the tail, the greater will be the apparent length thereof. “ The tails of comets often appear bent, as in fig. 76. and 77. owing to the refiftance of the eether ; which, though extremely fin all, may have a fenfible effedt on fo thin a vapour as the tails confift of. This bending is feen only when the earth is not in the. plane of the orbit of the cpm,et continued. When that plane paffes through the eye of the fpe&ator, the tail appears flraight,( as in fig. 78, 79.. “ Longomontanus mentions a comet, that, in 1618, Dec. 10th, had a tail above roo degrees in length j which {hows that it muft then have been very near the earth. The tail of a comet will at the fame time ap¬ pear of different lengths in different plages, according as the air in one place is clearer than in another. It need not be mentioned, that in the fame place, the dif¬ ference in the eyes of the fpeftators will be the caufe of their difagreeing in their eftimate of the length of 88 the tail of a comet. Difference “ Hevelius is very particular in telling us, that he between obferved the comet of 1665 to call a ftiadow upon the the obfer- tail 5 for in the middle thereof there appeared a dark vations of jt is fomewhat furprifing, that Hooke fbould be Hooke, pofitive in affirming, on the contrary, that the place where the fliadow of the comet ftiould have beep, if there had been any ffiadow, was brighter than any other part of the tail. He was of opinion that comets have fome light of their own : His obfervations Avere made in a hurry ; he owns they Avere fhort and tranfitory. He- vmlius’s Avere made Avith fo much care, that there is more reafon to depend upon them. Dom. Caffini obferved, in the tail of the comet of 1680, a darknefs in the mid¬ dle \ and the like Avas taken notice of by a curiou? ob- l3(. ferver in that of 1744* Account of “ There are three comets, viz. of 168c, 1744, and she comet 1759, that deferve to have a farther account given of of 16S0, them. The comet of 1680 Avas remarkable for its near approach to the fun \ fo near, that in its perihelion it was not above a fixth part of the diameter of that lumi¬ nary from the furface thereof. Fig. 77. taken from NeAvton’s Principia, reprefents fo much of the trajedlory of this comet as it paffed through while it was vifible to the inhabitants of our earth, in going from apd return¬ ing to its perihelion. It ffioAv^s alfo the tail, as it ap¬ peared on the days mentioned in the figure. The tail, like that of other comets, increafed in length and bright- nefs as it came nearer to the fun ; and grew (horter and fainter as it Avent farther from him and from the earth, till that and the comet were too far off to be any longer ■ vifible. “ The comet of 1744 was firft feen at Laufanne in Part IT, Switzerland, Dec. 13. 1743, N. S, From that time Apparent it increafed in brightnefs and magnitude as it Avas co- Motions of ming nearer to the fup. The diameter of it, Avhen the diftance of the fun from us, mealured about one, } minute ; Avhich brifigs it out equal to three times the l90 diameter of the earth. It came fo near Mercury, that, of that of if its attraction'had been proportionable to its magni-i744* tude, it was thought probable it Avould have difturbed the motion of that planet. Mr Betts of Oxford, how¬ ever, from fome obfervations made there, and at Lord Macclesfield’s obfervatory at Sherburn, found, that when the comet Avas at its leaft diftanee from Mercury, and almoft twice as near the fun as that planet Avas, it Avas ftill cliftant from him a fifth part of the difiance of the fan from the earth 5 and could therefore have no effect upon the planet’s motions. He judged the co¬ met to be at leaft equal in magnitude to the earth. He fays, that in the evening of Jan. 23d, this comet ap¬ peared exceedingly diftinfl and bright, and the diame¬ ter of its nucleus nearly equal to that of Jupiter. Its tail extended above 26 degrees from its body ; and was in length, fuppofing the fun’s parallex 10", no lefs than 23 millions of miles. Dr Bevis, in the month of May 1744, made four obfervations of Mercury, and found the places of that planet, calculated from corre£t ta¬ bles, differed fo little from the places obferved, as to ftioAV that the comet had no influence upon Mercury’s motion. “ The nucleus, Avhich had before been ahvays round, on. the I Oth of February appeared oblong in the di> re&ion of the tail, and feemed divided into Iavo parts, by a black ftroke in the middle. One of the parts had a fort of beard brighter than the tail y this beard was furrounded by two unequal dark ftrokes, that fe- parated the beard from the hair of the comet. The odd phenomena difappenred the next day, and nothing was feen but irregular obfeure fpaces like fmpke in the middle of the tail ; and the head refumed its natural form. February 15th, the tail Avas divided into. Iavo branches ; the eaftern part about feven or eight degrees long, the Aveftern 24. On the 23d, the tail began to be bent j it (heAyed no tail till it Avas as near to the fun as the orbit of Mars; the tail grew longer as it ap¬ proached nearer the fun ; and at its greatest length Avas computed to equal a third part of the diftance of the earth from the fun. Fig. 76. is a vieAv of this comet, taken by an obferver at Cambridge. I remember that, in vieAving it, I thought the tail feemed to fparkle, or vibrate luminous particles. Hevelius mentions the like in other comets ; and that their tails lengthen and ftiort- en while we are viewing. This is probably owing to the motion of our air. jpj “ The comet of 1759 did not make any confider-of the ce- able appearance by reafon of the unfavourable fituation met of of the earth all the time its tail might otherAvife haveTTSP* been confpicuous j the comet being then too near the fun to be leen by us j but deferves our particular confi- deration, as it Avas the firft that ever had its return fore¬ told,” Hevelius gives piftures of comets of various ffiapes ; as they are deferibed by hiftorians to have been like a fword, a buckler, a tun, &c. Thefe are drawn by fancy only, from the defeription in words. He gives, however, alfo pictures of fome comets, engraved by ASTRONOMY. Part II. ASTRONOMY. 65 Apparent his otvn hand from the views he had of them through Motions of a very long and excellent telefcope. In thole we find -theHe wen-c|langes jn t}-,e nuc]eus and the atmofphere of the fame '.’iy Bo-'1'l S- cu,11et. The nucleus of the comet of 1661, which in one obfervation appeared as one round body, as it is reprefented in fig. 87. in fubfequent views feemed to con lift of feveral fmaller ones feparated from one ano¬ ther, as in fig. 86. The atmofphere furrounding the nucleus, at different times, varied in the extent thereof; as did alfo the tail in length and breadth. The nuclei of other comets, as has already been ob- ferved, have fometimes phafes like the moon. Thofe of 1744 and 1769 had both this kind of appearance. See fig. 34. 191 Number of fixed it a i s increafed by tele- fcopes. . 195 Different magnitudes of the ftar;. 194 Telefcopic ftars. T9S Unformed fta«rs. Chap. V. Of the Fixed Stars. The parallax of the liars is infenlible. When viewed through the bed telefcopes, they appear not at all mag¬ nified, but rather diminilhed in bulk ; by reafon, as is thought by feme, that the telefcope takes off that twinkling appearance they make to the naked eye; but by others, more probably, that the telefcope tube excludes a quantity of the rays of light, which are not only emitted from the particular ftars themfelves, but by many thoufands more, which falling upon our eye¬ lids and the aerial particles about us, are refiefted into our eyes fo ftrongly as to excite vibrations, not only on thofe points of the retina where the images of the ftars are formed, but alfo in other points at the fame diftance round about. This, without the telefcope, makes us ima¬ gine the ftars to be much bigger than when we fee them only by a few rays coming direflly from them, fo as to enter our eyes without being intermixed with others. The fmallnefs of their apparent diameter is proved by the fuddennefs with which they difappear on their oc- cultations by the moon. The time which they take does not amount to one fecond, which Ihows their ap¬ parent diameter not to exceed 4". The vivacity of their light, compared with their fmall diameter, leads us to fuppofe them at a much greater diftance than the planets, and to confider them as luminous bodies like our fun, inftead of borrowing their light from that luminary like the planets. The ftars, on account of their apparently various mag¬ nitudes, have been diftributed into feveral claffes or or¬ ders. Thofe which appear largeft are called fars of the frjl magnitude ; the next to them in luftre, fars of the fecond magnitude ; and foon to the fxthy which are the fmalleft that are vifible to the naked eye. This dif- tribution having been made long before the invention of telefcopes, the ftars which cannot be feen without the aftiftance of thefe inftruments are diftinguiftied by the name of telefcopic fars. The ancients divided the ftarry fphere into particu¬ lar conftellations, or fyftems of ftars, according as they lay near one another, fo as to occupy thofe fpaces which the figures of different forts of animals or things would take up, if they were there delineated. And thofe ftars which could not be brought into any particular conftel- lation were called unformedfars. This divifion of the ftars into different conftellations, Apparent or afterifms, ferves to diilinguifti them from one ano-Motions of ther, fo that any particular ftar may be readily found thfc^eajven" in the heavens by means of a celeftial globe j on which . } the conftellations are fo delineated, as to put the molt remarkable ftars into fuch parts of the figures as areUfesof moft eafily diflinguilhed. The number of the ancient conftellations is 48, and upon our prefent globes about 70. On Senex’s globes are inferted Bayer’s letters ; t-ous> the firft in the Greek alphabet being put to the biggeft ftar in each conftellation, the fecond to the next, and fo on : by which means, every ftar is as eafily found as if a name were given to it. Thus, if the ftar y in the conftellation of the Ram be mentioned, every altrono- mer knows as well what ftar is meant as if it were pointed out to him in the heavens. See fig. 205, 206, where the ftars are reprefented with the figures of the animals from whence the conftellations are marked. There is alfo a divifion of the heavens into three Divifion of parts. I. The zodiac from tl)e hea- “ an animal,” becaufe moft of the conftellations in it,vens‘ which are 12 in number, have the names of animals : Fig. 26,29. As Aries the ram, Taurus the bull, Gemini the twins, Canter the crab, Leo the lion, Virgo the virgin, Libra the balance, Scorpio the fcorpion, Sigittarius the archer, Capricornus the goat, Aquarius the water-bearer, and Pifces the fifties. The zodiac goes quite round the hea¬ vens : it is about 16 degrees broad, fo that it takes in the orbits of all the planets, and likewife the orbit of the moon. Along the middle of this zone or belt is the ecliptic, or circle which the earth defcribes annually as feen from the fun, and which the fun appears to de- fcribe as feen from the earth. 2. All that region of the heavens which is on the north fide of the zodiac, containing 21 conftellations. And, 3. That on the fouth fide, containing 15. 198 The ancients divided the zodiac into the above 12 Zodiac how conftellations or figns in the following manner : They divided, took a veffel with a fmall hole in the bottom, and, ha¬ ving filled it with water, fuffered the fame to diftil drop by drop into another veffel fet beneath to receive it j beginning at the moment when fome ftar arofe, and con¬ tinuing till it rofe the next following night. The wa¬ ter falling down into the receiver they divided into 12 equal parts; and having two other fmall veffels in readinefs, each of them fit to contain one part, they again poured all the water into the upper veffel; and, obferving the rifing of fome ftar in the zodiac, they at the fame time fuffered the water to drop in¬ to one of the fmall veffels ; and as foon as it was full, they fhifted it, and fet an empty one in its place. When each veffel was full, they took notice what ftar of the zodiac rofe ; and though this could not be done in one night, yet in many they obferved the rifing of 12 ftars or points, by which they divided the zodiac into 12 parts. The names of the conftellations, and the number of ftars obferved in each of them by different aftronomers, are as follows. Vol. Ill, Part f. The 66 Apparent Motions of theHeaven¬ ly Bodies. 199 Catalogue ef the con- fteilations. ASTRONOMY. Part II. T/ie Ancient Conjiel/ations. Apparent Motions of the Heaven¬ ly Bodies. Urfa minor Urfa major Draco Cepheus Bootes, ArBophilax Corona Borealis Hercules, Engonqfin Lyra Cygnus, Galhna Caffiopeia Perfeus Auriga Serpentarius, Ophiuchus Serpens Sagitta Aquila, Vultur Antinous Delphinus Equulus, EquifeSiio Pegafus, Equus Andromeda Triangulum Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Coma Berenices Virgo Libra, Che Ice Scorpio Sagittarius Capricornus Aquarius Pifces Cetus Orion Eridanys, Fluvius Lepus Canis major Canis minor Argo Navis Hydra Crater Corvus Centaurus Lupus Ara Corona Auftralis Pifcis Aullralis Columba Noachi Robur Carolinum Grus Phoenix Indus Pavo Apus, Avis Indie* The Little Bear The Great Bear The Dragon Cepheus The Northern Crown Hercules kneeling The Harp The Swan The Lady in her chair Perfeus The Waggoner Serpentarius The Serpent The Arrow The Eagle 7 Antinous 3 The Dolphin The Horfe’s Head The Flying Horfe Andromeda The Triangle The Ram The Bull The Twins The Crab The Lion Berenice’s Hair The Virgin The Scales The Scorpion The Archer The Goat The Water-bearer The Fifties The Whale Orion Eridanus, the River The Hare The Great Dog The Little Dog The Ship The Hydra The Cup The Crow The Centaur The Wolf The Altar The Southern Crown The Southern Fifh } Ptolenty. 8 '35 31 23 8 29 10 10 13 29 29 18 5 10 4 20 23 4 18 44 25 23 35 32 17 24 31 28 45 38 22 38 34 12 29 2 45 27 7 7 37 19 7 J3 18 The New Southern Cancellations. Tycho, 7 29 32 4 18 8 28 11 18 26 29 9 i5 J3 5 12 3 10 4 19 23 4 21 43 25 15 3° M 33 10 10 14 28 41 21 42 10 L3 13 2 3 19 3 4 Noah’s Dove 10 The Royal Oak 12 The Crane 13 The Phenix 13 The Indian 12 The Peacock 14 The Bird of Paradife 11 Apis, Mufcct Chamseleon Triangulum Auftrale Pifcis volans, Pajfer Dorado, Xiphias Toucan Hydrus Hevelius, 12 73 40 51 52 8 45 J7 47 37 46 40 40 22 5 23 J9 14 6 38 47 12 2.7 5i 38 29 49 21 50 20 20 22 29 47 39 45 62 27 16 21 J3 4 31 10 Flamftead. 24 87 80 35 54 21 21 81 55 59 66 74 64 18 71 18 10 89 66 16 66 141 85 83 95 43 no 51 44 69 51 108 IJ3 97 78 84 19 31 14 64 60 31 9 35 24 9 12 24 The Bee or Fly The Chameleon The South Triangle The Flying Fifh The Sword Fifh The American Goofe The Water Snake 4 10 5 8 6 9 10 Hevelius's Part II. A S T R O Apparent ^lotions of the Heaven¬ ly Bodies. llevelius's Conflellatiom made out of the unformed Stars. Hevel. Flamft. Lynx The Lynx 19 44 Leo minor The Little Lion - 53 Afterion & Chara The Greyhounds 23 25 Cerberus Cerberus 4 Vulpecula & Anfer The Fox and Goofe 27 35 Scutum Sobielki Sobielki’s Shield 7 Lacerta The Lizard 10 16 Camelopardalus The Camelopard 32 58 Monoceros The Unicorn 19 31 Sextans The Sextant 11 41 Several ftars obferved by the ancients are now no more to be Teen, but are deftroyed *, and new ones have appeared which were unknown to the ancients. Some of them have alfo dilappeared for fome time, and again become vifible. We are alfo aflured from the ohfervations of aftrono- mers, that fome ftars have been obferved which never ■were feen before, and for a certain time they have di- flinguiftied themfelves by their fuperlative luftre ; but afterwards decreafing, they vaniihed by degrees, and were no more 4:o be feen. One of thefe ftars being firft feen and obferved by Hipparchus, the chief of the an¬ cient aftronomers, fet him upon compofing a catalogue of the fixed ftars, that by it pofterity might learn whether any of the ftars perifti, and others are produced afrefti. After feveral ages, another new ftar appeared to Ty¬ cho Brahe and the aftronomers who were cotemporary with him : which put him on the fame defign with Hipparchus, namely, the making a catalogue of the fixed ftars. Of this, and other ftars which have ap¬ peared fince that time, we have the following hiftory Sr Hal ^ -^r Halley: “ The firft new ftar in the chair of Caftiopeia, w>as not feen by Cornelius Gemma on the ftory of 8th of November 1572, who fays, he that night con- ■»ew ftars. fidered that part of the heaven in a very fertne Iky, and faw it not: but that the next night, November 9. it appeared with a fplendour furpaffing all the fixed ftars, and fcarce lefs bright than Venus, This was not feen by Tycho Brahe before the nth of the fame month : but from thence he allures us that it gradually decreafed and died away, fo as in March 1574, after fixteen months, to be no longer vifible; and at this day no figns of it remain. The place thereof in the fphere of fixed ftars, by the accurate obfervations of the fame Tycho, was os 90 17' c ima * np'15, with 530 45' north latitude. “ Such another ftar was feen and obferved by the fcholars of Kepler, to begin to appear on Sep. 30. f. vet. anno 1604, which wras not to be feen the day be¬ fore : but it broke out at once with a luftre furpafling that of Jupiter ; and like the former, it died away gra¬ dually, and in much about the fame time difappeared totally, there remaining no footfteps thereof in Janu¬ ary 160^. This was near the ecliptic, following the right leg of Serpentarius; and by the obfervations of Kepler and others, w'as in 7s 20° co' a ilTia * , with north latitude i° 56'. Thefe two feem to be of a diftirnft fpecies from the reft, and nothing like them has appeared fince. “ But between them, viz. in the year 1596, we have N Q M Y. 67 the firft account of the wonderful ftar in Collo Cefi, Apparent feen by David Fabricius on the third of Auguft Jh vet. Motions of as bright as a ftar of the 3d magnitude, which hastj‘e been fince found to appear and difappcar periodically *, . its period being precifely enough feven revolutions in fix years, though it returns not always with the fame luftre. Nor is it ever totally extinguifhed, but may at all times be feen with a fix feet tube. This w'as lingular in its kind, till that in Collo Cygni was difcovered. It pre¬ cedes the firft ftar of Aries 1° 40', with 150 57' fouth latitude. “ Another new ftar was firft difcovered by William Janfonius in the year 1600, in pediore, or rather in edutfione, Colli Cygni, which exceeded not the third magnitude. This having continued fome years, became at length fo final!, as to be thought by fome to have difappeared entirely ; but in the years 1657, 1658, and 1659, it again r°fe to the third magnitude j though foon after it decayed by degrees to the fifth or fixth magnitude, and at this day is to be feen as fuch in 9s 180 38' « ima * ty1, with 550 29' north latitude, “ A fifth new ftar was firft feen by Hevelius in the year 1670, on July l^.Ji.vet. as a ftar of the third magnitude, but by the beginning of O&ober was fcarce to be perceived by the naked eye. In April following it was again as bright as before, or rather greater than of the third magnitude, yet wholly difappeared about the middle of Auguft. The next year, in March 1672, it was feen again, but not exceeding the fixth magni¬ tude : fince when, it has been no further vifible, though we have frequently fought for its return j its place is 9s 3° I7' a ima * 'Y’j and has lat. north 470 28'. “ The fixth and laft is that difcovered by Mr G. Kirch in the year 1686, and its period determined to be of 404^ days j and though it rarely exceeds the fifth mag¬ nitude, yet it is very regular in its returns, as we found in the year 1714. Since then we have.watched, as the abfenee of the moon and clearnefs of the weather would permit, to catch the firft beginning of its appearance in a fix feet tube, that, bearing a very great aperture, difcovers moft minute ftars. And on June 1-5. laft, it was firft perceived like one of the very leaft telefcopi- cal ftars 5 but in the reft of that month and July, it gradually increafed, fo as to become in Auguft vifible to the naked eye : and fo continued till the month of September. After that, it again died away by degrees : and on the 8th of December, at night, was fcarcely difcernible by the tube •, and, as near as could be guef- fed, equal to what it was at its firft appearance on June 25th : fo that this year it has been feen in all near fix months, which is but little lefs than half its period 5 and the middle, and confequently the greateft brightnefs, falls about the 10th of September.” Concerning the changes which happen among the Mr Monta- fixed ftars, Mr Montanere, profeflor of mathematics at nere’s ac- Bonqnia, gave the following account, in a letter to thecountof Royal Society, dated April 30th 1670. “ There are clianges f" now wanting in the] heavens two ftars of the fecond itw? magnitude in the ftern of the fliip Argo, and its yard ; Bayerus marked them with the letters /3 and^. I and others obferved them in the year 1664, upon the oc- eafiun of the comet that appeared that year : when they difappeared firft, I know not: only I am furc that in the year 1668, upon the 10th of April, there was not the leaft glimpfe of them to be feen j and yet the I 2 reft 68 A pparent Motions of the Heaven¬ ly Bones ASTRONOMY. Part II. aca Mr Pilot’s remarks on the as- counts of variable ttars. 203 Star in CoL lo Ceti. 204 Alffol. reft about tbem, even of tbe third and fourth magni¬ tudes, remained the fame. I have obferved many more changes among the fixed ftars, even to the number of a hundred, though none of them are fo great as thofe I have Ihowed.” The late improvements in aftronomy, and particu¬ larly thofe in the conftruftion of telefcopes, have now given aftronomers an opportunity of obferving the changes which take place among the ftars with much greater accuracy than could be formerly done. In a paper in the 76th volume of the Philofophical Tranf- aftions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a differtation on the ftars iufpefted by the aftronomers of laft century to be changeable. For the greater accuracy in the invefti- gation of his fubjeft, he divides them into two claffes ■, one containing thofe which are undoubtedly change¬ able, and the other thofe which are only fufpe&ed to be fo. The former contains a lift of 1 2 ftars, from the firft to the fourth magnitude •, including the new one ■which appeared in Cafliopeia in 1572, and that in Ser- pentarius in 1604 : the other contains the names of 3& ftars of all magnitudes, from the firft to the feventh. He is of opinion, that the celebrated new ftar in Caflio¬ peia is a periodical one, and that it returns once in 150 vears. Mr Keill is of the fame opinion : and Mr Pigot thinks, that its not being obferved at the expiration of each period is no argument againft the truth of that opi¬ nion ; “ fince (fays he), perhaps, as with moft of the variables, it may at different periods have different de- orees of luftre, fo as fometimes only to increafe to the ninth magnitude ; and if this fhould be the cafe, its pe¬ riod is probably much ftiorter.” For this reafon, in September 1782, he took a plan of the fmall ftars near the place where it formerly appeared, but in four years had obferved no alteration. The ftar in the neck of the Whale had alfo been ex¬ amined by Mr Pigot from the end of 1782 to 1786 ; but he never found it exceed the fixth magnitude *, though Mr Goodricke had obferved it on the 9th of Auguft to be of the fecond magnitude, and on the 3d of September the fame year it was of the third magni¬ tude. Mr Pigot deduced its period from its apparent equality with a fmall ftar in the neighbourhood, and thence"found it to be 320, 328, and 337 days. The moft remarkable of thefe changeable ftars is that called /1/go/, in the, head of Medufa. It had long been known to be variable ; but its period was firft afeertained by Mr Goodricke of York, who began to obferve it in the beginning of 1783. It changes con¬ tinually from the firft to the fourth magnitude ; and the time taken up from its greateft diminution to its leaft is found, at a mean, to be 2d. 2oh. 49m. and 3 fee. During four hours it gradually diminifties in luftre, which it recovers during the fucceeding four hours} and in the remaining part of the period it in¬ variably preferves its greateft luftre, and after the ex¬ piration of the term its diminution again commences. According to Mr Pigot, the degree of brightnefs of this ftar when at its minimum is variable in different periods, and he is of the fame opinion with regard to its brightnefs when at its full 5 but whether thefe dif¬ ferences return regularly or not, has not been deter¬ mined. The 420th of Mayer’s catalogue, in Leo, has lately been Ihown to be variable by Mr Koch. Some years before 1782, that gentleman perceived it undoubtedly Apparent fmaller than the 419th of the tame catalogue. In Fe- Motions of bruary that year, it was of the fame brightnefs with t*je the 4191!), that is, of the feventh magnitude. In 1 1 April 1783, it was of the ninth magnitude*, and in the lame month 1784, it was of the tenth. Mr Pigot could never obferve this ftar, though he frequently looked for it with a night-glafs, and on the fifth of April 1785 with a three feet achromatic, tranfit inftru- ment. _ . 205 In 1704, Maraldi obferved a variable ftar in Hydra, yRriab!e whofe period he fettled at about two years, though Rar in Hy- with confiderable variations: but from the obfervationsdra. even of Maraldi, Mr Pigot concludes, that its period was then only 494 days ; and from feme others made by himfelf, he thinks that now it is only 48.7 days *, fo that fince the time of Maraldi it has flnortened feven days. The particulars relating to this ftar are as fol¬ low. 1. When at its full brightnefs it is of the fourth magnitude, and does not perceptibly change for a fort¬ night. 2. It is about fix months in increafing from the tenth magnitude and returning to the fame : fo that it may be confidered as invifible during that time. 3. It is confiderably more quick, perhaps one half more fo, in its increafe than in its decreafe. 4. 1 hough when at its full it may always be ftyled a ftar of the fourth magnitude, it does not conftantly attain the fame degree of brightnefs, but the differences are very fmall. This ftar is the 30th of Hydra in Hevelius’s catalogue, and is marked by him of the fixth magni¬ tude. > The new flar in Serpentarius, obferved by Kepler, feems to have been of the fame nature with that of Cafliopeia 5 and Mr Pigot therefore looks upon it alfo to be a periodical one, though, after taking a plan of the ueareft ftars in that part of the heavens, in the year 1782, he could, in four years time, perceive no altera¬ tion. The variation of the ftar /3 Lyrae was difeovered by Mr Goodricke above-mentioned, who fufpe£ls its pe¬ riod to be fix days nine hours ; which coincides with the opinion of Mr Pigot. 206 The new ftar near the Swan’s Head, obferved by Swan’s Don Anthelme in December 1669, foon became of the Head, third magnitude, and difappeared in 1672. Mr Pigot has conftantly looked for it fince November 1781, but without fuccefs. He is of opinion, that had it only in- ereafed to the 1 oth or nth magnitude, he would have feen it, having taken a plan of all the neighbouring fmall ftars. , The next variable ftar in Mr Pigot’s catalogue is the u Antinoi, whofe variation and period he difeo¬ vered in 1785. From his correfted obfervations, he concludes that it continues at its greateft orightnefs 40 hours without decreafing ; it is 66 hours after it begins to decreafe before it comes to its full diminu¬ tion *, after which it continues ftationary for 30 hours more, and then increafes for 36 hours. In every pe¬ riod it feems to acquire its full brightnefs, and to be equally decreafed. 207 The variable ftar in the Swan’s Neck was obferved Swan’s for three years. The period of this ftar had been Head, fettled by Maraldi and Caflini at 405, and by M. le Gentil at 405.3 days j but from a mean of the ob¬ fervations of Mr Pigot, it appears to be only 392. “ Perhaps Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. ASTRONOMY. 6g 208 Swan’s breaft. 209 Stars, va¬ riation of which is lefs cer¬ tain. “ Perhaps (fays he) its period is irregular 5 to deter¬ mine which feveral intervals of 15 years ought to be taken j and I am much inclined to believe that it will be found only 396 days 21 hours.” The particulars relating to this liar are, 1. When at its full bright- nefs it undergoes no perceptible change for a fortnight. 2. It is about three months and a half in increafing from the nth magnitude to its full brightnefs, and the fame in decreafing ; for which reaion it may be confidered as invifible during fix months. 3. It does not always attain the lame degree of luflre, being fome- times of the fifth and fometimes of the feventh mag¬ nitude. In 1600, G. Janfonius difcovered a variable liar in the breaft of the Swan, which was afterwards obferved by different aftronomers, and fuppofed to have a period of about 10 years. The refults of Mr Pigot’s calcu¬ lations from the obfervations of former aftronomers are, I. That it continues in full luftre for five years. 2. It decreafes rapidly for two years. 3. It is invifible to the naked eye for four years. 4. It increafes flowly during feven years. 5. All thefe changes are com¬ pleted in 18 years. 6. It was at its minimum at the end of the year 1663. 7. It does not always increafe to the fame degree of brightnefs, being fometimes of the third, and at others only of the fixth, magnitude. “ I am entirely ignorant (fays Mr Pigot) whether it is fubjeft to the fame changes in this century, having not met with any feries of obfervations on it; but if the above conjectures right, it will be at its minimum in a very few years. Since November lySx I have con- ftantly feen it of the fixth magnitude. Sometimes I have fufpefted that it has decreafed within thefe two laft years, though in a very fmall degree.” The laft ftar in Mr Pigot’s firft clafs is the § Cephei, whofe variation was difcovered by Mr Goodricke. Its changes are very difficult to be feen, unlefs it is obferved at the times of its greateft and lead brightnefs. The re- fult of the obfervations hitherto made upon it are, that its period confifts of 5 days 8 hours 37' on a mean. The following obfervations relate to fome ftars of the fecond clafs. 1. Hevelius’s 6th Caffiopeise was miffing in 1782, nor could Mr Pigot find it in 1783 and 1784. 2. | or 46 Andromedse, faid to be variable, but the evidence is not convincing to Mr Pigot. 3. Flamftead’s 50, 52, t Andromedae, and Hevelius’s 41 Andromedte. The pofition and chara£ters of thefe ftars differ confiderably in different catalogues, and fome of them are faid by Caffini to have difappeared and re¬ appeared. Mr Pigot therefore gives their comparative brightnefs as obferved in the years 1783, 1784, and 1785, during which time he does not mention any par¬ ticular change. 4. Tycho’s 20th Ceti. “ This (fays Mr Pigot) muft be the ftar which Hevelius faid had difappeared, being Tycho’s fecond in the Whale’s Belly. There can hard¬ ly be any doubt that it is the ^ mifplaced by Tycho. This £ is of the fourth or fifth magnitude. 5. o-, or the 17th Eridani of Ptolemy and Ulug Beigh. Flamftead fays he could not fee this ftar in 1691 and 1692: but in 1782, 1783, and 1784, Mr Pigot obferved in that place one of the feventh magni¬ tude, which appeared always of the fame luftre. 6. Flamftead’s 44 Tauri was fuppofed by Caffini to be either a new or variable ftar j but Mr Pigot thinks Apparent there is no reafon to be of that opinion. “ That it is Motions of not new (fays he) is evident, fince it is Ulug BeighVj^eaven^ 26 th and Tycho’s 43d. _ ‘ ■> 7. A ftar about 2i° north of 53 Eridani, and 47 Eri¬ dani. Caffini fuppofed the firft of thefe ftars to be a new one, and that it was not vifible in 1664. He mentions another ftar thereabouts, which he alfo efteem- ed a new one. 8. y Canis Majoris. Maraldi could not fee this ftar in 16705 but in 1692 and 1693 it appeared of the fourth magnitude. Mr Pigot made frequent obferva¬ tions upon it from 1782 to 1786, but could perceive no¬ variation. 9. « /3 Geminorum. “ If any of thefe ftars (fays our author) have changed in brightnefs, it is probably the/3. In 1783, 1784, and 1785, the/3 was undoubt¬ edly brighter than 10. | Leonis. According to Montanari, this ftar was hardly vifible in 1693. In 17^3’ I7^4>anc^ I7^5r it was of the fifth magnitude. By Tycho, Flamftead,. Mayer, Bradley, &c. it is marked of the fourth. 11. Leonis. This ftar is faid to have difappeared before the year 1667 5 but according to Mr Pigot’» obfervations, was conftantly of the fifth or fixth magni¬ tude fince 1783. 12. 25th Leonis. In 1783, our author firft per¬ ceived that this ftar was miffing, and could not per¬ ceive it in 1784 and 1785, even with a tranfit inftru- ment. 13. Bayer’s i Leonis, or Tycho’s 16 Leonis, was not vifible in 1709, nor could it be feen in 1785. It is a different ftar from the i Leonis of the other cata¬ logues, though Tycho’s defcription of its place is the fame. 14. 2 Urfie Majoris. This ftar is fufpecled to change in brightnefs, on account of its being marked by Tycho, the prince of Htffe, &c. of the fecond magnitude, while Hevelius, Bradley, and others, have marked it of the third. In 1786, and for three years before, it appeared as a bright ftar of the fourth magni¬ tude. 15. n Virginis. This is fuppofed to be variable, be- caufe Flamftead, on the 27th of January 1680, could not fee it 5 but he obferved it in 1677, an^ fome years afterwards. Mr Pigot obferved it frequently in 1784 and 1785, and found it a ftar of the fixth magnitude without any perceptible change. 16. Bayer’s ftar of the fixth magnitude 1° fouth of j- Virginis. “ This ftar. (fays Mr Pigot) is not in any of the nine catalogues that I have. Maraldi looked for it in vain 5 and in May 1785 I could not fee the leaft appearance of it.” It certainly was not of the eighth magnitude. 17. A ftar in the northern thigh of Virgo, marked by Ricciolus of the fixth magnitude, could not be feen by Maraldi in 1709; nor was it of the ninth magni¬ tude, if at all vifible in 1785. 18. The 91 and 92 Virginis. In 1685, one of thefe ftars, probably the 91, was miffing : the remain¬ ing one is of the fixth or feventh magnitude. 19. a Draconis. Mr Pigot coincides in opinion with Dr Herfchel, that this ftar is variable. Bradley, Flam¬ ftead, &c. mark it of the fecond magnitude, but in 1786 it was only a bright fourth. It was frequently examined -t 70 Apparent examined by Mr PIgot from the 4th of October 1782, Motions of but without any alteration being perceived. ^BociiT 20, Bayer’s ^ar ^ie weft fcale of Libra. Ma- ■ ^ t~‘, raldi could not fee this liar, and it was likewife invifible to Mr Pigot in 1784 and 1785. 21. N° 6 of Ptolemy and Ulug Beigh’s unformed in Libra. This flar is not mentioned in any other cata¬ logues than the above. Mr Pigot frequently obferved a little ftar of the feventh magnitude very near its place. 22. * Libras. This ftar is thought to be variable, but Mr Pigot is not of that opinion, though “ certainly (fays he) it is rather Angular, that Hevelius, whofe at¬ tention was direfled to that part of the heavens to find Tycho’s nth, did not find the x ; and the more fo, as lie has noticed two much fmaller ftars not far from it. During thefe three years I have found the x conftantly of the fifth magnitude. 23. Tycho’s nth Librae. Mr Pigot is of opinion that no fuch ftar as this ever exifted ; and that it is no other than the x with an error of 2 degrees of longi¬ tude. 24. 33 Serpentis. This ftar was miffing in 1784$ nor could it be perceived with a night-glafs in 1785. 25. A ftar marked by Bayer near s Urfae majoris. This ftar could not be feen by Caffini ; nor was Mr Pigot able to difeover it with a night-glafs in 1782. 26. The or Ptolemy and Ulug Beigh’s 14th Ophi- uchi, or Flamftead’s 36th. Mr Pigot has no doubt that this is the ftar which is faid to have difappeared before the year 1695 ; and it is evident that it was not feen by Hevelius. In 1784 and 1785 Mr Pigot found it of the fourth or fifth magnitude; but he is far from being certain of its having undergone any change, efpe- cially as it has a fouthern declination of 26 degrees j for which reafon great attention muft be paid to the ftate of the atmofphere. 27. Ptolemy’s 13th and 18th Opliiuchi, fourth mag¬ nitude. Mr Pigot is of opinion that thefe ftars are mifplaced in the catalogues. The 18th of Ptolemy he thinks ought to be marked with a north latitude inftead of a fouth, which would make it agree nearly with Flamftead’s 58th j and he is alfo of opinion that the 13th of Ptolemy is the 40th of Flamftead. 28. r Sagittarii. Dr Herfchel, as well as Mr Pigot, is of opinion, that this ftar has probably changed its magnitude, though the reafon feems only to be the great difagreement concerning it among the different catalogues of ftars. 29. 6 Serpentis. This ftar, according to Mr Mon- tanari, is of variable magnitude j but Mr Pigot never could perceive any alteration. 30. Tycho’s 27th Capricorn! was miffing in Heve- lius’s time, and Mr Pigot could not find it with a tranfit inftrument. 31. Tycho’s 22d Andromedae, and • Andromedae. Mr Caffini informs us, that in his time the former had grown fo fmall that it could fcarcely be feen •, and Mr Pigot, that no ftar was to be feen in its place in 1784 and 1785 : but he is of opinion that Caffini may have miftaken the » Andromedse for the 22d ; for which rea¬ fon he obferved this ftar three years, but without any alteration in its brightnefs. 32. Tycho’s 19th Aquarii. Hevelius fays that this flar was miffing, and that Flamftead could nqt fee it 4 Part II. with his naked eye in 1679. Mr Pigot could not fee Apparent it in 1782; but is perfuaded that it is the fame with Motions of Flamftead’s 56th, marked f by Bayer, from which itt|ie^e‘*ven- is only a degree and a half diftant. The 53d of -y ie~'. Flamftead, marked f in Ptolemy’s catalogue, is a dif¬ ferent ftar. 33. La Caille’s 483 Aquarii was firft difeovered to be miffing in 1778, and was not vifible in 1783 and 1784. Befides thefe there are feveral others certainly vari¬ able, but which cannot be feen in this country. There are fome alfo fufpefled to be variable, but for which Mr Pigot thinks there is no reafon. Dr Herfchel alio gives ftrong reafons for not laying great ftrefs on all the obfervations by tvhich new ftars have been faid to be difeovered. Mr Pigot allures us from repeated ex¬ perience, that even more than a Angle obfervation, if not particularifed and compared with neighbouring ftars, is very little to be depended upon ; different ftreaks of the clouds, the ftate of the weather, &c. ha¬ ving often caufed him to err a whole magnitude in the brightnefs of a ftar. 210 As thefe changes to which the fixed ftars are liable Wollafton’s do not feem to be fubjccl to any certain rule, Mr lafton has given an eafy method of obferving whether var;ations they do take place in any part of the heavens or not, among the and that without much expence of inftruments or wafte fixed ftars. of time, which are great objeftions to aftronomical ob¬ fervations in general. His firft idea was, that the work fhoukl be undertaken by aflronomers in general •, each taking a particular diftridl of the heavens, and from time to time obferving the right afeenfion and declination of every ftar in that fpace allotted to him, framing an exafl map of it, and communicating their obfervations to one common place of information.— This method, however, being too laborious, he next propofes the noting down at the time, or making a drawing of what one fees while they are obferving. A drawing of this kind once made, would remain, and could be confulted on any future occafion 5 and if done at firft with care, a tranfient review would difeover whether any fenfible change had taken place fince it was laft examined, which could not fo well be done by catalogues or verbal defeription. For this purnofe he recommends the following method : “ To a night-glafs, but of Dollond’s conftruflion, which magnifies about fix times, and takes in about as many degrees of a great circle, I have added crofs wires interlefling one another at. an angle of 45 degrees. More wires may be crofted in other directions *, but I apprehend thefe will be fufficient. This telefcope I mount on a polar axis. One coarfely made, and without any divifions on its circle of declination, will anfwer the purpofe, as there is no great occafion for accuracy in that refpeCt ; but as the heavenly bodies are more readily followed by an equatorial motion of the telefcope, fo their rela¬ tive pofitions are much more eafily difeerned when they are looked at conftantly as in the fame direction. A horizontal motion, except in the meridian, Avould be apt to miflead the judgment. It is fcarcely neceflary to add, that the wires muft ftand fo as for one to de- feribe a parallel of the equator nearly ; another will then be a horary circle, and the whole area will be divided into eight equal feftors. “ Thus prepared, the telefcope is to be pointed to a known ASTRONOMY. Part II. ASTRONOMY. Apparent known ftar, which is to be brought into the centre or Motions of common interfeftion of all the wires. The relative theHeaven- pofitions of fuch other ftars as appear within the field ,Iy Bodies. to ^ juc}ge(j 0f tjje eye . -whether at -J, -j, or from the centre towards the circumference, or vice verfa ; and fo with regard to the neareft wire refpec- tively. Thefe, as one lees them, are to be noted down with a black-lead pencil upon a large meffage-card held in the hand, upon which a circle fimilarly divided is ready drawn. One of three inches diameter feems molt convenient. The motion of the heavenly bodies in fuch a telefcope is fo flow, and the noting down of the ftars fo quickly done, that there is commonly full time for it without moving the telefcope. When that is wanted, the principal ftar is eafily brought back again into the centre of the field at pleafure, and the work refumed. After a little pradlice, it is aftonilhmg how near one can come to the truth in this way : and though neither the right afcenfions nor the declinations are laid down by it, nor the diftances between the ftars meafured ; yet their apparent fituations being pre- ferved in black and white, with the day and year, and hour, if thought necelfary, written underneath, each card then becomes a regifter of the then appearance of the heavens j which is eafily re-examined at any time with little more than a tranfient view' •, and which will yet (how, on the firft glance, if there fhould have hap¬ pened in it any alteration of confequence.” Fig. 80. fhows part of the Corona Borealis delineated in this manner, and which was afterwards fully taken down by making the ftars at, /3, y, £, e, £, 0, <, ,5-, c, and r, fucceffively central j and thefe wrere joined with fome of the ftars of Bootes, for the fake of connedling the whole, and united into one map, as reprefented in fig. 81. In obferving in this way, it is evident, that the places of fuch ftars as happen to be under or very near any of the wires, are more to be depended upon than thofe which are in the intermediate fpaces, efpecially if towards the edges of the fields ; fo alfo thofe which are neareft to the centre, becaufe better defined, and more within the reach of one wdre or another. For this rea- fon, different ftars of the fame fet muft fucceflively be made central, or brought towards one of the wires, where any fufpicion arifes of a miftake, in order to ap¬ proach nearer to a certainty ; but if the ftand of the telefcope be tolerably well adjufted and fixed, this is foon done. In fuch a glafs it is feldom that light fufficient for difeerning the wires is wanting. When an illuminator is required, a piece of card or white pafteboard pro- jefting on one fide beyond the tube, and which may be brought forward occafionally, is better than any other. By cutting acrofs a fmall fegment of the objedt-glafs, it throw's a fufficient light down the tube though the candle be at a great diftance, and one may lofe fight of the falfe glare by drawing back the head, and moving the eye a little to one fide, when the fmall ftars will be feen as if no illuminator was there. See a delineation of the principal fixed ftars, with the apparent path of the fun among them, in figures 82 and 83. Galax” or ^ very remarkable appearance in the heavens is that milky-way. ca^e^ the galaxy, or milky-way. This is a broad circle, Ibrnetimes double, but for the moft part Angle, furround- 7l ing the whole celeftial concave. We perceive alfo in Apparent different parts of the heavens fmall white fpots, which Motions of appear to be of the fame nature with the milky-way. tkeHeaven- Thefe fpots are called nebulce. < ^ ° *’es* We (hall fubjoin in this place, for the entertainment of the reader, the theories of Mr Michell and Dr Her- fchel, concerning the nature and pofition of the fixed ftars, 2I3 “The very great number of ftars (fays Mr Mi-MrMi- chell^) that have been difeovered to be double, triple,rheli’s con™ &c. particularly by Mr Herfchel, if we apply the doc-jei^ures. trine of chances, as I have heretofore done in my in-tpe nature quiry into the probable parallax, &c. of the fixed ftars,0f the fixed publiffied in the Philofophical Tranfadfions for the year ftars. 1767, cannot leave a doubt with any one who is pro¬ perly acquainted with the force of thofe arguments, that by far the greateft part, if not all of them, are fyftems of ftars fo near each other, as probably to be liable to be affedted fenfibly by their mutual gravita¬ tion ; and it is therefore not unlikely, that the periods of the revolutions of fome of thefe about their princi¬ pals (the fmaller ones being, upon this hypothefis, to be confidered as fatellites to the other) may fome time or other be difeovered.” Having then ffiown in what manner the magnitude of a fixed ftar, if its denfity were known, would affedt the velocity of its light, he concludes at laft, that “ if the femidiameter of a fpherejn of the fame denfity with the fun were to exceed his in cafes light the proportion of 500 to I, a body falling from an in-may be finite height towards it (or moving in a parabolic ^uPPolec^ to curve at its furface) w’ould have acquired a greater ve- locity than that of light; and confequently, fuppofingthat emits light to be attradled by the fame force in proportion it. to its vis inertice with other bodies, all light emitted from fuch a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity. But if the femidiameter of a fphere, of the fame denfity with the fun, was of any other fize lefs than 497 times that of the fun, though the velocity of light emitted by fuch a body would never be wholly deftroyed, yet it would always fuffer fome diminution, more or lefs according to the magnitude of the fphere. The fame effedts would like- wife take place if the femidiameters were different from thofe already mentioned, provided the denfity was great¬ er or lefs in the duplicate ratio of thefe femidiameters - inverfely. ■ 214 After proceeding in his calculations, in order to find ^ooipara- the diameter and diftance of any ftar, he proceedstIV? thus : “ According to Mr Bouguer the brightnefs of^^a ° the fun exceeds that of a wax-candle in no lefs a pro- fixed ftars. portion than that of 8000 to 1. If therefore the brightnefs of any of the fixed ftars fhould not exceed that of our common candles, which, as being fome- thing lefs luminous than wrax, we will fuppofe in round numbers to be only one ten thoufandth part as bright as the fun, fuch a ftar would not be vifible at mere than one hundredth part of the diftance. at which it would be feen if it were as bright as the fun. Now', becaufe the fun would ftill, I apprehend, appear as bright and luminous as the ftar Sirius, if removed to 400,000 times his prefent diftance, fuch a body, if no brighter than our common candles, would only appear equally luminous with that ftar at 4000 times the di¬ ftance of the fun *, and we might then be able, with the beft telefcopes, to diftinguilh fome fenfible ap¬ parent 7 2 A S T R O N O M Y* Faft II. ■ Apparent parent diameter of it : but the apparent diameters 400,000 times his prefent didance, would flill appear, Apparent Motions of 0f the liars of leffer magnitudes would Hill be too 1 apprehend, as bright as Sirius, as I have obferved Motions of theHeaven- ^ *■ » 1 • ^• •/. 1 . 1 n ^ 1 ic 1 iK ^nv ^tieHeaven- its . Luminous '^^Yj^'fmall to be dittinguidiable even with our beft telefcopes, ^ °(les' unlefs they were yet a good deal lefs luminous j which mav poflibly, however, be the cafe with fome of them : for though we have indeed very flight grounds to go upon with regard to the fpecific brightneis of the fixed flars, compared with that of the fun at prefent, and can therefore form only very uncertain and random conje&ures concerning it ; yet from the infinite variety which we find in the works of the creation, it is not unreafonable to fufpett, that very poflibly fome of the fixed liars may have fo little natural brightnefs in pro¬ portion to their magnitude, as to admit of their dia¬ meters having fome fenfible apparent fize when they lhall come to be more carefully examined) and with larger and better telefcopes than have been hitherto in common ufe. “ With refpefl to the fun, we know that his whole ofthefun6 ^ur^ace IS extremely luminous, a very fmall and tem- fuppofed to porary interruption fometimes, from a few fpots, ex- proceed cepted. This univerfal and exceflive brightnefs of the from an at- whole fin-face is probably owing to an atmofphere, tnofphere. which being luminous throughout, and in fome mea- fure alfo tranfparent, the light proceeding from a con- fiderable depth of it, all arrives at the eye, in the fame manner as the light of a great number of candles would do if they were placed one behind another, and their flames were fufficiently tranfparent to permit the light of the more diftant ones to pafs through thofe that were nearer without interruption. “ How far the fame conflitution may take place in the fixed liars we do not know : probably, however, it may Hill do fo in many 5 but there are fome appear¬ ances, with regard to a few of them, which feem to make it probable that it does not do fo univerfally. Now, if I am right in fuppofing the light of the fun to proceed from a luminous atmofphere which muft neceffarily diffufe itfelf equally over the whole furface, and I think there can be very little doubt that this is really the cafe, this conftitution cannot well take place in thofe liars which are in fome degree periodically 216 more and lefs luminous, fuch as that in Collo Ceti, Of the va- &c. It is alfo not very improbable, that there is fome riable ftais. g^ffiei-ence from that of the fun in the conftitution of thofe liars which have fometimes appeared and difap- peared, of which that in the conftellation of Cafliopeia is a notable inftance. And if thefe conjeflures are well founded which have been formed by fome philofo- fophers concerning flars of this kind, that they are not wholly luminous, or at lealt not conflantly fo, but that all, or by far the greatell part of their fur- faces, is fubjeft to confiderable changes, fometimes becoming luminous, at other times extinguilhed ; it is .amongft liars of this fort that we are moll likely to meet with inllances of a fenfible apparent diameter, their light being much more likely not to be fo great in proportion as that of the fun, which if removed to above 5 whereas it is hardly to be expefled, with any™61^®^0 telefcope whatfoever, that we Ihould ever be able to di- ^ llinguifti a well-defined dilk of any body of the fame fize with the fun at much more than lOjOGQ times his prefent diftance. “ Hence the greatell diftance at which it would be pofllble to dillinguifli any feniible apparent diameter of a body as denfe as the fun, cannot well greatly exceed five hundred times ten thoufand *, that is, five million times the diftance of the fun •, for if the diameter of fuch a body was not lefs than 500 times that of the fun, its light, as has been Ihown above, could never arrive at 2 * 7 , Dr Herfchel, improving on Mr Michell’s idea 0ffckePsopi- the fixed liars being collected into groups, and af-,,^ COn. filled by his own obfervations with the extraordinary cerning the telefcopic powers already mentioned, has fuggefted a couftruc- theory concerning the conllrudlion of the univerfe e lirely new and lingular. It had been the opinion of former allronomers, that our fun, befides occupying the centre of the fylfem which properly belongs to him, occupied alfo the centre of the univerfe : but Dr Herfchel is of a very different opinion. “ Hither¬ to (fays he) the fidereal heavens have, not inadequately for the purpofe defigned, been reprefented by the con¬ cave furface of a fphere) in the centre of which the eye of the obferver might be fuppofed to be placed. It is true, the various magnitudes of the fixed liars even then plainly fuggelted to us, and would have better flut¬ ed, the idea of an expanded firmament of three dimen- lions •, but the obfervations upon which I am now going to enter, Hill farther illulfrate and enforce the neceflity of confidering the heavens in this point of view. In future therefore we lhall look upon thofe regions into which we may now penetrate by means of fuch large telefcopes (a), as a naturalift regards a rich extent of ground or chain of mountains, containing ftrata variouf- ly inclined and direfled, as well as confiding of very different materials. A furface of a globe or map there¬ fore will but ill delineate the interior parts of the hea¬ vens.” - 2If With the powerful telefcope mentioned in the note, H'* er- Dr Herfchel firll began to furvey the Via Ladlea, and the Via found that it completely refolved the whitilh appear-Ladea. ance into liars, which the telefcopes he formerly ufed had not light enough to do. The portion he firft ob¬ ferved was that about the hand and club of Orion ; and found therein an altonilhing multitude of liars, vvhofe number he endeavoured to ellimate by counting many fields (b), and computing from a mean of thefe how many might be contained in a given portion of the milky-way. In the moll vacant place to be' met with in that neighbourhood he found 63 liars ; other fix fields contained no, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 liars*, a mean of all which gave 79 for the number of liars to each field ; and thus he found, that by allowing 15 minutes (a) Dr Herfchel’s obfervations, on which this theory is founded, were made with a Newtonian reflector of 20 feet focal length, and an aperture of 18 inches. (b) By this word we are to underftand the apparent fpace in the heavens he could fee at once through his telefcope. Part IT. Apparent Motions of the Heaven¬ ly Bodies. ASTRONOM Y. 7.1 219 On the jie bulae. 220 They are arranged Into llrata. 221 Variety of lhapes af¬ firmed by them. TVhyHie milky-way appears to iurround the hea¬ vens. minutes for the dbmeter of his field of view, a belt of 15 degrees long and two broad, which he had often feen pafs before his telefcope in an hour’s lime, could not contain lei's than 50,000 ftar«, large enough to be diftindly numbered •, befides which, he fufpefted twice as many more, which could be feen only now and then by faint glimpfes for want of fufficient light. The fuccefs he had within the milky-way foon indu¬ ced him to turn his telefcope to the nebulous parts of the heavens, of which an accurate lift had been publifli- ed in the Connoi/J'ance des Temps for 1783 ar*d I7^4* Moft of thefe yielded to a Newtonian reflector of 20 feet focal diftance and 1 2 inches aperture j which plain¬ ly difeovered them to be compofed of ftars*, or at leaft to contain ftars, and to {how every other indication of confifting of them entirely. “ The nebulae (fays he) are arranged into ftrata, and run on to a great length j and fome of them I have been able to purfue, and to guefs pretty well at their form and dire&ion. It is probable enough that they may furround the whole ftarry fphere of the heavens, not unlike the milky-way, which undoubtedly is nothing but a ftratum of fixed ftars : And as this latter immenfe ftarry bed is not of equal breadth or luftre in every part, nor runs on in one ftraight diredftion, but is curved, and even divided into two ftreams along a very confiderable portion of it ; we may like wife expert the greateft variety in the ftrata of the clufters of ftars and nebulae. One of thefe nebulous beds is fo rich, that, in pafting through a fertion of it in the time of only 36 minutes, I have deterted no lefs than 31 nebulae, all diftinrtly vifible upon a fine blue Iky. Their fituation and fhape, as well as condition, feem to denote the greateft variety imaginable. In another ftratum, or perhaps a differ¬ ent branch of the former, I have often feen double and treble nebulae varioully arranged ; large ones with fmall feeming attendants ; narrow, but much extended lucid nebulae or bright dallies-, fome of the fhape of a fan, refembling an elertric brufti iffuing from a lucid point; others of the cometic fiiape, with a feeming nucleus in the centre, or like cloudy ftars, furrounded with a ne¬ bulous atmofphere : a difterent fort again contain a ne- bulofity of the milky kind, like that wonderful inex¬ plicable phenomenon about 6 Orionis -, while others fliine with a fainter mottled kind of light, which de¬ notes their being refolvable into ftars. “ It is very probable that the great ftratum called the milky-way, is that in which the fun is placed, though perhaps not in the very centre of its thicknefs. We gather this from the appearance of the galaxy, which feems to encompafs the whole heavens, as it certainly muft do if the fun is within the fame. For fuppofe a number of ftars arranged between two parallel planes, indefinitely extended every way, but at a given confi¬ derable diftance from one another, and calling this a fidereal ftratum, an eye placed fomewhere within it will fee all the ftars in the dirertion of the planes of the ftratum projerted into a great circle, which will appear lucid on account of the accumulation of the ftars, while the reft of the heavens at the fides will on¬ ly feem to be fcattered over with conftellations, more or .lefs crowded according to the diftance of the planes or number of ftars contained in the thicknefs or Tides of the ftratum. Vol. III. Part I. <4 Thus in fig. 83. an eye at S within the ftratum a b, Apparent will fee the ftars in the dirertion of its length ah, or Motions of height ed, with all thofe in the intermediate fituation, theHeaven- projerted into the lucid circle ABCD ; while thofe in , y ^ A the fides m c, n w, will be feen fcattered over the re¬ maining part of the heavens at MVNW. 223 “ If the eye were placed fomewhere without the ftra- Ce’eftial turn, at no very great diftance, the appearance of theappearan- ftars within it would affume the form of one of the leffer ^ circles of the fphere, which would be more or lefs con- Herfchel’s trarted to the diftance of the eye ; and if this diftance hypothefis. were exceedingly increafed, the whole ftratum might at laft be drawn together into a lubid fpot of any ftiape, ac¬ cording to the pofition, length, and height of the ftratum. “ Let us now fuppofe, that a branch or fmaller ftra¬ tum (hould run out from the former in a certain direc¬ tion, and let it alfo be contained between two parallel planes extended indefinitely onwards, but fo that the eye may be placed in the great ftratum fomewhere be¬ fore the feparation, and not far from the place where the ftrata are ftill united ; then will this fecond ftratum not be projerted into a bright circle like the former, but will be feen as a lucid branch proceeding from the firft, and returning to it again at a certain diftance left than a femicircle. Thus, in the fame figure, the ftars in the fmall ftratum pg will be projerted into a bright arch at PRRP, which after its feparation from the circle CBD, unites with it again at P. “ What has been inftanetd in parallel planes may eafily be applied to ftrata irregularly bounded, and run¬ ning in various dirertions *, for their projection will of confequence vary according to the quantities of the va¬ riations in the ftrata and the diftance of the eye from the fame. And thus any kind of curvatures, as well as , various degrees of brightnefs, may be produced in the projertions. 224 “ From appearances, then, as I obferved before, w-e Of the fun’s may infer, that the fun is moft likely placed in one °f^Yverte'16 the great ftrata of the fixed ftars, and very probably1’ not' far from the place where fome fmaller ftratum branches out from it. Such a fuppofition will fatif- fartorily, and with great fimplicity, account for all the phenomena of the milky-way ; which according to this hypothefis, is no other than the appearance of the projertion of the ftars contained in this ftratum and its fecondary branch. As a farther inducement to look on the galaxy in this point of view, let it be confider- ed, that we can no longer doubt of its whitifh appear¬ ance arifing from the mixed luftre of the numberlefs ftars that compofe it. Now, {hould we fuppofe it to be an irregular ring of ftars, in the centre nearly of which we muft then fuppofe the fun to be placed, it will appear not a little extraordinary, that the fun, being a fixed ftar, like thofe which com pole this irba- gined ring, {hould juft be in the centre of fuch a mul¬ titude of eeleftial bodies, without any apparent reafon for this Angular diftinrtion j whereas, on our fuppofition, every ftar in this ftratum, not very near the termination of its length or height, will be fo placed as alfo to have its own galaxy, with only fuch variations in the form and luftre of it as may arifefrom the particular fituation 22 . of each ftar. Herfchel’s “ Various methods may be taken to come to amethod ot knowledge of the fun’s place in the fidereal ftratum, : K . one 74 ASTRO Apparent one of which I have already begun to put in practice : Motions of I call it gauging th.e heavens ; or the Jlar-gauge. It tlJeI^eaven'eonfifts in repeatedly taking the number of liars in ten . ^ ^ lts-| fjgijg 0f vjew 0f my refleftor very near each other; and by adding their fums, and cutting off one decimal on the right, a mean of the contents of the heavens in all the parts which are thus gauged are obtained. Thus it appears that the number of liars increafes very much as we approach the milky-way •, for in the parallel from 92 to 94 degrees north polar diltance, and right afcen- lion 15 h. 10', the ilar-gauge runs up from 9.4 ftars in the field to 18.6 in about an hour and a half j whereas 226 How to find the place of the fun in the lidereal Stratum. 227 Obferva- tions on sebulae. in the parallel from 78 to 80 degrees north polar dif- tance, and R. A. 11, 12, 13, and 14 hours, it very feldom rifes above 4. We are, however, to remember, that, with different inllruments, the account of the gauges will be very different, efpecially on our fuppofi- tion of the fun in a flratum of ftars. For let a b fig. 84. be the ftratum, and fuppofe the fmall circle g h l h to reprefent the fpace into which, by the light and power of a given telefcope, we are enabled to penetrate, and let GHLK be the extent of another portion which we are enabled to vifit by means of a larger aperture and power, it is evident, that the gauges with the latter in- ftrument will differ very much in their account of ftars contained at MN and at KG or LH, when with the former they will hardly be affeded with the change from m n \.o h g ox l h. “ The fituation of the fun in the fidereal ftratum will be found by confidering in what manner the ftar- gauge agrees with the length of a ray revolving in fe- veral diredions about an affumed point, and cut off by the bounds of the ftratum. Thus, in fig. 85. let S be the place of an obferver: S r r r, S r r r, lines in the plane r S r, r -S' r, drawn from S within the ftratum to one of the boundaries here reprefented by the plane AB. Then, fince neither the fituation of S nor the form of the limiting furface AB is known, we are to affume a point, and apply to it lines proportional to the feveral gauges that have been obtained, and at fuch angles from each other as they may point out : then will the termi¬ nation of thefe lines delineate the boundary of the ftra¬ tum, and confequently manifeft the fituation of the fun within the fame. 11 In my late obfervations on nebulae, I foon found, that I generally deteded them in certain diredions ra¬ ther than in others: that the fpaces preceding them were generally quite deprived of their ftars, fo as often to afford many fields without a fingle ftar in it : that the nebulae generally appeared fome time after among ftars of a certain confiderable fize, and but feldom among very fmall ftars : that when I came to one ne¬ bula, I generally found feveral more in the neighbour¬ hood: that afterwards a confiderable time paffed before I came to another parcel. Thefe events being often repeated in different altitudes of my inftrument, and fome of them at confiderable diftances from each other, it occurred to me that the intermediate fpaces between the fweeps might alfo contain nebulas 5 and finding this to hold good more than once, I ventured to give notice to my afliflant at the clock, that 4 I found my- felf on nebulous ground.’ But how far thefe circum- ftances of vacant places preceding and following the nebulous ftrata, and their being as it w’ere contained in a bed of ftars fparingly fcattered between them, may^ 3 N O M Y. Part II. hold good in more diflant portions of' the heavens, and Apparent which I have not been yet able to vifit in any regular Motions of manner, I ought by no means to hazard a conjedlure. I may venture, however, to add a few particulars about , ^ ^ l. *, the dire&ion of fome of the capital ftrata or their 22S branthes. The well-known nebula of Cancer, vifible Direction to the naked eye, is probably one belonging to a cer- tain ftratum, in which I fuppofe it to be fo placed as to ^ ftrata! lie neareft to us. This ftratum I fhall call that of0fftars< Cancer. It runs from g Cancri towards the fouth, over the 67th nebula of the ConnoiJJ'ance des Temps, which is a very beautiful and pretty much compreffed clufter of ftars eafily to be feen by any good telefcope *, and in which I have obferved above 200 ftars at once in the field of view of my great refledlor with a power of 1 (J7. This clufter appearing fo plainly with any good common telefcope, and being fo near to the one wdiich may be feen with the naked eye, denotes it to be pro¬ bably the next in diflance to that within the quartile formed by y, *, 6. From the 67th nebula the ftratum of Cancer proceeds towards the head of Hydra ; but I have not yet had time to trace it farther than the equa¬ tor. “ Another ftratum, which perhaps approaches nearer to the folar fyftem than any of the reft, and whofe fitu¬ ation is nearly at redlangles with the great fidereal ftratum in which the fun is placed, is that of Coma Berenices, as I fhall call it. I fuppofe the Coma it- felf to be one of the clufters in it, and that on account of its nearnefs it appears to be fo fcattered. It has many capital nebulte very near it: and in all probability this ftratum runs out a very confiderable way. It may perhaps even make the circuit of the heavens, though very likely not in one of the great circles of the fpherej for unlefs it ftiould chance to interfed the great fidereal ftratum of the milky-way before mentioned, in the very place in which the fun is flationed, fuch an appearance would harldly be produced. However, if tbe ftratum of Coma Berenices ftiould extend fo far as I apprehend it may, the direftion of it towards the north lies pro¬ bably, with fome windings, through the Great Bear onwards to Cafliopeia, thence through the girdle of Andromeda and the Northern Fifti, proceeding towards Cetus; while towards the fouth it paffes through the Virgin, probably on to the tail of Hydra and Centau- rus.” By a continued feries of obfervations, Dr Herfchel became confirmed in his notions ; and in a fucceeding paper * has given a fketch of his opinions concerning * the interior conftruftion of the heavens. “ That the Tranf. milky-way (fays he) is a moft extenfive ftratum ofvo1, lxxr* ftars of various fizes, admits no longer of the lead of the^in- doubt} and that our fun is one of the heavenly bodies terior con- belonging to it is as evident. I have now viewed and ftru&ion of gauged this ftiining zone in almoft every dire6lion, andthe iiea“ find it compofed of ftiining ftars, whofe number, by'tns’ the account of thofe gauges, conftantly increafes and decreafes in proportion to its apparent brightnefs to the naked eye. But in order to develope the ideas of the univerfe that have been fuggefted by my late ob¬ fervations, it will be belt to take the fubjeft from a point of view at a confiderable diftance both of fpace and time. “ Let us then fuppofe numberlefs ftars of various fizes fcattered over an indefinite portion of fpace, in fuck Part II Apparent fuch a manner as to be almoft equally diftributed through Motions of the whole. The laws of attradlion, which no doubt ex- theHeaven-tencJ to the remoteft regions of the fixed ftars, will ope- .ly Bodies- rate in fuch a manner as molt probably to produce the 2!0 following remarkable 6fFe£ls. Confequen- “ I. It will frequently happen, that a ftar, being ces of the confiderably larger than its neighbouring ones, will ]aws ofat- attract them more than they will be attradled by Sfamong others that are immediately around them ; by which the ftars. ^ means they will be in time, as it were, condenfed about 231 a centre : or, in other wmrds, form themfelves into a Nebulae, ciufter of ftars of almoft a globular figure, more or how form- ^^1,!,.]^ f0 according to the fize and original di- ftance of the furrounding ftars. The perturbations of tliefe mutual attraftions muft undoubtedly be very intricate, as we may eafily comprehend, by confidering what Sir Ifaac Newton has faid, Priacip. lib. i. prop. 38. £■/ pq-'- but in order to apply this great author’s reafoning of bod’es moving in ellipfes to fuch as are here for a while fuppofed to have no other motion than what their mutual gravity has imparted to them, we mult fuppofe the conjugate axes of thefe ellipfes indefi¬ nitely diminilhed, whereby the ellipfes will become ftraight lines. “ II. The next cafe, which will happen almoft as frequently as the former, is where a few ftars, though not fuperior in fize to the reft, may change to be ra¬ ther nearer each other than the furrounding ones •, for here alfo will be formed a prevailing attra&ion in the combined centre of gravity of them all, which will oc- cafion the neighbouring ftars to draw together 5 not, indeed, fo as to form a regular globular figure, but, however, in fuch a manner as to be condenfed towards the common centre of gravity of the whole irregular clufter. And this conftruclion admits of the utmoft variety of fhapes, according to the number and fituation of the ftars which firft gave rife to the condenfation of the reft. “ III. From the compofition and repeated conjunc¬ tion of both the foregoing forms, a third may be de¬ rived, when many large ftars, or combined fmall ones, are fituated in long extended regular or crooked rows, hooks, or branches ; for they will alfo draw the fur¬ rounding ones fo as to produce figures of condenfed ftars coarfely fimilar to the former, which gave rife to thefe condenfations. “ IV. We may likewife admit of ftill more exten- five combinations j when, at the fame time that a clufter of ftars is forming in one part of fpace, there may be another collefting in a different, but perhaps not far di- ftant, quarter, which may occafion a mutual approach 232 towards their common centre of gravity. Vacancies, “V. In the laft place, as a natural confequence of how they t^e former cafes, their will be great cavities or vacan- fionedhuhec*es f°rmed by the retreat of the ftars towards the vari- heavens. ous centres which attraft them 5 fo that, upon the whole, there is evidently a field of the greateft variety for the mutual and combined attra&ions of the heavenly bodies to exert themfelves in. “ From this theoretical view of the heavens, which has been taken from a point not lefs diftant in time than in fpace, we will now retreat to our own retired ftation, in one of the planets attending a ftar in its great combination with numberlefs others : and in or¬ der to inveftigate what will be the appearances from 75 this contra&ed fituation, let us begin with the naked Apparent eye. The ftars of the firft magnitude, being in all pro- Motions ot bability the neareft, will furnifh us with a ftep tob^gin our feale. Setting off, therefore, with the diftance f ^ of Sirius or Aidlurus, for inftance, as unity, we will 233 at prefent fuppofe, that thole of the fecond magnitude How the are at double, thofe of the third at treble, the diftance, fl;ars muft &c. Taking it for granted, then, that a ftar of accord- feventh magnitude (the fmalleft fuppofed vifible with ;ng to this the naked eye) is about feven times as far as one ofhypothefis* the firft, it follows, that an obferver who is enclofed in a globular clufter of ftars, and not far from the centre, will never be able with the naked eye to fee to the end of it j for fince, according to the above eftimations, he can only extend his view to above feven times the diftance of Sirius, it cannot be expended that his eyes (hould reach the borders of a clufter which has perhaps not lefs than 50 ftars in depth everywhere around him. The whole univerfe to him, therefore, will be comprifed in a fet of conftellations richly ornamented with fcattered ftars of all fizes: Or, if the united brightnefs of a neighbouring clufter of ftars fhould, in a remarkable clear night, reach his fight, it will put on the appearance of a fmall, faint, whitilh, nebulous cloud, not to be perceived without the greateft atten¬ tion. Let us fuppofe him placed in a much extended ftratum or branching clufter of millions of ftars, fuch as may fall under the third form of nebulas already con- fidered. Here alfo the heavens will not only be richly fcattered over with brilliant conftellations, but a ftu- ning zone or milky-way will be perceived to furround the whole fphere of the heavens, owing to the com¬ bined light of thefe ftars which are too fmall, that is, too remote to be feen. Our obferver’s fight will be fo confined, that he will imagine this fingle colleiftion of ftars, though he does not even perceive the thoufandth part of them, to be the whole contents of the heavens. Allowing"him now the ufe of a common telefcope, he begins to fufpeff that all the milkinefs of the bright path which furrounds the fphere may be owing to ftars. He perceives a few clufters of them in various parts of the heavens, and finds alfo that there are a kind of nebulous patches : but ftill his views are not extended to reach fo far as to the end of the ftratum in which he is fituated; fo that he looks upon thefe patches as belonging to that fyftem which to him feems to comprehend every celeftial objeft. He now in- creafes his power of vifion ; and, applying himfelf to a clofe obfervation, finds that the milky-way is indeed no other than a collection of very fmall ftars. He perceives, that thofe objefts which had been called nebula, are evidently nothing but clufters of ftars. Their number increafes upon him $ and when he re- folves one nebula into ftars, he difeovers ten new ones which he cannot refolve. He then forms the idea of immenfe ftrata of fixed ftars, of clufters of ftars, and of nebulae ; till, going on with fuch interefting obferva- tions, he now perceives, that all thefe appearances muft naturally arife from the confined fituation in which we are placed. Confined it may juftly be called, though in no lefs a fpace than what appear¬ ed before to be the whole region of the fixed ftars, but which now has affumed the ftiape of a crookedly branching nebula j not indeed one of the leaft, but per¬ haps very far from being the moft confiderable, of thofe K 2 numberlefs ASTRONOMY. 76 ASTRONOMY. Part IT, Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. 234 Arguments in favour of the fore¬ going theo¬ ry from ob- fervations on nebulse. 235 r Method of meafiiring the dimen- fions of the heavens. numberlefs clutters that enter into the conttrudtion of the heavens.” Our author now proceeds to {how that this theoreti¬ cal view of the heavens is perfectly confiftent with fa£ts, and feems to be confirmed by a feries of oblervations. Many hundreds of nebulae of the firft and fecor.d forms are to be feen in the heavens ; and their places, he fays, will hereafter be pointed out ; many of the third form defcribed, and inftances of the fourth related \ a few of the cavities mentioned in the fifth particula¬ rized, though many more have been already obferved : fo that, “ upon the whole (fays he), I believe it will be found, that the foregoing theoretical view, with all its confequential appearances, as feen by an eye enclo- fed in one of the nebulae, is no other than a drawing from nature, wherein the features of the original have been clofely copied : and I hope the refemblance will not be called a bad one, when it ttrall be confidered how very limited mutt be the pencil of an inhabitant of fo fmall and retired a portion of an indefinite fyflem in attempting the picture of fo unbounded an extent.” Dr Herfchel next prefents us with a long table of ftar- gauges, or accounts of the number of liars at once in the field of his telefcope, which go as high as 588 5 after which he propofes the following Problem. “ The ftars being fuppofed nearly equally fcattered, and their number, in a field of view of a known angular diameter, being given ; to determine the length of the vifual ray. “ Here, the arrangement of the ftars not being fix¬ ed upon, we mutt endeavour to find which way they may be placed fo as to fill a given fpace moft equally. Suppofe a rectangular cone cut into fruftula by many equidiftant planes perpendicular to the. axis ; then, it one {tar be placed at the vertex and another in the axis at the firft interfeCtion, fix ftars may be fet around it fo as to be equally diftant from, one another and from the central ftar. Thefe pofitions being carried on in the fame manner, we {hall have every ftar within the cone furrounded by eight others at an equal dittance from that ftar taken as a centre. Fig. 100. contains four feCtions of fuch a cone diftinguilhed by alternate {hades ; which will be fufhcient to explain what fort of arrange¬ ment I would point out. “ The feries of the number of ftars contained in the feveral feClions will be 1, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, &c. which continued to n terms, the fum of it, by the n—1 n—1 differential method, will be na-\-n. —^— a-j-«. —— n~~— d", &c. where a is the firft term, c/', d", d'", &c. 3 the firft, fecond, and third differences. Then, fince a=i, d'—6, d"z=z6, dt"—o, the fum of the feries will be a3. Let S be the given number of ftars ; 1 the diameter of the bafe of the field of view; and B the diameter of the great redtangular cone ; and by trigonometry we {hall have B= — . Now, fince the field of view Tang. 4 field of a telefcope is a cone, rve {hall have its folidity to that of the great cone of the ftars formed by the above conftruftion, as the fquare of the diameter of the bafe of the field of view, to the fquare of the diameter of the great cone, the height of both being the fame j Apparent and the ftars in each cone being in the ratio of the fo- Moucms of 3 theHeaven- lidity, as being equally fcattered, we have ivzzisj B2S j ly Bodice and the length of the vifual ray =.n—1, which was to v""~ ' be determined.” Another folution of this problem, on the fuppofition of another arrangement of ftars, is given ) but Dr Herfchel prefers the former. From the data now laid down, Dr Herfchel next en-Proof of deavours to prove that the earth is ‘the planet of a-“I ftar belonging to a compound nebula of the third form.1 “ I {hall now (fays he) procted to ftiow, that the ftu- pendous fidereal fyftem we inhabit, this extenfive ftra- tum, and its fecondary branch, confifting of many mil¬ lions of ftars, is in all probability a detached nebula. In order to go upon grounds that feem to me to be capable of great certainty, they being no lefs than an a&ualfur- vey of the boundaries of our fidereal fyftem, which I have plainly perceived as far as I have yet gone round it, everywhere terminated, and in moft places very nar¬ rowly too, it will be proper to ftiow the length of my founding line, if I may fo call it, that it may appear whether it was fufficiently long for the purpofe. 237 “ In the moft crowded parts of the milky-way, I have had fields of view that contained no fewer than 588 ftars, and thefe were continued for many mi-Herfchel nutes : fo that in one quarter of an hour’s time there meafures paffed no lefs than 116,000 ftars through the field oflhe hea“ view of my telefcope. Now, if we compute the lengthvens* of the vifual ray, by putting SnrfSS, and the diame¬ ter of the field of view 15 minutes, Ave {hall find 3 =498 •, fo that it appears the length of tvhat I have called my Sounding Line, or n—1, Avas not probably lefs than 497 times the diftance of Sirius from the fun. “ It may feem inaccurate that Ave ftiould found an argument on the ftars being equally fcattered, when, in all probability, there may not be any two of them in the heavens Avhofe mutual diftance lhall be equal to that of any other two given ftars : but it ftiould be confidered, that Avhen avc take all the ftars colledtively, there Avill be a mean diftance Avhich may be affumed as the general one •, and an argument founded on iuch a fuppofition will have in its favour the greateft pro- 338 bability of not being far ftiort of truth. And here I Clutter of muft obferve, that the difference between a crowded place and a clutter (none of the latter being put into une the gauge table), may eafily be perceived by the ar¬ rangement as well as the fize and mutual diftance of the ftars ; for in a clufter they are generally not only refembling each other pretty nearly in fize, but a cer¬ tain uniformity of diftance alfo takes place : they are more and more accumulated toAvards the centre, and put on all the appearances which Ave thould naturally expert from a number of them colle&ed into a group at a certain diftance from us. On the other hand, the rich parts of the milky-way, as well as thofe in the diftant broad parts of the ftratum, confift of a mixture of ftars of all pofiible fizes, that are feemingly placed without any particular apparent order. Perhaps we might re- colleft, that a greater condenfation torvards the centre of our fyftem than toAvards the borders of it fhould be taken into confideration •, but with a nebula ot the third form containing fuch various and extenfive conv binatlona Part II. Apparent bfnations as I have found to take place in ours, this Motions of circumftance, which in one of the firft form would be theHeaven-of confjderable moment, may, I think, be fafely ne- ly Bodies. . 0 . , glected. “ If fome other high gauge be fele&ed from the table, fuch as 472 or 344, the length of the vifual ray will be found 461 and 415. And although, in confe- quence of what has been faid, a certain degree of doubt may be left about the arrangement and fcatter- ing of the ftars, yet when it is recollected, that in thofe parts of the milky-way, where thefe high gauges were taken, the ftars were neither fo fmall nor fo crowded as they muft have been, on a fuppofition of a much farther continuance of them, when certainly a milky or nebulous appearance muft have come on, I need not fear to have overrated the extent of my vilual ray ; and indeed every thing that can be faid to fliorten it will only contract the limits of our nebula, as it has in moft places been of fufficient length to go far beyond the bounds of it. Thus in the Tides of our ftratum, 239 oppofite to our fituation in it, where the gauges often Extent of run below. 5, our nebula cannot extend to 100 times our nebula the diftance of Sirius; and the fame telefcope which could fhow 588 ftars in a field of view of 15 minutes, muft certainly have prefented me alfo with the ftars in thefe fituations, had they been there. If we (hould anfwer this by obferving, that they might be at too great a diftance to be perceived, it will be allowing that there muft at leaft be a vacancy amounting to the length of a vifual ray, not fhort of 400 times the di¬ ftance of Sirius ; and this is amply fufficient to make our nebula a detached one. It is true, that it would not be confiftent confidently to affirm that we were on an ifiand, unlefs we had found ourfelves everywhere bounded by the ocean ; and therefore I (hall go no far¬ ther than the gauges will authorize ; but confidering the little depth of the ftratum in all thofe places which have been actually gauged, to which muft be added all the intermediate parts that have been viewed and found to be much like the reft, there is but little room to ex- peft a connection between our nebula and any of the neighbouring ones. A telefcope, with a much larger aperture than my prefent one, grafping together a greater quantity of light, and thereby enabling us to fee farther into fpace, will be the fureft means of com¬ pleting and eftabliffiing the arguments that have been ufed : for if our nebula is not abfolutely a detached one, I am firmly perfuaded that an inftrument may be made large enough to difcovtr the places where the ftars continue onwards. A very bright milky nebulo- fity muft there undoubtedly come on, fince the ftars in a field of view will increafe in the ratio of greater than that of the cube of the vifual ray. Thus, if 588 ftars in a given field of view are to be feen by a ray of 497 times the diftanee of Sirius, when this is length¬ ened to XOOO, which is but little more than double the former, the number of ftars in the fame field of view will be no lefs than 47“74 for when the vifual ray r is given, the number of ftars S will be =: -j— ; where n—r-\- ; and a telefcope with a threefold power of extending into fpace, or with a ray of 1500, which I think may eafily be conftrucled, will give us 16,096 ftars. Nor would thefe be fo clofe, but that a good power applied to fuch an inftrument might eafily di- 77 ftinguiffi them ; for they need not, if arranged in re- Apparent gular fquares, approach nearer to each other, than Motions of 6,,.27 ; but the milky nebulofity I have mentioned, t1je^eoad^tn- would be produced by the numberlefs ftars beyond them, which, in one refpeft, the vifual ray might alfo be faid to reach. To make this appear, we muft re¬ turn to the naked eye : which, as we have before efti- mated, can only fee the ftars of the feventh magnitude fo as to diftinguiffi them : but it is neverthelefs very evident, that the united luftre of millions of ftars, fuch as I fuppofe the nebula in Andromeda to be, will reach our fight in the ftiape of a very fmall faint nebu¬ lofity ; fince the nebula of which I fpeak may eafily be feen in a fine evening. In the fame manner, my prefent telefcope, as I have argued, has not only a vifual ray that will reach the ftars at 497 times the diftance of Sirius, fo as to diftinguiffi them, and pro¬ bably much farther, but alfo a power of ffiowing the united luftre of the accumulated ftars that compofe a milky nebulofity at a diftance far exceeding the former limits : fo that from thefe confiderations it appears again highly probable, that my prefent telefcope not ffiowing fuch a nebulofity in the milky-way, goes al¬ ready far beyond its extent ; and confequently much more would an inftrument, fuch as I have mentioned, remove all doubt on the fubjeft, both by fliowing the ftars in the continuation of the ftratum, and by expo- fing a very ftrong milky nebulofity beyond them, that could no longer be miftaken for the dark ground of the heavens. 2d0 “ To thefe arguments, which reft on the firm bafis Analogical of a feries of obfervation, we may add the following,arguments _ confiderations drawn from analogy. Among the great'n.sfa^°ur ®i number of nebulae, which I have now already feen, thr'.siie®c' amounting to more than 900, there are many which in all probability are equally extenfive with that which we inhabit; and yet they are all feparated from each other by very confiderable intervals. Some, indeed, there are that feem to be double and treble ; and though with moft of thefe it may be that they are at a very great diftance from each other, yet we allow that fome fuch conjurxftions really are to be found ; nor is this what we mean to exclude : But then thefe compound or double nebulae, which are thofe of the third and fourth forms, ftill make a detached link in the great chain. It is alfo to be fuppofed, that there may be fome thinly fcattered fulitary ftars between the large in- ternlces of nebulae ; which being fituated fo as to be nearly equally attra&ed by the feveral clufiers when they were forming, remain unaflbciated : and though we cannot expeft to fee thofe ftars on account of their vaft diftance, yet we may well prefume that their number cannot be very confiderable in comparifon to thofe that are already drawn into fyftems ; which conjecture is alfo abundantly confirmed in fituations where the nebulae are near enough to have their ftars vifible ; for they are all infulated, and generally to be feen upon a very clear and pure ground, without any ftar near them that might be thought to belong to them. And though I have of¬ ten feen them in beds of ftars, yet from the fize of thefe latter we may be certain, that they were much nearer to us than thofe nebulae, and belong undoubtedly to our own fyftem.” Having thus determined that the vifible fyftem of nature, by us called the univerfe, confifting of all the celeftial ASTRONOMY. 78 ASTRO Apparent celeitial bodies, and many more than can be feen by Motions of the naked eye, is only a group of ftars or funs with theHeaven-thei,. planets, conftituting one of thofe patches called a ■ ^ • nebula, and perhaps not one ten-thoufandth part of what is really the univerfe, Dr Herfchel goes on to delineate the figure of tliis vait nebula, which he is of 2 opinion may now be done 5 and tor this purpofe he gives How the a table, calculating the diltances of the ftars which figure of form its extreme boundaries, or the length of the vi- our nebula pual ray jn different parts, by the number of ftars con- ftneat?/6" tained in t,ie field of hlS telefcoPe at different times» according to the principles already laid down. He does not, however, as yet attempt the whole nebula, but of a particular feftion, reprefented fig. 160. “ I have taken one (fays he) which pafles through the poles of our fyftem, and is at redlangles to the con- jundlion of the branches, which I have called its length. The name of poies feems to me not improperly ap¬ plied to thofe points which are 90 degrees diftant from a circle pafting along the milky-way and the north pole is here fuppofed to be fituated in right afcenfion 186°, and polar diltance (that is from the pole com¬ monly fo called) $8°. The fedtion is one which makes an angle of 350 with our equator, crofting it in 124^° and 304-1°. A celeftial globe, adjufted to the latitude of 550 north, and having r Ceti near the meridian, will have the plane of this fedtion pointed cut by the horizon. The vifual rays are to be projedf- ed on the plane of the horizon of the latitude juft mentioned, which may be done accurately enough by a globe adjufted in the manner diredfed. J he ftars in the border, which are marked larger than the reft, are thofe pointed out by the gauges. The intermediate parts are filled up by fraaller ftars, arranged in ftraight lines between the gauged ones. From this figure, which I hope is not a very inaccurate one, we may fee that our nebula, as we obferved before, is of the third form j that is, a very extenfive, branching, compound congeries of many millions of ftars, which moil pro¬ bably owes its origin to many remarkably large, as well as pretty clofely fcattered, fmall ftars, that may have drawn together the reft. Now, to have fome idea of the wonderful extent of this fyftem, I muft obierve, that this fedlicn of it is drawn upon a fcale where the diftance of Sirius is no more than the 80th part of an inch j fo that probably all the ftars, which in the fineft nights we are able to diftinguiftr with the naked eye, may be comprehended within a fphere drawn round the large ftar near the middle, reprefenting our fitua- tion in' the nebula of lefs than half a quarter of an inch radius.’ Dr Herfchel now proceeds to offer fome further thoughts on the origin of the nebulous ftrata of the heavens : in doing which he gives fome hints concern¬ ing the antiquity of them. “ If it were poflible (fays he) to diftinguilh between the parts of an indefinitely extended whole, the nebula we inhabit might be faid to be one that has fewer marks of antiquity than any of the reft. To explain this idea perhaps more clearly, we ftiould reeollefl, that the condenfation of clufters of ftars has been afcribed to a gradual approach ; and whoever reflefts on the number of ages that muft have paffed before fome of the clufters that are to be found in my intended catalogue of them could be fo far con- clenfed as we find them at prefent, will not wonder if N O M Y, Part II. I afcribe a certain air of youth and vigour to many Apparent very regularly fcattered regions of our fidereal ftratum. Motions of There are, moreover, many places in it in which, if we theHeavon- may judge from appearances, there is the greateft rea- y ~°c 16 fon to believe that the ftars are drawing towards feeon- ^ dary centres, and will in time icparate into clufters, ioOfthede- as to oceafion many fubdiviftons. Hence we may lur-cay re- mife, that when a nebulous ftratum confifts chiefly of^™^1^011 nebulae of the firft and feeond forms, it probably owes its origin to what may be called the decay of a great compound nebula of the third form : and that the fub- divifions which happened to it in length of time, occa- fioned all the fmali nebulae which fprung from it to lie in a certain range, according as they were'-detached from the primary one. In like manner, our fyftem, after numbers of ages, may very poffibly become divid¬ ed, fo as to give rife to a ftratum of two or three hundred nebulae j for it would not be difficult to point out fo many beginning or gathering clufters inv„it. This throws a confiderable light upon that remarkable -: colled!ion of many hundreds of nebulae which are to be feen in what I have called the nebulous Jlratum in Coma Berenices. It appears, from the extended and branching figure of our nebula, that there is room for the decompofed fmall nebulae of a large reduced former great one to approach nearer to us in the fides than in any other parts. Nay, poffibly there might originally be another very large joining branch, which in time became feparated by the condenfation of the ftars: and this may be the reafon of the little remaining breadth of our fyftem in that very place ; for the ne¬ bula: of the ftratum of the Coma are brighteft and moft crowded juft oppofite to our fituation, or in the pole of our fyftem. As foon as this idea was fuggefted, I tried alfo the oppofite pole j where accordingly I have met with a great number of nebulae, though under a much more fcattered form. “ Some parts of our fyftem indeed feem already to have fuftained greater ravages of time than others j for inftance, in the body of the Scorpion is an open¬ ing or hole, which is probably owing to this caufe. It is at leaft four degrees broad ; but its height I have not yet afeertained. It is remarkable, that the 80th Nebuleufe fans Etoiles of the Connoijfance des Temps, which is one of the richeft and moft compreffed clu¬ fters of fmall ftars I remember to have feen, is fituated juft on the weft border of it, and would almoft autho¬ rize a fufpicion that the ftars of which it is compofed were collefted from that place, and had left the vacancy. What adds not a little to this furmife is, that the fame phenomenon is once more repeated with the fourth clufter of the Connoijfance des Temps ; which is alfo on the weftern border of another vacancy, and has more¬ over a fmall miniature clufter, or eafily refolvable nebu¬ la, of about minutes in diameter north, following it at no very great diftance. “ There is a remarkable purity or clearnefs in the heavens when we look out of our ftratum at the fides 5 that is, towards Leo, Virgo, and Coma Berenices on one hand, and towards Cetus on the other ; whereas the ground of the heavens becomes troubled as we ap¬ proach towards the length or height of it. Thefe troubled appearances are eafily to be explained by afcribing them to fome of the diftant ftraggling ftars that yield hardly light enough to be diflinguiffied. k And Part II. ASTRONOMY. 79 Apparent And I have indeed often experienced this to be the caule, Motions of by examining thefe troubled fpots for along while toge- theHeaven- * ber, when at hit I generally perceived the ftars which ,ty B”thes- OCcafioned them. But when we look towards the poles of our fyftem, where the vifual ray does not graze along the fide, the draggling ftars will of courfe be very few in number : and therefore the ground of the heavens will affume that purity which I have always obfervedto take place in thofe regions.” Univerfe Thus, then, according to Dr Herfchel, the univerfe compoied confifts of nebulce, or innumerable colledtions of innu- of nebulae. merable ftars, each individual of which is a fun not on¬ ly equal, but much fuperior to ours : at leaft it the Nat. Phil, words of Mr Nicholfon have any weight ; for he tells 1. ip5, ipd. us> that “ each individual fun is dertined to give light to hundreds of worlds that revolve about it, but which can no more be feen by us, on account of their great diftance, than the folar planets can be feen from the fixed ftars.” “ Yet (continues he), as in this unex¬ plored, and perhaps unexplorable, abyfs of fpace, it is no neceffary condition that the planets thould be of the fame magnitudes as thofe belonging to our fyftem, it is not impoflible but that planetary bodies may be difcovered among the double and triple ftars.” Though in the above extrafts from Dr Herfchel’s papers, the words condenfaliens, clujiers, &c. of ftars frequently occur, we are bv no means from thence to imagine that any of the celeftial bodies in our nebula are nearer to one another than we are to Sirius, whofe diftance is fuppofed not to be lefs than 400,000 times that of the fun from us, or 38 millions of millions of miles. The whole extent of the nebula being in fome places near 500 times as great, muft be fuch, that the light of a ftar placed at its extreme boundary, fuppo- fing it to fly with the velocity of 12 millions of miles every minute, muft have taken near 3000 years to reach us. Dr Herfchel, however, is by no means of opinion, that our nebula is the moft confiderable in the univerfe. “ As we are ufed (fays he) to call the appearance of the heavens, where it is furrounded with a bright zone, the milky-way, it may not be amifs to point out fome other very remarkable nebulse, which cannot well be lefs, but are probably much larger, than our own fyftem ; and being alfo extended, the inhabi¬ tants of the planets that attend the ftars which compofe them, muft likewife perceive the fame phenomena: for which reafon they may alfo be called milky-ways, by 244 ,vay diftin&ion. ©fthefize “ My opinion of their fize is grounded on the fol- and di- lowing obfervations : There are many round nebulae of ftanee of £rq- form? 0f about five or fix minutes in diameter, nebulae. r£ j can fee very diftinftly j and on comparing them with the vifual ray calculated from fome of mv long gauges, I fuppofe by the appearance of the fmall ftars in thofe gauges, that the centres of thefe round nebulae may be 600 times the diftance of Sirius from us.”—He then goes on to tell us, that the ftars in fuch nebulae are probably twice as much con- denfed as thofe of our fyftem j otherwife the centre of it would not be lefs than 6000 times the diftance of Sirius from us •, and that it is poflibly much under¬ rated by fuppofing it only 600 times the diftance of that ftar. “ Some of thefe round nebulae (fays Dr Herfchel) have others near them, perfectly fimilar in form, colour, and the diftribution of ftars, but of only half the dia- Apparent meter : and the ftars in them feem to be doubly crowd- Motions ot ed, and only at about half the diftance from each other.t^ie^^ri" They are indeed fo fmall, as not to be vifible without." the utmoft attention. I fuppofe thele miniature nebulae to be at double the diftance of the firft. An inftance equally remarkable and inftrudlive is a cafe where, in the neighbourhood of two fuch nebulae as have been mentioned, I met with a third fimilar, refolvable, but much fmaller and fainter nebula. The ftars of it are no longer to be perceived ; but a refemblance of colour with the former two, and its diminilhed fize and light, may well permit us to place it at full twice the di¬ ftance of the fecond, or about four or five times the diftance of the firft. And yet the nebulofity is not of the milky kind : nor is it fo much as difficultly re¬ folvable or colourlefs. Now in a few of the extend¬ ed nebulae, the light changes gradually, fo as from the refolvable to approach to the milky kind *, which appears to me an indication, that the milky light of nebulae is owing to their much greater diftance. A nebula, therefore, whofe light is perfectly milky, can¬ not well be fuppofed to be at lefs than fix or eight thoufand times the diftance of Sirius ; and though the numbers here aflumed are not to be taken otherwife than as very coarfe eftimates, yet an extended nebula, which an oblique fituation, where it is poffibly fore- ffiortened by one-half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of its length, fubtends a degree or more in diameter, cannot be otherwife than of a wonderful magnitude, and may well outvie our milky-way in grandeur.” Dr Herfchel next proceeds to give an account of fe- Vaft length veral remarkable nebulae, and then concludes thus :ot B1116 re* “ Now, what great length of time muft be required to produce thefe effefts (the formation of nebulse) may netiUjje. eafily be conceived, when, in all probability, our whole fyftem of about 800 ftars in diameter, if it were feen at fuch a diftance that one end of it might aflfume the refolvable nebulofity, would not, at the other end, pre- fent us with the irrefolvable, much lefs with the colour¬ lefs and milky, fort of nebulofities.” Great indeed muft: be the length of time requifite for fuch diftant bodies to form combinations by the laws of attraction, fince, ac¬ cording to the diftances he has aflumed, the light of fome of his nebulae muft be thirty fix or forty- eight thoufand years in arriving from them to us. It would be worth while then to inquire, whether attrac¬ tion is a virtue propagated in time or not; or whether it moves quicker or flower than light? In the courfe of Dr Herfchel’s obfervations and in-Why the quiries concerning the ftrudlure of the heavens, an ob-ftars do nok jeClion occurred, .that if the different fyftems were ^ uPon formed by the mutual attractions of the ftars, the whole^ran0" would be in danger of deftruCtion by the falling of them one upon another. A fufficient anfwer to this, he thinks, is, that if we can really prove the fyftem of the univerfe to be what he has faid, there is no doubt but that the great Author of it has amply provided for the prefervation of the whole, though it ffiould not appear to us in what manner this is effe&ed. Several circumftances, however, he is of opinion, manifeftly tend to a general prefervation : as, in the firft place, the indefinite extent of the fidereal heavens ; which muft produce a balance that will effeClually fecure all the parts of the great whole from approaching to each other. .&o astronom y. Part IT, 347 Of the pla- jietary nebalJE. Apparent otlier. “ There remains then (fays he) only to fee Motions of how the particular liars belonging to feparate clufters ■theHeaven- are prevented from rulhing on to their centres of at- .Jy B°[lies- traftion.” This he fuppofes may be done by projtc- v tile forces •, “ the admilhon of which will prove fuch a barrier againft the feeming deltruftive power of attrac¬ tion, as to fecure from it all the liars belonging to a duller, if not for ever, at lead; for millions of ages. Befides, we ought perhaps to look upon fuch clufters, and the dedruflion of a liar now and then in fome thoufands of ages as the very means by which the whole is preferved and renewed. Thefe chillers may be the laboratories of the univerfe, wherein the molt falutary remedies for the decay of the whole are pre¬ pared.” In fpeaking of the planetary nebulae, by which name he dillinguidres thofe fpots that are all over equally lu¬ minous, he fays, “ if we Ihould fuppofe them to be lingle dars with large diameters, we lhall find it diffi¬ cult to account for their not being brighter, unlefs we Ihould admit that the intrinfic light of fome liars may be very much inferior to that of the generality j which, however, can hardly be imagined to extend to fuch a degree. We might fuppofe them to be comets about their aphelion, if the brightnefs, as well as magnitude of their diameters, did not oppofe this idea ; fo that, after all, we can hardly find any hypothefis fo probable as that of their being nebulae 5 but then they mud con- lid of dars that are comprefled and accumulated in the highed degree. If it were not perhaps too hazardous to purfue a former furmife of a renewal in what I figur¬ atively called the Laboratories of the Univerfe, the dars forming thefe extraordinary nebulae, by fome decay or wade of nature being no longer fit for their former purpofes, and having their proje£tile forces, if any fuch they had, retarded in each other’s atmofphere, may rudi at lad together ; and, either in fucceffion or by one general tremendous ifiock, unite into a new body. Perhaps the extraordinary and fudden blaze of a new dar in Caffiopeia’s chair, in 1572, might pof- fibly be of fuch a nature. If a little attention to thefe bodies diould prove that, having no annual parallax, they belong mod probably to the clafs of nebulae, they may then be expedled to keep their dation better than any one of the dars belonging to our fydem, on ac¬ count of their being probably at a very great di- itance.” As the fixed dars condantly keep nearly the fame fituation relative to each other, adronomers have agreed ing the fitu-to refer to them, as to fo many fixed points, the difter- ntion of theent motjons 0£ other heavenly bodies. Hence the ftar5‘ reafon of dividing them into condellations. But it was neceffary befides, for the fake of perfeft precifion, to mark exaflly the relative fituation of every dar in the celedial fphere. This is accomplilhed in the following manner. “ A great circle is fuppofed to pafs through the two poles, and through the centre of every dar. This cir¬ cle is called a circle of declination. . The arc of this circle included between the dar and the equator mea- fures the declination of the dar. The declination of a dar then is its perpendicular didance from the equator. It is north or fouth, according as the dar is fituated on lihe north or fouth fide of the equator All the ftars 248 Method of afeertain- fituated in the fame parallel of the equator have of Apparent courfe the fame declination. Motions of The declination then marks the fituation of a dar north or fouth from the equator. Precifion requires dill y . ^ A-',* another circle from which their didance ead or wed may be marked, in order to give the real place. The circle of declination which paffes through that point of the equator, called the vernal equinoElial point, has been cho- fen for that purpofe. The didance of the circle of decli¬ nation of a given dar from that point meafured on the equator, or the arc of the equator included between the vernal equinox and the circle of declination ot the dar, is called its light afcenfion. If we know the declination and the right afcenfion of a dar, we know its precife fituation in the heavens. The declination of any dar may be eafily found by ob- ferving the following rule : Take the meridian altitude of the dar, at any place where the latitude is known, the complement of this is the 'zenith difance, and is called north or fouth, as the dar is north or fouth at the time of obfervation. Then, 1. When the latitude of the place and zenith didance of the dar are of diiTerent kinds, namely, one north and the other fouth, their difference will be the declination; and it is of the fame kind with the latitude, when that is the greated of the two, other- wife it is of the contrary kind. 2. If the latitude and the zenith didance are of the fame kind, i. e. both north or both fouth, their fum is the declination j and it is of the fame kind with the latitude. To prove the truth of this rule, turn to fig. 86. where Z is the zenith of the place, E(£ the equinoaial, and 249 EZ the latitude. 1. Let r repreient the place of a dar Rules for on the meridian, and Z r the zenith didance, the lati-findl.ng th* tude being greater : then E r (the declination), will bet ec ‘na * equal to EZ—Z r (the zenith didance) j again, let c be the place of a dar in the meridian, when the zenith didance exceeds the latitude ; then E c (the declina¬ tion) z=Z c (the zenith didance)—EZ (the latitude). And it is manifed, that in the former indance Z.and r are on the fame fide of the equinodlial j and that in the latter cafe Z and c are on contrary fid.es. 2dly, Let y be the place of a dar on the meridian, having its zenith didance Zy vi the fame kind with EZ the latitude of the place : then Ey (the declination) = EZ -f-Z y ; and the declination is of the fame kind as the latitude, becaufe Z and y are on the fame fide of the equinedlial. £L E. D. • 0 Yor an example, fuppofe that in north latitude 52 15 » the meridian altitude of a dar is 510 28' on the fouth ; then 38° 32' the zenith didance, being taken from 52° 15' the latitude, leaves 130 43'for declination of the dar north. > 25© Having, by means like the above, found the decli-and right nation of a dar, it becomes requifite, in the next place,alcenfl0n* to know the right afcenfion, as its fituation with regard to the equator will then be known. Now the right afcenfion being edimated from the point where the e- quator and ecliptic interfedl; each other in the fpring, a point which is marked out by nothing that comes under the cognizance of our fenfes •, fome phenomenon, there¬ fore, mud be chofen, whofe right afcenfion is either given, or may be readily known at any time that the right afeenfions of other objefts may be difeovered by companion with it. For this purpofe nothing appears Part IL Apparent fo proper as the fun *, becaufe its motion is the mod Motions ef Ample, and its right afcenfion quickly found. theHeaven- p’or ;n 87. vve have given QS the declination ,ly Bori CS t}ie fun ^ which maybe eafily taken every day at noon by obfervation), and the angle SEO the obliquity of the ecliptic—i. e. one leg of a right-angled fpherical triangle, and its oppofite angle, to find the adjacent leg E^), the right afcenfion—it may be done by this pro¬ portion •, as the tangent of the obliquity of the ecliptic : the tangent of the declination :: radius : the fine of the right afcenfion reckoned from the nearer equinodtial point. For example : fuppofe on the 13th of February the fun’s fouth declination is found to be 130 24', and the o- bliquity of the ecliptic is 230 28'$ we (hall thus find the fun’s right afcenfion : As tangt. 23* 28' 9,6376106 To tangt. 130 24' 9.3770030 So is radius 10.0000000 ASTRONOM Y. 8 i To fine 330 16' 58" 9-7393924 Here 330 16' 58'' is the fun’s diftance from Y ; but as the declination is at that time decreafing, and the fun approaching Y, this muft be taken from 360®, and the remainder 326° 43' 2" is the right afcenfion. In a fimilar manner may the fun’s right afcenfion be caculated for every day at noon, and arranged in tables for ufe: for any intermediate time between one day at noon and the following, the right afeenfion may be de¬ termined by proportion. The longitude ES of the fun, when required, may be readily found by the rules to afcertain the hypothenufe of the fame triangle. The apparent diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies being uniform, and performed in circles parallel to the equator, the interval of the times in which two fiars pafs over any meridian muft bear the fame proportion to the period of the diurnal motion, as that arc of the equator intercepted between the two fecondaries paf- fing through the ftars, does to 360*, as is evident from the nature of the fphere: we may therefore find the right afcenfion of a ftar thus: Let an accurate pendu¬ lum clock be fo regulated that the index may pafs over the twenty-four hours during the time in which any fixed ftar after departing from the meridian will return to it again, which is rather lefs than twenty-four hours. Then let the index of a clock thus regulated be fet to twelve o’clock when the fun is on the meridian ; and obferve the time the index points to, when the fixed ftar whofe right afcenfion is fought comes to the meri¬ dian *, which may be moft accurately known by means of a tranfit telefcope. Let thefe hours and parts, as marked by the clock, be converted into degrees, &c. of the equator, by allowing 15® to an hour ; and the difference between the right afcenfions of the fixed ftar and the fun will be known •, this difference added to the fun’s right afcenfion for that day at noon, gives the right afcenfion of the fixed ftar fought. Or, if a clock whofe dial plate is divided into 360°, inftead of twelve hours, be ordered in fuch a manner, that the index may pafs round the whole circle in the interval which a ftar requires to come to the fame meri¬ dian again, and another index be fo managed as to point out the fexagefimal parts : then, when the fun is en the meridian, let the indices of the clock be put to VOL. III. Part I. ‘ his right afcenfion at noon that day ; and when the ftar Apparent comes to the meridian, its right‘afcenfion will be Ihown Motions of by the clock, without any kind of redu&ion. . Bodies!* The ftars are referred likewife to the ecliptic as well 1/ as to the equator. In that cafe the terms longitude and latitude are ufed. 2 ,T The longitude of any of the heavenly bodies is an Longmuie arc of the ecliptic contained between the firft point of0f the hea. Aries, and a fecondary to the ecliptic or circle of lati-venly tude, paffing through the body ; it is always raeafured')0(*ies* according to the order of the iigns. If the body be fuppofed feen from the centre of the earth, it is called geocentric longitude •, but if it be fuppofed feen from the centre of the fun, then is the longitude heliocen¬ tric. 251 The latitude of a heavenly body is its diftance from Latitudes! the ecliptic, meafured upon a fecondary to the eclip¬ tic drawn through the body. If the latitude be fuch as is feen from the earth’s centre, it is called geocen¬ tric latitude ; but if it be fuppofed feen from the centre of the fun, it is heliocentric. The equator being the principal circle which re- fpefts the earth, the latitudes and longitudes of terref- trial objects are referred to it j and, for a fimilar reafon (the fun’s motion in the ecliptic rendering that the principal of the celeftial circles), the fituations of hea¬ venly objedls are generally afcertained by their lati¬ tudes and longitudes referred to the ecliptic : it has therefore become a ufeful problem to find the latitudes and longitudes of the ftars, &c. having their declina¬ tions, and right afcenfions, with the obliquity of the ecliptic, given. One of the belt methods of perform- ing this problem has been thus inveftigated : Let How found. S be the place of the body (fig. 88.), EC the ecliptic, EC^ the equator : and SL and SR being re- fpedftively perpendicular to EC and E£) , ER will re- prefent the right afcenfion, SR the declination, EL the longitude, and SL the latitude j then, by fpherics, rad. : fine ER : : co-tang. SR ; co-tang. SER and SER—p:CEQz=SEL. Alio, co-fine SER : rad. :: tang. ER : tang. ES $ and rad. : co-fine SEL :: tang. ES : tang. EL $ therefore, co-fine SER : co-fine SEL :: tang. ER : tang. EL j whence vve readily get co-fine SEL x tang. ER , _ , ? — the tangent ot EL, the co-lme SER longitude. Then, rad. : fine of EL :: tang. SEL : tang. SL, the latitude. But the fame thing may be performed very expedi- tioufly by means of the following excellent rule, given by Dr Malkelyne, the preftnt worthy aftronomer royal: 1. The fine of the right afcenfion -j- co-tang, de¬ clination —10 = co-tang, of arc A, which call north, or fouth, according to the declination is north or fouth. 2. Call the obliquity of the ecliptic fouth in the fix firft figns of right afcenfion, and north in the fix laft. Let the fum of arc A, and obliquity of ecliptic, ac¬ cording to their titles, rr arc B with its proper title. [If one be north and the other fouth, the proper title is that which belongs to the greater ; and in this cafe, arc B is their difference.] 3. The arithmetical com¬ plement of co-fine arc A -}- co-fine arc B x tang, right afcenfion = tangent of the longitude : this is of the fame kind as the right afcenfion, unlefs arc B be more than 90°, when the quantity found of the fame kind as L the 82 A S T R O N O M Y. Part IT. Apparent the right afcenfion muft be fubtra&ed from 12 figns, Motions of or 360°. 4. The fine of longitude tang, arc the Heaven- — 1 o = tang, of the required latitude, of the fame ^.Iv Bodies.^ tjt{e as arc Note, If the longitude be found near 0° or near 180°, for the fine of longitude, in the laft •operation, fubftitute tang, longitude co-fine longi¬ tude—• 10 ; and then the laft operation will be tang, longitude -j- co-fine longitude -f- tang, arc B —*20 = tang, latitude. By fine tang. &c. are meant logarithm fine, log. tang. &c. This rule may be exemplified by inquiring what are the latitude and longitude of a ftar whofe declination is 12° 59' north, and right afcenfion 290 38', the obli¬ quity of the ecliptic being 290 28' ? Here, fine of rig ht afcenfion qf 290 38' Co-tang, of declination 1 2 59 Co-tang, of arc A, north 24 31 Obliquity of ecliptic fouth 23 28 Arc B, north - 1 3 Arith. comp, of co-fine arc A Tangent of right afcenfion 97037486 io‘6372i26 10-34069612 cof. 9-9999271 0-0410347 9.7678344 Tangent of longitude 147° I3/ 26" 9-8087962 Or 4f 270 13' 26", anfwering to 270 13'26" of Leo. Then, fine of longitude - - 9‘7334^43 8-2631153 Tangent of arc B Tang, of latitude, north, 34' 6" T99^599^ 254 . Stars vary Aftronomers have obferved that the ftars vary in in right a- right afcenfion and in declination, but keep the fame latitude : hence it was concluded that their variations "in declination and right afcenfion were owing to the revolution of the celeftial fphere round the poles of the ecliptic. Or they may be accounted for by fuppofing that the poles of the equator revolve (lowly round thofe of the ecliptic. This revolution is called the preceflion of the equinoxes. A more particular account of it will be neceftary. Obferva- ^.y a ^on8 k™65 obfervations, the fhephtfrds of Afia tions of the were able to mark out the fun’s path in the heavens Afiatic fie being always ih the oppofite point tn that which fhephenls. comes to the meridian at midnight, with equal but op¬ pofite declination. Thus they could tell the fiars among which the fun then was, although they could not fee them. They difeovered that this path was a great circle of the heavens, afterwards called the Ecliptic ; which cuts the equator in two oppofite points, dividing it, and being divided by it, into two equal parts. They farther obferved, that when the fun was in either of thofe points of interfe&ion, his circle of diurnal revolution coincided with the equa¬ tor, and therefore the days and nights were equal. Hence the equator came to be called the EQUINOC¬ TIAL line, and the points in which it cuts the eclip¬ tic were called the Equinoctial points, and the fun was then faid to be in the equinoxes. One of thefe ^ was called the Vernal and the other the Autumnal To deter- ESLUIN0X- mine the It was evidently an important problem in prachcal time of the aftronomy to determine the exadl moment of the fun’s fun’s occu- OCCUpy-tng thefe flattens ; for it was natural to compute etlenoAgai ^ courfe of the year from that moment. Accordingly points?" 1 !ias been the leading problem in the aftronomy of all nations. It is fufceptible of confiderable preeifion, Apparent without any apparatus of inftruments. It is only ne- Motions of ceftary to obferve the fun’s declination on the noon ofl!jeI*e^en- two or three days before and after the equinoftial day. ■’ ” ' A On two confecutive days of this number, his declination muft have changed from north to fouth, or from fouth to north. If his declination on one day was obferved to be 2i' north, and on the next 5' fouth, it follows that his declination was nothing, or that he was in the equi- nodiial point about 23 minutes after 7 in the morning of the fecond day. Knowing the precife moments, and knowing the rate of the fun’s motion in the ecliptic, it is eafy to afeertain the precife point of the ecliptic in which the equator interfedled it. By a feries of fuch obfervations made at Alexandria Hippar- between the years 161 and 127 before Chrift, Hippar-clms’s dif- chus, the father of our aftronomy, found that the point cove^es• of the autumnal equinox was about fix degrees to the eaftward of the ftar called Spica virginis. Eager to determine every thing by multiplied obl’ervations, heran- facked all the Chaldean, Egyptian, and other records, to which his travels could procure him accefs, for obfer¬ vations of the fame kind -, but he does not mention his having found any. He found, however, fome obferva¬ tions of Ariftillus and Timochares made about 150 years before. From thefe it appeared evident that the point of the autumnal equinox was then about eight degrees eaft of the fame ftar. He difeuffes thefe obfervations with great fagacity and rigour ; and, on their authority, he afferts that the equinoctial points are not fixed in the heavens, but move to the weftward about a degree in 75 years or fomevvhat lefs. This motion is called the Precession of the Equi-why called NOXES, becaufe by it the time and place of the fun’s the prccef- equinoCtial ftation precedes the ufual calculations : it isfion.of lhe fully confirmed by all fubfequent obfervations. In i750t, of unequal magni¬ tudes. Let the angle a O b be obferved, when the earth is at O, and a E £ be obferved when the earth i* at E. From the difference of thefe angles, if there fhould be any, we may calculate the parallax of the ftars, according to the theory fubjoined. Thefe two ftars ought to be as near each other as poffible, and alfo to differ as much in magnitude as we can find them. Dr Herfchel’s theory of the annual parallax of double ftars, with the method of computing from thence what is generally called the parallax of the fixed ftars or of fingle ftars of the firft magnitude, fuch as are neareft to us, fuppofes, firjl, that the ftars, one with another, are about the fize of the fun •, and, fecondhfo that the difference of their apparent magnitudes is ow¬ ing to their different diftances j fo that the ftar of the fecond, third, or fourth magnitude, is two, three, or four times as far off as one of the firft. L hefe princi¬ ples which he premifes as poftulata, have fo great a probability in their favour, that they will hardly be obje&ed to by thofe who are in the leaft acquainted with the do&rine of chances. Accordingly, let OE (fig. 91.) be the whole diameter of the earth’s an¬ nual orbit, and let a, b, c, be three ftars fituated in the ecliptic, in fueh a manner that they may be feen all in one line O a b c, when the earth is at O. Let the line O a b c be perpendicular to OE, and draw PE parallel to c O; then, if O a, ab, be, are equal to each other, a will be a ftar of the firft magnitude, b of the fecund, and c of the third. Let us now fuppofe the angle O « E, or parallax of the whole orbit of the earth, to be l" of a degree ; then we have PE a~0 a E=l": and becaufe very fmall angles, having the fame fubtenfe OE, may be taken to be in the inverfe ratio of the lines Off, Ob, Off, &c. we lhall have Ob E=-f", OffE=y", &c. Now when the earth is removed to E, we lhall have PE £zrE £ and PE «—PE b—a E b—\", i. e. the ftars a, b, will ap¬ pear to be diftant. We alfo have PE ffrrEff 0= i", and PEff—PEffnrff Eff=y'j i. e. the ftars a, c, will appear to be y" diftant when the earth is at E. Now, fince we have b EP=f", and c EP=y", there¬ fore b EP—c EP=r^ E ff=i"—j"=6" > i* e- the ftars b, c, will appear to be only -J" removed from each other when the earth is at E. Whence we may de¬ duce the following expreffion, to denote the parallax that will become vifible in the change of diftance be¬ tween the two ftars, by the removal of the earth from one extreme of its orbit to the other. Let P exprefs the total parallax of a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, M the magnitude of the largeft of the two ftars, m the magnitude of the fmalleft, and p the partial parallax Part IT. , flt to be obterved by the change In the didance of a dou- iVppaiem; _ ^ Mo fei'i then will i,='7^rPj ^ P, being fonna ly Bodies. PMw by obfervation, will give us P=r^—E. G. Sup- pofe a ftar of the firft magnitude diould have a imall liar of the twelfth magnitude near it ; then will the , 12 X t P partial parallax we are to expedt to lee be y^ZIT-* of the total parallax of a fixed fiar of the firft mag- tiitude j and if we fhould, by obfervation, find the partial parallax between two fuch ftars to amount to j ^ l j 2, l", we fiiall have the total parallax P=—= l".0909. If the ftars are of the third and twenty- fourth magnitude, the partial parallax will be ASTRONOMY. &5 3X24 ^ — p • and if, by obfervation, p is found to be a 72 tenth of a fecond, the whole parallax will come out :L*.3X!4=0v,3428. 24—3 Farther, fuppofe the ftars, being ftill in the ecliptic, to appear in one line, when the earth is in any other part of its orbit beUveen O and E; then will the pa¬ rallax ftill be exprefled by the fame algebraic formula, and one of the maxima will ftill lie at O, the other at E; but the whole effedl will be divided into two parts, which will be in proportion to each other as radius — fine to radius + fine of the ftars diftance from the neareft conjundlion or oppofition. When the ftars are anywhere out of the ecliptic, fituated fo as to appear in one line O a b c perpendicu¬ lar to OE, the maximum of parallax will ftill be ex¬ prefled by — P j but there will arife another ad¬ ditional parallax in the conjundtion and oppofition, which will be to that which is found 90° before or af¬ ter the fun, as the fine of the latitude of the ftars feen at O is to the radius (R) $ and the effedl of this parallax will be divided into two parts ; half of it ly¬ ing on one fide of the large ftar, the other half on the other fide of it. This latter parallax, moreover, will be compounded with the former, fo that the diftance of the ftars in the conjundlion and oppofition will then be reprefented by the diagonal of a parallelogram, whereof the two femiparallaxes are the fides ; a general expreflion for which will be -M xSS BR H have B b (or D by folving tlje triangle aba,, we fhall have the lon- ,qy Jim ks. gjtucjjnaj anci latitudinal differences a a and b a oi the two ftars. Put a a~x, b a~y, and it will be x-\-b /3 a q, whence D — 7- able nautical aftronomers, it has, however, happened 374 tbat feveral writers on longitude and aftronomy have, Mr Lowe’s ^ courfe 0f tbe laft twenty years, given rules for finding the finding the difference of longitude at land from the longitude, moon’s tranfits, either fo erroneous or imperfeft, that the adoption thereof might do a ferious injury both to navigation and geography : they have given examples, but no demonftrations; or at leaft fuch obfcure and imperfe£l ones, as prove that they had not a clear con¬ ception of the matter. N O M Y. Part II. It is for thefe reafons that the following demonflra- Apparent tion of a rule both eafy and accurate for finding the Motions of difference of longitude is now propofed. The data a^theHeaven- the obferved increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in , } T* 'es‘, pafting from the firft to the fecond meridian, and the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time, which may be had from the Nautical Almanack. Demovjlration.—Let the circle ABC reprefent t! e Fig. 97^ equator, P its pole, and APD the firft meridian, as that of Greenwich. Suppofe that the centres of the fun, the moon, and a fixed ftar, are on that meridian at the fame moment of time as reprefented at A, and that they move from thence to the weftward with their re- fpeCtive velocities, the earth being confidered as at reft. '['hen, after twelve hours apparent time, the fun will be at D, the oppofite point to A, or 180° diftant from it; but the fixed ftai, moving in appearance over a greater fpace than 180® in twelve hours apparent time, will be at F. ; while the moon, w'ith a motion appa¬ rently flower than the fun and the ftar, will appear af¬ ter twelve hours at the point B, or on a meridian BP. But ED is the diftance of the fun from the ftar after an interval of twelve hours apparent time, and EB the diftance of the moon, or, in other words, the increafe of their refpeCfive right afcenfions : and fince ED and EB are known from the Nautical Almanack, if we fubtraCf the firft from the laft, we have DB, equal to the difference between the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours apparent time. Now the difference of longitude between the two me¬ ridians AP and BP is the arc A /3 B, equal to A D lefs the are DB ; that is, equal to 1800 lefs the differ¬ ence between the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours ; and, fince the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion from the time of its pafling the meridian AP to the time of its pafling BP is known from obfervation, and equal to EB, we can make the following proportion for finding the difference of longi¬ tude between any other two meridians, AP and £ P, from the obferved increafe of the moon’s right afcen¬ fion 516. As EB : A/S D—DB :: i/S : A the difference of longitude ; or, in more familiar language, as the in¬ creafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours ap¬ parent time is to 180° or 12 h. lefs the difference be¬ tween the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcen¬ fion in that time :: fo is any other obferved increafe ot the moon’s right afcenfion between two meridians : to their difference of longitude. If the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in 12 hours were uniform, or fuch that equal parts of it would be produced in equal times, the above rule would be ftridlly accurate ; but as that increafe arifes from a motion continually accelerated or retarded, and feldom uniform but for a ftiort fpace of time, it will therefore be neceffary to find the mean increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion when it is at the intermediate point between A and in order to determine their dif¬ ference of longitude with the greateft precifion; and for that purpofe, daylor's lables of Second Difference are very ufeful. Example.—April the 8th, 1800, the tranfit of the moon’s firft limb was obferved at the royal obfervato- J7 Part IT. ASTRO Apparent ry (A) *, and, allowance being made for the error of Motions of the clock, its right afcenfion was theHeavem- H> M< SeCi ly Bodies. ^ 12 35 18.22 Add the time that the moon’s femi- diameter took to pafs the meridian o 1 8.38 Right afcenfion of the moon’s centre 12 36 26.6 On a meridian (/3) far to the weft- ward, the tranfit of the moon’s firft limb was obferved the fame day, and being reduced to the centre, its right afcen¬ fion was - - - - 12 47 56-7 Increafe of right afcenfion between A and ,5. - - - _ - O 11 30.1 The increafe of the moon’s right af¬ cenfion in 12 hours apparent time per The Nautical Almanac was - O 26 3 The increafe of the fun’s in the fame time - - - - -01 49-65 Difference - - - 0 24 I3,35 And 12 hours minus this difference is =: 11 h. 35 m. 46.65 fee.*, therefore, as 26 m. 3 fee.: 11 h. 35 m. 46.65 fee. :: 11 m. 30.1 fee. : to 5 h. 7 m. 12 fee. the corredt difference of longitude between A and /3. By reducing the three terms to feconds, and ufing logarithms, the operation is much ftiortened. In a book publilhed by Mr Mackay on longitude about 15 or 16 years ago, there is a rule given, and alfo an example, for finding the difference of longitude at land from the tranfits of the moon, but no demon- ftration. The rule, when divefted of its high-founding enunciation, runs thus : As the increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion in 12 hours apparent time : is to 1800 :: fo is any other ob¬ ferved increafe between two meridians : to their differ¬ ence of longitude. It follows from this, that the moon as well as the fun would, in 12 hours apparent time, pafs over an arc of 180°, although the apparent mo¬ tion of the moon to the weftward in 12 hours, or 180° of fpace, be lefs than that of the fun by fix or feven degrees •, and fo much error would this method pro¬ duce, if the two places differed about 1800 in longi¬ tude. The above example, wrought according to Mac¬ kay’s rule, would come out thus : H. M. Sec. As 26 m. 3 fee. : 12 h. :: ix m. 30.1 fee. to 5 17 53.7 But the correct difference as above is 5712 Error - - - - - o 10 41.7 which amounts to more than 2J0, or 150 miles, in a difference of longitude little exceeding five hours. Mr Edward Pigot adopts the very fame rule for de¬ termining the difference of longitude between Green¬ wich and York, and ftates the refult in the Philofo- phical Tranfaftions for 17855 P- 4I7* Mr Vince has inferted this rule and example in his , Treatife of Practical Aftronomy ; but we have to re¬ gret that they were not accompanied with a ftridl de¬ mon ft ration. The Rev. Mr Wollafton, in the appendix to his VOL. III. Part I, N O M Y. Fufciculus AJlronomicus, publilhed two or three years Apparent ago, has given a rule, without demonftration or ex- Motions of ample, for finding the difference of longitude from the ^0^jes_ moon’s tranfits, which produces the fame error as 1v . a Mackay’s and Pigot’s, although worded differently from theirs. Mr Wollafton makes the firft term of his proportion apparent, and the third mean time j this renders the refult erroneous. Since the motions of the fun, moon, and planets are computed for apparent time, and given fo in the Nautical Almanack, mean time is not at all requifite for refolving the difference of longitude either at fea or at land. We (hall there¬ fore endeavour to apply Mr Wollafton’s rule, accord¬ ing to its literal meaning, for finding the difference of longitude from the above obfervations. The right afcenfion of the moon’s centre on the me¬ ridian of Greenwich being known, we can eafily de¬ duce the mean and apparent time correfponding to it; and in like manner the mean and apparent time at the diftant meridian /3. The apparent and mean time of the tranfits of the moon’s centre over the meridians of A and /3, when ftridfly computed, were as follows : At A At £ Apparent Time. Mean Time. H. M Sec H. M Sec. II 26 4781 II 28 33.5 II 37 29.5 II 39 II.4 Time later at /3 than at A From the increafe of the moon’s right afcen¬ fion in 12 hours Subtraft the increafe of the fun’s right afcen¬ fion in that time The moon’s retarda¬ tion in 12 hours io 41.69 o 10 37.9 26 3 49-65 24 'S-SS Then, “ As twice the moon’s retardation in 12 hours : is to 24 hours :: “ So is the mean time later at /3 than at A : to the difference of longitude weft from A.” After doubling 24 m. 13.25 fee. and alfo 12, which is totally unneceffary, as the refult would be the fame if they flood Angle, we ftate the following propor¬ tion : As 48 m. 26.7 fee. : 34 h. :: 10 m. 37.9 fee. to 5 h. 15 m. 1.3 fee. the difference of longitude between A and £. But as the third term is improperly reduced to mean time, we (hall take the apparent time above found, and then 48 m. 26.7 fee. : 24 h. : : 10 m. 41.69 fee. to 5 h. 17 m. 53.7 fee.; the fame as refults from Mac¬ kay’s and Pigot’s rules. We ftiall only remark, that 5 h. 17 m. 53.7 fee. is the apparent time that the moon took in palling from the meridian of A to the meridian of /3 ; but from what has been demonftrated, the apparent time at /3 will be equal to the difference between the increafe of the fun’s and moon’s right afcenfion in that interval of apparent time; for DB, or 24 m. 13.35 *ec< *s ^ie difference for 12 hours, and therefore by proportion § /@, or 10 m. 41.69 fee. will be the difference for 5 h. 17 m. 53.7 fee.; fubtrafting the former from the latter, we have 5 h. 7 m. 12 fee, the difference of longitude as before, and M a 90 Apparent a clear proof that the authors above mentioned have Motions of omitted to deduct the apparent time at the diitant place 'l'eBodies 1"or ^at’un '(3> ^rom t^ie aPParent time at Greenwich. . 7.. , A very important faft relative to the earth has been afeertained by aftronomers, namely, that the weight of bodies does not continue the fame when carried to dif¬ ferent parts of it. It is impodible to afcertain this va¬ riation by the balance, becaufe it affe6ts equally the bodies weighed and the weight by which we eftimate its gravity. But the pendulum affords a certain me¬ thod of 'dete&ing every fuch change; becaufe the num¬ ber of ofcillations made by a given pendulum in a given time depends upon the force of gravity. The fmaller that force, the fewer vibrations will it make. Therefore, if the force of gravity diminifh, the pendulum Part II. will move flower ; if it decreafes, it will ofcillate with Apparent more celerity. In different pendulums the flownefs of Motions of vibration is proportional to the length of the pendulum : thfiHeaven- If a pendulum be lengthened it moves flower, if it be y ° ‘e3,f fhortened it moves fwifter than before. Mr Richer in a voyage made to Cayenne, found that the pendu¬ lum of his clock did not vibrate fo frequently there, as it did when at Paris; but that it was neceffary to ihort- en it by about the eleventh part of an inch to make it vibrate in exact feconds. The nearer the equator a pen¬ dulum is placed it vibrates the flower, the nearer the pole it is placed it vibrates the fafter. Hence it fol- ■ lows that the force of gravity is greateft at the poles, and that it gradually diminifhes as we approach the equator, where it is fmalleft. ASTRONOMY. PART III. OF THE REAL MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. WE have now enumerated and explained the ap¬ parent motions of the heavenly bodies. Nothing can appear more intricate and perplexed, or more remote from what we are accuftomed to conlider as the fim- plicity of nature. Hence mankind have in all ages been tempted to confider them as merely apparent, and not real ; and the objeft of aftronomers has always been to deteft the real motions of the heavenly bodies from thofe which they exhibit to the eye of a fpeftator on the earth. Neither induftry nor addrtfs was fpared to gain this defirable end. Hypothefis was formed after hypothefis ; every new fuppofition was a ftep towards the truth ; and at laft the real motions have not only been afcertained but demonftrated in the moft fatisfac- tory manner. It fhall be our obje£t in this part of our treatife to lay before our readers the refult of thefe dif- coveries. 275 Argument for the earth’s mo ¬ tion from its fpheroi- dal figure. Chap. I. Of the Rotation of the Earth. We find that the fun, and thofe planets on which there are vifible fpots, turn round their axis : for the fpots move regularly over their difks (b). From hence we may reafonably conclude, that the other planets on which we fee no (pots, and the earth, which is likewife a planet, have fuch rotations. But being incapable of leaving the earth, and viewing it at a diitance, and its rotation being fmooth and uniform, we can neither fee it move on its axis as we do the planets, nor feel our- felves affetded by its motion. Yet there is one effeft of fuch a motion, which will enable us to judge with cer¬ tainty whether the earth revolves on its axis or not. All globes which do not turn round their axis will be perfeiR fpheres, on account of the equality of the weight of bodies on their furfaces ; efpecially of the fluid parts. But all globes which turn on their axis will be oblate fpheroids ; that is, their furfaces will be higher or far¬ ther from the centre in the equatorial than in the po¬ lar regions: for as the equatorial parts move quickeft, they will recede fartheft from the axis of motion, and enlarge the equatorial diameter. That our earth is really of this figure, is demonftrable from the unequal vibrations of a pendulum, and the unequal lengths of degrees in different latitudes. Since then the earth is higher at the equator than at the poles, the fea, which naturally runs downward, or towards the places which are neareft the centre, would run towards the polar re¬ gions, and leave the equatorial parts dry, if the cen¬ trifugal force of thefe parts, by which the waters were carried thither, did not keep them from returning. The earth’s equatorial diameter is 36 miles longer than its axis. _ 275 Bodies near the poles are heavier than thofe towards YVmgjn of the equator, becaufe they are nearer the earth’s centre, bodies where the whole force of the earth’s attraction is accu-increafes mulated. They are alfo heavier, becaufe their centri- Awards the fugal force is lefs, on account of their diurnal motion15 being flower. For both thefe reafons, bodies carried from the poles towards the equator gradually lofe their weight. Experiments prove, that a pendulum which vibrates feconds near the poles vibrates flower near the equator, which fliows that it is lighter or lefs attracted there. To make it ofcillate in the fame time it is found neceflary to diminifh its length. By com¬ paring the different lengths of pendulums fwinging feconds at the equator and at London, it is found that a pendulum muff be 2TV6o?o lines fhorter at the equator than at the poles. A line is a twelfth part of an inch. If the earth turned round its axis in 84 minutes 43 feconds, the centrifugal force would be equal to the power of gravity at the equator ; and all bodies there would entirely lofe their weight. If the earth revolved quicker, they would all fly off and leave it. A perfon on the earth can no more be fenfible of its undiffurbed motion on its axis, than one in the cabin of (b) This, however, muff be underftood with feme degree of limitation, as will evidently appear from what has been already faid concerning the variable motion both of the fpots of the fun and planets. Part III. Beal Mo- of a ftiip on fmooth water can be fenfible of the (hip’s tions of the motion, when it turns gently and uniformly round. It Heavenly js t]ierefore no argument againit the earth’s diurnal mo- . Bo(|ies- i jJon tiiat we do not feel it j nor is the apparent revolu¬ tions of the celeftial bodies every day a proof of the rea¬ lity of thefe motions *, for whether we or they revolve, the appearance is the very fame. A perfon looking through the cabin windows of a (hip, as ftrongly fancies the objefls on land to go round when the fhip turns as 277 if they were actually in motion. Earth’s mo- jf we coult| tranflate ourfelves from planet to planet, from'the ^ we fbould dill find that the liars would appear of the celeitial ap-farae magnitudes, and at the fame diftances from each pearances other, as they do to us here ; becaufe the width of the from differ- remoteft planet’s orbit bears no fenfible proportion to «nt planets, diftance of the ftars. But then the heavens would feem to revolve about very different axes ; and confe- quently, thofe quiefcent points, which are our poles in the heavens, would feem to revolve about other points, which, though apparently in motion as feen from the earth, would be at reft as feen from any other planet. Thus the axis of Venus, which lies at right angles to the axis of the earth, would have its motionlefs poles in two oppofite points of the heavens lying almoft in our equinodlial, where the motion appears quickeft, becaufe it is feemingly performed in thegreateft circle : and the very poles, which are at reft to us, have the quickeft motion of all as feen from Venus. To Mars and Jupiter the heavens appear to turn round with very different velocities on the fame axis, whofe poles are about 23^ degrees from ours. Were we on Jupi¬ ter, we (hould be at firft amazed at the rapid motion of the heavens 5 the fun and ftars going round in 9 hours 56 minutes. Could w7e go from thence to Venus, we Ihould be as much furprifed at the flownefs of the hea¬ venly motions ; the fun going but once round in 584 hours, and the ftars in 540. And could we go from Venus to the moon, we ihould fee the heavens turn round with a yet flower motion ; the fun in yo8 hours, the ftars in 655. As it is impoflible thefe various cir¬ cumvolutions in fuch different times, and on fuch dif¬ ferent axes, can be real, fo it is unreafonable to fuppofe the heavens to revolve about our earth more than it does about any other planet. When we refleft on the vaft diftance of the fixed ftars, to which 190,000,000 of miles, the diameter of the earth’s orbit, is but a point, we are filled with amazement at the immenfity of the diftance. But if we try to frame an idea of the extreme rapidity with which the ftars mull move, if they move round the earth in 24 hours, the thought becomes fo much too big for our imagination, that we can no more conceive it than we do infinity or eternity. If the fun w'as to go round the earth in 24 hours, he muft travel upwards of 300,000 miles in a minute : but the ftars being at leaft 400,000 times as far from the fun as the fun is from us, thofe about the equator mult move 400,000 times as quick. And all this to ferve no other purpofe than what can be as fully and much more Amply obtained by the earth’s turning round eaftwTard as on an axis, every 24 hours, caufing there¬ by an apparent diurnal motion of the fun wefhvard, and bringing about the alternate returns of day and night. As to the common objections againll the earth’s ASTRONOMY. 91 afide. That it may turn without being feen or felt Real Mo- 278 Another objection anfwered. mo^on on ^s axis, they are all eafily anfwered and fet by us to do fo, has been already Ihown. But feme tions of the are apt to imagine, that if the earth turns eaftward (as it certainly does if it turns at all), a ball fired perpen- t, dicularly upward in the air muft fall confiderably weft- ward of the place it was projected from. The objec¬ tion which at firft feems to have fome weight,, will be found to have none at all, when we confider that the gun and ball partake of the earth’s motion ; and there¬ fore the ball being carried forward with the air as quick as the earth and air turn, muft fall down on the fame place. A ftone let fall from the top of a main- maft, if it meets with no obftacle, falls on the dec.k as near the foot of the mall when the Ihip fails as when it does not. If an inverted bottle full of liquor be hung up to the ceiling of the cabin, and a fmall hole be made in the cork, to let the liquor through on the floor, the drops will fall juft as far forward on the floor when the Ihip fails as when it is at reft. And gnals or flies can as eafily dance among one another in a moving cabin as in a fixed chamber. As for thofe Scripture expref- fions which feem to contradiCl the earth’s motion, this general anfwer may be made to them all, viz. it is plain from many inftances, that the Scriptures were ne¬ ver intended to inftruCt us in philofophy or aftronomy ; and therefore on thofe fubjeCls expreflions are not al¬ ways to be taken *in the literal fenfe, but for the moll part as accommodated to the common apprehenfions of mankind. Men of fenfe in all ages, when not treat¬ ing of the feie.nces purpofely, have followed this me¬ thod : and it would be in vain to follow any other in addrefling ourfelves to the vulgar, or bull', of any com¬ munity. Chap. II. Of the Revolution of the Planets round the Sun. The apparent motions of the planets lead us to con¬ clude that they all move in orbits nearly circular round the fun, while the fun moves round the earth : that the orbits of Venus and Mercury are nearer the fun than the earth ; but the orbits of the other planets include the earth within them. All the apparent motions are reconcilable to this opinion, and lead us to form it. It removes all the inexplicable intricacy of their apparent motions. But the earth itfelf is a planet, and bears a very exacl refemblance to the reft. Shall we fuppofe all the other planets to revolve round the fun while it alone remains ftationary ? Or lhall we fuppofe that the earth, like the other planets, revolves round the fun in the courfe of a year ? The phenomena in both cafes will be exadlly the fame, but the motion of the earth will reduce the whole fyftem to the greateft fimplicity, whereas the motion of the fun carrying with it the revolving planets would leave the whole complicated and involved. Various opinions on this fubjeft have been maintained by aftro- nomers. Concerning the opinion of the very firft aftronomers about the fyftem of nature, we are neceflarily as igno¬ rant as we are of thofe aftronomers themfelves. What¬ ever opinions are handed down to us, muft be of a vaft- ly later date than the introdudlion of aftronomy a- mong mankind. If we may hazard a conjecture, how¬ ever, we are inclined to think that the firft opinions M2 om 92 ASTRONOMY. Part III. Real Mo- on lliis fubjeiSl were much more juft than thofe that tions of the were held afterwards for many ages. We are told Heavenly Pythagoras maintained the motion of the earth, . ^°yes- , which is now univerfally believed, but at that time a>79 appears to have been the opinion of only a few detach- Pythagore- ed individuals of Greece. As the Greeks borrowed an fyftem. many things from the Egyptians, and Pythagoras had travelled into Egypt and Phenice, it is probable he might receive an account of this hypothefis from thence : but whether he did fo or not, we have now no means of knowing, neither is it of any im¬ portance whether he did or not. Certain it is, how¬ ever, that this opinion did not prevail in his days, nor for many ages after. In the fecond century after Chrift, the very name of the Pythagorean hypothefis was fup- aSo prefled by a fyftem erefted by the famous geographer Supprefled and aftronomer Claudius Ptolemseus. I his fyftem, by the Pto-which commonly goes bv the name of the Ptolemaic, lemaic. jie feems not; to have originally invented, but adopted as the prevailing one of that age $ and perhaps made it fomewhat more confiftent than it was before. He fuppofed the earth at reft in the centre of the univerfe. Round the earth, and the neareft to it of all the hea¬ venly bodies, the moon performed its monthly revolu¬ tions. Next to the moon was placed the planet Mer¬ cury 5 then Venus j and above that the fun, Mars, Ju¬ piter, and Saturn, in their proper orbits j then the fphere of the fixed ftars ; above thefe, two ipheres of what he called cryjlalhne heavens j above thefe was the primum mobile, which, by turning round once in 24 hours, by fome unaccountable means or other, car¬ ried all the reft along with it. This primum mobile wras encompafled by the empyrean heaven, which was of a cubic form, and the feat of angels and blefled fpirits. Befides the motions of all the heavens round the eartn once in 24 hours, each planet wTas fuppofed to. have a particular motion of its own } the moon, for inftance, once in a month, performed an additional revolution, the fun in a year, &c. See fig. 98. It is eafy to fee, that, on this fuppofition, the con- fufed motions of the planets already deferibed could never be accounted for. Had they circulated uniformly round the earth, their apparent motion ought always to have been equal and uniform, without appearing either ftationary or retrograde in any part of their courfes. In confequence of this objeftion, Ptolemy was obliged to invent a great number of circles, inter¬ fering with each other, which he called epicycles and eccentrics. Thefe proved a ready and effectual falvo for all the defe£ls of his fyftem •, as, whenever a planet was deviating from the courfe it ought on his plan to have followed, it was then only moving in an epicycle or an eccentric, and would in due time fail into its proper path. As to the natural caufes by which the planets were direfted to move in thefe epicycles and eccentrics, it is no wonder that he found himfelf much at a lofs, and was obliged to have recourfe to divine power for an explanation, or, in other words, to own that his fyftem was unintelligible. This fyftem continued to be in vogue till the oegin- rean fyftem n*no. 0£ century, when Nicolaus Copernicus, revived by ^ native of Thorn (a city of Regal Prufiia), and a man opern.cus. ^ ^hties, began to try whether a more fatis- fa6h>ry manner of accounting for the apparent motions 0f the heavenly bodies could not be obtained than was 2S1 Ptolemy’s fyftem in- iuffi«icnt. 282 Pythago- Bodies. afforded by the Ptolemaic hypothefis. He had recourfe Real Mo- to every author upon the fubjeft, to fee whether any had tions of the been more confiftent in explaining the irregular mo- Hfay.«dy tions of the ftars than the mathematical fchools: but he , received no fatisfa£Hon, till he found firft from Cicero, that Nicetas the Syracufan had maintained the motion of the earth; and next from Plutarch, that others of the ancients had been of the fame opinion. From the fmall hints he could obtain from the ancients, Coperni¬ cus then deduced a moft complete fyftem, capable of folving every phenomenon in a fatisfaftory manner. From him his fyftem hath ever afterwards been called the Copernican, and is reprefented fig. 99" Here the fun is fuppofed to be in the centre 5 next him revolves the planet Mercury } then Venus j next, the Earth, with the Moon : beyond thefe,. Mars, Jupiter, and Sa¬ turn •, and far beyond the orbit of Saturn, he fuppofed the fixed ftars to be placed, which formed the bound¬ aries of the vifible creation. aSj Though this hypothefis afforded the only natural and Tychonic fatisfa&ory folution of the phenomena which fo much fyftem. perplexed Ptolemy’s fyftem, it met with great oppofi- tion at firft $ which is not to be wondered at, confider- ing the age in which he lived. Even the famous aftro¬ nomer Tycho Brahe could never aflent to the eaitn s motion, which was the foundation of Copernicus’s fcheme. He therefore invented another fyftem, where-Fig. 100. by he avoided the aferibing of motion to the earth, and at the fame time got clear of the difficulties with which Ptolemy was embarraffed. In this fyftem, the earth was fuppofed the centre of the orbits of the fun and moon ; but the fun was fuppofed to be the centre of the orbits of the five planets -y fo that the fun with all the planets were by Tycho Brahe fuppofed to turn round the earth, in order to fave the motion of the earth round its axis once in 24 hours. This fyftem.was never much followed, the fuperiority of the Copernican fcheme being evident at firft fight. The fun is fo immenfely bigger and heavier than the earth, that, if he was moved out of his place, not only the earth, but all the other planets, if they were united into one mafs, would be carried along with the fun as the pebble would be with the mill-ftone. . 234 By confidering the law of gravitation, which takes From the place throughout the folar fyftem, in another light., itPjoP^ioj* will be evident that the earth moves round the fun m a of gravityj year, and not the fun round the earth. It has been obferved, that the power of gravity decreafe.s as the fquare of the diftance increafes ; and from this it fol¬ lows with mathematical certainty, that when two or more bodies move round another as their centre of mo¬ tion, the fquares of their periodic times will be to one another in the lame proportion as the cubes of then diftances from the central body. This holds preeifely with regard to the planets round the fun, and the fa- tellites round the planets j the relative diftances of all which are well known. But, if we fuppofe the fun to move round the earth, and compare its period with the moon’s by the above rule, it will be found that the fun would take no lefs than 173*510 cm’8 to move round the earth *, in which cafe our year would be 475 times as long as it now is. To this we may add, that the afpefts of increafe and decreafe of the planets,, the times of their feeming to Hand ftill, and to move direft a^d retrograde, anfwer precifely to the earth’s motion 0 bufe Part III. Real Mo- but not at all to the fun’s without introducing the moft tions of the abfurd and monftrous fuppofitions, which would deftroy Heavenly all liarm0ny, order, and fimplicity, in the fyftem. . Boc|ies- Moreover, if the earth be fuppofed to ftand ftill, and ’ the ftars to revolve in free fpaces about the earth in 24 hours, it is certain that the forces by which the ftars revolve in their orbits are not directed to the earth, but to the centres of the feveral orbits •, that is, of the fe- veral parallel circles which the ftars on different fides of the equator defcribe every day •, and the like infe¬ rences may be drawn from the fuppofed diurnal mo¬ tion of the planets, fince they are never in the equinoc¬ tial but twice in their courfes with regard to the ftarry heavens. But, that forces ftrould be directed to no central body, on which they phyfically depend, but to innumerable imaginary points in the axis of the earth produced to the poles of the heavens, is an hypo- thefis too abfurd to be allowed of by any rational creature. And it is ftill more abfurd to imagine that thefe forces flrould increafe exaflly in proportion to the diftances from this axis', for this is an indication of an increafe to infinity ; whereas the force of attrac¬ tion is found to decreafe in receding from the fountain from whence it flows. But the farther any ftar is from the quiefcent pole, the greater muft be the orbit which it defcribes j and yet it appears to go round in the fame time as the neareft ftar to the pole does. And if we take into confideration the twofold motion obferved in the ftars, one diurnal round the axis of the earth in 24 hours, and the other round the axis of the ecliptic in 25,920 years, it would require an explication of fuch a perplexed compofition of forces, as could by no means be reconciled with any 'phyfical theory. Ob edlions The ftrongeft objections that can be made againft again ft the the earth’s motion round the fun is, that in oppofite earth’s points of the earth’s orbit, its axis, which always keeps motion an- a parallel direction, would point to different fixed ftars; fvvered. which is not found to be fact. But this objeCtion is eafily removed, by confidering the immenfe diftance of the ftars in refpeCf of the diameter of the earth’s orbit ; the latter being no more than a point when compared to the former. If wTe lay a ruler on the fide of a table, and along the edge of the ruler view the top of a fpire at ten miles diftance ; then lay the ruler on the oppo¬ fite fide of the table in a parallel fituation to what it had before, and the fpire will ftill appear along the edge of the ruler ; becaufe our eyes, even when afiifted by the beft inftruments, are incapable of diftinguilhing fo fmall ng(5 a change at fo great a diftance. Earth’s B)r Bradley, our late aftronomer-royal, found by a motion de- long feries of the moft accurate obfervations, that there monftrated Js a fmall apparent motion of the fixed ftars, occafioned iiom the ky t|ie aberration of their light; and fo exaClly an- oflHi'I&n fwermg to an annual motion of the earth, as evinces the fame, even to a mathematical demonftration. He confidered this matter in the following manner : he imagined CA, fig. IOI. to be a ray of light falling per¬ pendicularly upon the line BD ; that, if the eye is at reft at A, the objeCt muft appear in the direCtion AC, whether light be propagated in time or in an inftant. But if the eye is moving from B towards A, and light is propagated in time, wuth a velocity that is to the velocity of the eye as CA to BA ; then light mo¬ ving from C to A, whilft the eye moves from B to A, that particle of it by which the objeCl will be difcerned ASTRONOMY. 93 when the eye comes to A, is at C when the eye is at Real Mo- B. Joining the points BC, he fuppofed the line CB tions of the to be a tube, inclined to the line BD in the angle DBG, of fuch diameter as to admit but one particle of light. Then it was eafy to conceive, that the par¬ ticle of light at C, by which the objedt muft be feen, when the eye, as it moves along, arrives at A, would pafs through the tube BC, if it is inclined to BD, in the angle DEC, and accompanies the eye in its mo¬ tion from B to A ; and that it could not come to the eye placed behind fuch a tube, if it had any other in¬ clination to the line BD. If, inftead of fuppofing CB fo fmall a tube, we imagine it to be the axis of a lar¬ ger ; then, for the fame reafon, the particle of light at C would not pafs through the axis, unlefs it is inclined to BD in the angle CBD. In like manner, if the eye. moved the contrary way, from D towards A, with the fame velocity, then the tube muft be inclined in the angle BCD. Although, therefore, the true or real place of an objedt is perpendicular to the line in which the eye is moving, yet the vifible place will not be fo ; fince that, no doubt, muft be in the diredtion of the tube; but the difference between the true and appa¬ rent place will be cceteris paribus greater or lefs, ac¬ cording to the different proportion between the velo¬ city of light and that of the eye. So that, if we could fuppofe that light was propagated in an inftant, then there would be no difference between the real and vi¬ fible place of an objedt, although the eye was in mo¬ tion ; for in that cafe, AC being infinite with refpedl to AB, the angle ACB, the difference between the true and vifible place, vaniflies. But if light be pro¬ pagated in time, it is evident, from the foregoing con- fiderations, that there will be always a difference be¬ tween the real and vifible place of an objedl, unlefs the eye is moving either diredtiy towards or from the objedt. And in all cafes the fine of the difference be¬ tween the real and vifible place of the objedf will be to the fine of the vifible inclination of the objedf to the line in which the eye is moving, as the velocity of the eye is to the velocity of light. He then fliows, that if the earth revolve round the fun annually, and the velocity of light be to the velo¬ city of the earth’s motion in its orbit, as 1000 to 1, that a ftar really placed in the very pole of the ecliptic would, to an eye carried along with the earth, feem to change its place continually ; and, negledting the fmall difference on the account of the earth’s diurnal revolution on its axis, would feem to defcribe a circle round that pole every way diftant from it 34; fo that its longitude would be varied through all the points of the ecliptic every year, but its latitude would always remain the fame. Its right afeenfion would alfo change, and its declination, according to the different fituation of the fun with refpedl to the equinodtial points, and its apparent diftance from the north pole of the equa¬ tor, would be y' lefs at the autumnal than at the vernal equinox. _ aS By calculating exadily. the quantity of aberration Velocity of of the fixed ftars from their place, he found that light light* came from the fun to us in 8' J3"; fo that its velo¬ city is to the velocity of the earth in its orbit as 10.201 ^ 288 , Errors m ° * ^ , . the obfer- U mutt here be taken notice of, however, that Mrvation of Nevil Malkelyne, in attempting to find the parallax of fmall aru Sirius, £les* 9± Keal Mo¬ tions of the Heavenly Bodies. '289 Another objection again ft the earth’s mo¬ tion an- fwered. ASTRONOM Y. Part III. 290 Diurnal motion of the eartb, and differ¬ ent chan¬ ges of the leafons il- luftrated by experi¬ ment. Fig. 102. Sirius, with a ten-feet fe&or, obferved, that by the fric¬ tion of the plummet-line on the pin which fufpended it, an error of 10", 20", and fometimes 30", was committed. The pin was of an inch diameter *, and though he re¬ duced it to of an inch, the error ftill amounted to 3". All obfervations, therefore, that have hitherto been made in order to difcover the parallax of the fixed liars are to be difregarded. It is alfo objedled, that the fun feems to change his place daily, fo as to make a tour round the Harry heavens in a year. But whether the fun or earth moves, this ap¬ pearance will be the fame} for when the earth is in any part of the heavens, the fun will appear in the oppofite. And, therefore, this appearance can be no objeftion againft the motion of the earth. It is well known to every perfon who has failed on fmooth water, or been carried by a llream in a calm, that, however fall the veffel goes he does not feel its progreflive motion. The motion of the earth is in¬ comparably more fmooth and uniform than that of a Ihip, or any machine made and moved by human art} and therefore it is not to be imagined that we can feel its motion. The following experiment will give a plain idea of the diurnal or annual motions of the earth, together with the different length of days and nights, and all the beautiful variety of feafons, depending on thofe motions. Take about feven feet of llrong wire, and bend it into a circular form, as abed, which being viewed obliquely appears elliptical, as in the figure. Place a lighted candle on a table } and having fixed one end of a filk thread K to the north pole of a fmall terreftrial globe H, about three inches diameter, caufe another perfon to hold the wire circle, fo that it may be paral¬ lel to the table, and as high as the flame of the candle I, which Ihould be in or near the centre. Then hav¬ ing twilled the thread as towards the left hand, that by un.twifting it may turn the globe round call ward, or contrary to the way that the hands of a watch move, hang the globe by the thread within this circle, al- mofl: contiguous to it } and as the thread untwifts, the globe (which is enlightened half round by the candle as the earth is by the fun) will turn round its axis, and the different places upon it will be carried through the light and dark hemifpheres, and have the appearance of a regular fucceflion of days and nights, as our earth has in reality by fuch a motion. As the globe turns, move your hand flowly, fo as to carry the globe round the candle according to the order of the letters a b c d, keeping its centre even with the wire circle} and you will perceive, that the candle, being ftill perpendicular to the equator, will enlighten the globe from pole to pole in its whole motion round the circle} and that every place on the globe goes equally through the light and the dark, as it turns round by the untwift- ing of the thread, and therefore has a perpetual equi¬ nox. The globe thus turning round, reprefents the earth turning round its axis : and the motion of the globe round the candle reprefents the earth’s annual motion round the fun } and (hows, that if the earth’s orbit had no inclination to its axis, all the days and nights of the year would be equally long, and there would be no different feafons. Hence alfo it appears why the planets Mars and Jupiter have a perpetual 3 equinox, namely, becaufe the axis is perpendicular to Real Mo- the plane of their orbit, as the thread round which thetionsof the globe turns in this experiment is perpendicular to the Heavenly plane of the area enclofed by the wire.—But now de-, y8"" , fire the perfon who holds the wire to hold it obliquely in the pofition ABCD, railing the fide ss juft as much as he depreffes the fide vj, that the flame may be ftill in the plane of the circle } and twilling the thread as before, that the globe may turn round its axis the fame Way as you carry it round the candle, that is, from weft to call; let the globe down into the lowermoft part of the wire circle at : and, if the circle be pro¬ perly inclined, the candle will ftiine perpendicularly on the tropic of Cancer } and the frigid zone, lying within the arftic or north polar circle, will be all in the light, as in the figure } and will keep in the light, . let the globe turn round its axis ever fo often. From the equator’ to the north polar circle, all the places have longer days and (horter nights} but from the equator to the fouth polar circle, juft the reverfe. The fun does not fet to any part of the north frigid zone, as (hown by the candle’s (Inning on it, fo that the motion of the globe can carry no place of that zone into the dark ; and at the fame time the fouth frigid zone is involved in darknefs, and the turning of the globe brings none of its places into the light. If the earth were to continue in the like part of its orbit, the fun would never fet to the inhabitants of the north frigid zone, nor rife to thofe of the foulh. At the equator it would be always equal day and night} and as places are gradually more and more diftant from the equator to¬ wards the ardlic circle, they would have longer days and (horter nights } while thofe on the fouth fide of the equator would have their nights longer than their days. In this cafe, there would be continual fummer on the north fide of the equator, and continual winter on the fouth fide of it. But as the globe turns round its axis, move your hand (lowly forward, fo as to carry the globe from H towards E, and the boundary of light and darknefs will approach towards the north pole, and recede from the fouth pole } the northern places will go through lefs and lefs of the light, and the fouthern places through more and more of it } (bowing how the northern days decreafe in length and the fouthern days increafc, whilft the globe proceeds from H to E. When the globe is at E, it is at a mean (late between the lowed and higheft parts of its orbit; the candle is direftly over the equator, the boundary of light and darknefs juft reaches to both the poles, and all places on the globe go equally through the light and dark hemi¬ fpheres, (howing that the days and nights are then equal at all places of the earth, the poles only excepted } for the fun is then fetting to the north pole and rifing to the fouth pole. Continue moving the globe forward, and as it goes through the quarter A, the north pole recedes ftill far¬ ther into the dark hemifphere, and the fouth pole ad¬ vances more into the light, as the globe comes nearer to S5 : and when it comes there at F, the candle is diredlly over the tropic of Capricorn } the days are at the (horteft and nights at the longed, in the northern hemifphere, all the way from the equator to the ardlic circle} and the reverfe in the fouthern hemifphere from the equator to the antar&ic circle 5 within which circles Part III. ASTRONOMY. 95 Real Mo- circles it is dark to the north frigid zone, and light to tions of the the fouth. Heavenly Continue both motions ; and as the globe moves . ^ , through the quarter B, the north pole advances to¬ wards the light, and the fouth pole recedes towards the dark; the days lengthen in the northern hemifphere and Ihorten in the fouthern j and when the globe comes to G, the candle will be again over the equator (as when the globe was at E), and the days and nights will again be equal as formerly ; and the north pole will be jult coming into the light, the fouth pole going out of it. Thus we fee the reafon why the days lengthen and fhorten from the equator to the polar circles every year; why there is fometimes no day or night for many turnings of the earth, within the polar circles; why there is but one day and one night in the whole year at the poles ; and why the days and nights are equally long all the year round at the equator, which is always equally cut by the circle bounding light and darknefs. The inclination of an axis or orbit is merely relative, becaufe we compare it with fome other axis or orbit which we confider as not inclined at all. Thus, our horizon being level to us, whatever place of the earth we are upon, we confider it as having no inclination ; and yet, if we travel 90 degrees from that place, we lhall then have a horizon perpendicular to the former j but it will ftill be level to us. Different ^,et us now ta^e a v‘ew t^ie eart^ in its annual feafons par- courfe round the fun, confidering its orbit as having no ticularly inclination ; and its axis as inclining 23^ degrees from explained. a lJne perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, and keep¬ ing the fame oblique dire&ion in all parts of its annual courfe •, or, as commonly termed, keeping always pa¬ rallel to itfelf. Fig. ioi. Let a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, be the earth in eight differ¬ ent parts of its orbit, equidiftant from one another ; N s its axis, N its north pole, r its fouth pole, and S the fun nearly in the centre of the earth’s orbit. As the earth goes round the fun according to the order of the letters abed, &c. its axis N s keeps the fame ob¬ liquity, and is ftill parallel to the line MN J. When the earth is at a, its north pole inclines towards the fun S, and brings all the northern places more into the light, than at any other time of the year. But when the earth is at e in the oppofite time of the year, the north pole declines from the fun, which occafions the northern places to be more in the dark than in the light, and the reverfe at the fouthern places •, as is evi¬ dent by the figure which is taken from Dr Long’s aftronomy. When the earth is either at c or g, its axis inclines not either to or from the fun, but lies fide- wife to him, and then the poles are in the boundary of light and darknefs ; and the fun, being direftly over the equator, makes equal day and night at all places. When the earth is at b, it is half-way between the fummer folftice and harveft equinox ; when it is at d, it is half-way from the harveft equinox to the winter folftice; at/, half-way from the winter folftice to the fpring equinox ; and at //, half-way from the fpring equinox to the fummer folftice. From this oblique view of the earth’s orbit, let us fuppofe ourfelves to be raifed far above it, and placed juft over its centre S, looking down upon it from its north pole ; and as the earth’s orbit differs but very Real Mo- little from a circle, we ftiall have its figure in fuch a tions of the view reprefented by the circle ABCDEFG. Let us fuppofe this circle to be divided into 12 equal parts, . . called Jigns, having their names affixed to them ; and Fig. 103. each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees, number¬ ed 10, 20, 30, as in the outermoft circle of the figure, which reprefents the great ecliptic in the heavens. The earth is Ihown in eight different pofitions in this circle ; and in each pofition iE is the equator, T the tropic of Cancer, the dotted circle the parallel of Lon¬ don, U the ardlic or north polar circle, and P the north pole, where all the meridians or hour-circles meet. As the earth goes round the fun, the north pole keeps conftantly towards one part of the heavens, as it keeps in the figure towards the right-hand fide of the place. When the earth is at the beginning of Libra, name¬ ly on the 20th of March, in this figure the fun S as feen from the earth, appears at the beginning of A- ries in the oppofite part of the heavens, the north pole is juft coming into the light, and the fun is vertical to the equator ; which, together with the tropic of Can¬ cer, parallel of London, and ardlic circle, are all equally cut by the circle bounding light and darknefs, coinciding with the fix-o’clock hour-circle, and there¬ fore the days and nights are equally long at all places : for every part of the meridian AlTL a comes into the light at fix in the morning, and, revolving with the earth according to the order of the hour letters, goes into the dark at fix in the evening. There are 24 me¬ ridians or hour-circles drawn on the earth in this figure, to fhow the time of fun-rifing and fetting at different feafons of the year. As the earth moves in the ecliptic according to the order of the letters ABCD, &c. through the figns Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, the north pole P comes more and more into the light; the days increafe as the nights decreafe in length, at all places north of the equator iE ; which is plain by viewing the earth at b on the 5th of May, when it is in the 15th degree of Scorpio, and the fun as feen from the earth appears in the 15th degree of Taurus. For then the tropic of Cancer T is in the light from a little after five in the morning till almoft feven in the evening ; the parallel of London, from half an hour paft four till half an hour paft feven ; the polar circle U, from three till nine j and a large tradl round the north pole P has day all the 24 hours, for many rotations of the earth on its axis. When the earth comes to c (fig. 104.) at the be¬ ginning of Capricorn, and the fun as feen from the earth appears at the beginning of Cdncer, on the 21ft of June, as in this figure, it is in the pofition C in fig. 103.; and its north pole inclines towards the fun, fo as to bring all the north frigid zone into the light, and the northern parallels of latitude more into the light than the dark from the equator to the polar cir¬ cle : and the more fo as they are farther from the equa¬ tor. The tropic of Cancer is in the light from five in the morning till feven at night, the parallel of London from a quarter before four till a quarter after eight ; and the polar circle juft touches the dark, fo that the fun has only the lower half of his dilk hid from the in- f habitants on that circle for a few minutes about mid- nightj 96 ASTRO Real Mo- night, fuppofing no inequalities in the horizon, and no tions of the refraftions. Heavenly ^ bare view of the figure is enough to fhow, that as . Eo^ies; , the earth advances from Capricorn towards Aries, and the fun appears to move from Cancer towards Libra, the north pole recedes from the light, which caufes the days to decreafe and the nights to increafe in length, till the earth comes to the beginning of Aries, and then they are equal as before; for the boundary of light and darknefs cuts the equator and all its parallels equally or in halves. The north pole then goes into the dark, and continues therein until the earth goes half¬ way round its orbit; or, from the 23d of September till the 20th of March. In the middle between thefe times, viz. on the 22d of December, the north pole is as far as it can be in the dark, which is 23! degrees, equal to the inclination of the earth’s axis from a per¬ pendicular to its orbit: and then the northern paral¬ lels are as much in the dark as they were in the light on the 21 ft of June ; the winter nights being as long as the fummer days, and the winter days as fhort as the fummer nights. Here it muft be noted, that of all that has been faid of the northern hemifphere, the contrary muft be underftood of the fouthern: for on different fides of the equator the feafons are contrary, becaufe, when the northern hemifphere inclines towards the fun, the fouthern declines from him. Effedbof Taking it for granted, then, that the earth revolves the earth’s round the fun, let us fee what effect that motion has motion on Up0n tbe apparent motions of the other planets. For the appear- ^ better compr€hending of thefe motions, however, planets. we have hitherto fuppofed the earth to ftand ftill in fome part of its orbit, while they go round the fun in theirs : but as this is not the cafe, it now remains to confider the changes which take place in confequence of the earth’s motion. Were the earth to ftand ftill in any part of its orbit, as at A, the places of conjunftion both in the fuperior and inferior femicircle, as alfo of the greateft elongation, and confequently the places of diredt and retrograde motion, and of the ftations of an inferior planet, would always be in the fame part of the heavens. Thus, in fig. 105. upon this fuppofition, the places of Mercury’s ftations would always be the points P and R, the arc of his motion PR, and of his retrograde motion RP ; whereas, on account of the earth’s motion, the places where thefe appearances happen are continually advancing forward in the eclip- • tic according to the order of the figns. In fig. 106. let ABCD be the orbit of the earth •, efg h.that of Mercury ; © the fun } GKI an arch of the ecliptic ex¬ tended to the fixed ftars. When the earth is at A, the fun’s geocentric place is at F 5 and Mercury, in order to a conjun&ion, muft be in the line AF ^ that is, in his orbit he muft be at /or h. _ Suppofe him to be at / in his inferior femicircle: if the earth flood ftill at A, his next conjundlion would be when he is in his fuperior femicircle at h ; the places of his greateft elongation alfo would be at e and g, and in the eclip¬ tic at E and G : but fuppofing the earth to go .on in its orbit from A to B; the fun’s geocentric place is now at K •, and Mercury, in order to be in conjundlion, ought to be in the line BK at m. As by the motion of the earth, the places of Mercury’s conjundfions with the fun are thus continually carried round in the eclip¬ tic in confequence, fo the places of his utmoft elonga- N O M Y. Part III. tions muft be carried in confequence alfo. Thus, when Real Mo. the earth is at A, the places of his longeft elongation tions of the from the fun are in the ecliptic E and G j the motion of the earth from A to B advances them forward from , . -w G to L and from E to I. But the geocentric mo¬ tion of Mercury will beft be feen in fig. 107. Here we have part of the extended ecliptic marked fy, & 5 n , &c. in the centre of which S reprefents the fun, and round him are the orbits of Mercury and the earth. T.he orbit of Mercury is divided into 11 equal parts, fuch as he goes through once in eight days j and the divi- fions are marked by numeral figures 1, 2, 3> of the orbit of the earth is likewife divided into 22 equal arcs, each arc being as much as the earth goes through in eight days. Ihe points of divifion are marked with the letters a, b, c, / e,/ &c. and fhow as many feveral ftations from whence Mercury may be viewed from the earth. Suppofe then the planet to be at 1 and the earth at a ; draw a line from « to 1, and it fhows Mercury’s geocentric place at A. In eight days he will be got to 2, and the earth to b; draw a line from 2 to b, and it fhows his geocentric place at B. In other eight days he will have proceeded to 3, and the earth to c ; a line drawn from 3 to c ^low S60' centric place at C. In this manner, going through the figure, and drawing lines from the earth at d, e,fg, &c. through 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. we fhall find his geocentric places fucceffively at the points D, E, F, G, &c. where we may obferve, that from A to B, and Irom B to C, the motion is diredt ; from C to D, and from D to E, retrograde. In this figure 2 2 ftations are marked in the earth’s orbit, from whence the planet may be viewed j eorrefponding to which there ought to be as many in the orbit of Mercury : and for this purpofe the place of that planet is marked at the end of every eight days for two of his periodical revolutions j and to de¬ note this, two numeral figures are placed at each divi- fion. ' The geocentric motion of Venus may be explained in a fimilar manner ; only as the motion of Venus is much flower than that of Mercury, his conjundfions, oppofi- tions, elongations, and flations, all return much more frequently than thofe of Venus. To explain the ftationary appearances of the planets, it muft be remembered, that the diameter of the earth’s orbit, and even of that of Saturn, are but mere points in comparifon of the diftance of the fixed ftars; and therefore, any two lines, abfolutely parallel, though drawn at the diftance of the diameter of Saturn’s or¬ bit from each other, would, if continued to the fixed ftars, appear to us to terminate in the fame point. Let,, then, the two circles, fig. 108. reprefent the orbits of Venus and of the Earth j let the lines AE, BE, CG, DH, be parallel to SP, we may neverthelefs affirm, that if continued to the diftance of the fixed ftars, they would all terminate in the fame point with the line SP. Suppofe, then, Venus at E while the earth is at A, the vifual ray by which (lie is feen is the line AE* Suppofe again, that while Venus goes from E to F, the Earth goes from A to B, the vifual ray by which Venus is now feen is BE parallel to AE •, and there¬ fore Venus will be all that time ftationary, appearing in that point of the heaven where SP extended would terminate : this ftation is at her changing from di.redt to retrograde. Again, fuppofe, when the Earth is at Bodies. 2 93 Perigee Part III. [Real Mo- C, Ventis is at G, and the vifual line CG 5 if, while lions of the the earth goes from C to D, Venus goes from G to Heavenly f0 ^liat {|ie is feen in the line GH parallel to CG, (he will be all that time ftationary, appearing in the point w'here a line drawn from S through P would ter¬ minate. This ftation is at her changing from retro¬ grade to direft ; and both are in her inferior femircir* cle. An inferior planet, when in conjunftion with the and apogee fun in its inferior femicircle, is faid to be \x\ perigee, J of the pi a- ancl Jn the other in apogee, on account of its difterent neisex- distances from the earth. Their real diftances from ^ ai ’ the earth when in perigee are variable, partly owing to the eccentricities of their orbits, as well as that of the earth ; and partly owing to the motions of the dif¬ ferent bodies, by w-hich it happens that they are in pe¬ rigee in different parts of their orbits. The lead pof- fible diftance is when the perigee happens when the earth is in its perihelion, and the planet in its aphe- 294 lion. Differences The difference of diftance between the earth and in the ap- inferior planets at different times, makes a confiderable meters 0/’ variation in their apparent diameters, which indeed is the ylanets. very obfervable in all the planets ; and thus they fome- times look very confiderably larger than at others. This difference in magnitude in Mercury is nearly as 54- to I •, and in Venus, no lefs than 32 to 1. A common fpe&ator, unaflifted by any inftrument, may obferve an inferior planet alternately approach nearer and nearer the fun, until at laft it comes into conjundlion with him, and then to recede farther and farther till it is at its greateft elongation, which will be firft on one fide and then on the other : but if we obferve the apparent change of place of an inferior planet in the fphere of the heavens, its direct motions, ftations, and retrograda- tions, meafuring its diameter frequently with the micro¬ meter, we fhall find by its decreafe at fome times and in- creafe at others, that its diftance from us is very con- fiderably varied ; fo that, taking the whole of its courfe into confideration, it appears to move in a very compli- 295 cated curve. See fig. icp. As the fuperior planets move in a larger orbit than the earth, they can only be in conjun6tion writh the ASTRONOMY. going from a to l? and from b to c, his motion in Bodie.«. Appearan¬ ces of the fuperior planets ex- Am when they are on that fide oppofite to the earth j plained. as, on the other hand, they are in oppofition to him when the earth is between the fun and them. They are in quadrature with them when their geocentric places are 90° diftant from that of the fun. In order to underftand their apparent motions, we fhall fuppofe them to ftand ftill in fome part of their orbit while the earth makes a complete revolution in hers ; in which cafe, any fuperior planet would then have the follow¬ ing appearances : 1. While the earth is in her moft diftant femicircle, the motion of the planet will be di- red!. 2. While the earth is in her neareft femicircle, the planet will be retrograde. 3. While the earth is near thofe places of its orbit where a line drawn from the planet would be a tangent, it would appear to be ftationary. Thus, in fig. 147. let a b c d reprefent the orbit of the earth ; S the Sun ; EFG an arc of the orbit of Jupiter *, ABC an arc of the ecliptic projected on the fphere of the fixed ftars. Suppofe Jupiter to continue at F, while the earth goes round in her orbit according to the order of the letters abed. While the earth is in the femicircle moft diftant from Jupiter, Vol. III. Fart I. 97 the Real Mo- heaven would appear diredt, or from A to B and from tions of th« B to C : but while the earth is in its neareft femicir- Heavenly cle c d e, the motion of Jupiter would appear retro- ^ grade from C to B and from B to A •, for a, b, c, d, may be confidered as fo many different ftations from whence an inhabitant of the earth would view Jupiter at different feafons of the year, and a ftraight line drawn from each of thefe ftations, through F the place of Jupiter, and continued to the ecliptic, would fliow his apparent place there to be fucceflively at A, B, C, B, A. While the earth is near the points of contadl a and c, Jupiter would appear ftationary, becaufe the vifual ray drawn through both planets does not fenfibly differ from the tangent F or F c. When the earth is at b, a line drawn from b through S and F to the eclip¬ tic, (hows Jupiter to be in conjundlion with the fun at B. When the earth is at d, a line drawn from d through S, continued to the ecliptic, would termi¬ nate in a point oppofite to B $ which (hows Jupi¬ ter then to be in oppofition to the funand thus it appears that his motion is diredf in the conjunc¬ tion, but retrograde when in oppofition with the fun. The direfl motion of a fuperior planet is fwifter the nearer it is to a conjundlion, and flower as it ap¬ proaches to a quadrature with the fum Thus, in fig. 111. let ® be the fun j the little circle round it, the or¬ bit of the earth, whereof abodef g is the moft diftant femicircle ; OP£), an arc of the orbit of Jupiter j and ABCDEFG, an arc of the ecliptic in the fphere of the fixed ftars. If we fuppofe Jupiter to ftand ftill at P, by the earth’s motion from a to g, he would appear to move diredl from A to G, deferibing the unequal arcs AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, in equal times. When the earth is at d, Jupiter is in conjundlion with the fun at D, and there his diredl motion is fwifteft. When the earth is in that part of her orbit where a line drawn from Jupiter Would touch it, as in the points e ox g, Jupiter is nearly in quadrature with the fun ; and the nearer the earth is to any of thofe points, the flower is the geocentric motion of Jupiter ; for the arcs CD and DE are greater than BC or EF, and the arcs BC and EF are greater than AB or FG. The retrograde motion of a fuperior planet is fwift¬ er the nearer it is to an oppofition, and flower as it approaches to a quadrature with the fun. Thus, let ®, fig. 112. be the fun $ the little circle round it the orbit of the earth, whereof £ h i k l m n is the neareft; femicircle ; OP^), an arc of the orbit of Jupiter ; NKG an arc of the ecliptic: If we fuppofe Jupiter to ftand ftill at P, by the earth’s motion from g to n, he would appear to move retrograde from G to N, deferibing the unequal arcs GH, HI, IK, KL, LM, MN, in equal times. When the earth is at k, Jupiter ap¬ pears at K, in oppofition to the fun, and there his re¬ trograde motion is fwifteft. When the earth is either at£- or », the points of contadl of the tangents P ^ and P n, Jupitar is nearly in quadrature with the fun : and the nearer he is to either of thefe points, the flower is his retrogradation •, for the arcs IK and KL are great¬ er than HI or LM ; and the arcs HI and LM are greater than GH or MN. Since the diredl motion is N fwifteft 9« ASTRO Real Mo- fvvifteft when the earth is at d, and continues diminifh- tions of the ing till it changes to retrograde, it muft be infenlible Heavenly near the time of change : and, in like manner, the re- , trograde motion being Iwifteft when the earth is in and diminiihing gradually till it changes to direft, muft alfo at the time of that change be infenfible ; for any motion gradually decreafing till it changes into a con¬ trary one gradually increafing, muft at the time of the change be altogether infenfible. The fame changes in the apparent motions of this planet will alfo take place if we fuppofe him to go on flowly in his orbit } only they will happen every year when the earth is in different parts of her orbit, and . confequently at different times of the year. Thus, (fig. HO.) let us fuppofe, that while the earth goes round her orbit, Jupiter goes from F to G 5 the points of the earth’s orbit from which Jupiter will now appear to be ftationary will be a and y; and confequently his ftations muft be at a time of the year different from the former. Moreover, the conjunftion of Jupiter with the fun will now be when the earth is at f, and his oppofition when it is ate; for which reafon thefe alfo will happen at times of the year different from thpfe of the preceding oppofition and conjunffion. The motion of Saturn is fo flow, that it makes but little alteration either in the times or places of his con- jumShon or oppofition j and no doubt the fame will take place in a more eminent degree in the Georgium Sidus"; but the motion of Mars is fo much fwifter than even that of Jupiter, that both the times and places of his conjunaions and oppofitions are thereby very much altered. Fig. 113* exemplifies the geocentric motion of Jupi¬ ter in a very intelligible manner •, where © reprefents the fun ; the circle I, 2, 3, 4, the orbit of the earth, divided into twelve equal arcs for the twelve months of the year ; PQ an arc of the orbit of Jupiter, contain¬ ing as much as he goes through in a year, and divided in like manner into twelve equal parts, each as much as he goes through in a month. Now, fuppofe the earth to be at I when Jupiter is at a, a line drawn through X and a fiiows Jupiter’s place in the celeftial ecliptic to be at A. In a month’s time the earth ivill have moved from I to 2, Jupiter from a to b ; and a line drawn from 2 to £ will (how his geocentric place to be in B. In another month, the earth will be in 3, and Jupiter at c, and confequently his geocentric place will be at C ; and in like manner his place may be found for the other months at D, E, F, &c. It is likewife eafy to obferve, that his geocentric motion is direft in the arcs AB, BC, CD, DE •, retrograde in EF, FG, GH, HI ; and diredf again in IK, KL, LM, MN. The inequality of his geocentric motion is likewife apparent from the figure. A fuperior planet is in apogee when in conjunaion with the fun, and in perigee wThen in oppofition •, and every one of the fuperior planets is at its leaft poflible diftance from the earth where it is in perigee and peri¬ helion at the fame time. Their apparent diameters are variable, according to their diftances, like thofe of the inferior planets \ and this, as might naturally be expeaed, is moft remarkable in the planet Mars, who is neareft us. In his neareft approach, this planet is 25 times larger than when fartheft off, Jupiter twice and a half, and Saturn once and a half, N O M Y. Fart III Real Mo- Chap. III. Of the Orbits of the Planets, and the tions of th« Laws of their Motions. bodies!7 It would be exceedingly eafy to afcertain the pofi- tion of the planets for any given time, if their orbits were circular and uniform. But they exhibit very ien- fible inequalities in this refpeCt, the laws of which are exceedingly important in aftronomy, as furmlhing the only clue which can lead us to the theory of the celef¬ tial motions. To afcertain thefe irregulaiities, and de¬ left: their laws, it is neceffary to abltraft from their apparent motions the efftfts produced by the motion of the earth. In the firft place then, we muft determine the nature and dimenfions of the earth’s orbit. We have feen formerly that the fun apparently moves round the earth in an ellipfe, having the earth in the focus. We have only to reverie the pofition to obtain the orbit of the earth. It moves round the fun in an ellipfe, having that luminary in the locus ; fo that its radius veftor defcribes areas proportional to the times. In general, all the remarks made formerly on the fuppofed orbit of the fun relative to its eccentri¬ city, &c. apply accurately to the real orbit of the earth. The figure of the earth’s orbit being thus afcertain- ed, let us fee how aftronomers have been able to deter¬ mine that of the other planets. Let us take the pla¬ net Mars as an example, which, from the great eccen¬ tricity of its orbit, and its nearnefs to the earth, fur- nilhes an excellent medium for difcovering the laws of the planetary motions. The motion of Mars round the fun and his orbit would be known, if we had at any given time, the angle formed by its radius veftor, and a fixed ilraight line palling through the centre of the fun, together with the length of that radius veftor. To fimplify the pro¬ blem, a time is chofen when one of thefe quantities may be had feparately from the other. This happens at the oppofitions, when we fee the planet in the fame point of the ecliptic to which it would be referred by a fpeftator in the fun. The difference in the velocity and periodic times of the earth and Mars caufes the planet to appear when in oppofition in different points of the ecliptic fucceftively. By comparing together a great number of fuch oppofitions, the relation which fubfifts between the time and the angular motion of Mars round the fun, (called heliocentric), may be difcovered. Different methods prefent themfelves for that purpofe. But in the prefent cafe the problem is fimplified by con- fidering that the principal inequalities of Mars return¬ ing in the fame manner at every fidereal revolution, the whole of them may be expreffed by a rapidly con¬ verging feries of the fines of the angles multiplied by its mean motion. The relative changes in the length of the radius veftor, may be determined by comparing together obfervations made about the quadrature when the planet being about 90° from the fun, that radius prefents itfelf under the greateft angle poflible. In the triangle formed by the ftraight lines which join the cen¬ tres of the earth, the fun, and Mars, the angle at the earth is obtained by obfervation, that at the fun is af- certained by the law of Mars’s heliocentric motion. Hence the radius veftor is deduced in parts of the earth’s radius veftor. By comparing together a num¬ ber Part III. ASTRONOMY. (jo Real Mo- ber of fuch radii ve&ores determined in this manner, Lions of the the law of their variations, correfponding to the angles Heavenly they make with a (traight line fixed in pofition, ;| may be determined. In this manner Kepler determin¬ ed the orbit of Mars, and found it to be an ellipfe with the fun in the focus. He inferred that the other planets moved likewife in ellipfes round the fun, and this inference has been confirmed by aftual examina- 296 tion. Heliocen- To a fpedlator placed in the fun, all the planets trie circles W0ldcl appear to deferibe circles annually in the hea- ^eP‘a- vensj for though their motions are really elliptical, the eccentricity is fo fmall, that the difference between them and true circles is not eafily perceived even on earth ; and at the fun, whether great or fmall, it would entirely vanilh. Thefe circles, which in fuch a fitua- tion would appear to be annually deferibed among the fixed ftars, are called the heliocentric circles of the pla¬ nets 5 and if we fuppofe the orbits of the planets to be extended to the extreme bounds of the creation, they would deferibe among the fixed ftars thofe circles juft mentioned. To a fpeflator in the fun, the comets, though moving in the moft eccentric orbits, would alfo appear to deferibe circles in the heavens: for though their orbits are in reality very long ellipfes, the planes of them extended to the heavens would mark a great circle thereon, whereof the eye would be the centre j only, as the real motion is in an ellipfis, the body would appear to move much more flowly in fome part of the circle than another, and to differ exeeflively in magnitude. To an inhabitant of any planet, how¬ ever, the fun appears to go round in its own heliocen¬ tric circle, or to deferibe in the heavens that fame curve which the planet would appear to do if feen from the fun. Thus (fig. 114.), when the earth is at o, if we draw a line from a through the fun at S, the point G, in the fphere of the heavens where the line termi¬ nates, is the place where the fun then appears to an inhabitant of the earth. In a month’s time the earth will be got from a to draw a line then through the fun, and its extremity at H will point out his apparent place at that time. In like manner, if we draw lines from the earth in the twelve feveral fituations in which it is reprefented for the twelve months of the year, the fun’s apparent place will be found as above, and fo it would be found by a fpe£lator placed in Venus or any other planet. The geocentric latitude of a fuperior planet may be underftood from fig. 115. Let AB be the orbit of the earth, CD that of Mars, both viewed with the eye in their common fe&ion continued, by which they ap¬ pear in ftraight lines. Let E and F be oppofite points of the ecliptic, and fuppofe Mars to be in the fouth limit at C. If he were at that time viewed from S, the centre of the fun, he would appear in the fphere of the heavens at the point H ; in which cafe his heliocentric latitude would be FH : But when viewed in C from the earth, or from its centre, which in this cafe is fup- pofed to be the ftation of the fpe&ator, he will appear to be in different places of the heavens according to the pofition of the earth. When the earth, for in- Re&i Mo- ftance, is at B, the place of Mars will appear to be attionsof the g, and his geocentric latitude will be F^. When the Heavenly earth is at A, his apparent place will be in G, and , . his geocentric latitude FG : and in like manner, fup- pofing the earth to be in any other part of its orbit, as in I or K, it is eafy to fee, that his apparent places, as well as geocentric latitudes at thofe times, will be different. 297 The two points where the heliocentric circle of any Nodes of a planet cuts the ecliptic, are called its flofifar; and thatp'ariet. which the planet paffes through as it goes into north latitude, is called the afeending node, and is marked thus SF j and the oppofite to this is called the defeending node, and is marked T5- A line drawn from one node to the other is called the line of the nodes of the planet^ which is the common fe£fion of the plane of the eclip¬ tic, and that of the planet produced on each fide to the fixed ftars. The deviation of the orbit from a circle is called the eccentricity of the orbit; the point where it is fartheft diftant from the fun is called its aphelion ; and where neareft, the per He lion. The motion of the planets isfwifteft at the perihelion when the radius ve&or is fhorteft : it diminilhes as the radius vedfor increafes, and is at its minimum at the aphelion. When Kepler compared thefe two quanti¬ ties in the planet Mars, he obferved that the velocity of the planet was always proportional to the fquare of the radius vedlor, fo that the produfl of that velocity multiplied into the fquare of the radius veftor is a conftant quantity. This produft is double the area deferibed by the radius veftor in the given time. Hence that area, fuppofing the radius vedtor to fet out from a fixed line, increafes as the time. This Kepler announced by faying, that the areas deferibed by the radius vedtor are proportional to the times. Thefe laws are precifely thofe followed by the earth in her motion round the fun. Hence Kepler eftablilhed as the funda¬ mental laws of the motions of the planets the two fol¬ lowing : 1. The orbits of the planets are ellipfes, having the fun in their focus. 2. The areas deferibed by the radius vedtor of each planet are proportional to the times of deferibing them. Thefe laws fuffice for determining the motions of the planets round the fun : But it is neceffary to knorv for each of the planets feven quantities, called the elements of their elliptical motion. Five of thefe elements re¬ lative to the motion of the ellipfe are, 1. The duration of the fidereal revolution. 2. Half the greater axis or the mean diftance of the planet from the fun. 3. The eccentricity of the orbit. 4. The mean longitude of the planet at a given time. 5. The longitude of its perihilion at the fame epoch. The other two elements relate to the pofition of the orbits. They are, 6. The longitude of the nodes of the orbit at a given epoch, or the points where the orbit interfedls the ecliptic, 7. The inclination of the orbit to the plane of the ecliptic. The following table exhibits a view of thefe elements. N 2 Mercury 100 ASTRONOMY Part III, Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Herfchel Sidereal revolu¬ tions. Mean dift- ances. Days. 87.969255 224.700817 365.256384 686.979579 4332.602 208 IO759.0772I 3 30689.OOOOOO Eccentrici¬ ty in 175c. Secu'ar variation in the eccentri¬ city. 0.387100 O.723332 I.OOOOOO I.523693 5.202792 9.540724 19.183620 O.205513 0.006885 0.016814 0.095088 0.048077 0.056223 0.046683 O.OOOO03369 0.000062905 O.OOOO45572 0.000090685 O.OOOI34245 O.OOO261553 o 000026228 Mean lon¬ gitude in I75°- 281.3194 5M963 311.121& 24.4219 4.120X 257.0438 353.961° Longitudes of the peri¬ helion in 175°. j Inclina- Sidereal and tion of fecular mo- the orbits tion of the perihelion. 81.74OI 141.9759 309.579° 368.3006 11.5012 97.9466 i8C.I262 to the ecliptic in 17^0. I735-50 —699.07 3671.63 4834-57 2030.25 4967.64 759-85 7.7778 3-7701 0.0000 2.0556 1.4636 2.7762 0.8599 Secular variation in the in¬ clination to the ecliptic. 55.09 13.8° 0.00 —4.45 —67.40 -47.87 9-38 Longitudes of the a- fcending nodes in I75°- 50.3836 82.7093 0.0000 52-9377 108.8062 123.9327 80.7015 Sidereal and fecular motion of the nodes. -2332.90 -5673.60 0.00 —7027.41 —4509.50 —5781.54 —10608.00 The fign — denotes a retrograde motion. In this table, drawn up by M. de La Place, the decimal notation is employed ; the circle being divided into 400°, the degree into loo'/the minute into 100", and fo on : we did not alter it, in order to give the reader a fpecimen of this notation, and becaufe the ufual notation is employed in the following table. We think it proper to fubjoin here Dr Mafkelyne’s view of the planetary fyftem for 1801, Dec. 1. 1. 11. ill. IV. V. VI. VII. Vili. IX. ■X The Sun Mercury Venus The Earth The Moon Mars Ceres Pallas Jupiter Saturn Herfchel Apparent mean dia¬ meters, as feen from the earth. Mean di ameters as leen from tht fun 32' i",5 IO 58 31 8 27 1 o,5 39 18 3 54 Mean dia¬ meters in Englifh miles. Mean diftances from the fun m round num¬ bers of miles. More accu- are propor¬ tional num¬ bers of the preceding mean di- ftances. 16'' 30 *7,2 4,6 10 37 16 883246 3224 7687 79II>73 2180 4189 160 80 89170 79042 35112 37000000 68000000 95000000 95000000 144000000 26000000c 26600000c 490000000 90000000c 180000000c Denfities that of water, which is 1. 387!° 72333 I00Q00 100000 152369 27355° 279100 520279 954072 1908352 ITT 9i Sir 44 5x 34 1A r,11- O-y-2 Propor- tions of the quantities of matter. Inclinations of orbits to the ecliptic in 1780. 333928 0,1654 0,8899 1 0,025 0,0875 312,1 97,76 16,84 7U o' o" 3 23 35 000 5 9 3 at a mean. 1 51 o 10 37 56,6 in 1801. 34 5° 4° in 1801. 1 18 56 in 1780. 2 29 50 in 1780. O 46 20 in 1780. Inclinations of axes to orbits. Rotations diurnal or round their own axes. 82° 44' 0" 66 32 88 17 59 22 90 nearly. 60 probably. 25d 1411 8m of o 23 21 1 29 17 44 3 o 24 39 22 o 9 55 37 o 10 16 2 XI iPart III. ASTRONOMY. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. IOI XVIII. Tropical revolutions. Sidereal revolutions. Places of Aphelia, January 1S00. Secular mo¬ tions of the Aphelia. Eccentrici¬ ties; the mean dif- tances being IOOOOO, Greateft equa- tions of the centres. Longitudes of SI, ? or places of afcending nodes in 1750. Secular mo¬ tions of nodes. The Sun Mercury Venus The Earth The Moon Mars Ceres Pallas Jupiter Saturn Herfchel 1 87d 23h i4m 32,7f 224 16 41 27,5 365 5 48 49 686 22 18 27,4 1681 1290 433° 14 39 ^ 10746 19 16 15,5 30637 400 87d 23h 15“ 43,6f 224 46 49 10,6 365 6 9 12 686 23 30 35,6 1703 16 48 o 4332 14 27 10,8 IO759 I 51 11,2 30737 18 o o 8f 140 20' 50" 10 7 59 1 9 8 40 12 5 - 24 15 10 25 57 14 in 1802. 6 II 8 20 in 1800. 8 29 4 u in 1800. it 16 30 31 in 1800. 1° 33' 45" I 21 o 0 l9 35 1 51 40 1 34 33 x 50 7 1 29 2 7955-4 498 1681,395 8140,64 24630 25OI3>3 53640,42 90804 2 30 40' o" o 47 20 1 55 30.9 10 40 40 9 20 8 5 3° 38 6 26 42 5 27 16 if 150 20' 43" 2 14 26 18 38 38 20 58 40 in 1802. ,22 28 57 in 1802. 7 55 S2 in 1750. 21 32 22 in 1750. 12 47 in 1788. I” 12 IO" o 51 40 O 46 40 o 59 30 0 55 30 1 44 35 298 Suppofed by the an- •ients to be planets. 299 Ariftotle’s opinion concerning: them. From the above tables it appears that this time of the revolution of the planets increafes with their di- ftance from the fun. This induced Kepler to fufpeft that fome relation exifted between them. After many attempts continued for 17 years, he at laft difcovered that the fquares'of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes of the greater axis of their orbits. Chap. IV. Of the Orbits of the Comets. Of all the celeftial bodies, comets have given rife to the greateft number of fpeculations and conjectures. Their ftrange appearance has in all ages been a mat¬ ter of terror to the vulgar, who uniformly have looked upon them to be evil omens and forerunners of war, pe- ftilence, &c. Others, lefs fuperftitious, fuppofed them to be meteors raifed in the higher regions of the air. But we find that fome part of the modern doCtrine con¬ cerning them had been received into the ancient Italic and Pythagorean fchools : for they held them to be fo far of the nature of planets, that they had their periodi¬ cal times of appearing that they were out of fight for a long time, while they were carried aloft at an immenfe diftance from the earth, but became vifible when they defcended into the lower regions of the air, when they Were nearer to us. Thefe opinions were probably brought from Egypt, from whence the Greeks borrowed great part of their learning. However, it feems not to have been gene¬ rally received ; for Ariftotle, who mentions it, afferted that the heavens were unchangeable, and not liable to generation or corruption. Comets, therefore, which he believed to be generated when they firft made their appearance, and deftroyed when they vaniftied from our fight, he maintained could not be heavenly bodies, but rather meteors or exhalations raifed into the upper regions of the atmofphere, where they blazed out for a while, and difappeared when the matter of which they were formed was confumed. Seneca, who lived in the firft century, mentions Apollonius of Myndus, a very careful obferver of natural caufes, to have been of the fame fentiments with the moft ancient Greek philofophers with regard to comets. He himfelf had feen two 5 one in the reign of Claudius, the other in that of Nero j befides another which he faw while a boy, before the death of Auguftus. He plainly inti¬ mates, that he thought them above the moon ; and argues ftrongly again ft thofe who fuppofed them to be meteors, or held other abfurd opinions concerning them : declaring his belief that they were not fires fuddenly kindled, but the eternal produflions of na¬ ture. He points out alfo the only way to come at a certainty on this fubjeft, viz. by collecting a number of obfervations concerning their appearance, in order to difcover whether they return periodically or not. “ For this purpofe (fays he) one age is not fufftcient but the time will come when the nature of comets and their magnitudes will be demonftrated, and the routes they take, fo different from the planets, explained. Pofterity will then wonder that the preceding ages fhould be ignorant of matters fo plain and eafy to be known.” For a long time this prediction of Seneca feemed very unlikely to be fulfilled. The great authority which Ariftotle maintained for many ages, determined them to be nothing but meteors cafually lighted up in the air j though they were manifeftly at a great height, not only above the clouds, but fubjeCt to the diurnal revolution of the earth. In the dark and fu¬ perftitious ages, they were held to be the forerunners of every kind of calamity, and were fuppofed to have dif¬ ferent degrees of malignity according to the (hape they affumed ; from whence alfo they w'ere differently deno¬ minated. Thus, fome were laid to be bearded, fome hairy j fome to reprefent a beam, iword or fpear j others 102 Real Mo¬ tions of the Heavenly Bodies. 300 Only one i'pecies of them exifts. So1 Kepler and Bod in’s opi¬ nion of them. ASTRONOMY. Part III. 302 Bernoulli’s spinion. 3°3 True doc¬ trine con¬ cerning them re¬ vived by Tycho Brahe. others a target, &c.; whereas modern aftronomers ac¬ knowledge only one fpecies of comets, and account for their different appearances from their different fituations from the fun and earth. It was not till fome time after people began to throw off the fetters of fuperftition and ignorance which had fo long held them, that any rational hypo- thefis was formed concerning comets. Kepler, in other refpefts a very great genius, indulged the mod: extravagant conjectures, not only concerning comets, but the whole fyftem of nature in general. The pla¬ nets he imagined to be huge animals who fwam round the fun by means of certain fins acting upon the ethe¬ real fluid, as thofe of fiflies do on the water: and agree¬ ably to this notion, he imagined the comets to be mon- ftrous and uncommon animals generated in the celeftial fpaces ; and he explained how the air engendered them by an animal faculty. A yet more ridiculous opinion, if poflible, was that of John Bodin, a learned man of France in the 17th century. He maintained that co¬ mets “ are fpirits, which have lived on the earth in¬ numerable ages, and being at laft arrived on the con¬ fines of death, celebrate their laft triumph,^ ware re¬ called to the firmament like fhining ftars ! This is fol¬ lowed by famine, plague, &c. becaufe the cities and people deftroy the governors and chiefs who appeafe the-wrath of God.” JLhis opinion (he fays) he borrow¬ ed from the philofopher Democritus, who imagined them to be the fouls of famous heroes: but that being irreconcileable with Bodm's Chnftian fentiments, he was obliged to fuppofe them to be a kind of genii, or fpirits fubjeft to death, like thofe fo much mentioned in the Mahometan fables. Others, again, have denied even the exiftence of comets, and maintained that they were only falfe appearances occafioned by the refra&ion or reflection of light. The firfl: rational conjecture we meet with is that of James Bernoulli, an Italian aftronomer, who imagined them to be the fatellites of fome very diftant planet, which was invifible to us on account of its diftance, as were alfo the fatellites, unlefs when in a certain part of their courfe. Tycho Brahe was the firft who reftored the comets to their true rank in the creation. Before his time, feveral comets had been obferved with tolerable exaeff- nefs by Regiomontanus, Appian, Fabricius, and others3 yet they ail thought them below the moon. But Ty¬ cho, being provided with much better inftruments, let himfelf with great diligence to obferve the famous comet of 1577 3 and, from many careful obfervations, deduced that it had no fenfible diurnal parallax 3 and therefore was not only far above the regions of our at- mofphere, but much higher than the moon. But though few have come fo near the -earth as to have any diurnal parallax, all of them have what may be called an annual parallax 3 that is, the revolution of the earth in her orbit caufes their apparent motion to be very different from what it would be if viewed from the fun 3 and this fliows them to be much nearer than the fixed ftars, which have no fuch parallax. Kepler, the difciple of lycho, not- withftanding his ridiculous conjecture already mention¬ ed, was very attentive to the motions of the comets, and found that they did not move in ftraight lines, as had Been fuppofed. He (bowed that their paths were con- 4 cave towards the fun, and fuppofed them to move in pa- Real Mo- rabolic trajectories. t‘°ns t*ie Their true motion, however, was only difeovered y from the obfervations made by Sir Ifaac Newton on , ( , the great comet of 168c. 'I his dtleended almoft per- ^04 pendicularly towards the fun with a prodigious velo-Their mo- city ; afeending again with the fame velocity retarded, as it had been before accelerated. It was feen_'n ^/ed^y^ir" morning by a great number of aftronomers in different jfaac i4ew. parts of Furope, from the 4th to the 25th of Novem-ton. ber, in its way toward the fun 3 and in the evening from the 12th of December to the 9th of March following. The many exadl obfervations made on this comet en¬ abled Sir Ifaac Newton to determine that they are a kind of planets which move in very eccentric ellipfes ; and this opinion is now looked upon to be certainly eftablifhed. It Avas oppofed, however, by M. de la Hire, and fome other French philofophers 3 and it is evident that the whole difpute now turned on mere practical obfervations. If the return of any comet could be predicted, and its periodical time calculated like that of a planet, then the doftrine might be concluded certainly true, but not otherwife. Dr Halley therefore Dr ^°ajley fet himfelf to collect all the obfervations he could °n a comets 3 and afterwards calculated the periodical times comet’s re- of 24 of them, on a fuppofition of their being para-turn, boles 3 but afterwards found that they agreed better with the fuppofition of their motion being performed in very eccentric elliptical orbits. On this he calcu¬ lated a table of their elements 3 from which it was ma- nifeft that they Avere not comprehended in the zodiac, fome of them making an angle of upAvards of 8o° with the ecliptic. By computations founded on thefe elements, the per;ocjical Doftor concluded that the comet of 1682 Avas the times of fame Avhich had appeared in 1607 and 1531 > th31 itdifferent had a period of 75 or 76 years 3 and he ventured to^met^de- foretel that it Avould return about the year 1758. The comet Avhich appeared in 1661 Avas fuppofed to be the fame with that of 1532, and to have a period of 129 years 3 and from the equality of periods, and fimilitude of appearances, it Avas concluded that the great comet of 1680 Avas the fame which had appeared in 1106 .in the time of Henry I. in the conlulate of Lampadius and Oreftes about the year 531, and in the year 44 B. C. before Julius Caefar Avas murdered ; and hence conclud¬ ed that its period Avas 575 years. Mr Dunthorne, hoAV-' ever, has endeavoured to IIioav from a MS. in Pembroke- hall library, that the comet of nc6 could not be the fame Avith that of 1680 : but M. de la Lande thinks the four appearances related by Dr Halley ftronger proofs than a Angle obfervation, Arhich might be very faulty. Since the time of Dr Halley other aftronomers have calculated the elements of 25 other comets 3 all of which, excepting one of three which appeared in 1759, and Avhich differs but little from that of I53F and 1682, and is therefore accounted the fame, differ very much from each other ; fo that avc cannot help concluding them all to be different, and that the num-Why co- ber of thefe bodies is very great. “ It is not, how-jllets(may ever, unlikely (fays Dr Long,) from the immenfe inter-^ inv^ie val betAveen the orbit of Saturn and the neareft fixed evenin ftars, that many of them have not defeended into the their per- planetary helien. Part III. ASTRO Real Mo- planetary regions fince they have been looked upon as tions of the eeleftial bodies, and obferved accordingl y : befides, it Heavenly may often happen, that a body may finilh its whole . i period without being obferved by us, on account of the unfavourable fituation of the earth in her orbit when the comet is in its perihelion. Thus, if the comet be either behind or before the fun, or nearly fo, it muft be above our horizon in the day-time, and conlequently in- vinble, except the fun Ihould at that time be in a total eclipfe *, for then the comet might be feen near the fun, as well as the ftars and planets are : and this cafe is faid to have happened ; for Seneca relates from Poflidonius, that a comet was feen when the fun ivas eclipfed, which had before been inviiible by being ‘ ne&r that lumi- s nary-” Why more ^ greater number of comets are feen in thehemifphere are feen in towards the fun than in the oppolite ; the reafon of which the. henu- will eafily appear from fig. 116. wherein S reprefents the fun, E the earth, ABCD the fphere of the fixed ftars : and becaufe comets either do not reflect light enough to be vifible, or emit tails confpicuous enough to attradl our notice, till they come within the planeta¬ ry regions, commonly a good way within the fphere of Jupiter, let KLMN be a fphere concentric to the fun, at fuch a diftance from him., that no comet can be feen by us till it come within that diftance ; through E draw the plane BD perpendicular to SE, which will divide the fphere CLMN into two hemifpheres, one of which, BCD, is toward the fun, the other, DAB, oppofite. Now it is manifeft, that the fpherical portion LMN, ■which is in the hemifphere BCD towards the fun, is larger than the portion NKL in the hemifphere oppofite to him : and confequently a greater number of comets will appear in the hemifphere BCD than in that marked DAB. Though the orbits of all comets are very eccentric fphere to¬ wards the fun than in the oppo¬ fite. 309 Great dif¬ ferences in ellipfes, there are vaft differences among them *, except- t e eccen- j Mercury, there are no great differences among the the orbits of plants, either as to the eccentricity of their orbits, or comets. the inclination of their planes ; but the planes of fome comets are almoft perpendicular to others, and fome of their ellipfes are much wider than others. The narrow- eft ellipfis of any comet hitherto obferved was that of 1680. There is alfe a much greater inequality in the motion of the comets than of the planets ; the velocity of the former being incomparably greater in their peri¬ helion than in their aphelion : but the planets are but very little accelerated. Aftronomers are now generally agreed, that comets concerning are npaque bodies, enlightened by the fun. Plevelius, in a large work, wherein he gives the opinion of vari¬ ous authors on the fubjefl, mentions fome who were of the fame fentiments with himfelf, that comets were fo far tranfparent as to let the light of the fun pafs through them, which formed their tails. Sir Ifaac Newton was of opinion, that they are quite opaque j and in confirmation of this, he obferves, that if a comet be feen in two parts of its orbit, at equal diftances from the earth, but at unequal diftances from the fun, it al¬ ways ftfines brighteft in that neareft the fun. They are of very different magnitudes, which may be con- jeddured from their apparent diameter and brightnefs. Thus the head of a comet, when of the fame bright- neP and apparent diameter with Saturn, may be fup- pofed to be nearly about the fame magnitude with that 310 Opinions their fub fiance. N O M Y. 103 planet ; though this muft be attended with fome un- Real Mo- certainty, as we know not whether the heads of comets tions of the reftedt the fun’s light in the fame manner the planets do. Their diftance may be known from their paral- ,i lax, in the manner related in a fublequent fedlion. 3H In this manner he found the diftance of the comet Diftances, of 1577 to be about 210 femidiameters of the earth,®m^t^ or about 840,000 miles diftant Irom us, its aPPa-('mets rent diameter being fevtn minutes ; whence he con- computed, eluded, that the true diameter of the comet was to that of the earth as 3 to 14. “ But (fays Dr Long) it was the hrmifphere of the comet which was then meafured.” Hevelius, from the parallax and apparent diameter of the head of the comet in 1652, computed its diameter.to be to that of the earth as 52 to ICO. By the fame method he found the diameter of the head of the comet of 1664 to be at one time 12 femidiame¬ ters of the earth, and at another, not much more than 5. “ That the head f f the comet muft appear lefs the farther it is from the earth (lays Dr Long) is obvious; but befides this apparent change, there is alfo a real one in the dimenfions of the head of the fame comet ; for, when near the fun, the atmofphere is diminiftied by the heat railing more of it into the tail ; whereas, at a greater diftance, the tail is diminilhed and the head enlarged.” Hevelius computed the diameter of the nucleus of the comets of 1661 and 1665 to be only about a tenth part of that of the earth ; and Cyfatus makes the true diameter of the comet of 1618 to be about the lame fize. Some comets, however, from their apparent magnitude and diftance, have been fup- pofed much larger than the moon, or even equal in magnitude to fome of the primary planets ; and fome ^I2 have imagined, that by an interpofition of thefe bodies Eclipfes oc- betwixt the earth and fun, we might account for thofe cafioned by darkneffes which cannot be derived from any interpofi-comets* tion. of the moon. Such are thofe mentioned by Hero¬ dotus, lib. vii. cap. 37. and lib. ix. cap. 70. ; likewife the eclipfe mentioned by Dion, which happened a little before the death of Auguftus; and it is obfervable that Seneca faw a comet that year. Some have even at¬ tempted to account in this manner for the darknefs which happened at our Saviour’s crucifixion ; and in¬ deed it is certain, that were a comet in its perigee to come between the earth and fun, and to be moving the fame way with the earth, it muft caufe a darknefs much more intenfe, as well as of more confiderable duration, than what would take place in any lunar eclipfe. Various conjectures have been formed refpecling Conjedures the tails of comets; though it is acknowledged by concerning all, that they depend on the fun fomehow or other ; their tails, and for this plain realon, that they are always turned from him ; but in what manner this is accomplilhed, we cannot eafily determine. Appian, Tycho Brahe, and others, thought the tail was formed by the fun’s rays tranfmitted through the nucleus of the comet, which they fancied tranfparent, and was there refra&ed as in a lens of glafs, fo as to form a beam of light behind the comet : but this cannot be the cafe, as well becaufe the figure of a comet’s tail does not anfwer to fuch- a refrailion, as that fuch refraCled light would not be feen by a fpe&ator placed fidew?ays to it, unlefs it fell upon fome fubftance fufficiently denfe to caufe a 3^ refieCUon. Defcartes and his followers were of opi-Opinion of nion, that the tail of a comet was owing to the refrac- Defcanes, tion io4 Keal Mo¬ tions of the Heavemy Bodies tion of its head : but if this were the cafe, the planets and principal fixed ftars muft have tails alfo $ for the rays from them pafs through the fame medium as the light from the comets. Sir Ifaac Newton was of opinion, that the tail of a comet is a very thin vapour which the head fends out by reafon of its heat: that it afcends from the fun juft as fmoke does from the earth : that as the afcent of fmoke is caufed by the rarefaftion of the air wherein it is entangled, caufing fuch air to afcend and carry the fmuke up with it •, fo the fun’s rays adting upon the coma or atmofphere of the comet, do by rarefaftion and refraction heat the fame : that this heated atmofphere heats, and by heating rarefies, the ether that is involved therein ; and that the fpecific gravity with which fuch ether tends to the fun, is fo diminiftied by its rarefaftion, that it will now afcend from him by its relative lightnefs, and carry with it the reflecting particles whereof the tail is compofed. Though the immenfely large tails of feme comets feem to re¬ quire a great quantity of matter to produce them, this is no objection to the foregoing folution : for every day’s experience (hows what a great quantity of fmoke is produced from a very little wood or coal ; and New¬ ton has demonftrated, that a cubic inch of air equally rarefied with that at the diftance of a femidiameter from the earth’s furface, would fill all the planetary regions to the orbit of Saturn and beyond. IVfairan entertained a very different opinion. He fuppofed the tails of the comets to be formed out of the luminous matter whereof the fun’s atmofphere confifts. 1 his he fuppofes to extend as far as the orbit of the earth, and to furnifti matter for the aurora borealis. M. de la Lande is for joining the two laft opinions together. Part of the matter which forms the tails of comets he fuppofes to arife from their own atmofphere rarefied by heat and pulhed forward by the force of the light ftreaming from the fun ; and alfo that a comet ^pafling through the fun’s atmofphere is drenched therein, and carries away fome of it. Mr Rowning objeCts to New¬ ton’s account, that it can hardly be fuppofed the thin vapour of the tail ftrould go before the more folid body of the comet, when the motion thereof is fometimes fo extremely fwift, as that of fome of the comets is faid to be, after the rate, as Sir Ifaac Newton calculated the motion of the comet of 1680 to be, of no lefs than 880,000 miles an hour. He therefore fuppofes the atmofphere of the comet to extend every way round it as far as the tail reaches •, and that the part of it which makes the tail is diftinguilhed from the reft, fo as to fall thick upon that part of the atmofphere which goes before the comet in its progrefs along its elliptic orbit. The greateft objeftion to this is the immenfe magni¬ tude of the atmofpheres ; as it muft now be fuppofed to account for the vaft lengths of the tails of fome comets, which have been faid to meafure above 80 millions of miles. . . T The many difeoveries which, fince the time of New¬ ton Halley, and other celebrated mathematicians, have been made in ekaricity, having brought in a new element unknown to former ages, and which (hows a vaft power through every part of the creation with which we are acquainted, it became natural to imagine that it muft extend alfo into thofe higher re¬ gions which are altogether inacceflible to man. The fimilarity of the tails of comets to the Aurora Borea- ASTRONOMY. Part HI. lis, which is commonly looked upon to be an eledlri- Real Mo- cal phenomenon, therefore fuggefled an opinion, at tionsofthe prefent far from being generally difbelieved, that the y tails of comets are ftreams of ele&ric matter. An hy- pothefis of this kind was publifhed by Dr Hamilton of 315 Dublin in a fmall treatife, entitled, Conjectures on the Or Harail- Nature of the Aurora Borealis, and on the Tails oj io- ■ U tnets. His hypothefis is, that the comets are of ufe to nion_ 1 ' bring back the ele&ric fluid to the planets, which is continually difeharged from the higher regions of their atmofpheres. Having given at length the above-men¬ tioned opinion of Sir Ifaac, “ We find (fays he) in this account, that Sir Ifaac aferibes the afcent of co¬ mets tails to their being rarer and lighter, and moving round the fun more fwiftly than the folar atmofphere, with which he fuppofes them to be furrounded whilft in the neighbourhood of the lun ; he fays alfo, that whatever pofition (in refpe£l to each other) the head and tail of a comet then receive, they will keep the fame afterwards moft freely •, and in another place he obferves, ‘ That the celeftial fpaces muft be entirely void of any power of refilling, fince not only the folid bodies of the planets and comets, but even the exceed¬ ing thin vapours of which comets tails are formed, move through thofe fpaces with immenfe velocity, and yet with the greateft freedom.’ I cannot help thinking that this account is liable to many difficulties and objec¬ tions, and that it feems not very confiftent with itfelf or with the phenomena. “ I do not know that we have any proof of the er- iftence of a folar atmofphere of any confiderable ex¬ tent, nor are we anywhere taught how to guefs at the limits of it. It is evident that the exiftence of fuch an atmofphere cannot be proved merely by the afcent of comets tails from the fun, as that phenomenon may poffibly arife from fome other caufe. However, let us fuppofe, for the prefent, that the afcent of comets tails is owing to an atmofphere furrounding the fun ; and fee how the effeds arifing from thence will agree with the phenomena. When a comet comes into the folar atmofphere, and is then defeending almoft direft- ly to the fun, if the vapours which compofe the tail are raifed up from it by the fuperior denfity and weight of that atmofphere, thev muft rife into thofe parts that the comet has left, and therefore at that time they may appear in a direction oppofite to the fun. But as foon as the comet comes near the fun, and moves in a di- reftion nearly at right angles with the direftion of its tail, the vapours which then arife, partaking of the great velocity of the comet, and being fpecifically lighter than the medium in which they move, and be¬ ing vaftly expanded through it, muft neceffarily ffiffer a refiftance immenfely greater than what the fmall and denfe body of the cornet meets with, and confequently cannot poffibly keep up with it, but muft be left be¬ hind, or, as it were, driven backwards by the refift¬ ance of that medium into a line directed towards the parts which the comet has left, and therefore can no longer appear in a direction oppofite to the fun. And, in like manner, when a comet paffes its perihelion, and begins to afcend from the fun, it certainly ought to appear ever after with its tail behind it, or in a direc¬ tion pointed towards the fun ; for if the tail of the co¬ met be fpecifically lighter than the medium in which it moves with fo great velocity, it muft be juft as im- poffible Part III. Real Mo- poffible it (hould move foremoft, as it is that a torch nous of the moved ftviftly through the air fhould project its flame Heavenly ancj fmoke before it. Since therefore we find that the , ^ ^ ‘ . tail of a comet, even when it is afcending from the fun, moves foremoft, and appears in a direction nearly oppofite to the fun, I think we muft conclude that the comet and its tail do not move in a medium heavier and denfer than the matter of which the tail confifls, and confequently that the conftant afcent of the tail from the fun muft be owing to fome other caufe. For that the folar atmofphere fhould have denfity and weight fufficient to raife up the vapours of a comet from the fun, and yet not be able to give any fenfible refiftance to thefe vapours in their rapid progrefs through it, are two things inconfiftent with each other : And there¬ fore, fince the tail of a comet is found to move as freely as the body does, we ought rather to conclude, that the celeftial fpaces are void of all refifting matter, than that they are filled with a folar atmofphere, be it ever fo rare. “ But there is, I think, a further confideration, which will fliow that the received opinion, as to the afcent of comets tails, is not agreeable to the pheno¬ mena, and may at the fame time lead us to fome know¬ ledge of the matter of which thefe tails confift ; which I fufpedl: is of a very different nature from what it has been hitherto fuppofed to be. Sir Ifaac fays, the va¬ pours of which the tail of a comet confifls, grow hot by reflecting the rays of the fun, and thereby warm and rarefy the medium which furrounds them } which muft therefore afcend from the fun, and carry with it the reflecting particles of which the tail is formed ; for he always fpeaks of the tail as fhining by reflected fight. But one would rather imagine, from the phe¬ nomena, that the matter which forms a comet’s tail has not the leaf! fenfible power of reflecting the rays of light. For it appears from Sir Ifaac’s obfervation, which I have quoted already, that the light of the fmalleft liars, coming to us through the immenfe thick- nefs of a comet’s tail, does not fuflfer the leaft diminu¬ tion. And yet, if the tail can refleCt the light of the fun fo copioufly as it muft do if its great fplendour be owing to fuch reflection, it muft undoubtedly have the fame effeCt on the light of the ftars ; that is, it muft refleCt back the light which comes from the ftars be¬ hind it, and by fo doing muft intercept them from our fight, confidering its vaft thicknefs, and how exceed¬ ingly flender a ray is that comes from a fmall ftar ; or if it did not intercept their whole light, it muft at leaft increafe their twinkling. But we do not find that it has even this fmall effect; for thofe ftars that appear through the fail are not obferved to twinkle more than others in their neighbourhood. Since therefore this faCt is fupported by obfervations, what can be a plainer proof that the matter of a comet’s tail has no power of refled ing the rays of light? and confequently, that it muft be a felf-fhining fubftance. But the fame thing will further appear, from confidering that bodies refleCt and refraCt light by one and the fame power j and therefore if comets tails w’ant the power of refraCt- ing the rays of light, they mult alfo want the power of reflecting them. Now, that they want this re- fraCling power appears from hence : If that great co¬ lumn of tranfparent matter which forms a comet’s tail, and moves either in a vacuum or in fome medium of a VOL. III. Part I. 105 different denfity from its own, had any power of re- Real Mo- fraCling a ray of light coming through it from a flar tions of the to us, that ray mutt be turned far out of its way in palling over the great diftance between the comet and , ^ . the earth ; and therefore we fhould very fenfibly per¬ ceive the fmalleft refraCtion that the light of the Itars might fuffer in palling through a comet’s tail. The confequence of fuch a refraCtion mult be very remark¬ able : the liars that lie near the tail would, in fome cafes, appear double ; for they would appear in their proper places by their direCt rays, and we fhould fee their images behind the tail, by means of their rays which it might refraCt to our eyes 5 and thofe Itars that were really behind the tail would difappear in fome fituations, their rays being turned afide from us by refraCtion. In fhort, it is eafy to imagine what ftrange alterations would be made in the apparent pla¬ ces of the fixed ftars by the tails of comets, if they had a power of refraCting their light, which could not fail to be taken notice of if any fuch ever happened. But fince aftronomers have not mentioned any fuch appa¬ rent changes of place among the ftars, I take it for granted that the Itars feen through all parts of a comet’s tail appear in their proper places, and with their ufual colours 5 and confequently I infer, that the rays of light fuffer no refraCtion in palling through a comet’s tail. And thence I conclude (as before), that the matter of a comet’s tail has not the power of refraCting or reflect¬ ing the rays of light, and mult therefore be a lucid or felf-fhininp; fubftance.” But whatever probability the DoCtor’s conjeCture s;r i(-aac»f conceiving the materials whereof the tails are formed account de¬ may have in it, his criticifm on Sir Ifaac Newton’s ac-fended, count of them feems not to be juft : for that great phi- lofopher fuppofes the comets to have an atmofphere pe¬ culiar to themfelves ; and confequently in their neareft approaches to the fun, both comet and atmofphere are immerfed in the atmofphere of that luminary. In this cafe, the atmofphere of the comet being prodigioufly heated on the fide next to the fun, and confequently the equilibrium in it broken, the denfer parts will con¬ tinually pour in from the regions fart heft from the fun j for the fame reafon, the more rarefied part which is be¬ fore will continually fly off oppofite to the fun, be¬ ing difplaced by that which comes from behind ; for though we mult fuppofe the comet and its atmofphere to be heated on all fides to an extreme degree, yet flill that part which is fartheft from the fun will be lefs hot, and confequently more denfe, than what is neareft to his body. The confequence of this is, that there mult be a conftant ftream of denfe atmofphere defeending towards the fun, and another ftream of rarefied vapours and atmofphere afcending on the contrary fide j juft as in a common fire there is a conftant ftream of denfe air afcending, which pufhes up another of rarefied air, flame, and fmoke. The refiftance of a folar atmo¬ fphere may indeed be very well fuppofed to occafion the curvature obfervable in the tails of comets, and their being better defined in the fore part than be- „t hind; and this appearance we think Dr Hamilton’s Dr nlLil- hypothefis is incapable of folving. We grant, that ton’s hypo- there is the utmoft probability that the tails of comets the(is.in- are ftreams of eleftric matter ; but they who advance fufficlent’ a theory of any kind ought to folve every phenome¬ non, otherwife their theory is infufficient. It was in- O cumbent A S T R O N O M Y. io6 ASTRO Real Mo- cumbent on Dr Hamilton, therelore, to have explained tions of the how this dream of eleftric matter comes to be bent Heavenly jnto a curVe •, and alfo why it is better defined and , Bodies, brighter on the outer fide of the arch than on the in- v_ ' ”l ner. This indeed he attempts iti the following man¬ ner : “But that this curvature was not owing to any refilling matter appears from hence, that the tail mult be bent into a curve, though it met with no refiltance j for it could not be a right line, unlefs all its particles were proje£ted in parallel directions, and with the fame velocity, and unlefs the comet moved uniformly in a ri»ht line. But the comet moves in a curve, and each part of the tail is projected in a direCtion oppofite. to the fun, and at the fame time partakes of the motion of the comet ; lb that the different parts of the tail mult move on in lines which diverge from each other ; and a line drawn from the head ol a comet to the ex¬ tremity of the tail, will be parallel to a line drawn from the fun to the place where the comet was when that part of the tail began to afcend, as Sir Ifaac obferves : and fo all the chords or lines drawn from the head of the comet to the intermediate parts of the tail, will be refpeClively parallel to lines drawn from the fun to the places where the comet was when thefe parts of the tail began to afcend. And, therefore, fince thefe chords of the tail will be of different lengths, and parallel to different lines, they mull make different angles with a great circle palling through the fun and comet •, and confequently a line pafling through their extremities will be a curve. “ It is obferved, that the convex fide of the tail which is turned from the fun is better defined, and Ihines a little brighter, than the concave fide. Sir Ifaac accounts for this, by faying, that the vapour on the convex fide is frefiier (that is, has afcended later) than that on the concave fide ; and yet I cannot fee how the particles on the convex fide can be thought to have afcended later than thofe on the concave fide which may be nearer to the head of the comet. I think It rather looks as if the tail, in its rapid motion, met with feme flight refiftance juft fufficient to caufe a fmall con- denfation in that fide of it which moves foremoft, and which would occafion it to appear a little brighter and better defined than the other fide ; which flight refin¬ ance may arife from that fubtile ether which is fuppofed to be difperfed through the celeftial regions, or from this very eleftric matter difperfed in the fame manner, if it be different from the ether.” On the laft part of this obfervation we muft remark, that though a flight refiftance in the ethereal medium would have ferved Sir Ifaac Newton’s turn, it will by no means ferve Dr Hamilton’s ; for though a ftream of water or air may be eafily deftroyed or broken by refiftance, yet a ftream of ele&ric matter feems to let every obftacle at defiance. If a fliarp needle is placed on the conduftor of an ele&ric machine, and the ma¬ chine fet in motion, we will perceive a fmall ftream ol ele&ric matter iffuing from the point; but though we blow again ft this ftream of fire with the utmoft vio¬ lence it is impoflible either to move it, or to brighten it on the fide againft which we blow. If the celeftial fpaces then are full of a fubtile ether capable of thus affedling a ftream of eledlric matter, we may be lure that it alfo will refill very violently : and we are then as much difficiflted to account for the projeaile mo- N O M Y. Part III. tion continuing amidft fuch violent refiftance } for if the Real Mo- ether refills the tail of the comet, it is impoflible to prove tiens of the that it doth not refill the head alfo. ^odTts.^ This objection may appear to fome to be but weak- v ly founded, as we perceive the electric fluid to be en- 3x3 dowed with fuch extreme fubtility, and to yield to theEledtric impreflion of folid bodies with fuch facility, that we lter not eafily imagine it to be of a very paflive nature in all^ajsPa* cafes. But it is certain, that this fluid only fliows it- felf paflive where it paffes from one body into another, which it feems very much inclined to do of itfelf. It will alfo be found, on proper examination of all the phenomena, that the only way we can manage the elec¬ tric fluid at all is by allowing it to direct its own mo¬ tions. In all cafes where we ourfelves attempt to af- fume the government of it, it fliows itfelf the moll un- tradlable and ftubborn being in nature. But thefe things come more properly under the article Elec¬ tricity where they are fully confidered. Here it is fufficient’ to obferve, that a ftream of eledlric matter refifts air, and from the phenomena of eleftric repul- fion we are fure that one ftream of eleffric matter re¬ fifts another : from which we may be alfo certain, that if a ftream of eledlric matter moves in an aerial fluid, fuch fluid will refill it ; and we can only judge of the degree of refiftance it meets with in the heavens from what we obferve on earth. Here we fee the moll vio¬ lent blaft of air has no effea upon a ftream of eleftric fluid : in the celeftial regions, either air or fome other fluid has an effedl upon it according to Dr Hamilton. The refiftance of that fluid, therefore, mull be greater than that of the moft violent blaft of air W’e can ima- gine. . , As to the Doftor’s method of accounting lor the curvature of the comet’s tail, it might do very well on Sir Ifaac Newton’s principles, but cannot do lb on his. There is no comparifon between the celerity with which rarefied vapour afeends in our atmofphere, and that whereby the eleftric fluid is difeharged.. The velocity of the latter feems to equal that of light of conle- quence, fuppofing the velocity wf the comet to be equal to that of the earth in its annual courfe,^ and its tail equal in length to the diftance of the fun from the earth, the curvature of the tail could only be to a ftraight line as the velocity of the comet in its orbit is to the velocity of light, which according to the calcu¬ lations of Dr Bradley, is as 10,201 to I. The appa¬ rent curvature of fuch a comet’s tail, therefore, would at this rate only be part of its vifible length, and ^ this would always be imperceptible to us. Ihe velo-pro(jigiou5 city of comets is indeed fometimes inconceivably great, velocity of Mr Brydone obferved one at Palermo, in July 177°» aerc^°b‘ which in 24 hours deferibed an arch in the heavens up- Mr Bry_ wards of 50 degrees in length *, according to which he ^one< fuppofes, that if it was as far diftant as the fun, it mull have moved at the rate of upwards of 60 millions ot miles in a day. But this comet was attended with no tail fo that we cannot be certain whether the curvature of the tails of thefe bodies correfponds with their velo¬ city or not. 3SG The near approach of fome comets to the fun lub-Vehement lefts them to intenfe and inconceivable degrees of heatAe^©^ e Newton calculated that the heat of the comet ot 1680 6go> muft have been near 2000 times as great as that ot red-hot iron. The calculation is founded upon this principle j Part III. ASTRO Heal Mo- principle, that the heat of the fun falling upon any tions of the body at different diftances is reciprocally as the fquares Heavenly 0f i}10fe diftances $ but it may be obferved, that the ef- Eodies- fea of the heat of the fun upon all bodies near our ~'1 " earth depends very much on the conftitution of thofe bodies, and of the air that furrounds them. “ The comet in queftion (fays Dr Long) certainly acquired a prodigious heat; but I cannot think it came up to what the calculation makes it: the eflfedt of the ftrong- eft burning-glafs that has ever been made ufe of was the vitrification of molt bodies placed in its focus. What would be the effect of a ftill greater heat we can only conjecture •, it would perhaps fo difunite the parts as to make them fly off every way in atoms. This co¬ met, according to Halley, in pafling through its fouth- ern node, came within the length of the lun’s femidia- meter of the orbit of the earth. Had the earth then been in the part of her orbit neareft to that node, their mutual gravitation muft have caufed a change in the plane of the orbit of the earth, and in the length of our year : he adds, that if fo large a body, with fo rapid a motion as that of this comet, were to flrike again ft the earth, a thing by no means impoffible, the {hock might reduce this beautiful frame to its original chaos.” We muft not conclude this account without obferving that Whifton, who, from Flamftead’s meafure of its apparent diameter, concluded the nucleus of the comet to be about ten times as big as the moon, or equal to a fourth part of the earth, attributes the univerfal de¬ luge in the time of Noah to the near approach thereof. His opinion was, that the earth paffing through the at- mofphere of the comet, attrafted therefrom great part of the water of the flood $ that the nearnefs of the comet raifed a great tide in the fubterraneous waters, fo that the outer cruft of the earth was changed from a fphe- rical to an oval figure ; that this could not be done without making fiffures and cracks in it, through which the waters forced themfelves, by the hollow of the earth being changed into a lefs capacious form •, that along with the water thus fqueezed up on the furface of the earth, much flime or mud would rife ; which, together with the groffer part of the comet’s atmofphere, would, after the fubfiding of the water, partly into the fiffures and partly into the lower parts of the earth to form the fea, cover all over, to a confiderable depth, the antediluvian earth. Thus he accounts for trees and bones of animals being found at a very great depth in the earth. He alfo held that, before the fall, the earth revolved round the fun in the plane of the eclip¬ tic, keeping always the fame points of its furface to¬ wards the fame fixed ftars. By this means, as every meridian would come to the fun but once in every re¬ volution, a day and a year were then the fame : but that a comet {hiking obliquely upon fome part of the earth gave it the diurnal rotation ; that the antedilu¬ vian year confifted of 360 days : but that the addition¬ al matter depofited upon the earth from the atmofphere of the comet at the flood, fo retarded the revolution thereof round the fun, that it is not now performed in lefs than 365 days and about a quarter. The fame co¬ met he thought would probably, coming near the earth when heated in an intenfe degree in its perihelion, be the inftrumental caufe of that great cataftrophe, the N O M Y. 107 general conflagration, foretold in the facred writings Real Mo- and from ancient tradition. _ t‘“ns Thefe conjedlures lead us to fpeak fomewhat more ^ies/ particularly concerning the nature of comets, and —^. ...ij the purpofes they may poflibly anfvver in the creation. 321 Hevelius, in order to account for the various appear- Conjectures ances of the nucleus already related, fuppofed that^^ e^*is’ they were compofed of feveral maffes compacted l°ge'cerning the ther, with a tranfparent fluid interfperfed, but thenatureo apparent changes in the nucleus may be only on the comets, furface : comets may be fubjeft to fpots as the planets are *, and the vaftly different degrees of heat they go through may occafion great and fudden changes, not only in their furfaces, but even in their internal frame and texture. Newton places all tbe{e apparent changes to the atmofphere that environs them j which muft: be very denfe near their furfaces, and have clouds floating therein. It was his opinion, that the changes mention¬ ed may all ne in the clouds, not in the nucleus, lifts laft indeed he looked upon to be a body of extreme fo- lidity, in order to fuftain fuch an intenfe heat as the comets are fometimes deftined to undergo ; and that, notwithftanding their running out into the immenfe regions of fpace, where they were expofed to the moft: intenfe degrees of cold, they would hardly be cooled again on their return to the fun. Indeed, accord¬ ing to his calculation, the comet of 1680 muft be for ever in a ftate of violent ignition. He hath com¬ puted that a globe of red-hot iron of the fame dimen- fions with the earth, would fcarce be cool in 50,000 years. If then the comet be fuppofed to cool 100 times fafttr than red-hot iron, as its heat was 2000 times greater, it muft require upwards of a million of years to cool it. In the (hurt period of 575 years, therefore, its heat will be in a manner fcarce dimi- nifhed ; and, of confequence, in its next and every fuc- ceeding revolution, it muft acquire an increafe of heat : fo that, fince the creation, having received a propor¬ tional addition in every fucceeding revolution, it muft: now be in a ftate of ignition very little inferior to that of the fun itfelf. Sir Ifaac Newton hath farther con¬ cluded, that this comet muft be confiderably retarded in every fucceeding revolution by the atmofphere of the fun within which it enters ; and thus muft continually come nearer and nearer his body, till at laft it falls in¬ to it. This, he thinks, may be one ufe of the comets, to furnifla fuel for the fun, which otherwife would be in danger of wafting from the continual emiflion of its light. He adds, that for the confervation of the water and moifture of the planets, comets feem abfolutely requi- fite *, from whofe condenfed vapours and exhalation all the moifture which is fpent in vegetation and pu¬ trefaction, and turned into dry earth, &c. may be refupplied and recruited ; for all vegetables grow and increafe wholly from fluids; and again, as to their greateft part, turn by putrefadion into earth j an earthy flime being perpetually precipitated to the bot¬ tom of putrefying liquors. Hence the quantity of dry earth muft continually increafe, and the moifture of the globe decreafe, and be quite evaporated, if it have not a continual fupply from fome part or other of the uni- verfe. “ And I fufpeft (adds our great author), that the fpirit which makes the fineft, fubtileft, and bell O 2 part io8 Real Mo¬ tions cf the Heavenly Bodies. 322 Mr Bry- tlone’s con- jedlures concerning comets without tails. ASTRONOMY. Part III. 323 Mr Cole’s hypothefis. 324 Of the pe¬ riodical times, See of the comets. part of oar air, and which is abfolutely requifite for the life and being of all things, comt's principally from the comets.” Mr Brydone obferves, that the comets without tails feem to be of a very different Ipecies from thofe which have tails: To the latter, he fays, they appear to bear a much lefs refemblance than they do even to planets. He tells us, that comets with tails have fel- dom been vilible but on their recefs from the fun : that they are kindled up, and receive their alarming appear¬ ance, in their near approach to this glorious luminary : but that thofe without tails are feldom or ever feen but on their way to the fun ; and he does not recoiled! any whofe return has been tolerably well afeertained. “ I remember indeed (fays he), a few years ago, a frnall one, that was faid to have been difeovered by a telefcope after it had paffed the fun, but never more be¬ came vifible to the naked eye. This affertmn is eafily made, and nobody can contradidl it *, but it does not at all appear probable that it fhould have been fo much lefs luminous after it had paffed the fun than before it approached him : and I will own to you, when I have heard that the return of thefe comets had efcaped the eyes of the moft acute aflronomers, I have been tempt¬ ed to think that they did not return at all, but were abforbed in the body of the fun, which their violent motion towards him feemed to indicate.” He then at¬ tempts to account for the continual emiffion of the fun’s light without wade, by fuppofing that there are num- berlefs bodies throughout the univerfe that are attradfed into the body of the fun, which ferve to fupply the waife of light, and which for fome time remain ob- feure and occafion fpots on his furface, till at lad they are perfedlly diffolved and become bright like the red. This hypothefis may account for the dark fpots becom¬ ing as bright, or even brighter, than the red of the dilk, but will by no means account for the brighter fpots becoming dark. Of this comet, too, Mr Brydone re¬ marks, that it was evidently furrounded by an atmo- fphere which refradled the light of the fixed bars, and feemed to caufe them to change their places as the co¬ met came near them. A. very drange opinion we find fet forth in a book entitled “ Obfervations and Conjedlures on the Nature and Properties of Light, and on the Theory of Comets, by William Cole.” This gentleman fuppofes that the comets belong to no particular fyftem ; but were ori¬ ginally projedled in fuch diredlions, as would fucceffively expofe them to the attradion of different centres, and thus they would deferibe various curves of the parabolic and the hyperbolic kind. Thistreatife is written in an- fwer to fome objedlions thrown out in Mr Brydone’s Tour, againd the motions of the comets by means of the two forces of gravitation and projection, which were thought fufiicient for thatpurpofe by Sir Ilaac Newton: of which we drall treat as fully as our limits will allow in the next fection. The analogy between the periodical times of the planets and their didances from the fun, difeovered by Kepler, takes place alfo in' the comets. In confe- quence of this, the mean didance of a comet from the fun may be found by comparing its period with the time of the earth’s revolution round the fun. Thus the period of the comet that appeared in 1531, 1607, 1682, and 1759, being about 76 years, its mean di¬ dance from the fun may be found by this proportion : Heal Mo- As 1, the fquare of one year, the earth’s periodical time, tions of the is to 5776 the fquare of 76, the comet’s periodical time; fo is 1,000,000, the cube of ICO the earth’s ' Y- f mean didance from the fun, to 5,776,000,000 the cube of the comet’s mean didance. The cube root of this lad number is 1794 ; the mean didance itfelf in fuch parts as the mean didance of the earth from the fun contains 100. If the perihelion didance of this comet, 58, be taken from 3588 double the mean didance, we lhall have the aphelion didance, 3530 of fuch parts as the didance of the earth contains 100; which is a little more than 35 times the didance of the earth from the fun. By a like method, the aphelion didance of the comet of 1680 comes out 138 times, the mean didance of the earth from the fun, fuppofing its period to he 575 years: fo that this comet, in its aphelion, goes more than 14 times the didance from the fun that Sa¬ turn does. Euler computes the orbit of this comet from three of Flamdead’s obfervations taken near to¬ gether, compared with a fourth taken at fume di¬ dance from the other three, and from thence concludes the period to be a little more than 170 years. “ It feems fomething furprifing (fays Dr Long), that, from the fame obfervations which were ufed by Nerv- ton and Halley, he fhould bring out a period fo very different from what thele great men have determined : but it is the lefs to be wondered at, if we confider how fmall a portion of the comet’s orbit lay between the mod didant places ufed in this computation, or indeed that could be had for that purpofe ; fo fmall, that the form of the ellipfis cannot be found with precifion by this method, except the comet’s pb-ces were more ex- aclly verified than is poffible to be done : and that he does not pretend to confirm his determination of the pe¬ riod by pointing out and comparing together any former appearances of this comet ; a method which New'ton re¬ commended as the only one whereby the periodical times and tranfverfe diameters of the orbits of the comets can be determined with accuracy.” The period of the comet in 1744 is much longer than even that of 1680. Mr Betts, in attempting to compute the tranfverfe axis of its orbit, found it come out fo near infinite, that, though the orbit drowed itfelf in this manner to be a very long one, he found it impof- fible to calculate it without fome obfervations made 325 after its perihelion. Halley, after he had finifhed his Dr HaLey tables of comets, found fuch a fimilitude in the elements calculate of thofe of 1531, 1607, and 16S2, that he was indu-of comet3> ced to believe them to be returns of the fame comet in an' elliptic orbit : but as there was fuch a difference in their periodical times and inclinations of their or¬ bits as feemed to make againft this opinion ; and as the obfervations of the firft of them in 1531 by Appian, and the fecond in 1607 by Kepler, were not exaft enough to determine fo nice a point when he fnft pub- lilhed his fynopfis in 1705 ; he only mentioned this as a thing probable, and recommended it to pofterity to watch for an appearance of the fame in 1758. After¬ wards, looking over the catalogue of ancient comets, and finding three others at equal intervals with thofe now mentioned, he grew more pofitive in his opi¬ nion ; and knowing a method of calculating with eafe a motion in an elliptic orbit, how eccentric foever it might be, inftead of the parabolic orbit which he had ^ givea PartHI. ASTRONOMY. Real Mo- given for the comet of 1682, he fet about adapting the tions of thep]an Qf t[iat orbit to an ellipfis of a given fpace and *7 Ravincr the fun in one of its foci, fo as to IO9 326 Why the periodical return of magnitude, having the fun in one of its foci, fo as to tally with the obfervations of that comet made by Flam- ftead with great accuracy, by the help of a very large fextant. He likewife corrected the places of the comet of from Appian, and thofe of the comet 1607 from Kepler and Longomontanus, by redifying the places of the liars they had made uie of, and found thofe places agree as well with the motion in fuch an ellipfis as could be expelled from the manner of ob- ferving of thefe allronomers, and the imperfections of their inftruments. The greateft objection to this theory was fome difference in the inclination of the orbits, and that there was above a year’s difference be¬ tween the two periods. The comet of 1531 was its perihelion Auguft 24. ; that of 1607, OClober 16, comets may and that of 1682, September 4. : fo that the fir ft of happen at thefe periods was more than 76, the latter not quite unequal in- ^^ years. To obviate this, he reminds his readers of tervals' an obfervation made by him of the periodical revolu¬ tion of Saturn having at one time been about 13 days longer than at another time; occafioned, as he fup- pofed, by the near approach of Saturn and Jupiter, and the mutual attraClion and gravitation of thefe two planets : and obferves, that in the fummer of the year i68r, the comet in its defcent was for fome time fo near Jupiter, that its gravitation towards that planet was one-fiftieth part of its gravitation towards the fun. This, he concluded, would caufe a change in the in¬ clination of its orbit, and alfo in the velocity of it? motion: for by continuing longer near the planet Ju¬ piter on the fide moft remote from the fun, its velocity would be more increafed by the joint forces of b«th thofe bodies, than it would be diminiflied by them aft- mg contrary wife, when on the fide next the fun where its motion was fwifteft. The projeClile motion being thus increafed, its orbit would be enlarged, and its period lengthened *, fo that he thought it probable it would not return till after a longer period, than 76 years, about the end of the year 1758, or beginning of 1759. As Hailey exprefled his opinion modeftly, though clearly enough, that this comet would appear again about the end of 1758, or the beginning of the fol¬ lowing year, M. de la Lande pretends he muft have been at a lofs to know whether the period he foretold ivould have been of 75 or of 76 years ; that he did not give a decifive prediction, as if it had been the re- fult of calculation ; and that, by confidering the affair in fo loofe a manner as Halley did, there.was a good deal of room for objeCting to his reafoning. After thefe reflections, he is very large in his commendation of the performance of Clairault; who, he fays, not only calculated ftriCtly the effeCt of the attraction of Jupiter in 1681 and 1683, when the comet was again near Jupiter, but did not negleCt the attraction of that planet when the comet was moft diftant ; that he con- fidtred the uninterrupted attractions of Jupiter and Saturn upon the fun and upon the comet, but chiefly the attractions of Jupiter upon the fun, whereby that luminary was a little difplaced, and gave different ele¬ ments to the orbit of the comet. By this method he found the comet would be in its perihelion about the middle of April; but that, on account of fome fmall quantities neceffarily negleCted in the method of ap- Real Mo- proximation made ufe of by him, Mr Clairault de-tions of the fired to be indulged one month ; and that the pom.et y came juft 30 days before the time he had fixed for its. , appearance. That comets may have their motion difturbed by the planets, efpecially by the two largeft, Jupiter and Sa¬ turn, appears by an inftance juft now mentioned. I hey may alfo affeCt one another by their mutual gravitation when out of the planetary regions ; but of this we can take no account, nor can we eftimate the refiftance of the ether through which they pafs ; and yet both thefe caufes may have fome influence on the inclination of their orbits and the length of their periods. . Chap. V. Of the Motions of the Satellites. The moon is the fatellite which moves round the earth, and as her apparent and real motions are the fame, we have already given an account of her elliptical orbit and irregularities. Jupiter is attended by four fatellites. If we repref*nt the femidiameters of Jupiter’s equator by unity, then tike mean diftances of the fatellites from Jupiter, will be re¬ presented by the following numbers. Firft fatellite 5.697300 femidiameters. Second fatellite 9.065898 Third fatellite 14.461628 Fourth fatellite 25.436090 The durations of their revolutions are refpeCtively, 327 Orbits and diftances of Jupiter’s fatellites. Firft fatellite Second fatellite Third fatellite Fourth fitellite 1.76913778706993 I days. 3.55ii8ioi6734509 7.154552807541524 16.689019396008634 If we compare the diftances of thefe fatellites with their periodic times, we obferve the fame relation point¬ ed out by Kepler between the diftances of the planets from the fun and the duration of their revolutions : for the fquares of the periodic times of the fatellites are pro¬ portional to the cubes of their diftance from Jupiter’s centre. The frequent eclipfes of thefe fatellites have enabled aftronomers to afcertain their motion, with much more precifion than could have been attained merely by ob- ferving tliv-ir diftances from Jupiter. The following points have been afcertained. The orbit of the firft fatellite is circular, at leaft its eccentricity is infenfible ; it coincides nearly with Ju¬ piter’s equator, which is inclined to the orbit of the planet at an angle of 3.99990. The ellipticity of the orbit of the fecond fatellite isIrregulari- alfo infenfible ; its inclination to Jupiter’s orbit varies, bes in their as does alfo the pofition of its nodes. Thefe irregular!- notlons* ties are reprefented pretty well, by fuppofing the inclina- tiod of the orbit to the equator of Jupiter 1750.968", and that its nodes move retrograde in that plane in a period of 30 years. A fmall eccentricity is obferved in the orbit of the third fatellite. The extremity of its longer axis next Jupiter, called the perijove, has a direct motion. The eccentricity of the orbit has been obferved to vary con- fiderably. The equation of the centre was at its maxi¬ mum about the end of the 17th century ; it then a- mounted I I o ASTRONOMY. Real Mo. mounted to about 862" 3 it gradually diminilhed, and tions of the in the year 1775 it was as its mimrnum, and amounted Heavenly only to about 229.7". The inclination of the orbit .of Bodies. tll;s fotellite to that of Jupiter, and the pofition of its nodes, are variable. Thefe different variations are re- prefented pretty nearly, by fuppofing the orbit inclin¬ ed to that of Jupiter, at an angle of about 726", and giving to the nodes a retrograde motion in the plane of the equator, completed in the period of 137 years. The orbit of the fourth fatellite is very fenfibly el¬ liptical. Its perijove has a dire£t motion, amounting to about 2112". This orbit is inclined to that of Jupiter, at an angle of about I47,• It is ’n co000 170,000 217,000 303,000 704,000 2,050,000 57 l4 27 52 36 18 The planet Herfcbel, with its fix fatellites, have been 0f entirely difcovered by Dr Herfchel. The planet itfelfHerfchel. may be feen ivith almoft any telefcope ; but its fatellites cannot be perceived without the moft powerful inftru- ments, and the concurrence of all other favourable cir- eumftances. One of thefe fatellites Dr Herfchel found to revolve round its primary in 8d. 17b. im. 19 fee.; the period of another he found to be 13d. nh. 5m. 1.5 fee. The apparent diftance of the former from the planet is 33"; that of the fecond 44"^. Their orbits are nearly perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. The other four fatellites were difcovered a confider- able time after, and of courfe Dr Herfchel has had lefs time to make obfervations upon them. They are alto¬ gether very minute objedfts ; fo that the following parti¬ culars muft be confidered as being not accurate but pro¬ bable. “ Admitting the diftance of the interior fatel¬ lite to be 25''.5, its periodical revolution will be 5d. 2ih. 25m. “ If the intermediate fatellite be placed at an equal diftance between the two old fatellites, or at 38;/.57, its period will be lod. 23IL 4m. The neareft exterior fatellite is about double the diftance of the fartheft old one ; its periodical time will therefore be about 38d. ih. 49m. The moft diftant fatellite is full four times as far from the planet as the old fecond fatellite ; it will therefore take at leaft io7d. l6h. 40m. to complete one revolution. All thefe fatellites perform their revolu¬ tions in their orbits contrary to the order of the figns; that is, their real motion is retrograde.” Part 112 ASTRONOMY. Theory of Univerfal Gravitaj' tion. PART IV. OF THE THEORY OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. Part IV. Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. 331 Motion. 332 Moving forces. 333 Compofi tion of forces. HAVING in the laft two parts of this treatife given an account of the apparent and real motions of the heavenly bodies, it only remains for us to compare thefe motions with the laws eftablilhed by mathema¬ ticians, in order to afcertain the forces that animate the folar fyftem, and to acquire notions of the general principle of gravitation on which they depend. To de- velope this part of the fubjedl properly, three particu¬ lars claim our attention. We muft in the firft place lay down the laws of motion as eftablifhed by mathe¬ maticians ; in the fecond place, we muft apply thefe laws to the heavenly bodies, which will furnilh us with the theory of gravitation; and, in the third place, we muft apply this theory to the planetary fyftem, and demonftrate that the whole motionsof the heavenly bo¬ dies are explicable by that theory, and merely cafes of it. Thefe particulars ftiall be the fubjeft of the three following chapters. Chap. I. Of the Laws of Motion. The laws of motion, by which all matter is regula¬ ted, and to which it is fubjeft notwithftanding the variety of phenomena which it continually exhibits, con- ftitute the firft principles of mechanical, philofophy. They will claim a feparate place hereafter in this work, under the title of Dynamics ; but fome notions of them are requifite in order to underftand the theory of .gravi¬ tation. We (hall fatisfy ourfelves in this place with the following (hort {ketch. A body appears to us to move when it .changes its fituation with refpeft to other bodies which we con- fider as at reft. Thus in a veffel failing down a river, bodies are faid to be in motion when they correfpond fucceflively to different parts of the veffel. . But this motion is merely relative. 1 he veffel itfelf is moving along the furface of the river, which turns round the axis of the earth, while the centre of the earth itfelf is carried round the fun, and the fun with all its attendant planets is moving through fpace. 1 his renders it ne- ceffary to refer the motion of a body to the parts of fpace, which is confidered as boundlefs, immoveable, and penetrable. A body then is faid to be in motion when it correfponds fucceflively to different parts of fpaee* . Matter, as far as we know, is equally indifferent to motion or reft. When in motion it moves for ever un- lefs ftopt by fome caufe, and when at reft it remains fo, unlefs put in motion by fome caufe. The caufe which puts matter in motion is called force. 1 he nature of 'moving forces is altogether unknown, but we can mea- fure their effeifts. _ _ . Whenever a force a£ts upon matter it puts it in mo¬ tion, if no other force prevent this effect ; the ftraight line’which the body defcribes, is called the direElion of the force. Two forces may act upon matter at the lame time. If their direftion be the fame, they increafe the motion ; if their direftion be oppofite they deftroy each other ; and the motion is nothing if the two forces be equal; it is merely the excefs of the one force above the other if the motions be unequal. If the directions of the two forces make with each other any angle whatever, the refulting motion will be in a direction between the two. And it has been demonftrated, that if lines be taken to reprefent the dire£tion and amount of the forces, if thefe lines be converted into a parallelogram by drawing parallels to them ; the diagonal of that parallelogram will reprefent the direction and quantity of the refulting motion. This is calltd the compofition of forces. For two forces thus afting together, we may fubfti- tute their refult, and vice verja. Hence we may de- compofe a force into two others, parallel to two axes fituated in the fame plane, and perpendicular to each other. Thus finding that a body A, fig. 117* ^ias mov¬ ed from A to C, we may imagine either that the body has been impelled by a fingle force in the direc¬ tion of AC, and proportionate to the length of AC, or that it has been impelled by twro forces at once, viz. by one in the dire&ion of AD, and proportionate to the length of AD ; and by another force in the direc¬ tion of AB or DC, and proportionate to AB or DC. Therefore, if two fides of any triangle (as AD and DC) reprefent both the quantities and the direftions of two forces acting from a given point, then the third fide (as AC) of the triangle will reprefent both the quantity and the direftion of a third force, which ail¬ ing from the fame point, will be equivalent to the other two, and vice verfa. Thus alfo in fig. 118. finding that the body A has moved along the line AF from A to F in a certaia time ; we may imagine, ift, that the body has been im¬ pelled by a fingle force in the direction and quantity re- prefented by AF ; or 2dly, that it has been impelled by two forces, viz. the one reprefented by AD, and the other reprefented by AE ; or thirdly, that it has been impelled by three forces, viz. thofe reprefented by AD, AB, and AC; or laftly, that it has been impelled by any other number of forces in any direitions; provided all thefe forces be equivalent to the fingle force which is reprefented by AF. This fuppofition of a body having been impelled by two or more forces to perform a certain courfe ; or, on the contrary, the fuppofition that a body has been im¬ pelled by a fingle force, when the body is actually known to have been impelled by feveral forces, which are, how¬ ever, equivalent to that fingle force; has been called the compofition and refolution of forces. . 334 The knowledge of thefe principles gives mathcma-Refolutio* ticians an eafy method of obtaining the refult of any of forces, number of forces whatever afting on a body. For every particular force may be refolved into three others, parallel to three axes given in.pofition, and per¬ pendicular to each other. It is obvious, that all the forces parallel to the lame axis are equivalent to a fingle force, equal to the fum of all thofe which a£t .in one diredion, diminifhcd by the fum of thofe which art IV. ASTRO Theory of aft in the oppnfite direftion. Thus the body will be Univerfal afted on by three forces perpendicular to each other : Gravita- jp tiie direftion of thefe forces be reprelented by the tl"n- fides of a parallelepiped, the refulting force will be re- y prefented by the diagonal of that parallelepiped. The indifference of a material body to motion or reft, and its perfeverance in either ftate when put into it, is called the vis inertia: of matter. This property is conftdered as the firft law of motion. Hence, when¬ ever the ftate of a body changes, we aferibe the change to the aft ion of fome caufe : hence the motion of a body when not altered by the aftion of fome new force, 335 meft be uniform and in a ftraight line. Velocity. In fuch uniform motions the fpace paffed over is pro¬ portional to the time : but the time employed to de- feribe a given fpace will be longer or fhorter according to the greatnefs of the moving force. This difference in the time of traverfing the fame fpace gives us the. notion of velocity, which in uniform motions is the ra¬ tio between the fpace and the time employed in tra- verling it. As fpace and time are heterogeneous quan¬ tities, they cannot indeed be compared together 5 it is the ratio between the numbers reprefenting each that conftitutes velocity. A unity of time, a fecond for in- ftance, is chofen, and in like manner a unity of fpace, as a foot. Thus, if one body move over 20 feet in one fecond, and another only 10, then the velocity of the firft is double that of the fecond 5 for the ratio between 20 and 1 is twice as great as the ratio of 10 to 1. When the fpace, time, and velocity, are reprefen ted by numbers, we have the fpace equal to the velocity mul¬ tiplied by the time, and the time equal to the fpace di¬ vided by the time. The force by which a body is moved is proportional to the velocity, and therefore is meafured by the velo¬ city. This has been difputed by fome philofophers, but has been fufficiently eftablifhed. We fhall confi- der it, therefore, as a matter of fact, referring the read¬ er for a difeuflion of the fubjeft to the article Dy- 336 NAMICS. Accelerat- When a body is put in motion by forces which not ing forces, only aft at firft, but which continue to aft uniformly, it will deferibe a curve line, the nature of which de¬ pends upon the forces which occafion the motion. Gravitation is an inftance of a force which afts in this manner. Let us confider it a little. It appears to aft; in the fame manner in a body at reft and in motion. A body abandoned to its aftion acquires a very fmall velocity the firft inftant; the fecond inftant it acquires a new velocity equal to what it had the firft inftant 5 and thus its velocity increafes every inftant in propor¬ tion to the time. Suppofe a right-angled triangle, one of the fides of which reprefents the time, and the other the velocity. The fluxion of the furface of the tri¬ angle being equal to the fluxion of the time multiplied by that of the velocity, will reprefent the fluxion of the fpace. Hence the whole triangle will reprefent the fpace deferibed in a given time. But the triangle increafing as the fquare of either of its fides, it is ob¬ vious, that in the accelerated motion produced by gra¬ vitation, the velocities increafe with the times, and the heights from which a body falls from reft increafe as the fquares of the times or of the velocities. Hence, if we denote by 1 the fpace through which a body falls Vol. IIL Part I. N O M Y. 1 the firft fecond, it will fall 4 in 2", 9 in 3", and lb on 5 Th«or fo that every fecond it will deferibe fpaces increafing as Umvt the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. This important point will perhaps be rendered more intelligible by tiie follow- ,— ing diagram. Let AB, fig. 119. reprefent the time during which a body is defeending, and let BC reprefent the velocity acquired at the end of that time. Complete the tri¬ angle ABC, and the parallelogram ABCD. Alio fuppofe the time to be divided into innumerable par¬ ticles, ei, itn, mp, po, &c. and draw ef, ii, mn, &c. all parallel to the bafe BC. Then, fince the velocity of the defeending body has been gradually increafing from the commencement of the motion, and BC reprefents the ultimate velocity ; therefore the parallel lines ej, ik, mn, &.c. will reprefent the velocities at the ends of the refpeftive times A e, A 2, A m, &c. Moreover, fince the velocity during an indefinitely fmall particle of time may be confidered as uniform •, therefore the right line ef will be as the velocity of the body in the indefinitely fmall particle of time ei; ik will be as the velocity in the particle of time im, and fo forth. Now the fpace paffed over in any time with any velocity is as the velocity multiplied by the time 5 viz. as the reftangle under that time and velocity 5 hence the fpace paffed over in the time ei with the velocity ef, will be as the reftangle if; the fpace paffed over in the time im with the velocity ik, will be as the reftangle mb; the fpace paffed over in the time mp with the velocity m n, will be as the reftangle pn, and fo on. Therefore the fpace paffed over in the fum of all thofe times, will be as the fum of all thofe reftangles. But fince the particles of time are infinitely fmall, the fum of all the reftangles will be equal to the triangle ABC. Now fince the fpace paffed over by a moving body in the time AB with a uniform velocity BC, is as the reftangle ABCD, (viz. as the time multiplied by the velocity) and this reftangle is equal to twice the triangle ABC (Eucl. p. 31. B. I.) therefore the fpace paffed over in a given time by a body falling from reft, is equal to half the fpace paffed over in the fame time with an uniform velocity, equal to that which is acquired by the defeend¬ ing body at the end of its fall. Since the fpace run over by a falling body in the time reprefented by AB, fig. 120. with the velocity BC is as the triangle ABC, and the fpace run over in any other time AD, and velocity DE, is reprefented by the triangle ADE j thofe fpaces muft be as the fquares of the times AB AD ; for the fimilar triangles ABC, and ADE, are as the fquares of their homologous Tides, viz. ABC is to ADE as the fquare of AB is to th& fquare of AD, (Eucl. p. 29. B. VI.) When a body is placed upon an inclined plane, the force of gravity which urges that body downwards, afts with a power fo much lels, than if the body defeended freely and perpendicularly downwards, as the elevation of the plane is lefs than its length. The fpace which is deferibed by a body defeending freely from reft towards the earth, is to the fpace which it will deferibe upon the furface of an inclined plane in the fame time as the length of the plane is to its eleva¬ tion, or as radius is to the fine of the plane’s inclina¬ tion to the horizon. If upon the elevation BC, fig. 121. of the plane BD, P as ASTRONOMY. Part IV. Theory of as a diameter, the femicircle BEGC be defcribed, the Univerfal part BE of the inclined plane, which is cut off by the Gravita- femiciicle, is that part of the plane over which a body , tl^>r“ will defcend, in the fame, time that another body will deftend freely and perpendicularly along the diameter of the circle, viz. from B to C, which is the altitude of the plane, or line of its inclination to the horizon. The time of a body’s defcending along the whole length of an inclined plane, is to the time of its de¬ fcending freely and perpendicularly along the altitude of the plane, as the length of the plane is to its alti¬ tude •, or as the whole force of gravity is to that part of it which a£ts upon the plane. A body by defcending from a certain height tp the fame horizontal line, will acquire the fame velocity whe¬ ther the defcent be made perpendicularly or obliquely, over an inclined plane, or over many fucceflive inclined planes, or laftly over a curve furface. From thefe propofitions, which have been fufBciently eftablifhed by mathematicians, it follows, that in the circle ABC (fig. 122.), a body will fall along the dia¬ meter from A to B, or along the chords CB, DB, in exa&ly the fame line by the action of gravity. When a body is projected in any line whatever not perpendicular to the earth’s furface, it does not conti¬ nue in that line, but continually deviates from it, de- fcribing a curve, of which the primary line of direc¬ tion is a tangent. The motion of the body relative to this line is uniform. But if vertical lines be drawn from this tangent to the curve, it will be perceived that its velocity is uniformly accelerated in the dire&ion of thefe verticals. They are proportional to the fquares of the eorrefponding parts of the tangent. This property (hows us that the curve in which the body proje&ed moves is 337 a parabola. Of the per- The ofcillations of the pendulum are regulated like- dulum. ,vjfe foy the fame law of gravitation. The fundamen¬ tal proportions refpe&ing pendulums are the follow- ing If a pendulum be moved to any diftance from its natural and perpendicular direftion, and there be let go, it will defcend towards the perpendicular ; then it will afcend on the oppofite fide nearly as far from the perpendicular, as the place whence it began to defcend ; after which it will again defcend towards the perpen¬ dicular, and thus it will keep moving backwards and forwards for a considerable time ; and it would conti¬ nue to move in that manner for ever, were it not for the refiftance of the air, and the friftion at the point of flifpenfion, which always prevent its afcending to the fame height as that from which it laftly began to de¬ fcend. ■ The velocity of a pendulum in its loweft point is as the chord of the arch which it has defcribed in its de¬ fcent. The very fmall vibrations of the fame pendulum are performed in times nearly equal •, but the vibrations through longer and unequal arches are performed in times fenfibly different. As the diameter of a circle is to its circumference, fo is the time of a heavy body’s defcent from reft through half the length of a pendulum to the time of one of the fmalleft vibrations of that pendulum. It is from' thefe propofitions, and the experiments made with pendulums, that the fpace defcribed by a 4 body falling from reft by the a&ion of gravity has been Theory of alcertained. Univerfal The late Mr John Whitehurft, an ingenious mem- Uravita- ber of the Royal Society, feems to have contrived and . t‘°”' j performed the leaft exceptionable experiments rela¬ tively to this fubjedl. The refult of his experiments {hews, that the length of the pendulum which vibrates feconds in London, at 113 feet above the level of the fea, in the temperature of 6o° of Fahrenheit’s thermo¬ meter, and when the barometer is at 30 inches, is 39,1196 inches j whence it follows that the fpace which is paffed over by bodies defcending perpendicularly, in the firft fecond of time, is 16,087 feet. This length of a fecond pendulum is certainly not mathematically exaft, yet it may be confidered as fuch for all common purpofes j for it is not likely to differ from the truth by more than ToWth part of an inch. By thefe propofitions, alfo, the variations of gravity in different parts of the earth’s furface and on the tops of mountains has been afcertained. Newton alfo has ftiown, by means of the pendulum, that gravity does not depend upon the furface nor figure of a body. ^ The motion of bodies round a centre affords another of central well known inftance of a conftant force. As the mo-forces, tion of matter left to itfelf is uniform and reflilinear, it is obvious that a body moving in the circumference of a curve, muff have a continual tendency to fly off at a tangent. This tendency is called a centrifugalforce, while every force dire principles of dynamics laid down in the laft chapter, in¬ form us that this could not happen unlefs each of thefe bodies were conftantly a&ed on by a force turning them from the ftraight line in the direction of the centre of thefe radii vedlors. Hence it follows, that the planets are conftantly a died upon by a force which urges them towards the fun as a centre. ^4 Let us fuppofe that the planets revolve round the in coniV- fun in circles, which is not very far from the truth. (ll,ence °fa In that cafe, the fquares of their velocities are proper- tional to the ’quares of the radii of their orbits, divided by the fquares of the times of their revolution. But by the laws of Kepler, the fquares of the times are as the cubes of the radii of the orbits of the planet, or of the diftance. Therefore, the fquares of the velocity are reciprocally as thefe radii. Perhaps this reafoning will be better underftood by employing fymbols. Let t~ the I 20 ASTRO the radius, we have Theory of the time, ^rr 'the velocity, and r Gravita-1 But ?2rrr3, therefore, fubftituting rJ in the tion. ‘ . . -* r* j ———, therefore r} r 345 •This force inverfely as the fquare of the di- Jtance. 346 Tendency the fame in all the planets, 1 firft formula, we have , but - we have or -y* always reciprocally proportional • r to r. We have feen formerly that the central forces of different bodies revolving in a circle, are as the fquares of the velocity divided by the radii of their or¬ bits. Therefore, the tendency of the planets to the fun, then, are reciprocally as the fquares of the radii of their orbits, or their diftance from the fun. This will be better underftood if we exprefs it by fymbols. We have Let c denote the central force, , . • r ’ r for v2 fubftitute its equivalent -, and we have czz.-^. It is true that the orbits of the planets are not ex- aftly circular ; but as the law of the fquares of the times, proportional to the cubes of the diftances, is in¬ dependent of the eccentricity of the planetary orbits, it is natural to fuppofe, that it would exill, even though the eccentricity were deftroyed. . The law, therefore, that the tendency to the fun is inverfely as the fquare of the dillance, is clearly indicated by this ratio. . Analogy leads us to fuppofe, that this law, which extends from one planet to another, holds alfo with refpeft to the fame planet in all its difierent diftances from the fun. That this is actually the cafe, follows with certainty from the elliptical orbits of the planets. When the planet is in its perihelion, its velocity is a maximum, and its tendency to feparate fiom the fun in confequence of this velocity overcoming the ten¬ dency towards the fun, the radius vector increafes in length, and forms obtufe angles with the direction of the^planet. Hence it oppofes, and of courfe, tends to diminifli the velocity, till the planet reaches its aphe¬ lion. Then the radius veftor becomes perpendicular to the curve, the velocity is at its minimum ; and the tendency to feparate from the fun being lefs than the tendency towards the fun, the planet^ approaches to¬ wards it, defcribing the fecond part of its elliptical or¬ bit. In that part, the tendency to the fun increafes the velocity of the planet, as in the former part jt had diminifhed it : the planet accordingly comes to its pe¬ rihelion with a maximum of velocity. Now the cur¬ vature of the ellipfe being the fame at the perihelion and aphelion, the radii of the equicurve circles will be the fame, and, of courfe, the centrifugal forces in thefe two points will be to each other as the fquares of the velocity. The fedors deferibed in the fame times be¬ ing equal, the velocities at the aphelion and perihelion are reciprocally as the correfponding diftarfces of the planet from the fun. Of courfe, the fquares of the velocities are reciprocally as the fquares of thefe di¬ ftances, or at the perihelion and aphelion the centrifu¬ gal forces are equal to the tendency of the planet to¬ wards the fun. Therefore this tendency is inverfely as the fquare of the diftance of the planet from the We fee then, in general, that all the planets tend towards the fun, with a force inverfely as the fquare N O M Y. Part IV. of their diftance. Newton demonftrated, that this force Theory of would caufe them, if proje&ed with a given velocity, to Umverfal defcribe ellipfes round the fun as a centre. He demon- Glta^ta' ftrated farther, that this tendency is the fame in all the jf planets, varying only according to their diftances. Hence it follows, that if they were all at reft, and placed at the fame diftance from the fun, they would all, in confe¬ quence of this tendency, fall into the fun at the fame inftant ; the fame refult muft be applied alfo to the co¬ mets, for in them alfo the, fquares of the times are un¬ doubtedly proportional to the cubes of their diftance from the fun. 347 The fatellites tend equally to the fun with the pla-and fatei- nets around which they revolve. Were not the moonhtes. under the influence of this tendency, inftead of defcrib¬ ing a circle round the earth, it would foon abandon it altogether. Unlefs the fatellites of Jupiter and the moon tended towards the fun, irregularities would be perceptible in their orbits, which they do not exhi¬ bit. The planets, comets, and fatellites,^ then, all tend to the fun in confequence of the a£lion of the fame force. While the fatellites move round their planet, the entire fyftem of planet and fatellites is car¬ ried round the fun, and retained in their orbits by the fame force. Of courfe, the motion of the fatellites round the planet, is merely the fame as it the planet were altogether at reft, and not afted upon by any fo¬ reign body. 34® i Thus we have been led, without affuming any hypo-Hence the thefts, by the neceffary confequence of the laws of the celeftial movements, to confider the centre of the ban as bodies_ the focus of a force, which extends itfelf indefinitely through fpace, diminiftung inverfely as the fquares of the diftance, and which attraBs all bodies within thefphere of its aftivity. Each of Kepler’s laws points out a pro¬ perty of this attractive force. The law of the areas pro¬ portional to the times, informs us, that the force is di¬ rected towards the fun ; the elliptical figure of the pla¬ nets proves to us, that its intenfity diminilhes as the fquare of the diftance augments *, and the law of the fquares of the times proportional to the cubes of the di¬ ftance, informs us, that the tendency, or gravitation of all the planets to the fun is the fame, provided the di¬ ftances were the fame. We may call this force folar attraBion, fuppofing, for the fake of a diftinft conception, that it is a force refiding in the fun. . 349 The tendency or gravitation of the fatellites towards Satellites their planets, is a neceffary confequence of the areas feribed by their radii veCtors being proportional to the maries. times ; that this gravitation is inverfely as the fquare of their diftance, is indicated by the ellipticity of their or¬ bits. This ellipticity, indeed, being fcareely apparent in moft of the fatellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herfchd, would leave feme uncertainty, did not the third law, namely, the fquares of the times being inverfely as the cubes of their diftance, demonftrate, that from one fatel- lite to another, the tendency to the planet is inverfely as the fquare of the diftance. 35® This proof, indeed, is wanting with refpeCl to our Moon’s moon ; but the defeCI may be fupplied by the follow-tesdeney ing confiderations. Gravity, or the weight by which ^hdgraYi< a body tends towards the earth, extends itfelf to thetat-on^ top of the higheft mountains, and the very trilling di¬ minution which it experiences at that height, cannot permit us to doubt, that it would ftill be fenfible at a confiderably Part IV. ASTRO Theory of confiderably greater diftance from the earth’s centre. Univerfal Is it not natural to extend it as far as the moon, and to fuppofe that the force which retains that fatellite in its orbit, is its gravitation towards the earth, juft as it is the folar attradlion which retains the planets in their orbits ? The forces at leaft feem to be of the fame na¬ ture j they both a£t upon every particle of bodies, and caufe them to move at the fame rate 5 for the folar at- traftion a£ts equally upon all bodies placed at the fame diltance from the fun, juft as gravitation caufes all bo¬ dies to fall from the fame height with the fame velo¬ city. A body projected horizontally, falls upon the earth at fome diftance after defcribing a curve fenfibly parabolic. It would fall at a greater diftance, if the force of projection were more confiderable ; and, if projected with a certain velocity, it would not fall back at all, but revolve round the earth like a fatellite. To make it move in the orbit of the moon, it would be neceflary only to give it the fame height and the fame projecting force. But what demonftrates the identity of gravitation and of the force which retains the moon in its orbit is, that if we fuppofe gravity to diminilh in- verfely as the fquare of the diftance from the centre of the earth, at the diftance of the moon it will be precifely equal to the moon’s tendency to the earth. Let A in fig. 134. reprefent the earth, B the moon, BCD the moon’s orbit •, which differs little from a cir¬ cle of which A is the centre. If the moon in B were left to itfelf to move with the velocity it has in the point B, it wrould leave the orbit, and proceed ftraight forward in the line BE which touches the orbit in B. Suppofe the moon would upon this condition move from B to E in the fpace of one minute of time : By 35! the aCtion of the earth upon the moon, whereby it is Her motion retained in its orbit, the moon will really be found at particularly en(] 0f minute in the point F, from whence a -xpained. jjng d^wn t0 A fhall make the fpace BFA in the circle equal to the triangular fpace BEA fo that the moon in the time wherein it would have moved from B to E, if left to itfelf, has been impelled to¬ wards the earth from E to F. And when the time of the moon’s palling from B to F is fmall, as here it is only one minute, the diftance between E and F fcarce differs from the fpace through which the moon would defcend in the fame time if it were to falldire&ly down from B toward A without any other motion. AB, the diftance of the moon from the earth, is about 60 of the femidiameters of the latter ; and the moon com¬ pletes her revolution round the earth in about 27 days 7 hours and 43 minutes: therefore the fpace EF will here be found by computation to be about i6-|- feet. Confequently, if the power by which the moon is re¬ tained in its orbit be near the furface of the earth greater than at the diftance of the moon in the dupli- cate proportion of that diftance, the number of feet a Calculation body would defcend near the furface of the earth, by it the velo- the aftion of this power upon it, in one minute, would :>ty of fall- ke equal to the number 16-g- multiplied twice into the !1S 0 les- number 60; that is> to 58050. But how fall bodies fall near the furface of the earth may be known by the pendulum ; and by the exa&eft experiments, they are found to defcend the fpace of i6f feet in one fe- cond ; and the fpaces defcribed by falling bodies be¬ ing in the duplicate proportion of the times of their fall, the number of feet a body tvould defcribe in its Vol. III. Part I. N O M Y. 121 fall near the furface of the earth in one minute of time Theory of will be equal to i6f twice multiplied by 60; the fame Univerfal as would be caufed by the power which a£ts upon the Gr^ta' moon. 1 - ^ —,.i In this computation the earth is fuppofed to be at 3^ reft : but it would have been more exadt to have fup- Earth and pofed it to move, as well as the moon, about their n|joont common centre of gravity; as will be eafily underftood to°^mon from what has been already faid concerning the motion centre 0f of the fun and primary planets about their common gravity, centre of gravity. The adlion of the fun upon the moon is alfo here neglected ; and Sir Ifaac Newton ftiows, if you take in both thefe confiderations, the prefent computation will belt agree to a fomewhat greater diftance of the moon and earth, viz. to 6o|- femidiameters of the latter, which diftance is more con¬ formable to aftronomical obfervations: and thefe com¬ putations afford an additional proof that the adtion of the earth obferves the fame proportion to the diftance which is here contended for. We fee then that the force which retains the moon in its orbit is gravitation, or that force which caufes heavy bodies to fall to the ground. This comparifon between gravity and the lunar tendency to the earth ftiows us, that, in our calculations, we ought to meafure diftance from the centre of gravity of the fun and of the planets ; for this is obvioufly the cafe with the earth, and its tendency to the fun is precifely the fame with that of the other planets. The fun and the planets which have fatellites, pof- pjanet3 felling, as we have feen, an attractive force inverfely as readl upon the fquare of the diftance, one is tempted to give the the fun. fame property to the other planets alfo. The fphericity common to all thefe bodies, indicates clearly, that their particles are retained round their centre of gravity, by a force which at equal diftances attradls them equally to that centre. But this important point is not left to analogical reafoning. We have feen, that if the pla¬ nets and comets were placed at equal diftances from the fun, their gravitation towards it would be pro¬ portional to their maffes. But it may be confidered as a general matter of fa£t, to which there is no excep¬ tion, that adtion and readtion are equal and contrary. Of courfe all thefe bodies readt upon the fun, and at- traB it in proportion to their mafs, and confequently poffefs an attradlive force proportional to their mafs, and inverfely as the fquare of their diftance. The fa¬ tellites alfo, in confequence of the fame principle, at- tradt the planets and the fun according to the fame law. This attradling force is then common to all the heaven¬ ly bodies. This force does not difturb the elliptical motion of the planets round the fun, when we confider only their mutual adtion. For the relative movement of a fyftem of bodies does not change by giving them a common motion. Neither is the elliptical motion of the fatel¬ lites difturbed by the revolution of the planets round the fun, for the very fame reafon. The attractive force does not belong to thefe bodies only as wholes; but it belongs to every particle of matter of which each of them is compofed. If the fun adted only upon the centre of the earth, without at¬ tracting every one of the particles of which it is com¬ pofed individually, there would refult tides incom¬ parably greater, and very different from thofe that we £) obferve. 122 Theory of Univerl'al Gravita¬ tion. astronomy. obferve. Befides, evety body on the earth gravitates fquare of a fidereal year towards its centre, in proportion to its mafs reafts r _ ■ ^ Qttrafls it in t towaras us ceiiuc, *n —- — It rea s of courfe upon the earth, and attrafts it in the fame ra¬ tio. Unlefs that were the cafe, or if any part of the earth, however fmall, did not attra£l the other patt as it is attradded by it, the centre of gravity of the earth would be moved in fpace, in confequence of gravitation; 355 which is impoffible. f General ^i], thefe phenomena, compared with the laws ot mo- law of gra-tion iea[i us to this grand conclufion : All the parti- vnation. maUer mutunl(y attraa each other, in proportion to their maffes, and inverfe/y as the fquares of their di- flances. This is called univerfal gravitation, and was the difcovery which crowned the happy induftry, the confummate fkill, and the unrivalled fagacity of New- t01In univerfal gravitation, we readily perceive a.caufe of the irregularities and difturbances perceptible in the planetary motions. For as the planets and comets act upon each other, they ought to deviate a little from that exadt ellipticity, which they would follow it they obeyed only the adtion of the fun. I he latelhtes, dii- turbed equally by their mutual attraaion, and by that of the fun, mult deviate alfo from thefe laws. We fee alfo that the particles of which each heavenly body is compofed, provided they be at liberty to move, ought to form themfelves into a fphere, and that the refult of their mutual adtion at the furface of this fphere ought to produce all the phenomena of gravity. VV e 4ee alio, that the rotation of the heavenly bodies round an axis ou°Ft to alter this fphericity fomewhat by flattening them at the poles, and that the refult of their mutual aaion not palling exaaiy through their centres ot gra¬ vity, ought to produce in their axis of rotation mo¬ tions fimilar to thofe which we perceive. We fee alfo, that the particles of the ocean, unequally attradted by the fun and moon, ought to have an ofcillation Timilar to the tides. But it will be neceffary to confider the effeas of gravitation more particularly ; in order to fhow that it is eltablilhed in the completeft manner by all the phenomena. This fliall be the fubjea of the next chapter. Chap. III. Of the FffeBs of Gravitation. WE (hall in this chapter confider, in the firft place, feveral points which could only be afcertained by the afliftance of gravitation, and afterwards examine the U- veral fubjeas hinted at towards the conclufion ot the laft chapter. Sect. I. Of the Maffes of the Planets. IT would appear, at firft view, impoflible to ascertain the refpeaive maffes of the fun and planets, and to cal¬ culate the velocity with which heavy bodies fall towards each when at a given diftance from their centres ; yet thefe points may be. determined from the theory ot gta- vitation without much difficulty. , 356. it fallows from the theorems relative to centrilugal rfST"-faces, given in the firft chapter of this part, that the fiteot the gravitation of a fatellile towards tts planet Is to the planets. |ravitation of the earth towards the fun, as the mean diftance of the fatellite from its primary, divided by the fquare of the time of its fidereal revolution, or the mean diftance of the- earth from the fun divided by the Part IV. Iquare or a naereai ^ccu. Fo bring thefe gravitations Theory of to the fame diftance from the bodies which produce U^erfal them, we muft multiply them refpeaively by the fquares of the radii of the orbits which are defcribed : and, as at equal diftances the maffes are proportional to the at- tra&ions, the mafs of the earth is to that of the fun as the cube of the mean radius of the orbit of. the fatel- lite, divided by the fquare of the time of its hdereal motion, is to the cube of the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, divided by the fquare of the fidereal year. . Let us apply this refult to Jupiter. The mean di¬ ftance of his 4th fatellite fubtends an angle of I53o".86 decimal feconds. Seen at the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, it would appear under an angle of 7q64',.75 decimal feconds. The radius of the circle contains 636619".% decimal feconds. Therefore the mean radii of the orbit of Jupiter’s 4th fatellite and ot the earth’s orbit are to each other as thefe two num¬ bers. The time of the fidereal revolution of the 4th fatellite is 16.6890 days j the fidereal year is 365.2564 days. Thefe data give us -^55^8 for the mal's Jupiter, that of the fun being reprefented by 1. It is neceffary to add unity to the denominator ot this trac¬ tion, becaufe the force which retains Jupiter in his orbit is the fum of the attraftions of Jupiter and the fun. The mafs of Jupiter is then The raafs of Saturn and Herfchel may be calculated in the fame •manner. That of the earth is beft determined by the following method : r „ , . r ,, If we take the mean diftance of the earth from the fun for unity, the arch defcribed by the earth in a fe¬ cund of time will be the ratio of the circumference to the radius divided by the number of feconds in a hde- real year. If we divide the fquare of that arch by the diameter, we obtain for its verfed fine, which is the defleaion of the earth towards the fun in a fe- cond. But on that parallel of the earth’s furface the fnuare of the fine of whofe latitude is a body falls in a fecond i6| feet. To reduce this attraaion to the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, we muft di¬ vide the number by the feet contained in that diftance j but the radius of the earth at the above-mentioned pa¬ rallel is 19614648 French feet. If we divide this num¬ ber by the tangent of the folar parallax, we. obtain the mean radius of the earth’s orbit expreffed in feet. The effea of the attraaion of the earth, at a di¬ ftance equal to the mean radius of its orbit, is equal to multiplied by the cube of the tangent of 19614648 the folar parallax = Hence tlie ma^"es of the fun and earth are to each other as the numbers I47956o-5 and 4-486ii3 i therefore the mafs of the earth is ^—, that of the fun being unity. 329809 M. de la Place calculated the maffes of Mars and Venus from the fecular diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and from the mean acceleration of . the moon’s motion. The mafs of Mercury he obtained from its volume, fuppofing the denfities of that p.anet Part IV. Theory of and of tlie earth reciprocally a<5 their mean diftance lUniverfal from the fun, a rule which holds, with refpeft to the earth, Jupiter, and Saturn. The following table exhi¬ bits the mafies of the different planets, that of the fun being unity : ASTRONOMY. 357, liable of he maffes. 35? 'f their infities. 359, f gravity their rfaces. Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Herfchel 2025810 1 1 329809 1 1846082 1 1067.09 1 3359-4° 1 I95°4 The denfities of bodies are proportional to their maffes divided by their bulks; and, when bodies are nearly fpherical, their bulks are as the cubes of their fe- midiameters, of courfe the denfities in that cafe are as the mafles divided by the cubes of the femidiameters. For greater exaftnefs, we muft take that femidiameter of a planet which correfponds to the parallel, the fquare of the fine of which is equal to y, and which is equal to the third of the fum of the radius of the pole, and twice the radius of the equator. This method gives us the denfities of the principal planets as follows, that of the fun being unity : Earth 3-93933 Jupiter 0.86014 Saturn 0.49512 Herfchel 1.13757 To have the intenfity of gravitation at the furface of the fun and planets, let us confider, that, if Jupiter and the earth were exaftly fpherical, and deilitute of their rotatory motion, gravitation at their equators would be proportional to the mafles of thefe bodies divided by the fquares of their diameters. But at the mean di- ftance of the fun from the earth, the diameters of the equators of Jupiter and of the earth are to each other as the numbers 626.26 and 54.5. If then we reprefent the weight of a body at the earth’s equator by 1, the fame body, if tranfported to the equator of Jupiter, would weigh 2.509. But the difference of the centri¬ fugal forces on the furface of the earth and Jupiter ren¬ ders it neceflary to diminifh this laft number by about I-. The fame body at the furface of the fun would weigh 27.65. Sect. II. Of the Perturbations in the Elliptical Orbit of the Planets. If the planets were influenced only by the fun, they Would defcribe ellipfes round that luminary : but they aft upon one another, and from thefe various attraftions there refult difturbances in their elliptical motions, dif- coverable by obfervation, and which it is neceflary to determine, in order to be able to conftruft accurate ta- 123 bles of the planetary motions. The rigorous folution of Theory of this problem is above the reach of the mathematical ana- Univerfal lyfis j mathematicians have been obliged tofatisfy them- Glt^ta felves with approximations. The difturbances in the elliptical motions of the pla- 360 nets may be divided into two clafles. I he firft: clafs Secular and affefts the elements of the elliptical motion : tjiey in- creafe very flowdy, and have been called fecular inequa- lities. The other clafs depends upon the configuration of the planets, either with refpeft to each other, or with refpeft to their nodes and perihelions, and are renewed every time that the relative fituation of the planets be¬ comes the fame. They are called periodical inequali¬ ties, to diftinguifli them from the fecular, whofe periods are much longer and altogether independent of the mu¬ tual configuration of the planets. Before proceeding farther, we beg leave to introduce the following quota¬ tion from Dr Pemberton, becaufe it will convey fome notion of thefe difturbances in a very familiar manner to our readers. “ The only inequalities which have been obferved common to all the planets are, the motion of the aphe¬ lion and the nodes. The tranfverfe axis of each orbit does not remain always fixed, but moves about the fun with a very flow progreflive motion j nor do the planets keep conftantly in the fame planes, but change them and the lines by which thefe planes interfeft each other 361 by infenfible degrees. The firft of thefe inequalities,^1*0”0^, which is the motion of the aphelion, may be accounted* for, by fuppofing the gravitation of the planets to- for< wards the fun to differ a little farther from the foremen- tioned reciprocal duplicate proportion of the diftances j but the fecond, which is the motion of the nodes, can¬ not be accounted for by any power direfted tow ards the fun; for no fuch power can give it any lateral impulfe to divert it from the plane of its motion into any new plane, but of neceflity muft be derived from fome other centre. Where that powrer is lodged, remains to be difcovered. Now it is proved, as lhall afterwards be explained, that the three primary planets, Saturn, Ju¬ piter, and the Earth, which have fatellites revolving about them, are endowed with a power of caufing bo¬ dies, in particular thofe fatellites, to gravitate towards them with a force which is reciprocally in the duplicate proportion of their diftances; and the planets are, in all refpefts in which they come under our conlidera- tion, fo fimilar and alike, that there is no reafon to queftion but they have all the fame property, though it be fufficient for the prefent purpofe t© have it proved of Jupiter and Saturn only ; for thefe planets contain much greater quantities of matter than the reft, and proportionally exceed the others in power. But the influence of thefe two planets being allowed, it is evident how the planets come to ftiift their places continually } for each of the planets moving in a differ¬ ent plane, the aftion of Jupiter and Saturn upon the reft will be oblique to the planes of their motion, and therefore will gradually draw them into new ones. The fame aftion of thefe two planets upon the reft will likewife caufe a progreflive motion of the aphe¬ lion ; fo that there will be no neceflity for having re- courfe to the other caufe for this motion, which was before hinted at, viz. the gravitation of the planets toward the fun differing from the exaft duplicate pro- (l 2 portion ASTRONOMY. i 24 Theory of portion of their diftances. And, in the lafl place, the Univerfal a£Hon of Jupiter and Saturn upon each other will pro- Gravita- juce jn their motions the fame inequalities as their , t^on' joint aftion produces upon the reft. All this is effe£t- v ed in the fame manner as the fun produces the lame kind of inequalities and many others in the motion of the moon and other fecondary planets j and there¬ fore will be beft apprehended by what is faid after¬ wards. Thofe other irregularities in the motion of the fecondary planets have place likewife here, but are too minute to be obfervable, becaufe they are produced and re&ified alternately, for the moft part in the time of a Angle revolution •, whereas the motion of the 362 aphelion and nodes, which increafe continually, become Jupiter and fenfible after a long feries of years. Yet fome of thefe Saturn other inequalities are difcernible in Jupiter and Sa- each other’sturn 5 in Saturn chiefly : for when JuPlte.r> wl?° moYes motions. fafter than Saturn, approaches to a conjunftion with him, his a&ion upon the latter will a little retard the motion of that planet •, and by the reciprocal adion of Saturn, he will himfelf be accelerated. After con- jun&ion, Jupiter will again accelerate Saturn, and be likewife retarded in the fame degree as before the firft was retarded and the latter accelerated. Whatever inequalities befides are produced in the motion of Sa¬ turn by the action of Jupiter upon that planet, will be fufficiently rectified by placing the focus of Saturn’s elliplis, which ftiould otherwife be the fun, in the common centre of gravity of the fun and Jupiter. And all the inequalities of Jupiter’s motions, caufed by the a£lion of Saturn upon him, are much lefs confiderable than the irregularities of Saturn’s motion. This one principle, therefore, of the planets having a power as well as the fun to caufe bodies gravitate towards them, which is proved by the motion of the fecondary planets to obtain in faft, explains all the irregularities rela¬ ting to the planetary motions ever obferved by aftrono- - mers (c). Method of “ Ifaac Newton after this proceeds to make an correfting improvement in aftronomy, by applying this theory to the plane- ^e farther corredfion of their motions. For as we have here obferved the planets to poffefs a principle of gravitation as well as the fun j fo it will be explained at large hereafter, that the third law of motion, which makes adtion and readlion equal, is to be applied in this cafe, and that the fun does not only attradl each planet, but is alfo itfelf attrafted by them *, the force wherewith the planet is afted on, bearing to the force wherewith the fun itfelf is adted upon at the fame time, the proportion which the quantity of matter in the fun bears to the quantity of matter in the planet. From the adtion of the fun and planet being thus mu¬ tual, Sir Ifaac Newton proves that the fun and planet will’ defcribe about their common centre of gravity __ fimilar ellipfes 5 and then, that the tranfverfe axis of the gravity of enipfis, which would be defcribed about the fun at reft hhnetsl thC *n the kme time’ the ^ame ProPortion as tiie fiuantlty tary mo¬ tions. 3<4 Sun moves roui.d the common centre ol Part IV.. of folid matter in the fun and planet together bears to Theory of the firft of two mean proportionals between this quantity Univerfai and the quantity of matter in the fun only. “ It will be alked, perhaps, how this corredtion can 1_, be admitted, when the caufe of the motions of the planets was before found, by fuppofing them to be the centre of the power which adled upon them ? for, ac¬ cording to the prefent corredtion, this power appears rather to be diredted to the common centre of gravity. But whereas the fun was at firft concluded to be the centre to which the power adting on the planets was diredted, becaufe the fpaces defcribed in equal times round the fun were found to be equal 5 fo Sir Ifaac Newton proves, that if the fun and planet move round their common centre of gravity, yet, to an eye placed in the planet, the fpaces which will appear to be de¬ fcribed about the fun will have the fame relation to the times of their defcription as the real fpaces would if the fun were at reft. I further aflerted, that, fup¬ pofing the planets to move round the fun at reft, and to be attradled by a power which fhould everywhere adt with degrees of ftrength reciprocally in the dupli¬ cate proportions of their diftances ; then the periods of the planets muft obferve the fame relations to their di¬ ftances as aftronomers have found them to do. But here it muft not be fuppofed, that the obfervations of aftrono¬ mers abfolutely agree without any the leaft difference and the prefent corredtion will not caufe a deviation from any one aftronomer’s obfervations fo much as they differ from one another ; for in Jupiter, where this cor¬ redtion is greateft, it hardly amounts to the 3000th part of the whole axis. ^ “ Upon this head, I think it not improper to men-Argument tion a refledtion made by our excellent author upon againft the thefe fmall inequalities in the planets motions, which eternity of. contains in it a very ftrong philofophical argument1‘e "0i againft the eternity of the wTorld. It is this, that thefe inequalities mull continually, increafe by flow degrees, till they render at length the prefent frame of nature unfit for the purpofes it now ferves. And a more con¬ vincing proof cannot be defired againft the prefent conftitution’s having exifted from eternity than this, that a certain period of years will bring it to an end. I am aware, that this thought of our author has been reprefented even as impious, and as no lefs than calling a refledlion upon the wifdom of the Author of nature for framing a perifhable work. But I think fo bold an affertion ought to have been made with lingular caution : for if this remark upon the increafing irre¬ gularities in the heavenly motions be true in fadl, as it really is, the imputation muft return upon the affer- tor, that this does not detradf from the divine wifdom. Certainly we cannot pretend to know all the omnifci- ent Creator’s purpofes in making this world, and there¬ fore cannot pretend to determine how long he defigned 36S it Ihould laft; and it is fufficient if it endure the time defigned by the Author. The body of every animal Ihows fcj Profeffor J. Robifim, however, informs us in his paper on the Georgium Stdus (Edinburgh Philofophical Tranfaftions Vol. I.), That all the irregularities in the planetary motions cannot be accounted for from the jLs of gravitation j for which reafon he was obliged to fuppofe the exiftence of planets beyond the orbit of Saturn, even before the difcovery of the Georgium Stilus. M. de la Lande alfo has obferved fome unaccounta . . inequalities in the motion, of Saturn for more than 30 years gaft. Fart IV. Theory of ftiows the unlimited wifdom of the Author no lefs, nay, Univerfal in many refpe&s more, than the larger frame of nature : Gr. vita- an(j yet we fee they are all defigned to laft but a fmall ^on' fpace of time.” ^ ' Sir Ifaac Newton had no fooner difcovered the uni- Defledtion verfality and reciprocity of the defleflions of the planets of the pla- and the fun, than he alfo fufpefted that they were con- nets to- tinually defleded towards each other. He immediately wards each obtained a general notion of what (hould be the more general refults of fuch a mutual adlion. They may be conceived in this way. Let S (fig. 135O reprefent the fun, E the earth, and I Jupiter, defcribing concentric orbits round the centre of the fyftem. Make IS : EA=:EI2 : SI*. Then, if IS be taken to reprefent the defleflion of the fun to- Geneial re-war<^s Jupiter, EA will reprefent the deflexion of the fult of fuch Earth to Jupiter. Draw EB equal and parallel to SI, mutual ac- and complete the parallelogram EB AD. ED will re- lion. prefent the difturbing force of Jupiter. It may be re- folvent into EF perpendicular to ES, and EG in the dire&ion of SE. By the firft of thefe the earth’s an¬ gular motion round the fun is afte£led, and by the fe- cond its defle6lion towards him is diminilhed or increa- fed. In confequence of this firft part of the difturbing force, the angular motion is increafed, while the earth ap¬ proaches from quadrature to conjunftion with Jupiter (which is the cafe reprefented in the figure), and is di- miniftied from the time that Jupiter is in oppofition till the earth is again in quadrature, weft ward of his oppofi¬ tion. The earth is then accelerated till Jupiter is in conjunftion with the fun j after which it is retarded till the earth is again in quadrature. The earth’s tendency to the fun is diminifhed while Jupiter is in the neighbourhood of his oppofition or con- jundlion, and increafed while he is in the neighbourhood of his ftationary pofitions. Jupiter being about icoo times lefs than the fun, and 5 times more remote, IS muft be confidered as reprefenting °f t*16 earth’s deflection to the fun, and the forces ED and EG are to be meafured on this fcale. In confequence of this change in the earth’s tenden¬ cy to the fun, the aphelion fometimes advances by the diminution, and fometimes retreats by the augmenta¬ tion. It advances when Jupiter chances to be in oppo¬ fition when the earth is in its aphelion ; becaufe this di¬ minution of its defleCtion towards the fun makes it later before its path is brought from forming an obtufe angle with the radius ve&or, to form a right angle with it. Becaufe the earth’s tendency to the fun is, on the whole, more diminifhed by the difturbing force of Jupiter than it is increafed, the aphelion of the earth’s orbit advances on the whole. In like manner the aphelia of the inferior planets ad¬ vance by the difturbing forces of the fuperior : but the aphelion of a fuperior planet retreats 5 for thefe reafons, and becaufe Jupiter and Saturn are larger and more powerful than the inferior planets, the aphelia of them all advance while that of Saturn retreats. In confequence of the fame difturbing forces, the node of the difturbed planet retreats on the orbit of the difturbing planet 3 therefore they all retreat on the ecliptic, except that of Jupiter, which advances by retreating on the orbit of Saturn, from which it fuf- fers the greateft difturbance, This is owing to the 125- particular pofition of the nodes and the inclinations of Theory of the orbits. Univerfal The inclination of a planetary orbit increafes while G^^ta” the planet approaches the node, and diminiflies while , ' . the planet retires from it. 368 M. de la Place has completed this deduftion of the A peculia- planetary inequalities, by explaining a peculiarity in thenty e^" motions of Jupiter and Saturn, which has long empl°y'f}ieIJnotions- ed the attention of aftronomers. The accelerations and0f jUpiter retardations of the planetary motions depend, as has and Saturn, been ftiown, on their configurations, or the relative quar¬ ters of the heavens in which they are. Thofe of Mer¬ cury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, arifing from their mu¬ tual defledlions 3 and their more remarkable deflections to the great planets Jupiter and Saturn, nearly compen- fate each other, and no traces of them remain after a few revolutions : but the pofitions of the aphelia of Sa¬ turn and Jupiter are fuch, that the retardations of Sa¬ turn fenfibly exceed the accelerations, and the anomali- ftic period of Saturn increafes almoft a day every centu¬ ry; on the contrary, that of Jupiter diminilhes. M. de la Place ftiows, that this proceeds from the pofition of the aphelia, and the almoft perfeCl commenfurability of their revolutions ; five revolutions of Jupiter making 21,675 days, while two revolutions of Saturn make 21,538, differing only 137 days. Suppofing the relation to be exaCl, the theory (hows, that the mutual aCtion of thefe planets muft produce mutual accelerations and retardations of their mean mo¬ tions, and afcertains the periods and limits of the fecu- lar equations thence arifing. Thefe periods include fe- veral centuries. Again, becaufe this relation is not pre- cife, but the odd days nearly divide the periods already found, there muft arife an equation of this fecular equa¬ tion, of which the period is immenfely longer, and the maximum very minute. He {hews that this retardation of Saturn is now at its maximum, and is diminifliingp again, and will, in the courfe of years, change to an ac¬ celeration. This inveftigation of the fmall inequalities is the moft intricate problem in mechanical philofophy, and has been completed only by very flow degrees, by the arduous efforts of the greateft mathematicians, of whom M. de la Grange is the moft eminent. Some of his general re¬ fults are very remarkable. He demonftrates, that fince the planets move in one direflion, in orbits nearly circular, no mutual difturb- ances make any permanent change in the mean diftan- ces and mean periods of the planets, and that the perio- die changes are confined within very narrow limits.Ofcillatiou The orbits can never deviate fenfibly from circles. None °f the pla- of them ever has been or will be a comet moving in very eccentric orbit. The ecliptic will never coincide with the equator, nor change its inclination above two degrees. In ftiort the folar planetary fyftem ofcillates, as it wrere, round a medium ftate, from which it never fwerves very far. This theory of the planetary inequalities, founded on the univerfal law of mutual deflexion, has given to our tables a precifion, and a coincidence with obfervation, that furpaffes all expedlation, and infures the legitimacy of the theory. The inequalities are moft fenfible in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn 3 and thele prefent them- felves in fuch a complicated ftate, and their periods are fo long, that ages were neceffary for difeovering them, 2 ‘ by ASTRONOMY. 126 ASTRONOMY. Part IV. Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. 37° . Authenti¬ city of the Indian a- ftronomy. -371 , Origin of the aftrolo' gical divi- liott of the heavens. by mere obfervation. In this fefpeft, therefore, the theory has outftripped the obfervations, on which it is founded. It is very remarkable, that the periods which the Indians affign to thefe two planets, and which ap¬ peared fo inaccurate that they hurt the credit of the fcience of thofe ancient aftronomers, are now found pre- cifely fuch as muft have obtained about three thoufand years before the Chriftian era 5 and thus they give an authenticity to that ancient aftronomy. The periods which any nation of aftronomers aflign to thofe two pla¬ nets would afford no contemptible mean for determining the age in which it was obferved. The following circumftance pointed out by La Place is remarkable : Suppofe Jupiter and Saturnin conjunftion in the firft degree of Aries ; twenty years after, the con- junftion will happen in Sagittarius ; and after other twentyyears, in Leo. It will continue in thefe three ligns for 200 years. In the year 200 it will happen in Taurus, Capricornus, and Virgo; in the next 200 years, it will happen in Gemini, Aquarius, and Libra; and in the next 200 years, it will happen in Cancer, Pifces, and Scor¬ pio : then all begins again in Aries. It is probable that thefe remarkable periods of the oppofitions of Jupi¬ ter and Saturn, progreffive for 40 years, and ofcillating during 160 more, occafioned the aftrological divifion of the heavens into the four /ngons, of fire, air, earth, and water. Thefe relations of the figns, which compofe a trigon, point out the repetitions of the chief irregularities of the folar fyftem. M. de la Place obferves (in 1796), that the planet Herfchel gives evident marks of the a£tion of the reft ; and that when thefe are computed and taken into the account of its bygone motions, they put it beyond doubt that it was feen by Flamftead in 1690, by Mayer in 1756, and by Monnier in 1769. Sect. III. Of the Di/iurbances in the Elliptical Motion of the Comets. Before the time of Sir Ifaac Newton it W'as fuppofed that they moved in ftraight lines: and Defcartes, find¬ ing that fuch a motion wrould interfere with his vortices, uols removed them entirely out of the folar fyftem. Sir •ally in- Ifaac Newton, however, diftindlly proves from aftrono- vifible until mjcai obfervation, that the comets pafs through the riearerthan planetai7 regions, and are generally invifible at a greater Jupiter. diftance than that of Jupiter. Hence, finding that they were evidently within the fphere of the fun’s ac¬ tion, he concludes, that they muft neceffarily move about the fun as the planets do : and he proves, that the power of the fun being reciprocally in the dupli¬ cate proportion of the diftance, every body afted upon by him muft either fall dire£Uy down, or move about him in one of the conic feftions ; viz. either the ellipfis, parabola, or hyperbola. If a body which defcends to¬ wards the fun as low as the orbit of any planet, move with a fwifter motion than the planet, it will defcribe an orbit of a more oblong figure than that of the pla¬ net, and have at leaft a longer axis. The velocity of the body may be fo great, that it ftiall move in a para¬ bola, fo that having once paffed the fun, it ftiall afcend for ever without returning, though the fun will ftill continue in the focus of that parabola ; and with a ve¬ locity ftill greater, they will move in an hyperbola. It is, however, moft probable, that the comets move in very eccentric ellipfes, fuch as is reprefented in fig. 136. 372 Comets ge where S reprefents the fun, C the comet, and ABDE Theory of its orbit; wherein the diftance of S and D far exceeds Univerfal that of S and A. Hence thofe bodies are fometimes Grt^ta“ found at a moderate diftance from the fun, and appear . , ^} within the planetary regions ; at other times they afcend to vaft diftances, far beyond the orbit of Saturn, and thus become invifible. , _ 373 That the comets do move in this manner is proved They move by our author from computations built upon the °b-^.e6“ntnc fervations made by many aftronomers. Thefe com-e putations were made by Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf up¬ on the comet which appeared toward the latter end of the year 1680 and beginning of 1681, and the fame were profecuted more at large by Dr Halley upon this and other comets. They depend on this principle, that the eccentricity of the orbits of the comets is io great, that if they are really elliptical, yet that part of them which comes under our view approaches fo near to a parabola that they may be taken for fuch without any fenfible error, as in the foregoing figure the parabola FAG, in the lower part of it about A, differs very little ^ from the ellipfis DEAB ; on which foundation Sir I-How to faac teaches a method of finding the parabola in which calculate any comet moves, by three obfervations made.upon ittbc motion in that part of its orbit where it agrees neareft with a pa-0 rabola : and this theory is confirmed by aftronomical ob¬ fervations ; for the places of the comets may thus be com¬ puted as exa&ly as thofe of the primary planets. Our author afterwards (hows how to make ufe of any tmall deviation from the parabola which may be obferved, to determine whether the orbits of the comets be elliptical or not; and thus to know whether or not the fame co¬ met returns at different feafons. On examining by this rule the comet of 1680, he found its orbit to agree more exactly with an ellipfis than a parabola, though the ellipfis be fo very eccentric, that it cannot perform its revolution in 500 years. On this Dr Halley obferved, that mention is made in hiftory of a comet with a fimi- lar large tail, which appeared three feveral times be¬ fore. The firft was before the death of Julius Caefar ; and each appearance happened at the interval of 575 years, the laft coinciding with the year 1680. He therefore calculated the motion of this comet to .be in fuch an eccentric orbit, that it could not return in lefs than 575 years : which computation agrees yet more perfectly with the obfervations made on this comet than any parabolic orbit will do. ’lo compare together dh- ferent appearances of the fame comet, is indeed the only method of difcovering with certainty the form of its or¬ bit ; for it is impoffible to difcover the form of one fo exceedingly eccentric from obfervations taken in a fmali part of it. " Sir Ifaac Newton therefore propofes to com¬ pare the orbits, on the fuppofition that they are parabo¬ lical, of fuch comets as appear at different times.; for if we find the fame orbit defcribed by a comet at different times, in all probability it Avill be the fame comet that defcribes it. Here he remarks from Dr Halley, that the fame orbit very nearly agrees to two appearances of a comet about the fpace of 75 years diftance ; fo that if thefe two appearances were really of the fame comet, the tranfverfe axis of its orbit would be 18 times that of the axis of the earth’s orbit; and therefore, when at its greateft diftance from the fun, this comet would be removed not lefs than 35 times the mean diftance of the earth from the fame luminary. 'TW Part IV. ASTRONOMY. 375 Confe' planet meeting, Theory of The comets may be confiderably affe&ed by the pla- Univerfal nets. The very important phenomenon of the return of Gravita- (.jjg corriet of 1682, which was to decide whether they 1 tlCD' were revolving planets defcribing ellipfes, or bodies 37, which come but once into the planetary regions, and They arc then retire for ever, caufed the aftronomers to confider affected by matter with great care. Halley had fhown, in a the planeti.roUg|1 n’ay, that this comet muft have been confiderably affe£led by Jupiter. Their motion near the aphelion muft be very flow, fo that a very fmall change of velocity or direftion, while in the planetary regions, muft con- llderably affeft their periods. Halley thought that the adlion of Jupiter might change it half a year. M, Clai- raut, by confidering the difturbing forces of Jupiter and Saturn through the whole revolution, fhowed that the period then running would exceed the former nearly two years (6x8 days), and afligned the middle of April 1759 for the time of its perihelion. It really palled its peri¬ helion on the l 2th of March. This was a vvonderiul precifion, when we refleft that the comet had been feen but a very few days in its former apparitions. A comet obferved by Mr Profperin and others in •1771 has greatly puzzled the aftronomers. Its motions appear to have been extremely irregular, and it certainly came fo near Jupiter, that his momentary influence w7as at leaft equal to the fun’s. It has not been recognifed flnce that time, although there is a great probability that it is continually among the planets. It is by no means impoflible, that, in the courfe of quence. of a ages, a comet may adlually meet one of the planets, comet and The effect of fuch a concourfe muft be dreadful ; a change of the axis of diurnal rotation muft refult from it, and the fea muft defert its former bed and overflow the new equatorial regions. The (hock and the deluge muft deftroy all the works of man, and moft of the race. The remainder, reduced to mifery, muft long ftruggle for exiftence, and all remembrance of former arts and events muft be loft, and every thing muft be invented anew. There are not wanting traces of fuch devafla- tions in this globe : ftrata and things are now found on mountain tops which were certainly at the bot¬ tom of the ocean in former times ; remains of tropical animals and plants are now dug up in the circumpolar regions. Sect. IV. Of the Irregularities in the Moon's Motion. The moon is afled on at once by the fun and the earth : but her motion round the earth is only difturb- ed by the difference of the fun’s adlion on thefe two bodies. If the fun were at an infinite diftance it would a£l upon them both equally and in a parallel direction \ of courfe, their relative motion would not be difturbed. But its diftance, though very great, when compared with that of the moon, cannot be confider- ed as infinite. The moon is alternately nearer and farther from the fun than the earth, and the ftraight line "which joins the centre of the fun and moon forms angles move or lefs acute with the radius ve£lor of the earth. Of courfe the fun adls unequally, and in different direc¬ tions, upon the earth and moon j and from that diverfity of a£lion, there ought to refult irregularities in the lunar motions, depending on the refpeflive fituation of the fun and moon. Some of thefe inequalities, however, would take place, 3 though the moon if undifturbed by the fun had moved in a circle concentrical to the earth, and in the plane of the earth’s motion ; others depend on the elliptical figure and oblique fituation of the moon’s orbit. One of the former is, that the moon does not defcribe equal fpaces in equal times, but is continually accelerated as ftie paffes from the quarter to the new or full, and is retarded again by the like degrees in returning from tire new and full to the next quarter : but here we confider not fo much the abfolute as the apparent motions of the moon with refpedft to us. Thefe two may be diftinguiftred in the following manner : Let S in fig. 137. reprefent the lun, A the earth moving in its orbit BC, DEFG the moon’s orbit, and H the place of the moon in her orbit. Suppofe the earth to have moved from A to I. Becaufe it has been Drown that the moon partakes of all the progreflive motion of the earth, and likewife that the fun attra&s both the earth and moon equally when they are at the fame diflance from it, or that the mean a£lion of the fun upon the moon is equal to its aflion upon the earth ; we muft therefore confider the earth as carrying about with it the moon’s orbit: fo that when the earth us removed from A to I, the moon’s orbit fhall likew’ife be removed from its former fituation into that denoted by KLMN. But now the earth being in I, if the moon were found in O, fo that 01 ftrould be parallel to HA, though the moon would really have moved from H to O, yet it would not have appeared to a fpeftator upon the earth to have moved at all, becaufe the earth has moved as much as itfelf ; fo that the moon w'ould ftill appear in the fame place with refpedl to the fixed ftars. But if the moon be obferved in P, it wrill then appear to have moved, its apparent motion being meafured by the angle under OIP. And if the angle under PIS be lefs than the angle under HAS, the moon will have approached nearer its conjundlion with the fun. Now, to explain particularly the ine¬ quality of the moon’s motion already mentioned, let S in fig. 138. reprefent the fun, A the earth, BCDE the moon’s orbit, C the place of the moon when in the latter quarter. Here it will be nearly at the fame di¬ flance from the fun as the earth is. In this caff, therefore, they will be both equally attra&ed, the earth in the direction AS, and the moon in that of CS. Whence, as the earth, in moving round the fun, is con¬ tinually defcending towards it, fo the moon in this fituation muft in any equal portion of time defcend as much ; and therefore the pofition of the line AC in refpefl of AS, and the change which the moon’s motion produces in the angle CAS, will not be altered by the fun : but as foon as the moon is advanced from the quarter towards the new or conjunction, fuppofe to G, the aftion of the fun upon it will have a different effedt. Were the fun’s adtion upon the moon here to be applied in the dire£tion GH parallel to AS, if its aflion on the moon were equal to its aftion on the earth, no change would be wrought by the fun on the apparent motion of the moon round the earth. But the moon receiving a greater impulfe in G than the earth receives in A, were the fun to aft in the direc¬ tion GH, yet it would accelerate the defcription of the fpace DAG, and caufe the angle under GAD to decreafe , fafter than it otherwife would. The fun’s aftion will have this effeft ppon account of the obli¬ quity 127 Theory of Universal Gravita¬ tion. ' 377 . Inequalities of the moon’s mo¬ tion ex¬ plained. 128 ASTRO Theory of quity of its dire&ion to that in which the earth at- Univerfal trails the moon. For the moon by this means is Gravita- jrawn by two forces oblique to one another $ one drawing from G towards A, the other from G towards H 'y therefore the moon muft neceffarily be impelled toward D. Again, becaufe the fun does not act in the direction GH parallel to SA, but in the direction GS oblique to it, the fun’s adtion on the moon will, by reafon of this obliquity, farther contribute to the moon’s acceleration. Suppofe the eRrth, in any thort fpace of time, Would have tlioved from A to I, if not attracted by the fun, the point I being in the ftraight line CE, which touches the earth’s orbit in A. Sup¬ pofe the moon in the fame time would have moved in her orbit from G to K, and befides have partook of all the progreffive motion of the earth. Then, if KL be drawn parallel to Al, and taken equal to it, the moon, if not attracted to the fun, would be found in L. But the earth, by the fun’s adlion, is removed from I. Suppofe it were moved down to M in the line IMN parallel to SA, and if the moon were at¬ tracted but as much, and in tjie fame diredlion as the earth is here fuppofed to be attradted, fo as to have defcended during the fame time in the line LO paral¬ lel alfo to AS, down as far as P, till LP were equal to IM, the angle under PMN would be equal to that un¬ der LIN j that is, the moon will appear advanced as much farther forward than if neither it nor the earth had been fubjedt to the fun’s aftion. But this is on the fuppofition that the adtions of the fun upon the earth and moon are equal •, whereas the moon being acted upon more than the earth, did the fun’s adtion draw the moon in the line LO parallel to AS, it would draw it down fo far as to make LP greater than IM, whereby the angle under PMN will be rendered greater than that under LIN. But, moreover, as the fun draws the earth in a diredtion oblique to IN, the earth will be found in its orbit fomewhat Ihort of the point M. However, the moon is attradled by the fun ftill more out of the line LO than the earth is out of the line IN ; therefore this obliquity of the fun’s adtion will yet farther diminiih the angle under PMN. Ihus the moon at the -point G receives an impulfe from the fun whereby her motion is accelerated} and the fun pro¬ ducing this eflfedt in every place between the quarter and the conjundtion, the moon will move from the quarter with a motion continually more and more ac¬ celerated and therefore, by acquiring from time to time an additional degree of velocity in its orbit, the fpaces which are defcribed in equal times by the line drawn from the earth to the moon will not be every¬ where equal, but thofe toward the conjundtion will be treater than thofe toward the quarter. But in the ^moon’s paffage from the cenjundtion D to the next quarter, the fun’s aftion will again retard the moon, till, at the next quarter at E, it be reftored to the firft velocity which it had in C. When the moon moves from E to the full, or oppolition to the fun m B, it is again accelerated *, the deficiency of the fun’s adtion on the moon from what it has upon the earth producing here the fame effedt as before the excefs of its adtion. Let us now confider the moon in Q as moving from E towards B. Here, if Ihe were attradted by the fun in a diredtion parallel to AS, yet being adted on lefs N O M Y. Tart IV. than the earth, as the latter defcends towards the fun, Theory of the moon will in fome meafure be left behind. There- Univerfal fore, (^F being drawn parallel to SB, a fpedtator on the earth would fee the moon move as if attradted from the point £) in the diredtion (^F, with a degree of force equal to that whereby the fun’s adtion on the moon falls Ihort of its adtion on the earth. But the obliquity of the fun’s adtion has here alfo an effedt. In the time the earth would have moved from A to I without the influence of the fun, let the moon have moved in its orbit from Q to R. Drawing, therefore, RT parallel and equal to AI, the moon, by the mo¬ tion of its orbit, if not attradted by the fun, muft be found in T : and therefore, if attra&ed in a diredtion parallel to SA, would be in the line TV parallel to AS ; fuppofe in W. But the moon in £> being far¬ ther off the fun than the earth, it will be lefs attradted that is, TW will be lefs than IM ; and if the line SM be prolonged towards X, the angle under XMW will be lefs than XIT. Thus, by the fun’s adion, the moon’s paffage from the quarter to the full would be accelerated, if the fun were to adt on the earth and moon in a diredtion parallel to AS ; and the obliquity of the fun’s a&ion will ftill increafe this acceleration : For the adtion of the fun on the moon is oblique to the line SA the whole time of the moon’s paffage from to T, and will carry her out of the line TV towards the earth. Here we fuppofe the time of the moon’s paffage from to T fo Ihort, that it fhall not pafs be¬ yond the line SA. ihe earth will alfo come a little fhortof the line IN, as was already mentioned*, and from thefe caufes the angle under XMW will be ftill farther leffened. The moon, in palling from the oppo- fition B to the next quarter, will be retarded again by the fame degrees as it was accelerated before its appulfe to the oppofition; and thus the moon, by the fun’s adtion upon it, is twice accelerated and twice reftored to its firft velocity every circuit it makes round the earth *, and this inequality of the moon’s motion about the earth is called by aftronomers its variation. . 37§ The next effedt of the fun upon the moon is, that Effedt of it gives the orbits of the latter in the quarters a greater the fuffs_au degree of curvature than it would receive from the earth alone: and, on the contrary, in the conjunctionpartsofthe and oppofition the orbit is lefs infledted. When the moon’s or- moon is in the conjundtion with the fun at D, the lat-bit. ter attradting her more forcibly than it does the earth, the moon is by that means impelled lefs to the earth than otherwife it would be, and thus the orbit is lefs in- curvated ; for the power by which the moon is impel¬ led towards the earth being that by which it is infledt¬ ed from a redtilinear courfe, the lefs that power is, the lefs it will be infledted. Again, when the moon is in the oppofition in B farther removed from the fun than the earth is, it follows, then, that though the earth and moon are both continually defending toward the fun, that is, are drawn by the fun towards itfelf out of the place they would otherwife move into, yet the moon defcends with lefs velocity than the earth : info- much that, in any given fpace of time from its pafling the point of oppofition, it will have lefs approached the earth than otherwife it would have done ; that is, its orbit, in refpedt to the earth, will approach nearer to a ftraight line. Laftly, when the motion is in the quar¬ ter in F, and equally diftant from the fun as the earth, it 319 Moon comes near- Part IV. Theory of it was befofe obferved, that they would both defcend Univerfal vvith equal velocity towards the fun, fo as to make no Gravita- cjiange in the angle FASj but the length of the line tlon‘ , FA muft neceffarily be Ihortened. Therefore the v moon, in moving from F toward the conjun&ion with the fun, will be impelled more toward the earth by the fun’s ail ion than it would have been by the earth alone, if neither the earth nor the moon had been a&ed upon by the fun : fo that, by this additional impulfe, the orbit is rendered more curve than it otherwife fliould be. The fame effeft will alfo be produced in the other quarter. . A third effeft of the fun’s aftion, and which fol¬ lows from that jnfl; now explained, is, that though the moon undifturbed by the fun might move in a circle, having the earth for its centre, by the lun’s action, if the earth were to be in the very middle or centre of elUheearththe moon’s orbit, yet the moon would be nearer the when leaft earth at the new and full than in the quarters. This sttradledby niay at firft appear fomewhat difficult to be underitood, that the moon fhould come neareft to the earth when it is leaft attracted by it ; yet, upon a little confidera- tion, it will evidently appear to flow from that very caufe, becaufe her orbit, in the conjunction and oppo- lition, is rendered lefs curve : for the lefs curve the or¬ bit is, the lefs will the moon have defcended from the place it would move into without the adtion of the earth. Now, if the moon were to move from any place without further difturbance from that adtion, fince it would proceed on the line touching the orbit in that place, it w'ould continually recede from the earth \ and therefore, if the power of the earth upon the moon be fufficient to retain it at the fame diftance, this di¬ minution of that powTer w ill caufe the diftance to in- creafe, though in a lefs degree. But, on the other hand, in the quarters, the moon being preffed in a lefs degree towards the earth than by the earth’s Angle aftion, will be made to approach it : fo that, in paffing from the conjunction or oppoAtion to the quarters, the moon afcends from the earth ; and in paffing from the quarters to the oppoAtion or conjunction, it defcends again, becoming nearer in thefe laft-mentioned places than in the other. All the inequalities wre have mentioned are different in degree as the fun is more or lefs diftant from the earth ; being greateft when the earth is in its perihe¬ lion, and fmalleft when it is in its aphelion : for in the quarters, the nearer the moon is to the fun, the greater is the addition to the earth’s aCtion upon it by the power of the fun ; and, in the conjunction and oppoA¬ tion, the difference between the fun’s aCtion upon the earth and upon the moon is likewife fo much the great¬ er. This difference in the diftance between the earth and the fun produces a further effeCt upon the moon’s motion *, cauAng her orbit to dilate wffien lefs remote from the fun, and become greater than when at a farther diftance : For it is proved by Sir Ifaac New¬ ton, that the aCtion of the fun by which it diminifties the earth’s power over the moon in the conjunction or oppoAtion, is about twice as great as the addition to the earth’s aCtion by the fun in the quarters -; fo that, upon the whole, the power of the earth on the moon is diminiAred by the fun, and therefore is moft dimi- niffied when that aCtion is ftrongeft : but as the earth, by its approach to the fun, has its influence leffened, Vol. III. Part I. ASTRONOMY. 129 the moon, being lefs attracted, will gradually recede Theory of 3S0 Caufe of the dilata¬ tion of the moon’s or¬ bit. from the earth ; and as the earth, in its recefs from the Univerfal fun, recovers by degrees its former power, the orbit of Grt^ta” the moon muft again contraCt. Two confequences. ¥ ‘ <* follow from hence, viz. that the moon will be more re¬ mote tro'm the earth when the latter is neareft the fun, and alfo will take up a longer time in performing its re¬ volution through the dilated orbit than through the more contracted. Thefe irregularities would be produced, if the moon, without being aCted upon unequally by the fun, lliould defcribe a perfeCt circle about the earth, and in the plane of its motion ; but though neither of thefe cir- cumftances take place, yet the above-mentioned ine¬ qualities occur, only with fome little variation with re<- gard to the degree of them ; but fome others are ob¬ ferved to take place, from the moon’s motion being- performed in the manner already defcribed : For, as the moon deferibes an ellipAs, having the earth in one of its foci, this curve will be fubjeCted to various changes, neither preferving conftantly the fame Agure nor poAtion ; and becaufe the plane of this ellipAs is not the fame with that of the earth’s orbit, it thence follows, that the former will continually change ; fo that neither the inclination of the two planes towards each other, nor the line in which they interfeCl, will remain for any length of time unaltered. 381 As the moon does not move in the fame plane with ot the earth, the fun is but feldom in the plane of her c u,-es ^ orbit, viz. only when the line made by the common plane of the interfeClion of the two planes, if produced, will pafs moon’s or- through the fun. Thus, let S in Ag. 139. denotebltt0 the fun, T the earth, ATB the plane of the earth’sc^an“e' orbit, CDEF the moon’s orbit; the part CDE being raifed above, and the part CEE depreffed under the former. Here the line CE, in which the two planes interfeCl each other, being continued, paffes through the fun in S. When this happens, the aCtion of the fun is direCled in the plane of the moon’s orbit, and cannot draw her out of this plane, as will evident¬ ly appear from an infpeCtion of the Agure ; but in other cafes the obliquity of the fun’s aCtion to the plane of the orbit will caufe this plane continually to change. Let us now fuppofe, in the Arft place, the line in which the two planes interfed each other to be per¬ pendicular to the line which joins the earth and fun. Let T, in Ag. 140, 141, 142, 143. reprefent the earth; S the fun ; the plane of the fcheme the plane of the earth’s orbit, in which both the fun and earth are placed. Let AC be perpendicular to ST, which joins the earth and fun ; and let the line AC be that in which the plane of the moon’s orbit interfeCts the orbit of the earth. On the centre T defcribe in the plane of the earth’s motion the circle ABCD; and in the plane of the moon’s orbit defcribe the circle AECF; one half of which, AEC, will be elevated above the plane of this fcheme, and the other half, AFC, as much depreffed below it. Suppofe then the moon to fet out from the point A in Ag. 127. in the direction of the plane AEC. Here the will be conti¬ nually drawn out of this plane by the aftion of the fun; for this plane AEC, if extended, will not pafs through the fun, but above it ; fo that the fun, by drawing the moon direftly toward itfelf, will force it R continually 130 A S T Pt O Theory of continually more and more from that plane towards the Univeriai plane of the earth’s motion in which itfelf is, caufing ' jt £0 defcribe the line AKGHI, which will be convex to the plane AEC, and concave to the plane of the earth’s motion. But here this power of the fun, which is laid to draw the moon toward the plane of the earth’s motion, mull be undtrftood principally of as much on¬ ly of the fun’s a£tion upon the moon as it exceeds the a&ion of the fame upon the earth : For fuppofe the laft-mentioned figure to be viewed by the eye placed in the plane of that fcheme, and in the line CTA, on the fide A, it will appear as the ftraight line D 1 B in fig. 126. and the plane AECF as'another ftraight line FE, and the curve line AKGHI under the form of the line TKGHI. Now it is plain, that the earth and moon being both attraaed by the fun, if the fun’s aaion upon both was equally ftrong, the earth T, and with it the plane AECF, or the line F I'E, would be carried towards the fun with as great velocity as the moon, and therefore the moon not drawn out of it by the fun’s aflion, except only from the fmall obliquity of dire&ion of this a£fion upon the moon to that of the fun’s action upon the earth, which arifes from the moon being out of the plane of the earth s motion, and is not conliderable : but the aftion of the fun upon the moon being greater than upon the earth all the. time the moon is nearer to the fun than the earth is, it will be drawn from the plane AEC, or the line IE, by that excefs, and made to defcribe the curve line AGI or TGI. But it is the cuftom of aftronomers, inftead of confidering the moon as moving in fuch a curve line, to refer its motion continually to the plane which touches the true line wherein it moves at the point where at any time the moon is. Thus, when the moon is in the point A, its motion is confidered as being in the plane AEC, in whofe dire&ion it then attempts to move ; and when in the point K, fig. 144. its motion is referred to the plane which pafles through the earth and touches the line AKGHI in the point K. Thus the moon, in paffing from A to I, will continually change the plane of her motion in the manner we ftiall now mure particularly explain. Let the plane which touches the line AKI in the point K, fig. 141. interfeft the plane of the earth’s orbit in the line LTM. Then, becaufe the line AKI is concave to the plane ABC, it falls wholly between that plane and the plane which touches it in K } fo that the plane MKL will cut the plane AEC before it meets the plane of the earth’s motion, fuppofe in the line YT, and the point A will fall between K and L. With a radius equal to TY or TL defcribe the femi- eircle LYM. Now, to a fpe&ator on the earth,, the moon when in A will appear to move in the circle AECF 5 and when in K, will appear to be moving in the femicircle LYM. The earth’s motion is perform¬ ed in the plane of this fcheme •, and to a fpe&ator on the earth the fun will always appear to move in that plane. We may therefore refer the apparent motion of the fun to the circle AB CD defcribed in this plane about the earth. But the points where this circle in which the fun feems to move, interfering the circle in which the moon is feen at any time to move, are called the nodes of the moon’s orbit at that time. When the moon’s the moon is feen moving in the circle AECD, the *rbit. p0ints A and.C are the nodes of the orbit j when Ihe 38a Nodes of N O M Y. Part IV. appears in the femicircle LYM, then L and M are Theory of the nodes. It will now appear, irom what has been Univerfal faid, that while the moon has moved Irom A to K, and that the plane which touches the line AKGI in H interfe&s the plane of the earth’s motion in the line QTR, and the plane NGO in the line TV, and befides, that the circle QHR be defcribed in that plane; then, for the fame reafon as before, the point V will fall between H and G, and the plane RVQ^ will pafs beyond the hft plane OVN, caufing the points and K to fall farther from A and C than N and O. But the arches NV, VQ are each greater than the quarter of a circle : confequent- ly the angle under BQV will be greater than that un¬ der BNV. Laftly, when the moon is by this attrac¬ tion of the fun drawn at length into the plane of the earth’s orbit, the node will have receded yet more, and the inclination be fo much increafed, as to become fomewhat more than at firft: for the line AKGHI being convex to all the planes which touch it, the part HI will wholly fall between the plane QVR and the plane ABC ; fo that the point I will fall between B and R ; and, drawing ITW, the point W will be farther removed from A than C^. But it is evident, that the plane which pafies through the earth T, and touches the line AGI in the point I, will cut the plane of the earth’s motion ABCD in the line ITW, and be inclined to the fame in the angle under HIB ; fo that the node which was firlt in A, after having palled into L, N, and Q, comes at laft in the point W, as the node which was at firll: in C has paffed from thence fucceflive- ly through the points M, O, and R, to I. But the an¬ gle HIB, which is now the inclination of the orbit to the plane of the ecliptic, is manifeftly not lefs than the angle under ECB or E AB, but rather fomething greater. Thus the moon, while it paffes from the plane of the earth’s motion in the quarter, till it comes again into the fame plane, has the nodes of its orbit continually moved backward, and the inclination of it at firft diminilhed till it comes to G in fig. 128. which is near to its con¬ junction with the fun, but afterwards is increafed again almolt by the fame degrees, till upon the meon’s arrival again to the plane of the earth’s motion, the inclination of the orbit is reftored to fomething more than its firft magnitude, though the difference is not very great, be¬ caufe the points I and C are not far diltant from each other. In like manner, if the moon had departed from the quarter at C, it Ihould have defcribed the curve line CXW in fig. 140. between the planes AFC and ADC, which would be convex to the former planes and con¬ cave to the latter ; fo that here alfo the nodes would continually recede, and the inclination of the orbit gradually diminilh more and more, till the moon arrived near its oppofition to the fun in X ; but from that time the inclination fliould again increafe till it become a little greater than at firft. This will eafily appear by confidering, that as the aClion of the fun upon the moon, by exceeding its aClion upon the earth, drew it out of the plane AEC towards the fun, while the iheoryof moon paffed from A to I; fo during its paffage from Univerfal C to W, the moon being all that time farther from the G)t^ta‘ fun than the earth, it will be attrafted lefs ; and the . * earth, together with the plane AECF, will as it were be drawn from the moon, in fuch a manner, that the path the moon defcribes {hall appear from the earth as it did in the former cafe by the moon being drawn away. 384 Such are the changes which the nodes and inclina-Motion ot tion of the moon’s orbit undergo when the nodes arethe m)ci^ in the quarters; but when the nodes by their motion, ^ and the motion of the fun together, come to be fituated between the quarter and conjunClion or oppofition, their motion and the change made in the inclination of the orbit are fomewhat different.—Let AGH, in fig. 145. be a circle defcribed in the plane of the earth’s motion, having the earth in T for its centre, A the point oppofite to the fun, and G a fourth part of the circle diftant from A. Let the nodes of the moon’s orbit be fituated in the line BTD, and B the node falling between A, the place where the moon would be in the full, and G the place where fhe would be in the quarter. Suppofe BEDF to be the plane in which the moon attempts to move when it proceeds from the point B : then, becaufe the moon in B is more diftant from the fun than the earth, it will be lefs at¬ trafted by the fun, and will not defcend towards the fun fo fall: as the earth, confequently it will quit the plane BEDF, which is fuppofed to accompany the earth, and defcribe the line BIK convex to it, till fuch time as it comes to the point K, where it will be in the quarter ; but from thenceforth being more attrafted than the earth, the moon will change its courfe, and the following part of the path it defcribes will be concave towards the plane BED or BGD, and continue con¬ cave to the plane BGD till it croffes that plane in L juft as in the preceding cafe. Now, to Ihow that the nodes, while the moon is pafling from B to K, will pro¬ ceed forward, or move the fame way with the moon, and at the fame time the inclination of the orbit will in¬ creafe when the moon is in the point I, let the line MIN pafs through the earth T, and touch the path of the moon in I, cutting the plane of the earth’s motion in the line MTN, and the line BED, in TO. Becaufe the line BIK is convex to the plane BED, which touches it in B, the plane NIM muft crofs the plane DEB before it meets the plane CGB •, and therefore the point M will fall from G towards B ; and the node of the moon’s orbit being tranflated from B towards M is moved forward. Again the angle under OMG, which the plane MON makes with the plane BGC, is greater than the angle OBG, which the plane BOD makes with the fame. This appears from what has been already de- monftrated, becaufe the arches BO and OM are each of them lefs than the quarter of a circle ; and there¬ fore, taken both together, are lefs than a femicircle. But further, when the moon is come to the point K in its quarter, the nodes will be advanced yet farther for¬ ward, and the inclination of the orbit alfo more aug¬ mented. Hitherto we have referred the moon’s mo¬ tion to that plane, which, palling through the earth, touches the path of the' moon in the point where the moon is, as we have already faid that the cuftom of R 2 aftronomers 132 ASTRONOMY. Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. aftronomers is. Bat in the point K no fuch plane can be found : on the contrary, feeing the line of the moon’s motion on one fide the point K. is convex to the plane BED, and on the other fide concave to the fame, fo that no plane can pafs through the points I and K, but will cut the line BKL in that point •, therefore inftead of fuch a touching plane, we muil: make ufe of PKQ, which is equivalent, and with which the line BKL (hall make a lefs angle than with any other plane 5 for this does as it were touch the line BK in the point K, fince it cuts it in fuch a manner that no other plane can be drawn fo as to pafs between the line BK and the plane PK£L But now it is evi¬ dent, that the point P, or the node,, is removed from M towards G, that is, has moved yet further forward ; and it is likewife as manifeft, that the angle under KPG, or the inclination of the moon’s orbit in the point K, is greater than the angle under IMG, for the reafon already given. After the moon has paffed the quarter, her plane being concave to the plane AGCH, the nodes will recede as before till {he arrives at the point L j which {hows, that confidering the whole time of the moon’s palling from B to L, at the end of that time the nodes {hall be found to have receded, or to be placed more backward, when the moon is in L than when it was in B •, for the moon takes a longer time in paffing from K to L than in pafling from B to K •, and there¬ fore the nodes continue to recede a longer time than they moved forwards *, fo that their recefs mull fur- mount their advance. In the fame manner, while the moon is in its paflage from K to L, the inclination of the orbit {hall diminilh till the moon come to the point in which it is one quarter part of a circle difiant from its node, fuppofe in the point R ; and from that time the inclination will again inereafe. Since, therefore, the inclination of the orbit increafes while the moon is paffing from B to K, and diminiffies itfelf again only while the moon is paffing from K to R, then augments again while the moon paffes from B to L j it thence comes to be much more increafed than diminiffied, and thus will be difiinguiffiably greater when the moon comes to L than when it fets out from B. In like manner, when the moon is pafling from L on the other fide the plane AGCH, the node will advance forward as long as the moon is between the point L and the next quarter *, but afterwards it will recede till the moon come to pafs the plane AGCPI again, in the point V between B and A : and becaufe the time be¬ tween the moon’s paffing from L to the next quarter is lefs than the time between that quarter and the moon’s coming to the point V, the node will have re¬ ceded more than it has advanced } fo that the point V will be nearer to A than L is to C. So alfo the in¬ clination of the orbit, when the moon is in V, will be greater than when ftie was in L j for this inclination increafes all the time the moon is betwixt L and the next quarter, decreafing only when file is paflmg from this quarter to the mid way between the two nodes, and from thence increafes again during the whole paf- fage through the other half of the way to the next node. In this manner we fee, that at every period of the moon the nodes will have receded, and thereby have approached towards a conjunflion with the fun: but Part IV. this will be much forwarded by the motion of the Theory of earth, or the apparent motion of the fun himfelf. In Univerlal the laft fcheme the fun will appear to have moved from G^ta* S towards W. Let us fuppoie it had appeared to have Vi moved from S to W while the moon’s node has re¬ ceded from B to V ; then drawing the line WTX, the arch VX will reprefent the diftance of the line drawn between the nodes from the fun when the moon is in V-, whereas the arch BA reprefented that diftance when the moon was in B. Xhis vifible motion of the fun is much greater than that of the node; for the fun appears to revolve quite round in one year, while the node is near nineteen in making its revolution. We have alfo feen that when the moon was in the quadrature, the inclination of her orbit decreafed till {lie came to the conjun&ion or oppofition, according to the node it fet out from ; but that afterwards it again increafed till it became at the next node rather greater than at the former. Wken the node is once removed from the quarter nearer to a conjunction with, the fun, the inclination of the moon’s orbit, when ftie comes into the node, is more fenfibly greater than it was in the node preceding j the inclination of the or¬ bit by this means more and more inereafing till the nodes come into conjunction with the fun : at which time it has been (hown that the latter has no power to change the plane of her orbit. As foon, however, as the nodes are got out of conjunction towards the other* quarters, they begin to recede as before ; but the in¬ clination of the orbit in the appulfe of the moon to each fucceeding node is lefs than at the preceding, tiL the nodes come again into the quarters. Ibis will appear as follows: Let A, in fig. 146. reprefent one of the moon’s nodes placed between the point of op¬ pofition B and the quarter C. Let the plane ADE pafs through the earth T, and touch the path of the moon in A. Let the line AFGH be the path of the moon in her paflage from A to H, where {lie crofles again the plane of the earth’s moon. I his line will be convex towards the plane ADE, till the moon comes to G, where Ore is in the quarter ; and after this, between G and H, the fame line will be concave towards this plane. All the time this line is convex towards the plane ADE, the nodes will recede j and, on the contrary, move forward when the line is con¬ cave towards that plane. But the moon is longer in paffing from A to G, and therefore the nodes go back¬ ward farther than they proceed *, and therefore, on the whole, when the moon has arrived at H, the nodes will have receded, that is, the point H will rail between B and E. The inclination of the orbit will decreafe till the moon is arrived at the point F in the middle between A and H. Through the paflage between F and G the inclination will increafe, but decreafe again in the remaining part of the paflfage from G to H, and con- fequently at H muft be lefs than at A. Similar ef- feCts, both with refpeCt to the nodes and inclination of the orbit, will take place in the following pafiage of the moon on the other fide of the plane ABEC from H, till it comes over that plane again in I. Thus the inclination of the orbit is greatell when the line drawn between the moon’s nodes will pafs through the fun, and leaft when this line lies in the quarters; efpecially if the moon at the fame time be in conjunction with the fun, or in the oppofition. In 3S5 Irregular! Part IV. Theory of the firft of thefe cafes the nodes have no motion ; in ail Univerfal others, the nodes will each month have receded: and Gravita- t|jjs retrograde motion will be greateft when the nodes r tl°n‘ . are in the quarters, for in that cafe they will have no progreflive motion during the whole month; but in all other cafes they at fome times go forward, viz. when¬ ever the moon is between either of the quarters and the node which is lefs diftant from that quarter than the fourth part of a circle. We have now only to explain thofe irregularities of ties arifing the lunar motion which arife from her motion in an from the ellipfis. From what has been already faid it appears, “ooi?s m°'that the earth adls on the moon in the reciprocal du- -Uipfis, plicate proportion of the diftance *, therefore the moon, if undilfurbed by the fun, would move round the earth in a true ellipfis, and a line drawn from the earth to the fun would pal's over equal fpaces in equal times. We have, however, already fhown, that this equality is difturbed by the fun, and likewife how the figure of the orbit is changed each month ; that the moon is nearer the earth at the new and full, and more re¬ mote in the quarters than it would be without the fun. We muft, however, pafs by thofe monthly changes, and confider the effe6t which the fun will have in the diffe¬ rent fituations of the axis of the orbit in refpe£l of that luminary. This a61ion varies the force wherewith the moon is drawn towards the earth. In the quarters the force of the earth is direclly increafed by the fun, but diminilhed at the new and full j and in the inter¬ mediate places the influence of the earth is fometimes leffened, fometimes afliffed, by the a2n' the influence of the fun be added. This diminifhes her °f P^a_ tendency to the earth in oppofition and conjundtion, fleftion.6* and increafes it in the quadratures: but the diminutions exceed the augmentations both in quantity and dura¬ tion ; and the excefs is equivalent to x^-g-th of her ten¬ dency to the earth. T herefore this diminiftied tenden¬ cy cannot retain the moon in the fame orbit : (he muft retire farther from the earth, and dHcribe an orbit which is lefs incurvated by x^th part 5 and (he muft employ a longer time in a revolution. The period therefore which we obferve, is not that which would have obtain¬ ed had the moon been influenced by the earth alone. We (hould not have known that her natural period was increafed, had the difturbing influence of the fun re¬ mained unchanged ; but this varies in the inverfe tri¬ plicate ratio of the earth’s diftance from the fun, and is therefore greater in our winter, when the earth is nearer to the fun. This is the fource of the annual equation, by which the lunar period in January is made to exceed that in July nearly 24 minutes. The angular velocity of the moon is diminiftied in general and this nu¬ merical coefficient varies in the inverfe ratio of the cube ASTRONOMY. 136 ASTRONOMY Part IV tion. Theory of of the earth’s diftance from the fun. If we expand this Univerfal inverfe Cube of the earth’s diftance into a feries arran- Gravita- getj acc0rding to the lines and cofines of the earth’s , mean motion, making the earth’s mean dillance unity, we lhall find that the feries contains a term equal to -f of the fquare of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. Therefore the expreflion of the diminution of the moon’s angular velocity contains a term equal to of this ve¬ locity multiplied by \ of the fquare of the earth’s ec¬ centricity \ or equal to the produft of the fquare of the eccentricity, multiplied by the moon’s angular velocity, and divided by 119,33 (t of I79)‘ M this eccentri¬ city remain conftant, this produ& would alfo be con- ftant, and would ftill be confounded with the general diminution, making a conftant part of it: but the ec¬ centricity of the earth’s orbit is known to diminilh, and its diminution is the refult of the univerfality of the Newtonian law of the planetary deflections. Although this diminution is exceedingly fmall, its effeCt on the lu¬ nar motion becomes fenfible by accumulation in the courfe of ages. The eccentricity diminiftiing, the dimi¬ nution of the moon’s angular motion muft alfo diminilh, that is, the angular motion muft increafe. During the 18th century, the fquare of the earth’s eccentricity has diminifhed 0,00000153mean diftance from the fun being 2=x. This hasincreafed the angular motion of the moon in that timeo,OOOOOOOi285. As this augmentation is gradual, wre muft multiply the angular motion during the century by the half of this quantity, in order to obtain its accumulated effeft. This will be found to be. 9" very nearly, which exceeds that deduced from a moft careful comparifon of the motion of the laft two centuries, only by a fraftion of a fe» cond. As long as the diminution of the fquare of the eccen¬ tricity of the earth’s orbit can be fuppofed proportion¬ al to the time, this effea will be as the fquares of the times. When this theory is compared with obferva- tions, the coincidence is wonderful indeed. The effea on the moon’s motion is periodical, as the change of the folar eccentricity is, and its period includes millions of years. Its effea on the moon’s longitude will amount to feveral degrees before the fecular acceleration change to a retardation. Thofe who are not familiar with the difquifitions of modern analyfis, may conceive this queftion in the fol¬ lowing manner. Let the length of a lunar period be computed for the earth’s diftance from the fun for every day of the year. Add them into one fum, and divide this by their ber, the quotient will be the mean lunar period. This will be found to be greater than the arithmetical me¬ dium between the greateft and the leaft.. Ihen fuppofe the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit to be greater, and make the fame computation. The average period will be found ftill greater, while the medium between the greateft and leaft periods will hardly differ from the former. Something very like this may be obferved without any calculation, in a cafe very fimilar. I he angular velocity of the fun is inverfely as the fquare of his diftance. Look into the folar tables, and the great¬ eft diurnal motion will be found 3^73,,» an<^ 3433". The mean of thefe is 3553", but the medium of the whole is 3548". Now make a fimilar obfervation in tables of the motion of the planet Mars, whofe ec¬ centricity is much greater. We {hall find that the me- Theory of dium between the greateft and leaft exceeds the trite Univerfal medium of all in a much greater proportion. ^u' It has been fuppofed by fome philofophers that the tnoon was originally a comet, which pafling very near the earth, had been made to revolve round her by the force of attraction. But if we calculate ever fo far backwards, we ftill find the moon revolving round the earth as the planets round the fun, which could not be the cafe if this opinion were true. Hence it follows, that neither the moon nor any of the fatellites have ever been comets. Sect. V. Of Irregularities in the Satellites of Jupiter, The fubferviency of the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatel¬ lites to geography and navigation had occafioned their motions to be very carefully obferved, ever fince thefe ufes of them were firft fuggefted by Galileo j and their theory is as far advanced as that of the primary pla¬ nets. It has peculiar difficulties. Being very near to Jupiter, the great deviation of his figure from perfeft fphericity makes the relation between their diftances from his centre and their gravitations toward it vaftly complicated. But this only excited the mathematici¬ ans fo much the more to improve their analyfis ; and they favv, in this little fyftem of Jupiter and his attend¬ ants, an epitome of the folar fyftem, where the great rapidity of the motions muft bring about in a ftiort time every variety of configuration or relative pofition, and thus give us an example of thofe mutual difturbances of the primary planets, which require thoufands of years for the difcovery of their periods and limits. Me have derived fome very remarkable and ufeful piece's of information from this inveftigation ; and have been led to the difcovery of the eternal durability of the folar fyftem, a thing which Newton greatly doubt¬ ed of. Mr Pound had obferved long ago, that the irregu¬ larities of the three interior fatellites were repeated in a period of 437 days; and this obfervation is found to be juft to this day. Days. H. M# 437 3 44 437 3 42 437 3 35 435 T4 16 This naturally led mathematicians to_examine their mo¬ tions, and fee in what manner their relative pofitions or configurations, as they are called, correfponded to this period: and it is found, that the mean longitude of the firft fatellite, minus thrice the mean longitude of the fecond, plus twice the mean longitude of the third, always made 180 degrees. This requires that the mean motion of the firft, added to twice that of the third, fhall be equal to thrice the mean motion of the fecond. This correfpondence of the mean motions is of itfelf a Angular thing, and the odds againft its probability feems infinitely great j and when we add to this the particular pofitions of the fatellites in any one moment, xvhich is neceffary for the above conftant relation of their longitudes, the improbability of the coincidence, as a thing quite fortuitous, becomes infi¬ nitely greater. Doubts were firft entertained oi the coincidence, 247 revolutions of the firft occupy 123 fecond 61 third 26 fourth ar t IV. ASTRO Theory of coincidence, becatife it was not indeed accurate to a Uriiverial fecond. 'i he refult of the inveltigation curious. When we follow out the confequences of mutual gra¬ vitation, we find, that although neither the primitive motions of projection, nor the points of the orbit from which the fatellites were projected, were precifely fuch as fuited thefe obferved relations of their revolutions and their contemporaneous longitudes j yet if they dif¬ fered from them only by very minute quantities, the mutual gravitations of the fatellites would in time bring them into thofe petitions, and thofe dates of mean mo¬ tion, that would induce the obferved relations ; and when they are once induced they will be continued for ever. There will indeed be a (mall equation, depending on the degree of unfuitablenefs of the firtl motions and pofitions •, and this caufts the whole fytlem to ofcillate, as it were, a little, and but a very little way on each fide of this exaCl and permanent date. The permanency of thefe relations will not be dedroyed by any fecular equations arifing from external caufes $ fuch as the ac¬ tion of the fourth fatellite, or of the fun, or of a refiding medium •, beeaufe their mutual a&ions will didribute this equation as it did the original error. For a full difeufllon of this curious but difficult fubjeCl, we refer the reader to the differtations of La Grange and La Place, and to the tables lately pub- lifhed by Delambre. Thefe mathematicians have fhown, that if the mafs of Jupiter be reprefented by unity, that of his fatellites will be reprefented by the following numbers. Fird fatellite Second fatellite Third fatellite Fourth fatellite 0.0000x72011 0.0000237103 0.0000872128 0.0000544681 Sect. VI. Of Saturn's Ring. 395 plum’s The mod important addition (in a philofophical view) ;ng- which has been made to adronomical fcience fince the difeovery of the aberration of light and the nutation of the earth’s axis, is that of the rotation of Saturn’s ring. The ring itfelf is an objeft quite peculiar; and when it wasdifeovered that all the bodies which had any im¬ mediate connexion with a planet gravitated toward that planet, it became an intereding quedion to afeertain what was the nature of this ring? What fupports this immenfe arch of heavy matter without its reding on the planet ? What maintains it in perpetual concentricity with the body of Saturn, and keeps its furface in one invatiable pofition ? The theory of univerfal gravitation tells us xvhat things are poffible in the folar fydem ; and our conjec¬ tures about the nature of this ring mud always be re¬ gulated bv the cireumdance of its gravitation to the planet. PhiFfophers had at fird fuppofed it to be a luminous atmofphere, thrown out into that form by the great centrifugal force arifing from a rotation : but its well-defined edge, and, in particular, its being two very narrow rings, extremely near each other, yet perfefUy feparate, rendered this opinion of its conditution more improbable. Jifcovery Dr Herfchel’s difeovery of brighter fpots on its fur- I*ier' face, and that thofe fpots were permanent during the ng toit w^e t'me obfervation, feem to make it more probable that the parts of the ring have a folid con- Vol. III. Part I. N O M Y, 137 nexion. Mr Herfchel has difeovered, by the help of Theory of thofe fpots, that the ring turns round its axis, and that Univerfal this axis is alfo the axis of Saturn’s rotation. The time of rotat ion is I oh. 3 2~'. But the other circumdances , are not narrated with the precidon fufheient for an ac* curate comparifon with the theory of gravity. He in¬ forms us, that the radii 01 the four edges of the ring are 590, 731, 774, 830, of a certain fcale, and that the angle fubtended by the ring at the mean didance from the earth is 46f,/. Therefore its elongation is 23 The elongation of the fecond Cadinian fatellite is 36", and its revolution is 2d. 17I1. 44'. This diould give, by the third law of Kepler, 1711. xo' for the revolution of the outer edge of the ring, or rather of an atom of that edge, in order that it may maintain itfelf in equili- brio. The lame calculation applied to the outer edge of the inner ring gives about 1311. 36'; and we obtain nh. 16' for the inner edge of this ring. Such varie¬ ties are inconfident with the permanent appearance of ar fpot. We may fuppofe the ring to be a luminous duid or vapour, each particle of which maintains its dtuation by the law of planetary revolution. In fuch a date, it would confid of concentric drata, revolving more dowly as they were more remote from the planet, like the con¬ centric drata of a vortex, and therefore having a relative motion incompatible with the permanency of any fpot* Befides, the rotation oblerved by Herfchel is too rapid even for the innermod part of the ring. We think there¬ fore that it confids of cohering matter, and of confider- able tenacity, at lead equal to that of a very clammy duid, fuch as melted glafs. We can tell the figure which a fiuid ring mud have, fo that it may maintain its form by the mutual gravita¬ tion of its particles to each other, and their gravitation to the planet. Suppofe it cut by a meridian. It may be in equilibrio if the fedlion is an ellipfe, of which the longer axis is diredled to the centre of the planet, and very fmall in comparifon with its didance from the centre of the planet, and having the revolution of its middle round Saturn, fuch as agree with the Keplerean law. Thefe circumdances are not very confident with the dimenfions of Saturn’s inner ring. The didanee between the middle of its breadth and the centre of Sa¬ turn is 670, and its breadth is 161', nearly one-fourth of the didance from the centre of Saturn. De la Place fays, that the revolution of the inner ring obferved by Herfchel is very nearly that required by Kepler’s law : but wTe cannot fee the grounds of this affertion. The above comparifon with the fecond Cadinian fatellite {hows the contrary. The elongation pf that fatellite is taken from Bradley’s obfervations, as is alfo its pe¬ riodic time. A ring of detached particles revolving in xoh. 32^' mud be of much fmaller diameter than even the inner edge of Saturn’s ring. Indeed the quan¬ tity of matter in it might be fuch as to increafe the gra¬ vitation confiderably ; but this would be feen by its didurbing the feventh and fixth fatelliteq which are exceedingly near it. We cannot help thinking, there-jt. fore, that it confids of matter which has very confider-ble confit- able tenacity. An equatorial zone of matter, tenacious tency. like melted glad, and whirled brifkly round, might be thrown off, and, retaining its great velocity, would dretch out while whirling, enlarging in diameter and diminidiing in thicknefs or breadth, or both, till the centrifugal force was balanced by the united force of S pravitv 397 j 38 ASTRO Theory of gravity and tenacity. We find the the equilibrium Univerfal will not be fenfibly difturbed by confiderable devia- Gravita- tions, fuch as equal breadth, or even want of flatnefs. . t!0!1. Such inequalities appear on the ring at that time of its v_ '' difparition, when its edge is turned to the fun or to us. The appearances of its different fides are then confider- ably different. Such a ring or rings mull have an ofcillatory motion round the centre of Saturn, in confequence of their mutual action, and the aftion of the fun, and their own irregularities : but there will be a certain po- fition which they have a tendency to maintain, and to which they will be brought back, after deviating from it, by the ellipticity of Saturn, which is very great. The fun will occafion a nutation of Saturn’s axis and a preceffion of his equinoxes, and this will drag along with it both the rings and the neighbouring fatellites. The atmofphere which furrounds a whirling planet cannot have all its parts circulating according to the third law of Kepler. The mutual attrition of the pla¬ net, and of the different ftrata, arifing from their diffe¬ rent velocities, muff accelerate the flowly moving ftrata, and retard the rapid, till all acquire a velocity propor¬ tional to their diftance from the axis of rotation ; and this will be fuch that the momentum of rotation of the planet and its atmofphere remains always the fame. It will fwell out at the equator, and fink at the poles, till the centrifugal force at the equator balances the height of a fuperficial particle. The greateft ratio which the equatorial diameter can acquire to the polar axis is that of four to three, unlefs a cohefive force keeps the par¬ ticles united, fo that it conftitutes a liquid, and not an ekftic fluid like air j and an elaftic fluid cannot form an atmofphere bounded in its dimenfions, unlefs there be a certain rarity which takes away all elafticity. If the equator fwells beyond the dimenfion which makes the gravitation balance the centrifugal force, it muff imme¬ diately diflipate. If we fuppofe that the atmofphere has extended to this limit, and then condenfes by cold, or any chemical or other caufe different from gravity, its rotation ne- ceflarily augments, preferring its former momentum, and the limit will approach the axis ; becaufe a greater snd^omin. velocity produces a greater centrifugal force, and re- 0 quires a greater gravitation to balance it. Such an at¬ mofphere may therefore defert, in fucceflion, zones of its own matter in the plane of its equator, and leave them revolving in the form of rings. It is not unlikely that the rings of Saturn may have been furniftied in this very way 5 and the zones, having acquired a common velocity in their different rtrata, will preferve it 5 and they are fufceptible of irregularities arifing from local caufes at the time of their feparation, which may afford permanent fpots. Sect. VII. Of the Atmofpheres of the Planets. By atmofphere is meant a rare, tranfparent, coinpref- fible, and elaftic fluid furrounding a body. It is fup- pofed that all the heavenly bodies poffefs atmofpheres. The atmofphere of the earth is familiar to all its inha¬ bitants. Obfervation points out the atmofpheres of the fun and of Jupiter j but that of the other planets is fcarcely perceptible. The atmofphere becomes rarer in proportion to its 4 * N O M Y. Part IV. diftance from the body to which it belongs, in confe- Theory of quence of its elafticity, which caufes it to dilate the Univerfal more the lefs it is compreffed. If its moft remote parts Gravita- were ftill poffefled of elafticity, they would feparate in- , ii..‘0J1' ^ definitely, and the whole would be fcattered through fpace. To prevent this effedt, it is neceflary that the elafticity fhould diminifti at a greater rate than the comprefling force, and that when it reaches a certain degree of rarity its elaflicity ftiould vanilh altogether. All the atmofpheric ftrata muft gradually acquire the fame rotatory motion with the bodies to which they belong in confequence of the continual fridtion to which their different parts muft; be fubjedted, which will gradually accelerate or retard the different parts till a common motion is produced. In all thefe changes, and indeed in all thofe which the atmofphere undergoes, the fum of the produdts of the particles of the body and of its atmofphere multiplied by the areas deferibed round their common centres of gravity by their radii vedlors projedled in the plane of the equa¬ tor continue always the fame, the times being the fame. If we fuppofe then, by any caufe whatever, the height of tfie atmofphere is diminilhed, and a portion of it condenfes on the furface of the planet; the confe¬ quence will be, that the rotatory motion of the planet and of its atmofphere will be accelerated. For tfm radii vedlors of the areas deferibed by the particles of the primitive atmofphere becoming Ihorter, the fum of the produdts of all thefe particles by the correfponding areas cannot remain the lame unlefs the rotatory mo¬ tion augment. At the upper furface of the atmofphere the fluid is retained only by its weight. Its figure is fuch that the diredtion refulting from the combination of the centri¬ fugal forces and the attradling forces is perpendicular to it. It is flattened at the poles, and more convex at the equator. But this flattening has its limits. When a maximum the axis of the poles is to that at the equa¬ tor as 1 to 3. At the equator the atmofphere can only extend to the place where the centrifugal force and gravitation exadfly balance each other j for if it pafs that limit, it will be diflipated altogether. Hence it follows that the folar atmofphere does not extend as far as Mercury •, con- fequently it is not the caufe of the zodiacal light which appears to extend beyond even the earth’s orbit. The place where the centrifugal force and gravita¬ tion balance each other is fo much the nearer a body the more rapid its rotatory motion is. If we fuppole the atmofphere to extend to that limit, and then to con- denfe by cooling, &c. at the furtace of the planet the rotatory motion will increafe in rapidity in proportion to this condenfation, and the limit of the height of the atmofphere will conftantly approach the planet. 1 he atmofphere would of courfe abandon fucceffively zones of fluid in the plane of the equator, which would con¬ tinue to circulate round the body. We have fhown in the laft fedlion that Saturn’s ring may owe its origin to this caufe. 399 We may add alfo, that the adlion of another bo-Probable dy may confiderably change the conftitution of this reafon why atmofphere. Thus, fuppofing that the moon had originally an atmofphere, the limit will be that flj-akomthe fiance from the moon where the centrifugal force, ari-moon., ling from the moon’s rotation, added to the gravita¬ tion- [Part IV. ASTRONOMY. ■39 Theory of tion to the earth, balances the gravitation to the moon. Univerfal If the moon be ^th of the earth, this limit will be If at Gravita- about ^th of the moon’s diftance from the earth. tlon' this dillance the elafticity of the atmofphere is not anni¬ hilated by its rarefadlion, it will be all taken off by the earth, and accumulate round it. This may be the rea- fon why we fee no atmofphere about the moon. Sect. VII. Of the Tides. Caufe of The caufe of the tides was difcovered by Kepler, the tides who, in his IntroduBion to the Physics of the Heavens, difcovered explains it: u The orb of the attrafting power by Kepier. js jn tjie moonj extended as far as the earth j and draws the waters under the torrid zone, acting upon places where it is vertical, infenfibly on confined feas and bays, but fenfibly on the ocean, whofe beds are large, and where the waters have the liberty of recipro¬ cation, that is, of rifing and falling.” And in the 70th page of his Lunar AJlronomy—“ But the caufe of the tides of the fea appears to be the bodies of the fun and moon drawing the waters of the fea.” This hint being given, the immortal Sir Ifaac Newton improved it, and wrote fo amply on the fubjedt, as to make the theory of the tides in a manner quite his own, by difcovering the caufe of their rifing on the fide of the earth oppofite to the moon. For Kepler believed that the prefence of the moon occafioned an impulfe which caufed another in her abfenee. It has been already obferved, that the power of gra¬ vity diminilhes as the fquare of the diftance increafes ; and therefore the waters at Z on the fide of the earth Pig. 149. ABCDEFGH next the moon Pvl, are more attracted than the central parts of the earth O by the moon, and the central parts are more attraded by her than the wa¬ ters on the oppofite fide of the earth at n: and therefore the difiance between the earth’s centre and the waters on its furface under and oppofite to the moon will be increafed. For, let there be three bodies at H, O, and D : if they are all equally attraded by the body M, they will all move equally faft towards it, their mutual diftances from each other continuing the fame. If the attradion of M is unequal, then that body which is moft ftrongly attraded will move fafteft, and this will increafe its diftance from the other body. Therefore, by the law of gravitation, M will attrad H more ftrongly than it does O, by which the diftance between H and O will be increafed ; and a fpedator on O will perceive H rifing higher toward Z. In like manner, O being more ftrongly attraded than D, it will move farther towards M than D does : confequently, the di- flance between O and D will be increafed ; and a fpec- tator on O, not perceiving his own motion, will fee D receding farther from him towards n ; all effeds and ap¬ pearances being the fame, whether D recedes from O, or O from D. Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, placed round O, fo as to form a Hex- Theory of ible or fluid ring : then, as the whole is attraded to- Univerfal wards M, the parts at H and D will have their di¬ ftance from O increafed ; whilft the parts at B and F being nearly at the fame diftance from M as O is, thefe parts will not recede from one another 5 but rather, by the oblique attradion of M, they will approach nearer to O. Hence the fluid ring will form itfelf into an ellipfe ZIBL n KFNZ, whofe longer axis n OZ pro¬ duced will pafs through M, and its Ihorter axis BOF will terminate in B and F. Let the ring be filled with fluid particles, fo as to form a fphere round O j then, as the whole moves towards M, the fluid fphere being lengthened at Z and n, will affume an oblong or oval form. If M is the moon, O the earth’s centre, ABC .DEFGH the fea covering the earth’s furface, it is evi¬ dent, by the above reafoning, that whilft; the earth by its gravity falls towards the moon, the water diredly below her at B will fwell and rife gradually towards her ; alfo the water at D will recede from the centre [ftridly fpeaking, the centre recedes from D], and rife on the oppofite fide of the earth *, whilft the water at B and F is depreffed, and falls below the former le¬ vel. Hence, as the earth turns round its axis from the moon to the moon again in 24^ hours, there will be two tides of flood and two of ebb in that time, as we find by experience. As this explanation of the ebbing and flowing of the why the fea is deduced from the earth’s conftantly falling to-tides are wards the moon by the power of gravity, fome may at find a difficulty in conceiving how this is poflible, whenmoon' the moon is full, or in oppofition to the fun j fince the earth revolves about the fun, and muft continually fall towards it, and therefore cannot fall contrary ways at the fame time : or if the earth is conftantly falling to¬ wards the moon, they muft: come together at laft. To remove this difficulty, let it be confidered, that it is not the centre of the earth that defcribes the annual orbit round the fun, but the (e) common centre of gravity of the earth and moon together; and that whilft the earth is moving round the fun, it alfo defcribes a circle round that centre of gravity ; going as many times round it in one revolution about the fun as there are lunations or courfes of the moon round the earth in a and therefore the earth is conftantly falling to- year wards the moon from a tangent to the circle it defcribes round the faid common centre of gravity. Let M be Fig. 15c. the moon, TW part of the moon’s orbit, and C the centre of gravity of the earth and moon ; whilft the moon goes round her orbit, the centre of the earth de¬ fcribes the circle e round C, to which circle gah is a tangent; and therefore when the moon has gone from M to a little paft W, the earth has moved from to £; and in that time has fallen towards the moon, from the tangent at a to e: and fo on, round the whole circle. The fun’s influence in raifing the tides is but fmall S 2 in (e) This centre is as much nearer the earth’s centre than the moon’s as the earth is heavier, or.contains a great¬ er quantity of matter than the moon, namely, about 40 times. If both bodies were fufpended on it, they would hang in equilibria. So that dividing 240,000 miles, the moon’s diftance from the earth’s centre, by 40, the ex- cefs of the earth’s weight above the moon’s, the quotient will be 6000 miles, which is the diftance of the common centre of gravity of the earth and moon from the earth’s centre. 140 Theory of Umverfal Gravita- raifing tides. 403 Why they are not Inched when the m on is in the meri¬ dian. in comparifon of the moon’s for though the earth’s diameter bears a confiderable proportion to its diftance from the moon, it is next to nothing tvhen compared , l'U11 to its diftance from the fun. And therefore the differ- .02 ence of the fun’s attraction on the fides of the earth Influence of under and oppofite to him, is much lefs than the differ- th fun i* ence 0f tlie nioon’s attraction on the fides of the earth under and oppofite to her ; and therefore the moon tnuft raife the tides much higher than they can be raifed by the fun. On this theory, the tides ought to be higheft direft- ly under and oppofite to the moon •, that is, when the moon is due north and fouth. But we find, that in open feas, where the water flows freely, the moon M is generally paft the north ^nd fi.uth meridian, as at /i, when it is high water at Z and at n. The reafon is obvious: for though the moon’s attraction was to ceafe altogether when the was paft the meridian, yet the mo¬ tion of afcent communicated to the water before that time would make it continue to rife for fome time af¬ ter *, much more muft it do fo when the attraction is only diminiflied ; as a little impulfe given to a moving ball will caufe it fiill to move farther than otherwife it could have done 5 and as experience (hows that the day is hotter about three in the afternoon, than when the fun is on the meridian, becaufe of the increafe made to the heat already imparted. The tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance of the moon from the meridian at the fame places ; but are varioufly aflfeCled by the aCtion of the fun, which brings them on fooner when the moon is in her firft and third quarters, and keeps them back later when fhe is in her fecond and fourth : becaufe, in the former cafe, the tide raifed by the fun alone would be earlier than the tide raifed by the moon : and, in the latter cafe later. The moon goes round the earth in an elliptic orbit •, and therefore, in every lunar month, fhe approaches nearer to the earth than her mean diftance, and recedes farther from it. When fhe is neareft, fhe attrads llrongeft, and fo raifes the tides moft : the contrary happens when fhe is fartheft, becaufe of her weaker at- traCiion. When both luminaries are in the equator, and the moon in perigee, or at her leaf! diftance from the earth, fire raifes the tides higheft of all, efpecially at her conjunction and oppofition; both beeaufe the equatorial parts have the greateft centrifugal force from their defcribing the largeft circle, and from the concur¬ ring aCtions of the fun and moon. At the change, the attractive forces of the fun and moon being united, they diminifh the gravity of the waters under the moon, and their gravity on the oppofite fide is diminiflied by means of a greater centrifugal force. At the full, whilfl the moon raifes the tide under and oppofite to her, the fun, aCting in the fame line, raifes the tide un¬ der and oppofite to him j whence their conjoint effeft is the fame as at the change; and, in both cafes, oecafion ■what we call the Spring Tides. But at the quarters the fun’s aClion on the waters at O and H diminifhes the eff-Ct of the moon’s aCtion on the waters at Z and N •, fo that they rife a little under and oppofite to the fun at O and H, and fall as much under and oppofite to the moon at Z and N ; making what we call the Neap Tides, becaufe the fun and moon then aft crofs-wife to r time of the moon’s revolving from the meridian to the meridian again, which is 24 hours 50 minutes. But as the moon dtxlines from the equator towards either pole, the tides are alternately higher and lower at places hav¬ ing north or fouth latitude. For one of the higheft elevations, which is that under the moon, follows her towards the pole to which (he is neareft, and the other declines towards the oppofite pole } each elevation de¬ fcribing parallels as far diflant from the equator, on oppofite fides, as the moon declines from it to either fide; and confequently the parallels deferibed by thefe elevations of the water are twice as many degrees from one another as the moon is from the equator ; increa- fing their diftance as the moon increafes her declina¬ tion, till it be at the greateft, when the faid parallels are, at a mean ftate, 47 degrees from one another : and on that day, the tides are moft unequal in their heights. As the moon returns towards the equator, the parallels deferibed by the oppofite elevations approach towards each other, until the moon comes to the tquator, and then they coincide. As the moon declines towards the oppofite pole, at equal diftances, each elevation de- feribes the fame parallel in the other part of the lunar day, which its oppofite elevation deferibed before. Whilft the moon has north declination, the greateft tides in the northern hemifphere are when fire is above the horizon; and the reveffe whilft her declination is fouth. Let NESO be the earth, NSC its axis, EQ Fig, 151, the equa’or, T So the tropic of Cancer, t the tro-152’‘SS* pic of Capricorn, a b the arftic circle, c d the antarftic, N the north pole, S the fouth pole, M the moon, F and G the two eminences of water, whofe loweft parts are at a and d, at N and S, and at b and c, alwavs 90 degree4- from the higheft. Now, when the moon is in her greateft north declination at M, the higheft eleva¬ tion G under her is on the tropic of Cancer T So, and the oppofite elevation F on the tropic of Capri¬ corn t ; and thefe two elevations deferibe the tropics by the earth’s diurnal rotation. All places in the northern hemifphere ENQhave the higheft tides when they come into the petition £ So £), under the moon ; and the loweft tides when the earth’s diurnal rotation carries them into the petition a TE, on the fide oppo¬ fite the moon ; the reverfe happens at the fame time in the fouthern hemifp.here ES£), as is evident to fight. The IPart IV. A STRONG M Y. rig. 151. Theory o: The axis of the tides a C cl had now its poles a and d UniverCal (being always 90 degrees from the higheft elevations) Gryvita- t}ie arftjc and antarftic circles 5 and therefore it is tl0n' . plain, that at thefe circles there is but one tide of flood, and one of ebb, in the lunar day. For, when the point a revolves half round to in 12 lunar hours, it has a tide of flood \ but when it comes to the fame point a again in 12 hours more, it has the loweft ebb. Infeven days, afterward, the moon M comes to the equinodlial circle, and is over the equator Ef^, when both elevations defcribe the equator 5 and in both hemifpheres, at equal diflances from the equator, the tides are equally high in both parts of the lunar day. The whole phenomena being reverfed, when the moon has fouth declination, to what they were when her declination was north, require no farther defcription. In the three lafl-mentioned figures, the earth is or- thographically projected on the plane of the meridian ; but in order to defcribe a particular phenomenon, we now projeft it on the plane of the ecliptic. Let HZON be the earth and fea, FED the equator, T the tropic of Cancer, C the ar&ic circle, P the north pole, and the curves, 1, 2, 3, &c. 24 meridians or hour circles, interfefling each other in the poles : AGM is the moon’s orbit, S the fun, M the moon, Z the water elevated under the moon, and N the oppolite equal elevation. As the loweft parts of the water are always 93 degrees from the higheft, when the moon is in either of the tropics (as at M), the elevation Z is on the tropic of Capricorn, and the oppofite elevation N on the tropic of Cancer ; the low-water circle HCO touches the polar circles at C ; and the high-water cir¬ cle E TP 6 goes over the poles at P, and divides every parallel of latitude into two equal fegments. In this cafe, the tides upon every parallel are alternately higher and lower j but they return in equal times : the point T, for example, on the tropic of Cancer, (where the depth of the tide is reprefented by the breadth of the dark (hade) has the (hallower tide of flood at T than when it revolves half round from thence to 6, according to the order of the numeral figures ; but it revolves as foon from 6 to T as it did from T to 6. When the moon is in the equinoctial, the elevations Z and N are transferred to the equator at O and H, and the high and low-water circles are got into each other’s former places •, in which cafe the tides return in unequal times, but are equally high in both parts of the lunar day ; for a place at 1 (under D) revolving as formerly, goes fooner from 1 to 11 (under F) than from 11 to I, be- caufe the parallel it defcribes is cut into unequal feg¬ ments by the high-water circle HCO : but the points I and 11 being equidiftant from the pole of the tides at C, which is direftly under the pole of the moon’s or¬ bit MG A, the elevations are equally high in both parts of the day. And thus it appears, that as the tides are governed n the axis by the moon, they muft turn on the axis of the moon’s orbit, which is inclined 23^ degrees to the earth’s axis at a mean ftate : and therefore the poles of the tides muft be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth, or in oppofite points of the polar circles, going round thefe circles in every lunar day. It is true, that ac¬ cording to fig. 153. when the moon is vertical to the equator EC£), the poles of the tides feem to fall in with the poles of the world N and S : but when we I 41 -.,404 tides turn f the boon’s or- iit. confider that FGH is under the moon’s orbit, it will t heory of appear, that when the moon is over H, in the tropic of Univerfal Capricorn, the north pole of the tides (which can be no Gravita- more than 90 degrees from under the moon) muft be at tl°n' . C in the arCtic circle, not at P the north pole of the earth $ and as the moon afcends from H to G in her or¬ bit, the north pole of the tides muft fhift from c to a in the arctic circle, and the fouth poles as much in the antanftie. It is not to be doubted, but that the earth’s quick rotation brings the poles of the tides nearer to the poles ol the world than they would be if the earth were at reft, and the moon revolved about it only once a month 5 for otherwife the tides would be more unequal in their height and times of their returns, than we find they are. But how near the earth’s rotation may bring the poles of its axis and thofe of the tides to¬ gether, or how far the preceding tides may affeft thofe which follow, lo as to make them keep up nearly to the fame heights and times of ebbing and flowing, is a problem more lit to be folved by obfervation than by theory. '1 hofe who have opportunity to make obfervations, and choofe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are really affedltd in the above manner by the dilft rent po- fitions of the moon, efpecially as to the unequal times of their return, may take this general rule for know¬ ing when they ought to be fo affedled. When the earth’s axis inclines to the moon, the northern tides, if not retarded in their paflage through fhoals and chan¬ nels, nor affe&ed by the winds, ought to be greateft when the moon is above the horizon, leaft when (he is belo w it, and quite the reverfe when the earth’s axis declines from her; but in both cafes, at equal inter¬ vals of time. When the earth’s axis inclines fidewife to the moon, both tides are equally high, but they happen at unequal intervals of time. In every lunation the earth’s axis inclines once to the moon, once from her, and twice fidewife to her, as it does to the fun every year; becaufe the moon goes round the ecliptic every month, and the fun but once in a year. In fum- mer, the earth’s axis inclines towards the moon when new ; and therefore the day-tides in the north ought to be higheft, and night-tides loweft, about the change : at the full, the reverfe. At the quarters, they ought to be equally high, but unequal in their returns: be¬ caufe the earth’s axis then inclines fidewife to the moon. In winter, the phenomena are the fame at full moon as in fummer at new. In autumn the earth’s axis inclines fidewife to the moon when new and full ; . therefore the tides ought to be equally high and uneven in their returns at thefe times. At the firft quarter, the tides of flood ftiould be leaft when the moon is above the horizon, greateft when (be is below it ; and the reverfe at her third quarter. In fpring, the phenomena of the firft quarter anfwer to thofe of the third quarter in au¬ tumn j and vice verfa. The nearer any tide is to either of the feafons, the more the tides partake of the pheno¬ mena of thefe feafons ; and in the middle between any two of them the tides are at a mean ftate between thofe of both. In open feas, the tides rife but to very fmall heights in proportion to what they do in wide-mouthed rivers, opening in the dire&ion of the ftream of tide. For in channels growing narrower gradually, the water is ac¬ cumulated,i j 42 ASTRONOMY. Theory of cumulated by tlie oppofitlon of tbe contrafling bank 5 i t * 1 1! 1. _ _ il ] on onpn iy! ^ 1 n nilt accounted for. Univerfal like a gentle wind, little felt on an open plain, but Gravita- ftrong and hrilk in a ftreet j efpecially if the wider end . tl"n~ , of the ftreet be next the plain, and in the way of the 402 wind. Irregulari- The tides are fo retarded in their paffage through ties of tides different (hoals and channels, and otherwife fo varioui- ^ affefted by flriking againft capes and headlands, that to different places they happen at all diftances of the moon from the meridian, confequently at all hours of the lunar day. The tide propagated by the moon in the German ocean, when fhe is three hours pad; the meridian, takes 12 hours to come from thence to London bridge, where it arrives by the time that a new tide is raifed in the ocean. And therefore, when the moon has north declination, and we fhould expeft the tide at London to be greateft when the moon is above the horizon, we find it is leaf! j and the contra¬ ry when fhe has fouth declination. At feveral places it is high water three hours before the moon comes to the meridian j but that tide which the moon pufhes as it were before her, is only the tide oppofite to that which was raifed by her when fhe was nine hours pad the op¬ pofite meridian. There are no tides in lakes, becaufe they are gene¬ rally fo fmall, that when the moon is vertical die at¬ tracts every part of them alike, and therefore^ by ren¬ dering all the water equally light, no part of it can be raifed higher than another. The Mediterranean and Baltic feas have very fmall elevations, becaufe the inlets by which they communicate with the ocean are fo nar¬ row, that they cannot, in fo fhort a time, receive or dif- charge enough to raife or fink their furfaces fenfibly. For a more complete difeuflion of this important lub- jeCt, we refer the reader to the article ilDE. 406 Preceffion of the equi¬ noctial points, See. 407 Obferva- tions of N ewton and others on this fub jeft. Sect. IX. Of the Precejton of the Equinoxes, and the Nutation of the Earth's Axis. It now remains to confider the precedion of the equi- noftial points, with its equations, arifing from the nuta¬ tion of the earth’s axis as a phyfical phenomenon, and to endeavour to account for it upon thofe mechanical principles which have fo happily explained all the other phenomena of the celedial motions.. This did not efcape the penetrating eye of Sir Ilaac Newton j and he quickly found it to be a confequence, and the mod beautiful proof, of the univerfal gravitation of all matter to all matter •, and.there is no part of his " immortal work where his fagacity and fertility of re- fource flrine more confpicuoufiy than in this invediga- tion. It mud be acknowledged, however, that New¬ ton’s invedigation is only a direwd guefs, founded on affumptions, of which it would be extremely difficult to demondrate either the truth or falfity, and which requir¬ ed the genius of a Newton to pick out in fuch a com¬ plication of abdrufe circumdances. The fubjeft has occupied the attention of the fird mathematicians of Europe fince his time •, and is dill confidered as the mod curious and difficult of all mechanical problems. The mod elaborate and accurate differtations on the preceffion of the equinoxes are thofe of Sylvabella and Walmedy, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, pubudved about the year 17545 that of Thomas Simpfon, publiffi- cd in his Mifcellaneous Trads j that of Father Fnfius, Part IV, in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy, and afterwards, Theory of with great improvements, in his Cofmographia j that of Univerfal Euler in the Memoirs of Berlin", that of D’Alembert in Grtj^ta’ a feparate differtation; and that of De la Grange on the . j Libration of the Moon, which obtained the prize in the Academy of Paris in 1769. We think the differta- tion of Father Frifius the mod perfpicuous of them all, being conducted in the method of geometrical analyfisj whereas mod of the others proceed in the fiuxionary and fymbolic method, which is frequently deficient in didimd notions of the quantities under confideration, and therefore does not give us the fame perfpicuous convidlion of the truth of the refults. In a work like ours, it is impoffible to do judice to the problem, with¬ out entering into a detail which would be thought ex¬ tremely difproportioned to the fubjecl by the genera¬ lity of our readers. Yet thofe who have the necefiary preparation of mathematical knowledge, and wilh to un¬ derhand the fubjedt fully, will find enough here to give them a very didindl notion of it; and in the article Ro¬ tation, they will find the fundamental theorems, which will enable them to carry on the invedigation. We ffiall fird give a drort fketch of Newton’s invedigation, which is of the mod palpable and popular kind, and is highly valuable, not only for its ingenuity, but alfo becaule it will give our unlearned readers didindt and fatisfadlory conceptions of the chief circumdances of the whole phe¬ nomena. 408 Let S (fig. 154.) be the fun, E the earth, and M the sketch of moon, moving in the orbit NMCD n, which cuts the Newton's plane of the ecliptic in the line of the nodes N n, and has one half raifed above it, as reprefented in the figure/10*10 1 the other half being hid below the ecliptic. . Sup- pofe this orbit folded down •, it will concide with the ecliptic in the circle Nmcdn. Let EX reprefent the axis of this orbit, perpendicular to its plane, and there¬ fore inclined to the ecliptic. Since the moon gravitates to the fun in the diredlion MS which is all above the ecliptic, it is plain that this gravitation has a tendency to draw the moon towards the ecliptic. Suppofe this force to be fuch that it would draw the moon down from M to 2 in the time that die would have moved from M to t, in the tangent to her orbit. By the com¬ bination of thefe motions, the moon will defert her or¬ bit, and deferibe the line Mr, which makes the diagonal of the parallelogram; and if no farther action of the fun be fuppofed, fire will deferibe another orbit M hif, lying between the orbit MCD n and the ecliptic, and die will come to the ecliptic, and pafs through it in a point nearer to M than n is, which was the former place of her defeending node. By this change of orbit, the line EX will no longer be perpendicular to it; but there will be another line E x, which will now be perpendicular to the new orbit. Alfo the moon, moving from M to r, does not move as if die had come from the afeending node N, but from a point N lying beyond it ; and the line of the nodes of the orbit in this new pofition is N' n. Alfo the angle MN'm is kfs than the angle MN m. Thus the nodes diift their places in a dire£lion op¬ pofite to that of her motion, or move to the wed ward; the axis of the orbit changes its pofition, and the orbit itfelf changes its inclination to the ecliptic. Ihefe momentary changes are different in different parts of the orbit, according to the polition of the line of the nodes. tion. Part IV. ASTRO Theory of nodes. Sometimes the inclination of the orbit is in- Univerfal creafed, and fometimes the nodes move to the eaftward. Gravita- J3ut> {n general, the inclination increafes from the time __ that the nodes are in the line of fyzigee, till they get in- ' to quadrature, after which it diminilhes till the nodes are again in fyzigee. The nodes advance only while they are in the o&ants after the quadratures, and while the moon palfes from quadrature to the node, and they recede in all other fituations. Therefore the recefs ex¬ ceeds the advance in every revolution of the moon round the earth, and, on the whole, they recede. What has been, faid of one moon, would be true of each of a continued ring of moons furrounding the earth, and they would thus compofe a flexible ring, which would never be flat, but waved, according to the difference (both in kind and degree) of the diflurbing forces a6ting on its different parts. But fuppofe thefe moons to cohere, and to form a rigid and flat ring, no¬ thing would remain in this ring but the excefs of the con¬ trary tendencies of its different parts. Its axis would be perpendicular to its plane, and its pofition in any moment will be the mean pofition of all the axes of the orbits of each part of the flexible ring ; therefore the nodes of this rigid ring will continually recede, except when the plane of the ring paffes through the fun, that is, when the nodes are in fyzigee ; and (fays Newton) the mo- tion of thefe nodes will be the fame with the mean mo¬ tion of the nodes of the orbit of one moon. The in¬ clination of this ring to the ecliptic will be equal to the mean inclination of the moon’s orbit during any one revolution which has the fame fituation of the nodes. It will therefore be lead of all when the nodes are in quadrature, and will increafe till they are in fyzigee, and then diminifh till they are again in quadrature. Suppofe this ring to contraff in dimenfions, the dif- turbing forces will diminifh in the fame proportion, and in this proportion will all their effe&s diminifli. Sup¬ pofe its motion of revolution to accelerate, or the time of a revolution to diminifli $ the linear effects of the dif- turbing forces being as the fquares of the times of their aflion, and their angular effe&s as the times, thofe er¬ rors mull diminifh alfo on this account ; and we can compute what thofe errors will be for any diameter of the ring, and for any period of its revolution. We can tell, therefore, what would be the motion of the nodes, the change of inclination, and deviation of the axis, of a ring which would touch the furface of the earth, and revolved in 24 hours; nay, we can tell what thefe mo¬ tions would be, fhould this ring adhere to the earth, i hey muft be much lefs than if the ring were detached 5 for the difturbing forces of the ring muft drag along with it the whole globe of the earth. The quantity of motion which the difturbing forces would have produced in the ring alone, will now (fays Newton) be produced in the whole mafs j and therefore the velocity muft be as much lefs as the quantity of matter is greater : But ftill this can be computed. Now there is fuch a ring on the earth : for the earth is not a fphere, but an elliptical fpheroid. Sir Ifaac New¬ ton therefore engaged in a computation of the effe&s of the difturbing force, and has exhibited a moft beautiful example of mathematical inveftigation. He firft afferts, that the earth mujl be an elliptical fpheroid, whofe po¬ lar axis is to its equatorial diameter as 229 to 230. N O M Y. i43 Then he demonftrates, that if the fine of the inclina- Theory of tion of the equator be called w, and if t be the num- Univerfal ber of days (fidereal) in a year, the annual motion of Gr?vita* / tion. 5 r—^ “ a detached ring will be 360° X 4 1 He then fltows that the effedl of the difturbing force on this ring is to its effedft on the matter of the fame ring, dif- tributed in the form of an elliptical ftratum (but ftill detached) as 3 to 2; therefore the motion of the nodes will be 360° —,or 16' 16" 24'" annually. He then proceeds to {how, that the quantity of motion in the fphere is to that in an equatorial ring revolving in the fame time, as the matter in the fphere to the mat¬ ter in the ring, and as three times the fquare of a qua- drantal arch to two fquares of a diameter, jointly : Then he {hows, that the quantity of matter in the ter- reftrial fphere is to that in the protuberant matter of the fpheroid, as 52900 to 461 (fuppofing all homoge¬ neous). From thefe premifes it follows, that the mo¬ tion of 16' 16" 24'", muft be diminifhed in the ratio of 10717 to 100, which reduces it to 9". 07'" annually. And this (he fays) is the preceflion of the equinoxes, occafioned by the adlion of the fun; and the reft of the 50j,/, which is the obferved preceflion, is owing to the adtion of the moon, nearly five times greater than that of the fun. This appeared a great difficulty : for the phenomena of the tides ffiow that it cannot much exceed twice the fun’s force. 409 Nothing can exceed the ingenuity of this procefs. His deter- Juftly does his celebrated and candid commentator, Da-minatipn niel Bernoulli, fay (in his Differtation on the Tides,of form which (hared the prize of the French Academy with f”ns 0'™^" M‘Laurin and Euler), that Newton faw through a veil earth de- what others could hardly difcover with a microfcope monftrated in the light of the meridian fun. His determination of ^7 the form and dimenfions of the earth, which is the”"' foundation of the whole procefs, is not offered as any thing better than a probable guefs, in re difficillima; and it 1 tas been fince demonftrated with geometrical rigour by M‘Laurin. His next principle, that the motion of the nodes of the rigid ring is equal to the mean motion of the nodes of the moon, has been moft critically dilcuffed by the firft mathematicians, as a thing which could neither be proved nor refuted. Frifius has at leaf! ftiown it to be a miftake, and that the motion of the nodes of the ring is double the mean motion of the nodes of a Angle moon $ and that Newton’s own principles fliould have produced a preceffiwn of 184-feconds annually, which removes the difficulty formerly mentioned. His third affumption, that the quantity of motion of the ring muft be ffiared with the included fphere, was acquiefced in by all his commentators, till D’Alem¬ bert and Euler, in 1749, ftiowed that it was not the quantity of motion round an axis of rotation which re¬ mained the fame, but the quantity of momentum or ro¬ tatory effort. The quantity of motion is the produdf of every particle by its velocity ; that is, by its diftance from the axis ; while its momentum, or power of pro¬ ducing rotation, is as the fquare of that diftance, and is to be had by taking the fum of each particle multiplied by the fquare of its diftance from the axis. Since the earth 144 'I'heory of UiiiVerfal Gravita¬ tion. 41O Examina¬ tion of the phenome non of pre- ceflion on mechanical principles. A S T R O N O M Y. Part IV. earth differs fo little from a perfect; fphere, this makes nofenfible difference in the refult. It will increafe New¬ ton’s preceflion about three-fourths of a fecond. We proceed now to the examination of this pheno¬ menon upon the fundamental principles of mechanics. Becaufe the mutual gravitation of the particles of matter in the folar fyffem is in the inverfe ratio of the fquares of the diftanee, it follows, that the gravitations of the different parts of the earth to the fun or to the moon are unequal. The nearer particles gravitate more than thofe that are more remote. Let E (fig. 155.), be a meridional feftion of the terrellrial fphere, and PO/jy the feffion of the in- fcribed fphere. Let CS be a line in the plane of the ecliptic paffing through the fun, fo that the angle ECS is the fun’s declination. Let NCM be a plane paffing through the centre of the earth at right angles to the plane of the meridian P£) p E 5 NCM will therefore be the plane of illumination. In confequence of the unequal gravitation of the mat¬ ter of the earth to the fun, every particle, fuch as B, is afted on by a diflurbing force parallel to CS, and pro¬ portional to BD, the diftance of the particle from the plane of illumination •, and this force is to the gravi¬ tation of the central particle to the fun, as three times BD is to CS, the diffance of the earth from the fun. Let AB o be a plane paffing through the particle B, parallel to the plane E() of the equator. This fedlion of the earth will be a circle, of which A « is a diameter, and P q will be the diameter of its fe&ion with the in- fcribed fphere. Thefe will be two concentric circles, and the ring by which the feftion of the fpheroid ex¬ ceeds the feftion of the fphere will have A£) for its breadth 5 P /ms the axis of figure. Let EC be reprefented by the fymbol OC or PC —h* EO their difference, rz —7- a-\-o -x* n Univerfal Gravita¬ tion, CL - - _ QL - - - s/d' The periphery of a circle to radius 1 j The difturbing force at the diffance I from the plane NCM - - f The fine of declination ECS - - m The cofine of ECS - - - n It is evident, that with refpecl to the infcribed fphere, the difturbing forces are completely compenfated, for every particle has a correfponding particle in the ad- pining quadrant, which is afted on by an equal and oppofite force. But this is not the cafe with the pro¬ tuberant matter which makes up the fpheroid. The fegments NS s n and MT t m are more a61ed on than the ferments NT t n and MS s m ; and thus there is produced a tendency to a converfion of the whole earth, round an axis paffing through the centre C, perpendicular to the. plane Pp/? E. We (hall diftin- gui(h this motion from all others to which the fpheroid may be fubjeft, by the name LlBRATlON. The axis of this libration is always perpendicular to that diameter of the equator over which the fun is, or to that meridian in which he is. Pros. I. To determine the momentum of libration correfponding to any pofition of the earth refpetting the fun, that is, to determine the accumulated energy Theory of of the difturbing forces on all the protuberant matter of the fpheroid. Let B and b be two particles in the ring formed by the revolution of AQ, and fo fituated, that they are at equal diftances from the plane NM } but on oppofite fides of it. Draw BD, b rf, perpendicular to NM, and FLG perpendicular to LT. Then, becaufe the momentum, or power of produ¬ cing rotation, L as the force and as the diftance of its line of diredfion from the axis of rotation, jointly, the combined momentum of the particles B and b, will be yiBD.DC—-f.bdidc, (for the particles B and b are urged in contrary directions). But the momentum of Bis y]BF.DC-L/!FD.DC, and that of b f.b.G.dC— f.dG.dC ; and the combined momentum b f.B P.D <7— /.FD.DCY^A — 2/BELL—2/LT.TC. Becaufe m and n are the fine and cofine of the angle ECS or LCT, we have LT—w.CL, and CT—«.CL, and LF—wz.BL, and BF=/z.BL. This gives the mo¬ mentum — ifm /zBL’—CL2* The breadth Ap of the protuberant ring being very fmall, we may fuppofe, without any fenfible error, that all the matter of the line Ap is colleCled in the point P*, and, in like manner, that the matter of the whole ring is colleded in the circumference of its inner circle, and that B and b now reprefent, not fingle particles, but the colleCled matter of lines fuch as Ap, which terminate at B and b. The combined momentum of two filch lines will therefore be 2m «i/'.Ap.BL2—CL*. Let the circumference of each parallel of latitude be divided into a great number of indefinitely fmall and equal parts* The number of fuch parts in the circum¬ ference, of which P y is the diameter, will be n-pL. To each pair of thefe there belongs a momentum 2m nf •Ap*BL2—CL*. The fum of all the fquares of BL, which can be taken round the circle, is one half of as many fquares of the radius CL : for BL is the fine of an arch, and the fum of its fquare and the fquare of its correfponding cofine is equal to the fquare of the radius. Therefore the fum of all the fquares of the fines, together with the fum of all the fquares of the cofines, is equal to the fum of the fame number of fquares of the radius ; and the fum of the fquares of the fines is equal to the fum of the fquares of the cor¬ refponding cofines \ therefore the fum of the fquares of the radius is double of either fum. Therefore /n-pL •BL2=5n*pL*pL*. In like manner the fum of the number ri'PL of CL’r will be — fl'PL'CL*. Thefe firms, taken for the femicircle, are ^n*pL*pL*, and 4n*pL*CL*, or n-pL-^pL2, and n-pL’^CL*: there¬ fore the momentum of the whole ring will be 2 m n f •Ap*pL-n-QpL—4CL*) : for the momentum of the ring is the combined momenta of a number of pairs, and this number is ^Il'PL. By the ellipfe we have OC : pL = EO : Ap, and AP“PL =pL — *, therefore the momentum of OC d the ring is 2 m nf-QLdU (^PL PL*n (4PL2—CL*): but OL1:^*—therefore 4CL2), —mnf- b iPart IV. Theory of Univeifal Gravita¬ tion. - Lb' b ■3*1 j therefore the momentum of the ring \st7inf—U. ( L2—a?1 ) ' {b*—2>xl\ / —$b*x2+^x*\d rd (b4—4^v*-J-3^4). If we now fuppofe another paral- el extremely near to A a, as reprefented by the dotted line, the diftance L / between them being x, we {hall have the fluxion of the momentum of the fpheroid „d m nd ^Ax—■\b1x1x-\-^x4x), of which the fluent is tn exPre^*es the mo¬ mentum of the zone E A a Q^, contained between the equator and the parallel of latitude A a. Now let x become zzb, and we fhall obtain the momentum of the hemifpheroid — mnf—II (£s — 4£s_j_and that -!p+'Tb!)=±-mnfd Ub\ This formula does not exprefs any motion, but only n preffure tending to produce motion, and particularly tending to produce a libration by its a£lion on the co¬ hering matter of the earth, which is affefted as a num¬ ber of levers. It is fimilar to the common mechanical formula xv. d, where w means a weight, and d its dif¬ tance from the fulcrum of the lever. It is worthy of remark, that the momentum of this protuberant matter is juft of what it would be if it were all collected at the point O of the equator : for the matter in the fpheroid is to that in the infcribed fphere as d1 to Z>z, and the contents of the infcribed — r * * -b2='nb*:inb' this fliould a'—b' of the fpheroid —mnf—^Ll (bs- mat- *—£* fphere is-3-n Therefore a1 a%—b1 , . . . . —, which is the quantity of protuberant ter. We may, without fenflble error, fuppofe - — id; then the protuberant matter will be ^Yib'd. If all this were placed at O, the momentum would be 4 n d£’/OH-HC,=4 m nf db4, becaufe OH-HC—j nowr 4 is c times T4-. Alfo, becaufe the fum of all the reTangles OH’HC round the equator is half of as many fquares of OC, it follows that the momentum of the protuberant matter placed in a ring round the equator of the fphere, or fpheroid, is one half of what it would be if collefled in the point G or E •, whence it follows that the momen¬ tum of the protuberant matter in its natural place is two-fifths of what it would be if it were difpofed in an equatorial ring. It was in this manner, that Sir Ifaac Newton was enabled to compare the effedt of the fun’s aclion on the protuberant matter of the earth, with his effedl on a rigid ring of moons. The preceding in- vefligation of the momentum is nearly the fame with his, and appears to us greatly preferable in point of perfpicuity to the fluxionary folutions given by later authors. Thefe indeed have the appearance of greater accuracy, becaufe they do not fuppofe all the protube¬ rant matter to be condenfed on the furface of the in¬ fcribed fphere : nor were we under the necefliiy of do¬ ing this ; only it would have led to verv complicated Vol. III. Part I, ' ASTRONOMY. i45 expreflions had we fuppofed the matter in each line Theory of AO colledied in its centre of ofcillation or gyration. Univerial We made a compenfation for the error introduced by GraVita- which may amount to T-!T of the whole, and tl0^‘ not be negledled, by taking d as equal to . o'—b2 inflead of —. The confequence is, that our la a-\-b ^ formula is the fame with that of the later authors. i hus far Sir Ifaac Newton proceeded with mathema¬ tical rigour 5 but in the application he made two aflump- tions, or, as he calls them hypothefes, which have been found to be unwarranted. The firft was, that when the ring of protuberant matter is connedted with the in¬ fcribed fphere, and fubjedted to the adlion of the diflur- bing force, the fame quantity of motion is produced in the whole mafs as in the ring alone. The fecond was, that the motion of the nodes of a rigid ring of moons is the fame with the mean motion of the nodes of a foli- tary moon. But we are now able to demonflrate, that it is not the quantity of motion, but of momentum, which remains the fame, and that the nodes of a rigid ring move twice as fall as thofe of a fingle particle. We proceed therefore to, Prob. II. To determine the deviation of the axis, Effedts of and the retrograde motion of the nodes which refult the librato- from- this libratory momentum of the earth’s protube-ry momen' rant matter. earth’s ^ But here we mufl refer our readers to fome funda-tuberan^ " mental propofitions of rotatory motions which are de- matter, monftrated in the article Rotation. If a rigid body is turning round an axis A, paffing through its centre of gravity with the angular velocity d, and receives an impulfe which alone would caufe it to turn round an axis B, alfo pafllng through its centre of gravity, with the angular velocity £, the body will now turn round a third axis C, pailing through its cen¬ tre of gravity, and lying in the plane of the axis A and B, and the fine of the inclination of this third axis to the axis A will be to the fine of the inclination to the axis B as the velocity b to the velocity a. When a rigid body is made to turn round any axis by the aftion of an external force, the quantity of mo¬ mentum produced (that is, the fum of the products of every particle by its velocity and by its diflance from the axis) is equal to the momentum or fimilar produdt of the moving force or forces. If an oblate fpheroid, whofe equatorial diameter is ay and polar diameter b, be made to librate round an equa¬ torial diameter, and the velocity of that point of the equator which is farthefl from the axis of libration be v, the momentum of the fpheroid is —n a1biv. The two laft are to be found in every elementary book of mechanics. Let AN rt/z (fig. 156.) be the plane of the earth’s equa¬ tor, cutting the ecliptic CNK « in the line of the nodes or equinoctial points N a. Let OAS be the feCtion of the earth by a meridian paffing through the fun, fo that the line OCS is in the ecliptic, and CA is an arch of an hour-circle or meridian, meafuring the fun’s de¬ clination. The fun not being in the plane of the equa¬ tor, there is, by prop. 1. a force tending to produce a libration round an axis ZO « at right angles to the dia¬ meter Art of that meridian in which the fun is fituated, T and ASTRO and the momentum of all the difturbing forces is mnfd I\b*. The produd of any force by the mo¬ ment t of its a£tion expreffes the momentary increment of velocity •, therefore the momentary velocity, or the velocity of libration granted in the time t is m nfd nb't. This is the abfolute velocity of a point at the diftance I from the axis, or it is the fpace which would be uniformly defcribed in the moment with the velo¬ city which the point has acquired at the end of that moment. It is double the fpace aaually defcribed by the libration during that moment *, becaufe this has been an uniformly accelerated motion, in confequence of the continued and uniform aftion of the momentum during this time. This muft be carefully attended to, and the negleftof it has occafioned very faulty folutions of this problem. . . . , Let v be the velocity produced m the point A, the rnoft remote from the axis of libratiom I. he momen¬ tum excited or produced in the fpheroid is -jr^na* £ v (as above), and this muft be equal to the momentum ot the moving force, or lo ^miif dtlb* t; therefore we N O M Y. Fart IV, obtain that is, ry nearly m n f * T* t tn nfd t'2 — — m nf d—, as is requi- t a axis Zs, with the angular velocity mnf d_L it wiii therefore turn round neither axis, but round a third axis OP', pairing through O, and lying in the plane ZP 25, in which the other two are fituated, and the fine P'n of its inclination to the axis of libration will be to the fine Y'p of its mclination to the axis UP r . m nfd t of rotation as —p to . Now A, In fig. ,56. is the fummit_of .be equator both of libration and rotation; mnfdl' K the fp_ace de- faibcd by its Ubration » ^ “ ^s^otaUon Mherf^, tiking A c to A c (perpen dfcular to the plane of the equator of rotation, and ly¬ ing in the equator of libration), as « r iotnnfdt*, and Theory of completing the parallelogram Ar m c,. Am will be the compound motion of A, and or : mn df i* tion. — j ; — which will be the tangent of the angle a r m A r, or of the change of pofition of the equator. But the axes of rotation are perpendicular to their equator 5 and therefore the angle of deviation w is equal to this angle r A m. This appears from fig. 5.; for n P' : P'^O'/* : P'/),=:OP : tan. POPj and it is evident that o r red by the compofition of rotations. In confequence of this change of pofition, the plane of the equator no longer cuts the plane of the ecliptic in the line N «. The plane of the new equator cuts the former equator in the line AO, and the part AN of the former equator lies between the ecliptic and the new equator AN', while the part A » of the former equator is above the new one A «'; therefore the new node N', from which the point A was moving, is removed to the weft ward, or farther from A ; and the new node to which A is approaching, is alfo moved weft ward, or near¬ er to A-, and this happens in every pofition of A. The nodes therefore, or equino&ial points, continually ftiift to the weftward, or in a contrary dire&ion to the rotation of the earth j and the axis of rotation always deviates to the eaft fide of the meridian which paffes through the fun. This account of the motions is extremely different from what a perfon ftiould naturally expeft. If the earth were placed in the fummer folftice, with refpeft to us who inhabit its northern hemifphere, and had no rotation round its axis, the equator would begin to ap¬ proach the ecliptic, and the axis would become more upright j and this would goon with a motion conti¬ nually accelerating, till the equator coincided with the ecliptic. It would not ftop here, but go as far on the other fide, till its motion were extinguiftied by the oppo- fing forces; and it would return to its former pofition, and again begin to approach the ecliptic, playing up and down like the arm of a balance. On this account this motion is very properly termed hbratten : but this very flow libration, compounded with the incomparably fwifter motion of diurnal rotation, produces a third mo¬ tion extremely different from both. At firft the north pole of the earth inclines forward toward the fun*, after a long courfe of years it will incline to the left hand, as viewed from the fun, and be much more inclined to the ecliptic, and the plane of the equator will pafs through the fun. The fouth pole will come into view, and the north pole will begin to decline from the fun ; and this will go on (the inclination of the equator dimi- nilhing all the while) till, after a courfe of years, the north pole will be turned quite away from the fun, and the inclination of the equator will be reftored to its original quantity. After this the phenomena will have another period fimilar to the former, but the axis will now deviate to the right hand. And thus, although both the earth and fun ftiould not move from their places, the inhabitants of the earth would have a com¬ plete fucceffion of the feafons accompliftied in a period of many centuries. This would be prettily illuftrated by an iron ring poifed very nicely on a cap like the card J of Part IV. ASTRO 147 Theory of of a mariner’s compafs, having its centre of gravity co- Unfverfal inciding with the point of the cap, fo that it may whirl Gravita* roUnd in any polilion. As this is extremely difficult to execute, the cap may be pierced a little deeper, which ^ * will caufe the ring to maintain a horizontal pofition with a very fmall force. When the ring is whirling very fteadily, and pretty brilkly, in the diredlion of the hours of a watch-dial, hold a ftrong magnet above the middle of the nearer femieircle (above the 6 hour point) at the diftance of three or four inches. We (hall imme¬ diately obferve the ring rife from the 9 hour point, and link at the 3 hour point, and gradually acquire a mo¬ tion of preceffion and nutation, fuch as has been de- fcribed. If the earth be now put in motion round the fun, or the fun round the earth, motions of libration and devia¬ tion will Hill obtain, and the fucceffion of their different phafes, if we may fo call them, will be perfectly analo¬ gous to the above ftatement. But the quantity of devi¬ ation, and change of inclination, will now be prodigi- oully diminilhed, becaufe the rapid change of the fun’s pofition quickly diminiffies the difturbing forces, annihi¬ lates them by bringing the fun into the plane of the equator, and brings oppofite forces into adtion. We fee in general that the deviation of the axis is al¬ ways at right anglesto the plane palling through the fun, and that the axis, inftead of being raifed from the eclip¬ tic, or brought nearer to it, as the libration would occa- lion, deviates fidewife j and the equator, inftead of be¬ ing raifed or depreffed round its ealt and weft points, is twilled fidewife round the north and fouth points; or at leaft things have this appearance: but we mull now at¬ tend to this circumftance more minutely. The compolition of rotation Ihows us that this change of the axis of diurnal rotation is by no means a tranllation of the former axis (which we may fuppofe to be the axis of figure) into a new pofition, in which it again becomes the axis of diurnal motion •, nor does the equator of figure, that is, the moft prominent fec- tion of the terreftrial fpheroid, change its pofition, and in this new pofition continue to be the equator of ro¬ tation. This was indeed fuppofed by Sir Ifaac New¬ ton ; and this fuppofition naturally refulted from the train of reafoning which he adopted. It was ftri&ly true of a fingle moon, or of the imaginary orbit attach¬ ed to it ; and therefore Newton fuppofed that the whole earth did in this manner deviate from its former pofi¬ tion, Hill, however, turning round its axis of figure. In this he has been followed by Walmefly, Simpfon, and moft of his commentators. D’Alembert was the firft who entertained any fufpicion that this might not be certain; and both he and Euler at laft Ihowed that the new axis of rotation was really a new line in the body of the earth, and that its axis and equator of figure did not remain the axis and equator of rotation. They af- certained the pofition of the real axis by means of a moft intricate analyfis, which obfcured the connexion of the different pofitions of the axis with each other, and gave us only a kind of momentary information. Father Fri- fius turned his thoughts to this problem, and fortunately difcovered the compofition of rotations as a general principle of mechanical philofophy. Few things of this kind have efcaped the penetrating eyes of Sir Ifaac Newton. Even this principle had been glanced at by him. He affirms it in exprefs terms with refpeft to Theory of Univt rfat Gravita¬ tion. N O M Y. a body that is perfectly fpherical (cor. 22. prop. 66. book i.). But it was referved for Frifius to demonftrate it to be true of bodies of any figure, and thus to enrich mechanical fcience with a principle which gives fimple t and elegant folutions of the moft difficult problems. But here a very formidable objection naturally offers itfelf. If the axis of the diurnal motion of the heavens is not the axis of the earth’s fpheroidal figure, but an imaginary line in it, round which even the axis of figure muft revolve } and if this axis of diurnal rotation has fo greatly changed its pofition, that it now points at a ftar at leaft 12 degrees diftant from the pole obferved by Timochares, how comes it that the equator has the very fame fituation on the furface of the earth that it had in ancient times ? No fenfible change has been obferved in the latitudes of places. The anfwer is very fimple and fatisfadlory : Suppofe that in 12 hours the axis of rotation has changed from the pofition PR (fig. 158.) to pr, fo that the north pole, inftead of being at P, which we may fuppofe to be a par¬ ticular mountain, is now at p. In this 1 2 hours the mountain P, by its rotation round pr, has acquired the pofition 7T. At the end of the next 12 hours, the axis of rotation has got the pofition and the axis of figure has got the pofition pr, and the mountain P is now at p. Thus, on the noon of the following day, the axis of figure PR is in the fituation which the real axis of rota¬ tion occupied at the intervening midnight. This goes on continually, and the axis of figure follows the pofi¬ tion of the axis of rotation, and is never further remo¬ ved from it than the deviation of 12 hours, which does not exceed -rJ^th part of one fecond, a quantity altoge¬ ther imperceptible. Therefore the axis of figure will always fenfibly coincide with the axis of rotation, and no change can be produced in the latitudes of places on the furface of the earth. We have hitherto confidered this problem in the moft Appiica- general manner} let us now apply the knowledge vve t'on °(t^14 have gotten of the deviation of the axis or of the mo- ” o- » . .. n . . - , . .to nutation mentary action 01 the dilturbing force to the explanation an(j pr9CCf, of the phenomena ; that is, let us fee what preceffion (ion. and what nutation will be accumulated after any given time of aftion. For this purpofe we muft afcertain the precife devia¬ tion which the difturbing forces are competent to pro¬ duce. This we can do by comparing the momentum of libration with the gravitation of the earth to the fun, and this with the force which would retain a body on the equator while the earth turns round its axis. The gravitation of the earth to the fun is in the pro¬ portion of the fun’s quantity of matter M diredlly, and to the fquare of the diftance A inverfelv, and may there- M fore be expreffed by the fymbol —. The difturbing force at the diftance 1 from the place of illumination is to the gravitation of the earth’s centre to the fun as 3 to A, (A being meafured on the fame fcale which meafures the diftance from the plane of illumination). Therefore ——- will be the difturbing forced of our for- A9 mula. Let p be the centrifugal force of a particle at the diftance 1 from the axis of rotation } and let t and T be the time of rotation and of annual revolution, viz. T 2 fidereal 41* 148 ASTRONOMY. Part IV. ■glSf rKlere'il dayand year' Then ^: f; Hence we derive A 32?—• But lince r was the angu¬ lar velocity of rotation, and confequently ixr the fpace deferibed, and —r— the velocity j and fince the t centrifugal force is as the fquare of the velocity divided by the radius, (this being the meafure of the generated velocity, which is the proper meafure of any accele- j* X r* r1 3 r* • rating force), we have p— r, = —, and/=—— 1* t' t* t* n* v—. Now the formula fmnd— expreffed the fine X* a of the angle. This being extremely fmall, the fine may be confidered as equal to the arc which meafures the angle. Now, fubftitute for it the value now found, viz. —3 r . x f--, and we obtain the angle of deviation u>~r \x T1 mn~, and this is the fimpleft form in which it T* a ' ' can appear. But it is convenient, for other reafons, to —bx exprefs it a little differently : d is nearly equal to- 2 a* .V* therefore w~fX ,,,, 2 I a in which we lhall now employ it. 3 /2 a%—b1. The fmall angle r ~ 2 1 mn-—7—-, and this is the form . m n- is the angle in which the new equator cuts the former one. It is different at different times, as appears from the variable part 772;/, the product of the fine and cofine of the fun’s cledina- tion. It will be a maximum when the declination is in the folftice, for m n increafes all the way to 450, and the declination never exceeds 23^. It increafes, therefore, from the equinox to the folftice, and then diminifhes. Let ESL (fig. 159.) be the ecliptic, E.AC the equa¬ tor, BAD the new pofition which it acquires by the momentary aftion of the fun, cutting the former in the • 3 t% a*— angle B AE=:r Jp m n Let S be the fun’s place in the ecliptic, and AS the fun’s declination, the meridian AS being perpendicular to the equator. Let .,t • 3 J2 , T —be k. The angle BAE is then =zrIn a* 21 the fpherical triangle BAE we have fin. B : fin. AErr fin. A : fin. BE, or =r A : BE, becaufe very fmall angles and arches are as their fines. Iherefore BE, which is the momentary preceffion of the equinodlial . fin. AE • 3 t* , point E, is equal to A —7;——> —^ X rrrr kvin fin. B 2 TJ fin. R. afeenf. 1—x2= 23*= fin. obi. eel. , 413 The equator EAC, by taking the pofition BAD, Various recedes from the ecliptic in the colure of the folftices Biodesof L and CD is the change of obliquity or the nu- appucat.on ^ ^ ]et CL be thg fo]ft;tjal colure 0f BAD, and c / the folftitial colure of EAC. Then we have fin. B : fin. E = fin. LD : fin. /c; and therefore the difference of the arches LD and /c will be the meafure of the difference of the angles B and E, But Avhen -4 BE is indefinitely fmall, CD may be taken for the dif- Theery of ference of LD and /c, they being ultimately in the Umverfal ratio of equality. Therefore CD meafures the change Gr^ta' of the obliquity of the ecliptic, or the nutation of the , j axis with refpeft to the ecliptic. The real deviation of the axis is the fame with the change in the pofition of the equator, P/» being the meafure of the angle EAB. But this not being always made in a plane perpendicular to the ecliptic, the change of obliquity generally differs from the change in the pofition of the axis. Thus, when the fun is in the folftice, the momentary change of the pofition of the equator is the greateft poffible ; but being made at right angles to the plane in which the obliquity of the ecliptic is computed, it makes no change what¬ ever in the obliquity, but the greateft poffible change in the preceffion. In order to find CD the change of obliquity, obferve that in the triangle CAD, R : fin. AC, or R : cof. AErrfin. A : fin. CD, =r A : CD (becaufe A and CD are exceedingly fmall). Therefore the change of ob¬ liquity (which is the thing commonly meant by nuta¬ tion) CD= A X cof. AE, = r pq kmn,co{. AE'=r At2 £xftn* declin. Xc°f- declin. Xcof. R. afeenf. But it is more convenient for the purpofes of aftro- nomical computation to make ufe of the fun s longitude SE. Therefore make The fun’s longitude ES Sine of the fun’s long. Cofine - Sine obliq. eclipt. Cofine obliq. In the fpherical triangle EAS, right-angled at A (becaufe AS is the fun’s declination perpendicular to the equator), we have R ; fin. ESnrfin. E : fin. AS* and fin. A^—px. Alfo R : cof. AS=cof. AE : cof. ES, and cof. ES or yrreof. AS X cof. AE. There- ioxepxyzztm. AS cof. AS Xcof. AE,=w«Xcof. AE. Therefore the momentary nutation CD^r X \ bpxy^ We muft recoiled! that this angle is a certain frac¬ tion of the momentary diurnal rotation. It is more convenient to confider it as a fradlion of the fun s an¬ nual motion, that fo we may diredlly compare his mo¬ tion on the ecliptic with the preceffion and nutation correfponding to his fituation in the heavens. -This change is eafily made, by augmenting the fraflion in the ratio of the fun’s angular motion to the motion of T rotation, or multiplying the fradlion by — j therefore * 3 ^ ,. the momentary nutation will be r-^,— kpxy. In this value UlA is a conftant quantity, and the momentary 2I nutation is proportional to xy, or to the produd! of the fine and cofine of the fun’s longitude, or to the fine of twice the fun’s longitude j {ox x y is equal to half the fine of twice z. If therefore we multiply this fradtion by the fun’s momentary angular motion, which w7e may fuppofe, with abundant accuracy, proportional to we obtain the fluxion of the nutation, the fluent of which will ex¬ pels 21 x y p v 'Part IV. ASTRONOMY. Theory of prefs the whole nutation while the fun defcribes the Univerfal arch z of the ecliptic, beginning at the vernal equi¬ nox. Therefore, in place of 7/ put \/1—and in place :, and we have the fluxion of the nu- *49 of Z put — A*/1 ** tation for the moment when the fun’s longitude is z, and the fluent will be the whole nutation. The fluxion refulting from this procefs is 3 x x, of which the 4X4 , ^ t h v fluent is ■ a1. This is the whole change produ¬ ced on the obliquity of the ecliptic while the fun moves along the arch ss ecliptic, reckoned from the vernal equinox. When this arch is 90°, A? is 1, and there- fore ^ .jT is the nutation produced while the fun moves from the equinox to the folftice. The momentary change of the axis and plane of the equator (which is the meafure of the changing force) 3 / £ The real ind mo¬ mentary ! change rreateft at .hefolltices, The momentary change of the obliquity of the eclip- 3tkp - is —rrr m «. 2 1 ind at the iquinoxes tic is :othing. 2 T 4XS The whole change of obliquity is x*. 4 T Hence we fee that the force and the real momentary change of pofition are greateft at the folftices, and di- minifh to nothing at the equinoxes. The momentary change of obliquity is greateft at the o&ants, being proportional to at at or to a; y. The ivhole accumulated change of obliquity is greateft at the folftices, the obliquity itfelf being then fmalleft. * b Quantity of We muft in like manner find the accumulated quan- receffion tity of the preceflion after a given time, that is, the ^ §lven arch BE for a finite time. We have ER : CD = fin. EA : fin. CA (or cof. EA)=tan. EA : 1, and EB : ER—1 : fin. B. There¬ fore EB : CD —tan. EA : fin. B. But tan. EA= cof. E x tan. ES, =r cof. E x ■ fin' ■- —1^— cof. long. tji—x*- Therefore EB : CD = — p, and CD =r EB : V 1—a;* fin. obliq. eclip. tan.long. © lue found in N° 40, viz. -——^ xx, we obtain EB — 2 1 3 t hq x1 X . X —■ , the fluxion of the preceffion of the If we now fubftitute for CD its va- 2 * 1—x equinoxes occafioned by the action of the fun. The fluent of the variable part A?y, of which the fluent is evidently a fegment of a circle whofe arch • I y?* is 2; and fine x, that is, rz: , and the whole preceflion, while the fun defcribes the arch 2;, —*\/1—x* This is the preceffion of the equinoxes while the fun. moves from the vernal Theory of equinox along the arch % of the ecliptic. In this expreflion, which confifts of two parts, 3^? 4T Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. —-Y— ss, and —xs/1—the firfl is incomparably greater than the fecond, which never exceeds 1", and is always compenfated in the fucceeding quadrant. The preceffion occafioned by the fun will be 1 f'^ ^ and ' 4 from this expreffion we fee that the preceffion increafes uniformly, or at lead increafes at the fame rate with the fun’s longitude z, becaufe the quantity - ^? is 4 * conftant. In order to make ufe of thefe formula;, which are Mode of now reduced to very great fimplicity, it is neceffary toufing the 415 determine the values of the two 3t£p 3th q conftant quantities which we fhall call N and P, as fa&ors Now t is one fidereal b* day, and T is 3664. k is ———which according to formulae. 4 * ’ 4T; of the nutation and preceffion. Sir Ifaac Newton is 231*—230* ^ * ~ 115 j p and q are the fine and cofine of 230 28', viz. 0,39822 and 0,91729. Thefe data give N =: and P = of 141030. 61224 which the logarithms are 4.85069 and 5.21308, viz. the arithmetical complements of 5.14931 and 4.78692. Let us, for an example of the ufe of this inveftiga- tlon, compute the preceffion of the equinoxes when the the utility fun has moved from the vernal equinox to the fummerof the in- folftice, fo that 2; is 90°, or 324000". veftigation. Log. 3 24000"= 2;' - - - 5:51055 Log. P 5.21308 Log. 5", 29 2 .... 0T7 23 63 The preceffion therefore in a quarter of a year is 5,292 feconds ; and, fince it increafes uniformly, it is 21", 168 annually. We muft now recolledt the affiimptions on which Afflunp- this computation pwceeds. The earth is fuppofed totionson be homogeneous, and the ratio of its equatorial diame-which the .• ter to its polar axis is fuppofed to be that of 231 to comPuta- 230. If the earth be more or lefs protuberant at the equator, the preceffion will be greater or lefs in the ra¬ tio of this protuberance. The meafures which have been taken of the degrees of the meridian are very in- confiftent among themfelves ; and although a compari- fon of them all indicates a fmaller protuberance, nearly inftead of T^-T, their differences are too. great to leave much confidence in this method. But if this figure be thought' more probable, the preceffion will be reduced to about 17" annually. But even though the figure of the earth were accurately determined, we have no authority to fay that it is homogeneous. If it be denfer towards the centre, the momentum of the protu¬ berant matter will not be fo great as if it were equally denfe with the inferior parts, and the preceffion will be diminilhed on this account. Did we know the propor¬ tion of the matter in the moon to that in the fun, we couid I5° Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. A S T R O N O M Y. 419 ■Effedl; of the moon’s action on the protu¬ berant mat ter of the .earth. could-eafily determine the proportion of the whole ob- ferved annual preceffion of 30^ which is produced by the fun’s aftion. But tve have no unexceptionable data for determining this •, and we are rather obliged to in¬ fer it from the effetl which (he produces in difturbmg the regularity of the preceffion, as will be conhdered immediately. So far, therefore, as we have yet pro¬ ceeded in this inveftigation, the refult is very uncertain. We have only afeertained unqueftionably the law which is obfen ed in the folar preceffion. lUs probable, how¬ ever, that this preceffion is not very different from 20 annually •, for the phenomena of the tides ffiow the di- flurbing force of the fun to be very nearly f of the di- fturbing force of the moon. Now 20" is -} of 50 . But let us now proceed to confider the eixect 01 the moon’s aftion on the protuberant matter of the earth j and as we are ignorant of her quantity of matter, and -confequently of her influence in fimilar circumftances with the fun, we {ball fuppofe that the difturbing force of the moon is to that of the fun as m to 1. i hen (ceteris paribus') the preceffion will be to the folar pre¬ ceffion *• in the ratio of the force and of the time of its aftion jointly. Let t and T therefore reprefent a pe¬ riodical month and year, and the lunar preceffion will be _ tHZL. This preceffion muft be reckoned on the plane of the lunar orbit, in the fame manner as the fo¬ lar preceffion is reckoned on the ecliptic. We muft alfo obferve, that ^ reprefents the lunar preceffion only on the fuppofition that the earth’s equator is in¬ clined to the lunar orbit in. an. angle of degrees. This is indeed the mean inclination; but it is fometimes increafed to above 28°, and fometimes reduced to 18 Now in the value of the folar preceffion the cofine ot the obliquity was employed. Therefore whatever is the angle E contained between the equator and the lu- mwt Col. x. nar orbit, the preceffion will be -7^ • Cop# and it muft be reckoned on the lunar orbit. Now let V B (fig. 160.) be the immoveable plane ot the ecliptic, ‘Y'EDrO.F the equator in its firft fituation, before it has been deranged by the aaion.of the moon, AGRDBH the equator in its new pofition alter the momentary aAion of the moon. Let EGNFH be the moon’s orbit, of which N is the afeending node, and the angle N=5° 8' 46". Let N 'T' the long, of the node be Sine N HP Cofine N HP Sine HP =23^ Cofine HP Sine Nrrj.S^d Cofine N ■ "/to Circumference to radius i,r:6,28 Force of the moon ■ " Solar preceffion (fuppofed =14!' by obferva- tio"). " ‘ _ *t 420 Revolution of d _27dj ■ ' Lunar pre- Revolution of ©=366^ ' ’ 1 mmth re-1 Revolution of N =18 years 7 months - n duced to In order to re(jUCe the lunar preceffion to the eclip- £? P‘ tic, we inuft recollea that the equator will have the Part IV, lame inclination at the end of every half revolution of Theory 0f the fun or of the moon, that is, when they pafs through Univerfal the equator, becaufe the fum of all the momentary changes of its pofition begins again each revolution. Therefore if we negleft the motion of the node during one month, which is only if degree, and can produce but an infenfible change, it is plain that the moon pro¬ duces, in one hall revolution, that is, while flic mo\cs from H toG, thegreateft difference that the can in the pofition of the equator. The point D, therefore, hall way from G to H, is that in which the moveable equator cuts the primitive equator, and DE and DFare each 90°. But S being the folftitial point, HP S is alfo 90°. There¬ fore DS—E. Therefore, in the triangle DGE, we have fin. ED : fin. G =fin. EG : fin. D, = EG : D. Therefore D = EG X fin. G, = EG X fin. E nearly. Again, in the triangle DA we have fin. A : fin. HP D (or cof. E)— fin. D : fin. V A, = D : HP A. Fhere- D • Cof. E EG• Sin. E • Cof.HPE fore A= Sin. A Cof. E-Cof. cy’E Sin. 23i Sin. ‘ Cof. HP. niTrt Sin. E IF This is the lunar preceffion produced in the courfe of one month, eftimated on the ecliptic, not conftant like the folar preceffion, but varying with the inclination of the angle E or F, which varies both by a change in the angle N, and alfo by a change in the pofition ot N on the ecliptic. -on -vr 42-1 • We muft find in like manner the nutation SR pro-Nutationra duced in the fame time, reckoned on the co\ureo{ the the fame folftices RL. We have R : fin. DS D : RS, and RSrzD • fin. DS, =D * fin. HP E. But D_EG - fin. E mirt Col. ii. Therefore RS=:ED * fin. E * fin. tV1 E, ']/ • Cof. y/1—x1 in place of y. By this fubftitution we obtain m n n ( djLXJ—a c x x% \ The fluent of this is m tt n—~ Vi-*1 ' eb (i p ^ \ dbtj 1—x* (Vide Simpfon’s Fluxions, J '77.) But when x isrro, the nutation mull be = 0, becaufe it is from the pofition in the equinoctial points that all our deviations are reckoned, and it is from this point that the periods of the lunar aCtion recommence. But if we make x—o in this expreflion, the term a cx. yanilhes, and the term —db ^ 1 —x* becomes 2 =—db; therefore our fluent has a conftant part-j-^^; and the complete fluent is /« «• n (^db—db*J 1—x*— ). Now this is equal to m-x n—r ( d b X verfed eb ^ fine, !2—J acX verfed fine 2 *) : For the verfed fine of % is equal to (1—cof. %) ; and the fquare of the fine of an arch is ^ the verfed fine of twice that arch. This, then, is the whole nutation while the moon’s afcending node moves from the vernal equinox to the longitude qf N = 2;. It is the expreflion of a certain number of feconds, becaufe tt, one of its faClors, is the folar preceflion in feconds ; and all the other faCtors are numbers, or fractions of the radius 1 j even e is expref- fed in terms of the radius 1. The fluxion of the preceflion, or the monthly precef- fion, is to that of the nutation as the cotangent of E is to the fine of qp. This alfo appears by confidering fig. 159. P/> meafures the angle A, or change of pofition of the equator •, but the preceffion. itfelf, reckoned on the ecliptic, is meafured by Po, and the nutation by po ; and the fluxion of the preceflion is equal to the fluxion of cot. and being added for 12 lunations to thofe for 1701, give them for the time of mean new moon in March 1702. And fo on as far as you pleafe to continue the table (which is here car¬ ried on to the year 1800), always throwing off 12 figns when their fum exceeds 1 2, and fetting down the remainder as the proper quantity. . If the number belonging to A. D. 1700 (in Fable I.) be fubtrailed from thofe belonging to 1800, we fhall have their whole differences in 100 complete Julian years j which accordingly we find to be 4 days 8 hours 10 minutes 52 feconds 15 thirds 40 fourths, with re- fpe£t to the time of mean new moon. Thefe being ad¬ ded together 60 times (always taking care to throw off a whole lunation when the days exceed 29!) make up 60 centuries or 6000 years, as in Table VI. which was carried on to feconds, thirds, and fourths : and then wrote out to the neareft feconds. In the fame manner were the refpeftive anomalies and the fun s diftance from the node found, for thefe centurial years j and then (for want of room) wrote out only to the reared minutes, which is fufficient in whole centuries. By means of thefe two tables, we may find the time of any mean new moon in March, together with the ano¬ malies of the fun and moon, and the fun’s diftance from the node at thefe times, within the limits of 6000 years either before or after any given year in the 18th cen¬ tury ; and the mean time of any new or full moon in any given month after March, by means of the third and fourth tables, within the fame limits, as ftiown in the precepts for calculation. Thus it would be a very eafy matter to calculate the time of any new or full moon, if the fun and moon moved equably in all parts of their orbits. But we have already (hown, that their places are never the fame as they would be by equable motions, except when they are in apogee or perigee; which is, when their mean anomalies are either nothing or fix figns : and that their mean places are always forwarder than their true places, whilft the anomaly is lefs than fix figns •, and their two places are forwarder than the mean, whilft the anomaly is more. . Hence it is evident, that whilft the fun s anomaly is lefs than fix figns, the moon will overtake him, or be oppofite to him, fooner than (he could if his motion were equable j and later whilft his anomaly is more than fix figns. The greateft difference that can pol- fibly happen between the mean and true time of new or full moon, on account of the inequality of the (un s motion, is 3 hours 48 minutes 28 feconds : and that is, when the fun’s anomaly is either 3 figns 1 degree or 8 figns 29 degrees $ fooner in the firit caie, and later in the laft.—In all ether figns and degrees of N O M Y. „ Appendix. anomaly, the difference is gradually lefs, and vanifties of Calcula. when the anomaly is either nothing or fix figns. ting Eclip. The fun is in his apogee on the 30th of June, and in fes» his perigee on the 30th of December, in the prefent 'r™* age : fo that he is nearer the earth in our winter than in our fummer.—The proportional difference of di¬ ftance, deduced from the difference of the fun’s appa¬ rent diameter at thefe times, is as 983 to 10x7. The moon’s orbit is dilated in winter, and contraft- ed in fummer ; therefore the lunations are longer in winter than in fummer. The greateft difference is found to be 22 minutes 29 feconds j the lunations in- creafing gradually in length whilft the fun is moving from his apogee to his perigee, and decreafing in length whift he is moving from his perigee to his apogee.—On this account the moon will be later every time in co¬ ming to her conjunftion with the fun, or being in op- pofition to him, from December till June, and fooner from June till December, than if her orbit had conti¬ nued of the fame file all the year round. As both thefe differences depend on the fun’s ano¬ maly, they may be fitly put together into one table, and called The annual or frjl equation of the mean to the truefy%igy, (See Table VII.). This equational dif¬ ference is to be fubtradted from the time of the mean fyzigy when the fun’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns, and added when the anomaly is more.—-At the greateft it is 4 hours 10 minutes 57 feconds, viz. 3 hours 48 minutes 28 feconds, on account of the (un s unequal motion, and 22 minutes 29 feconds, on account of the dilatation of the moon’s orbit. This compound equation would be fufficient for re¬ ducing the mean time of new or full moon to the true time thereof, if the moon’s orbit were of a circular form, and her motion quite equable in it. But the moon’s orbit is more elliptical than the fun’s, and hex motion in it is fo much the more unequal. The diffe¬ rence is fo great, that (lie is fometimes in conjundlion with the fun, or in oppofition to him, fooner by 9 hours 47 minutes 54 feconds, than (he would be if her mo¬ tion were equable j and at other times as much later. The former happens when her mean anomaly is 9 figns 4 degrees, and the latter when it is 2 figns 26 de¬ grees. See Table IX. At different diftances of the fun from the moon’s apogee, the figure of the moon’s oibit becomes difte- rent. It is longeft of all, or moft eccentric, when the fun is in the fame fign and degree either with the moon’s apogee or perigee 5 (horteft of all, or lead eccentric, when the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is ei¬ ther three figns or nine figns} and at a mean (late when the diftance is either 1 fign 15 degrees, 4 figns 15 degrees, 7 figns 15 degrees, or 10 figns 15 degrees. When the moon’s orbit is at its greateft eccentricity, her apogeal diftance irom the earth s centre is to her perigeal diftance therefrom, as 10671*10933-, when lead eccentric, as 1043 is to 937; and when at the mean date, as 1055 is to 945. But the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is equal to the quantity of the moon’s mean anomaly at the time of new moon, and by the addition of 6 figns it becomes equal in quantity to the moon’s mean ano¬ maly at the time of full moon. i herefore, a table may be conftrudled .fo as to anfwer to all the various inequalities depending on the different eccentricities of the moon’s oibit, in the fyzigies, and called The fe- fippendix. f Calcula- cond equation of the mean to the true fyzigy. (See Ta¬ ring Eclip-ble IX.) : and the moon’s anomaly, when equated by fes, &c. Xable VIII. may be made the proper argument for ■“ v'”" taking out this fecond equation of time j which muft be added to the former equated time, when the moon’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns, and fubtratted when the anomaly is more. There are feveral other inequalities in the moon’s motion, which fometimes bring on the true fyzigy a little fooner, and at other times keep it back a little later, than it would otherwife be ; but they are fo final], that they may be all omitted except two *, the former of which (fee Table X.) depends on the difference be¬ tween the anomalies of the fun and moon in the fyzi- gies, and the latter (fee Table XI.) depends on the fun’s diftance from the moon’s nodes at thefe times. The greateft difference arifing from the former is 4 minutes 58 feconds •, and from the latter, 1 minute 34 feconds. The tables here inferted being calculated by Mr Fergufon according to the methods already given, he gives the following dlredlions for their ufe. To calculate the True Time of New or Full Moon. 426 Precept I. If the required time be within the li- ^thlTfe mits of the 18th century, write out the mean time of fthofe new moon in March, for the propofed year, from Table ibles. I. in the old ftyle, or from Table II. in the new j to- aether with the mean anomalies of the fun and moon, and the fun’s mean diftance from the moon’s afeending node. If you want the time of full moon in March, and the half lunation at the foot of Table III. with its anomalies, &c. to the former numbers, if the new moon falls before the 15th of March ; but if it falls af¬ ter, fubtraft the half lunation, with the anomalies, &c. belonging to it, from the former numbers, and write down the refpeiStive fums or remainders. II. In thefe additions or fubtraftions, obferve, that 60 feconds make a minute, 60 minutes make a degree, 30 degrees make a fign, and 12 figns make a circle. When you exceed 12 figns in addition, reject 12, and fet down the remainder. When the number of figns to be fubtrafled is greater than the number you fub- traft from, add 12 figns to the leffer number, and then you will have a remainder to fet down. In the tables figns are marked thuss, degree thus °, minutes thus ', and feconds thus ". III. When the required new or full moon is in any given month after March, write out as many lunations with their anomalies, and the fun’s diftance from the node from Table III. as the given month is after March, fetting them in order below the number taken out for March. IV. Add all thefe together, and they will give the mean time of the required new or full moon, with the mean anomalies and fun’s mean diftance from the afeending node, which are the arguments for finding the proper equations. V. With the number of days added together, enter Table IV. under the given month ; and againft that number you have the day of mean new or full moon in the left-hand column, which fet before the hours, minutes, and feconds, already found. But (as it will fometimes happen) if the faid num¬ ber of days fall ftiort of any in the column under the given month, add one lunation and its anomalies, &c. (from Table III.) to the forefaid fums, and then you *55 will have a new fum of days wherewith to enter of Calcula- Table IV. under the given month, where you are fare ting Eclip- to find it the fecond time, if the firft falls fhort. . les» VI. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s ano- v maly, enter Table VII. and therewith take out the annual or firft equation for reducing the mean fyzigy to the true; taking care to make proportions in the table for the odd minutes and feconds of anomaly, as the table gives the equation only to whole degrees. Obferve, in this and every other cafe of finding equa¬ tions, that if the figns are at the head of the table, their degrees are at the left hand, and are reckoned downwards ; but if the figns are at the foot of the table, their degrees are at the right hand, and are counted upward j the equation being in the body of the table, under or over the figns, in a collateral line with the degrees. The titles Ndd or Subtradi at the head or foot of the tables where the figns are found, (how whe¬ ther the equation is to be added to the mean time of new or full moon, or to be fubtra&ed from it. In this table, the equation is to be fubtradled, if the figns of the fun’s anomaly are found at the head of the table j but it is to be added, if the figns are at the foot. VII. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s mean anomaly, enter Table VIII. and take out the equation of the moon’s mean anomaly •, fubtraft this equation from her mean anomaly, if the figns of the fun’s anoma¬ ly be at the head of the table, but add it if they are at the foot •, the refult will be the moon’s equated ano¬ maly, with which enter Table IX. and take out the fecond equation for reducing the mean to the true time of new or full moon ; adding this equation, if the figns of the moon’s anomaly are at the head of the table, but fubtra&ing it if they are at the foot 5 and the re¬ fult will give you the mean time of the required new or full moon twice equated, which will be fufficiently near for common almanacs.—But when you want to calculate an eclipfe, the following equations muft be ufed: thus, VIII. Subtract the moon’s equated anomaly from the fun’s mean anomaly, and with the remainder in figns and degrees enter Table X. and take out the third equation, applying it to the former equated time, as the titles Add or SubtraB do diredf. IX. With the fun’s mean diftance from the afeend¬ ing node enter Table XI. and take out the equation anfwering to that argument, adding it to, or fubtradl- ing it from, the former equated time, as the titles di- reft, and the refult will give the time of new or full moon, agreeing with well regulated clocks or watches very near the truth. But to make it agree with the folar or apparent time, you muft apply the equation of natural days, taken from an equation-table, as it is leap-year, or the firft, fecond, or third after. This, however, unlefs in very nice calculations, needs not be regarded, as the difference between true and apparent time is never very confiderable. The method of calculating the time of any new or full moon without the limits of the 18th century will be ftiown further on. And a few examples compared with the precepts will make the whole work plain. N. B. The tables begin the day at noon, and reckon forward from thence to the noon following.—Thus, March the 31ft, at 22 h. 30 m. 25 fee. of tabular time is April 1 ft (in common reckoning) at 30 m. 25 fee. after 10 o’clock in the morning. U 2 ASTRONOMY. EXAMPLE i5<5 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, S>cc. ASTRONOMY# EXAMPLE I. Required the true time of New Moon in April 17^4? New Style ? Appendix, Of Calcula., ting Eclip., fes, &c. Jiy the Precepts. March i7^4» Add i Lunation, Mean New Moon, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True New Moon, Equation of days, Apparent time, JNew vioon D. H. M. S. 2 8 55 36 29 12 44 3 31 21 39 39 4 10 40 32 1 50 19 — 3 24 49 31 22 25 30 + 4 37 31 22 30 7 4- 18 31 22 30 25 — 3 48 31 22 26 37 Sun’s Aiioixiaiy 8 2 20 O o 29 6 19 9 1 26 19 11 10 59 18 9 20 27 1 Arg. 3d equation. Moon's anomaly. IO 13 35 21 o 25 49 O II + 9 24 21 i 34 57 11 10 59 18 Arg. 2d equation. Sun Iroin .Node. II 4 54 48 i o 40 14 ° 5 35 2 Sun from Node, and Arg. 4th e- quation. So the true time is 22 h. 30 min. 25 fee. after the noon of the 31ft March 5 that is, April ill, at 30 min. 25 fee. after ten in the morning. But the apparent time is 26 min. 37 fee. after ten in the morning. &u. EXAMPLE II. The true time of Full Moon in May 1762, New Style? By the Precepts. March 1762, Add 2 lunations, New Moon, May, Subt. •§ Lunation, Full Moon, May, Firft Equation, Time onee equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, The Full Moon, New >10011. D. H. M. S 24 ic 18 24 59 1 28 6 22 16 46 30 14 18 22 2 > dn’s 11 niiy. 8 23 48 16 1 28 12 39 10 22 o 55 o 14 33 10 7 22 24 28 + 3 16 36 8 1 41 4 — 9 47 53 7 J5 53 — 2 36 7 J5 5° 35 + J5 7 i5 50 5° 7 27 45 3 57 18 1 3 30 27 Arg. 3d equation. oon’s A uniaiy. I 23 59 II I 21 38 I 3 J5 37 12 6 12 54 30 2 42 42 1 14 36 9 3 57 .l8 Arg. 2d equation. Sun from Node. 10 18 49 14 2 I 20 28 o 20 9 42 O 15 20 7 o 4 49 35 Sun from Node, and Arg. 4th e- quation. Anf. May 7th at 15 h. 50 min. 50 fee. paft noon, Viz. May 8th at 3 h. 50 fee. in the morning. To calculate the time of New and Full Moon in a given year and month of any particular century between the Chriftian era and the 1 tith century. Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the 38th century with that of the year in the century pro- pofed, and take out the mean time of new moon in March, old ftyle, for that year, with the mean ano¬ malies and fun’s mean diftance from the node at that time, as already taught. # II. 'fake as many complete centuries or years irom Table VI. as, when fubtrafted from the above-faid year in the 18th century, will anfwer to the given year j and take out the ftrft mean new moon and its anoma¬ lies, &.c. belonging to the faid centuries, and let them below thofe taken out for March in the 18th century. III. Subtract the numbers belonging to thefe centu¬ ries from thofe of the 18th century, and the remainders will be the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon in March, in the given year of the century propofed.— Then, work in all refpe£ts for the true time ot new or full moon, as ftiown in the above precepts and examples. IV. If the days annexed to thefe centuries exceed the number of days from the beginning of March taken out in the 18th century, add a lunation and its anomalies, &c. from fable III. to the time and anomalies of new moon in March, and then proceed in all refpefts as above. This circumftance happens in Example V. EXAMPLE. Appendix. I Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, &c. ASTRONOMY. EXAMPLE III. 'Required the true time of Full Moon in April, Old Style, A. D. 30 ? From 1730 fubtradl 1700 (or 17 centuries) and there remains 30. J57 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, See. . By the Precepts. March 1730, ^ Add ■§■ Lunation. Full Moon, 1700 years fubtr. Full D March A. D. 30. Add I Lunation, Full Moon, April, Firfl; Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True Full Moon, April, New Moon. D. H M. 7 34 14 18 22 2 22 6 56 18 14 17 36 42 7 *3 !9 36 29 12 44 3 6 + 2 3 39 3 28 4 6 5 31 43 + 2 57 48 8 29 31 - 2 54 6 8 26 37 — 1 33 8 25 hi. .’s Anofiiaiy s. 8 18 4 31 o 14 33 10 9 2 37 41 ix 28 46 o 9 3 51 41 o 29 6 19 10 2 58 o 5 10 58 40 4 21 59 .2° Arg. 3d equation. Moon’s Anomaly. 9 o 32 17 6 12 54 30 3 J3 26 47 10 29 36 o 4 13 50 47 o 25 49 o 5 9 39 47 -h 1 ^ 53 5 10 58 .40 Arg. 2d equation. Sun from Neele. I 23 17 16 O 15 20 7 2 8 37 23 4 29 23 o 9 *4 23 o 40 14 IO 9 54 37 Sun from Node, and Arg. fourth equation. Hence it appears, that the true time of Full Moon in April, A. D. 30, old ftyle, was on the 6th day, at 25 m. 4 f. paft eight in the evening. fubtraft the time and anomalies belonging to it from thofe of the mean new moon in March-, the above found year of the 18th century j and the remainder will de¬ note the time and anomalies, &c. of mean hew moon in March, the given year before Chrifl.—Then, for the true time thereof in any month of that year, proceed as above taught. EXAMPLE IV. Required the true time of New Moon in May, Old Style, the year before Chrijl 585 ? The years 584 added to 1716, make 2300, or 23 centuries. To Calculate the true time of New or Full Moon in any given year and month before the Chriftian era. Precept I. Find a year in the 18th century, which being added to the given number of years before Chrifl; diminithed by one, ftiall make a number of complete centuries. II. Find this number of centuries in Table VI. and By the Precepts March 1716, 2300 years fubtraft, March before Chrifl; 585, Add 3 Lunations, May before Chrifl; 585, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth equation, rrne New Moon, New Moon. D. H. M II 17 33 29 11 5 57 53 o 11 35 36 88 14 12 9 28 1 47 45 — 1 37 28 + 1 46 2 15 28 4 + 28 2 18 + 12 28 30 Sun’s Anomaly. 8 22 co 39 11 19 47 o 9 3 3 39 2 27 18 58 o o 22 37 5 i5 41 *7 6 14 41 20 Arg. 3d equation. Moon’s Anomaly. 4 14 5 59 2 28 15 2 2 17 27 1 5 i5 4' 3 46 5 19 4i .*7 Arg. 2d equation. Sun fium Node. 4. 27 r7 5 7 2 5 27 0 1 5° 5 2 o 42 2 3 5° 47 Sun from Node, and Arg. fourth equation. So the true time was May 28th, at 2 minutes 30 fe- conds pafl four in the afternoon. Theie Tables are calculated for the meridian of Lon¬ don 5 but they will ferve for any other place, by fub- trafting four minutes from the tabular tune, for every degree that the meridian of the given place is weflward of London, or adding four minutes for every degree that the meridian of the given place is eaflward : as in EXAMPLE. Of Calcula- ASTRONOMY. EXAMPLE V. Appendix. Of Calcula- tlfeSs,^c!)' Required the true time of Tull Moon at Alexandria in Egypt in September, Old Style, the year before Chrijl 201 ? fl, &.C.P 'The years 200 added to 1800, make 2000 or 20 centuries. By the Brecepts. March 1800, Add 1 Lunation, From the fum, Subtradt 2000 years, N. M. bef. Chr. 201, . ,, C 6 Lunations, Add l half Lunations, Full moon, September, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True time at London, Add for Alexandria, True time there. JSew Moon. D. H. M. S. Sun’s Anoir.alj- Moou’s Anomaly. !3 29 O 22 17 *2 44 3 42 27 13 6 20 18 9 *9 l77 18 57 1 4 24 18 18 22 2 22 17 43 21 3 52 6 22 J3 51 1S 8 25 4 22 5 26 11 - 58 22 5 25 13 — 12 22 5 25 1 2 1 27 22 7 26 28 8 23 19 55 o 29 6 19 9 22 26 14 o 8 50 o 13 14 5 24 37 56 o 14 33 10 3 22 47 20 10 4 19 55 5 18 27 25 Arg. 3d equation. IO 7 52 36 o 25 48 o II 3 41 36 o 15 42 o 10 17 59 36 5 4 54 3 6 12 54 30 10 5 48 9 — 1 28 14 10 4 !9 .55 Arg. 2d equation. Sun In an XNocie. II 3 58 24 I o 40 14 o 4 38 38 6 27 45 o 5 6 53 38 6 4 1 24 o 15 20 7 11 26 15 9 Sun from Node, and Argument 4th equation. Thus it appears, that the true time of Full Moon, at Alexandria, in September, old ftyle, the year before Chrift 201, was the 22d day, at 26 minutes 28 feconds after feven in the evening. / EXAMPLE VI. Required the true time of Yuli Moon at Babylon in 0Bober, Old Style, the year 4008 before the firfl year of Chrijl, or 4007 before the year of his birth ? The years 4007 added to 1793, make 5800, or 58 centuries. March 1793? Subtradl 5800 years, N. M. bef. Chr. 4007, . ., f 7 Lunations, Add i half Lunations, By the Precepts. Full Moon, Odlober, Firfl: Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, Full Moon at London, Add for Babylon, True time there. New Moon. D. H. M. S. 3° 9 I3 55 15 12 38 7 14 20 35 48 206 17 8 21 14 18 22 2 22 8 6 11 — J3 26 22 7 52 45 -j- 8 29 21 22 16 22 6 — 4 10 22 16 17 56 — 51 22 16 17 5 2 25 41 22 18 42 46 Sun’s Anomaly. 9 10 16 10 21 35 II O 10 18 41 II 6 23 44 15 o 14 33 10 5 26 58 36 1 26 27 26 4 o 31 JO Arg. 3d equation. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from None. 8 7 37 58 6 24 43 o 1 12 54 58 6 o 43 3 6 54 30 1 26 32 31 — 5 5 1 26 27 26 Arg. 2d equation. 7 6 18 26 9 13 i o 9 23 17 26 7 4 41 S8 o 15 20 7 11 5 !3 J9 Sun from Node, and Argument 4th equation. So that, on the meridian of London, the true time was Oflober 23d, at 17 minutes 5 feconds paft four in the morning ; but at Babylon, the true time was Odlober 23d, at 42 minutes 46 feconds pafl: fix in the morning.—This is fuppofed by fome to have been the year of the creation. To Appendix. A S T R )Df Calcula- To calculate the true time of New or Tull Moon in any ting Eclip- given year and month after the \%th century. fes, &c Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the 18th century with that of the year propofed, and take out the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon in March, old ftyle, for that year, in Table I. II. Take fo many years from Table VI. as when added to the above-mentioned year in the 18th century O N O M Y. 159 will anfwer to the given year in which the new or full of Calcula- moon is required } and take out the firft new moon, ting Eclip- with its anomalies for thefe complete centuries. fes, See. ^ III. Add all thefe together, and then work in all ’ refpefts as above ftiown, only remember to fubtraft a lunation and its anomalies, when the above-faid addition carries the new moon beyond the 31ft of March j as in the following example. EXAMPLE VII. Required the true time of New Moon in July, Old Style, A. D. 2180 ?' Four centuries (or 400 years) added to A. D. 1780, make 2180. By the Precepts. New Moo Sun’s Anomaly Moon’s -vnomaiy Sun from Node D. H. M. S. March 1780, Add 400 years, From the Sum Subtract 1 Lunation New Moon March 2180, Add 4 Lunations, New Moon July 2180, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True time, July, 23 23 1 !7 8 43 34 29 9 4 13 o 13 24 o 1 21 7 47 10 1 28 o 10 18 21 6 17 49 41 7 45 29 12 44 J3 3 9 I7 42 13 o 29 6 19 11 22 35 47 o 25 49 o 6 10 o 40 14 11 19 1 118 2 56 10 12 8 18 35 54 3 26 25 *7 10 26 46 47 3 13 16 2 5 29 47 2 40 56 7 21 57 - 1 3 22 39 o 15 1 11 3 9 38 37 2 10 2 49 — 24 12 7 20 53 + 9 24 43 8 10 5 22 34 Arg. 3d equation. 2 9 38 .37 Arg. 2d equation. 8 8 10 43 SunfromNodeand Argumentfourth equation. 8 617 + 3 51 56 8 621 + 1 47 8 True time, July 8th, at 22 minutes 55 feconds paft fix in the evening. 8 22 55 In keeping by the old ftyle, .we are always fure to be right, by adding or fubtrafting whole hundreds of years to or from any given year in the 18th century. But in the new ftyle we may be very apt to make mif- takes, on account of the leap year’s not coming in re¬ gularly every fourth year: and therefore, when ive go without the limits of the 18th century, we had beft keep to the old ftyle, and at the end of the calculation reduce the time to the new. Thus, in the 22d century there will be fourteen days difference between the ftyles; and therefore the true time of new moon in this laft example being reduced to the new ftyle will be the 22d of July, at 22 minutes 55 feconds paft fix in the evening. To calculate the true place of the Sun for any given mo¬ ment of time. Precept I. In Table XII. find the next leffer year in number to that in which the fun’s place is fought, and write out his mean longitude and anomaly an- fwering thereto : to which add his mean motion and anomaly for the complete refidue of years, months days, hours, minutes, and feconds, down to the given time, and this will be the fun’s mean place and ano¬ maly at that time, in the old ftyle, provided the faid time be in any year after the Chriftian era. See the firjl following example. II. Enter Table XIII. with the fun’s mean anoma¬ ly, and making proportions for the odd minutes and fe^ conds thereof, take out the equation of the fun’s centre:- which, being applied to his mean place as the title Add or SubtraB diredls, will give his true place or longitude from the vernal equinox, at the time for which it was required. III. To calculate the fun’s place for any time in a given year before the Chriftian era, taken out his mean longitude and anomaly for the firft year thereof, and from thefe numbers fubtradl the mean motions and ano¬ malies for the complete hundreds or thoufands next above the given year ; and to the remainders, add thofe for the refidue of years, months, &c. and then work in all refpe£ts as above, See thefecond example following. EXAMPLE,. i6o Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, See. ASTRONOMY* EXAMPLE I. Appendix, Required the Sun's true place, March loth. Old Style, 1764, at 22 hours 30 minutes 2$ feconds pajl Noon ? In common reckoning, March 21JI, at 10 hours 30 minutes in the Forenoon. Of Calcula. ting Eclip. fes, Sec. To the radical year after Chrift Add complete years Biffextile Days Hours Minutes Seconds Sun’s mean place at the given time Equation of the Sun’s centre, add - Sun’s true place at the fame time 1701 { 1 March 20 22 30 25 Sun’s Longitude. 20 43 5° o 27 12 o 11 55 54 *3 i 14 1 9 0 11 29 17 1 28 9 20 41 o 10 14 36 I 55 36 Sun’s Anomaly. 6 13 1 11 29 26 11 29 14 I 28 Q O o o o 20 41 55 54 13 1 14 1 9 1 27 23 Mean Anomaly. 12 10 I2or ^c* , above time, anfwering to the anomaly 1 Is 90 24' 2l", v is 54'^ 43": 3. To find the fun's difiance from the nearejl foljlice, viz. the beginning of Cancer, which is 3s or 90° from the beginning of Aries. It appears by Example I. (where the fun’s place is calculated to the above time of new moon), that the fun’s longitude from the beginning of Aries is then os 12° so' 1 2" : that is, the fun’s place at that time is T1 Aries, 120 10' 12". s 0 ' " Therefore from - - 3 ■ o o o Subtradl the fun’s.longitude or place o 12 10 12 Remains the fun’s diftance from ? 0 the folftice 25 j ^ I7 49 4 Or 770 49' 4s''; each fign containing 30 degrees. 4. To find the fun's declination. Enter Table XIV. with the figns and degrees of the fun’s true place, viz. 0s 120, and making proportions for the 10' 12", take out the fun’s declination anfwering to his true place, and it will be found to be 40 49' north. 5. To find the moon's latitude. This depends on her diftance from her afcending node, which is the fame as the fun’s diftance from it at the tittle of new moon 3 and is thereby found in Table XVI. But we have already found that the fun’s equated diftance from the afcending node, at the time of new moon in April 1764, is os 70 42' 14". See above. Therefore, enter Table XVI. with o figns at the top, and 7 and 8 degrees at the left hand, and take out 36' and 39", the latitude for 70 ; and 41' 51", the lati¬ tude for 8°: and by making proportions between thefe latitudes for the 42' 14", by which the moon’s diftance from the node exceeds 7 degrees, her true latitude will be found to be 40' iS" north afcending. 6. To find the moon's true horary motion from the fun. With the moon’sanomaly, viz. 1 is9° 24' 21", enter Table XVII. and take out the moon’s horary motion 3 which, by making proportions in that Table, will be found to be 30' 22". Then, with the fun’s anomaly, 9s i° 26' 19", take out his horary motion 2' 28" from the fame table 3 and fubtradling the latter from the former, there will remain 27' 54" for the moon’s true horary motion from the fun. 7. To find the angle of the moon's vifible path with the ecliptic. This, in the projedlion of eclipfes, may be always rated at 50 35', without any fenfible error. 8. 9. To find the femidiameters of the fun and moon. Thefe are found in the fame table, and by the fame ar¬ guments, as their horary motions. In the prefent cafe, the fun’s anomaly gives his femidiameter 16' 6", and the moon’s anomaly gives her femidiameter 14' 57"- 10. To find the femidiameter of the penumbra. Add the moon’s femidiameter to the fun’s, and their fum will be the femidiameter of the penumbra, viz. 3i' 3". Now colled! thefe elements, that they may be found the more readily when they are wanted in the conftruc- tion of this eclipfe. X 1. True 162 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, &c. ASTRONOMY. i. True time of new moon in April 1764 1 10 30 25 Fig. 138. a 2. Semidiameter of the earth’s dilk 3. Sun’s diftance from the neareft folft. 4. Sun’s declination, north 5. Moon’s latitude, north afcending 6. Moon’s horary motion from the fun 7. Angle of the moon’s vifible path f with the ecliptic j 8. Sun’s femidiameter 9. Moon’s femidiameter 10. Semidiameter of the penumbra o 77 4 o 54 53 49 48 49 0 40 18 27 54 35 0 16 6 14 57 31 3 To projeci an Eclipfe of the Sun geometrically. Make a fcale of any convenient length, as AC, and divide it into as many equal parts as the earth’s femi- dilk contains minutes of a degree ; which, at the time of the eclipfe in April 1764, is 54' 53". Then, with the whole length of the Icale as a radius, defcribe the femicircle AMB upon the centre C; which femicircle fhall reprefent the northern half of the earth s enlight¬ ened dilk, as feen from the fun. Upon the centre C raife the ftraight line CH, per¬ pendicular to the diameter ACB } fo ACB lhall be a part of the ecliptic, and CPI its axis. Being provided with a good fe£tor, open it to the radius CA in the line of chords j and taking from thence the chord of degrees in your compaffes, fet it off both ways from H, tog and to h, in the peri¬ phery of the femidilk ; and draw the draight line gYh, in which the north pole of the dilk will be always found. . . When the fun is in Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Can¬ cer, Leo, and Virgo, the north pole of the earth is en¬ lightened by the fun : but whilft the fun is in the other lix ligns, the fouth pole is enlightened, and the north pole is in the dark. And when the fun is in Capricorn, Aquarius, Pifces, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, the northern halt of the earth’s axis C XII P lies to the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic, as feen from the fun j and to the left hand, whilft the fun is in the other fix figns. Open the fettbr till the radius (or diftance of the two 90’s) of the fines be equal to the length of V h, and take the fine of the fun’s diftance from the fol- ftice (770 49' 48") as nearly as you can guefs, in your compaffes, from the line of the fines, and fet off that diftanco from V to P in the line g V h, becaufe the earth’s axis lies to the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic in this cafe, the fun being in Aries ; and draw the ftraight line C XII P for the earth’s axis, of which P is the nortli pole. If the earth’s axis had lain to the left hand from the axis of the ecliptic, the diftance VP would have been fet off from V to¬ wards g. To draw the parallel of latitude of any given place, as fuppofe London, or the path of that place on the earth’s enlightened difk as feen from the fun, from fun- rife till funfet, take the following method. Subtraft the latitude of London, 51°-^, from 90°, and the remainder 380|- will be the colatitude, which take in your compaffes from the line of chords, making 3 Appendxi. CA or CB the radius, and fet it from h (where the of CalcU. earth’s axis meets the periphery of the dilk) to VI and ting t'ciip. VI, and draw the occult or dotted line VI K VI. fes, See. Then, from the points where this line meets the earth’s ’ "'J dilk, fet off the chord of the fun’s declination 40 49' to D and F, and to E and G, and connea thefe points by the two occult lines F XII G and DLE. Bifea LK XII in K, and through the point K draw the black line VI K VI. Then ?make CB the radius of a line of fines on the feaor, take the colati¬ tude of London 38°! from the fines in your compaffes, and fet it both ways from K to VI and VI. Ihefe hours will be juft in the edge of the dilk at the equi¬ noxes, but at no other time in the whole year. With the extent K VI taken into your compaffes, fet one foot in K (in the black line below the occult one) as a centre, and with the other foot defcribe the femicircle VI 789 &c. and divide it into 12 equal parts. Then from thefe points of divifion draw the occult lines 7Pj 80, 9W> &-C. parallel to the earth s axis C XII P. With the fmall extent K XII as a radius, defenbe the quadrantal arc Xliyj and divide it into fix equal parts, as XII, a, ab, be, cd, de, and p- the time of greateft obfcuration, and 12 hours 14 minutes . cs’^ c* . 12 feconds for the time when the eclipfe ends. But the beft wav is to apply this equation to the true equal time of new moon, betore the projection be begun ; as is done in Example I. For the motion or pofition of places on the earth’s dilk anfwers to apparent or folar time. In this conftruCtion it is fuppofed, that the angle under which the moon’s dilk is feen, during the whole time of the eeltpfe, continues invariably the. fame ; and that the moon’s motion is uniform and reCtilineal du¬ ring that time. But thefe fuppofitions do not exadtly agree with the truth ; and therefore, fuppofing the elements given by the tables to be accurate, yet the times and phafes of the eclipfe, deduced from its con- ftruftion, will not anfwer exadftly to what paffeth in the heavens ; but may be at leaft two or three minutes wrong, though done with the greateft care. More¬ over, the paths of all places of confiderable latitudes are nearer the centre of the earth’s dilk as feen from the fun than thofe conftruCtions make them ; becaufe the dilk is projected as if the earth were a perfect fphere, although it is known to be a fpheroid. Confequently, the moon’s ftiadow will go farther northward in all places of northern latitude, and farther fouthward in all places of fouthern latitude, than it is fhcwn to do in thefe projections.——According to Meyer’s fables, this eclipfe was about a quarter of an hour fooner than either thefe tables, or Mr Flamftead’s, or Dr Halley’s, make it; and was not annular at London. But M. de la Caille’s make it almoft central. 77/e Projeffion of Lunar Ec/ipfes. When the moon is within 12 degrees of either of her nodes at the time when ftie is full, ftte will be eclipfed ; otherwife not. We find by Example II. that at the time of mean full moon in May 1762, the fun’s diftance from the afcending node was only 40 49' 35" ; and the moon being then oppofite to the fun, muft have been juft as near her defcending node, and was therefore eclipfed. The elements for conftruCting an eclipfe of the moon are eight in number, as follows : » I. The true time of full moon; and at that time, 2. The moon’s horizontal parallax. 3. The fun’s fe¬ midiameter. 4. The moon’s. 5. The femidiameter of the earth’s ftiadow at the moon. 6. The moon’s lati¬ tude. 7. The angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic. 8. The moon’s true horary motion from the fun.—Therefore, 1. To find the true time of new or full moon. Work as already taught in the precepts.— Thus we have the true time of full moon in May 1762 (fee Example II. page 562) on the 8th day, at 50 minutes 50 feconds paft three o’clock in the morning. 2. To find the moon's horizontal parallax. Enter Table XVII. with the moon’s mean anomaly (at the above full) 9s 2° 42' 42,/, and thereby take out her horizontal parallax ; which, by making the requifite proportions, will be found to be 57' 23". 3,4. To find the femidiameters of the fun and moon. Enter Table XVII. with their refpe&ive anomalies, the fun’s being 1 os 70 27' 45" (by the above example) and the moon’s 9s 2° 42' 42" ; and thereby take out their refpeCtive femidiameters; the fun’s 15' 56", and the moon’s 15' 38". X 2 f. To 164 - ASTRO Of Calcula- 5- To find the femidiameter of the earth's fjadow at tingEclip- the moon. Add the fun’s horizontal parallax, which is tes. See. alWays jq', to the moon’s, which in the prefent cafe is 27' 23", the fun will be 57' 33", from which fubtracl the fun’s femidiameter 15' 56^, and there will remain 41' 37" for the femidiameter of that part of the earth’s ihadow which the moon then pafifes through. 6. To find the moon's latitude. Find the fun’s true diftance from the afeending node (as already taught at the true time of full moon) •, and this diftance increafed by fix figns will be the moon’s true diftance from the fame node j and confequently the argument for finding her true latitude. Thus, in Example II. the fun’s mean diftance from the afeending node was of 40° 49' 35", at the time of mean full moon j but it appears by the example, that the true time thereof was fix hours 33 minutes 38 feconds fooner than the mean time •, and therefore we muft fubtra£l the fun’s motion from the node (found in Table XII.) du¬ ring this interval from the above mean diftance of cf 40 49' 35", in order to have his mean diftance from it at the true time of full moon. Then to this apply the equation of his mean diftance from the node, found in Table XV. by his mean anomaly iof 70 27' 45" : and laftly add fix figns: fo (hall the moon’s true diftance from the afeending node be found as follows: Sun from node at mean full moon {6 hours 33 minutes 38 feeonds Sum, fubtraft from the uppermoft line Remains his mean diftance at true full meon Equation of his mean diftnnee, add Sun’s true diftance from the node To which add _ - And the fum will be - - s 0 ' " 0 4 49 3.8 15 35 \ 26 . 2 ■7 3 o 4 32 32 1 38 o o 6 to 32 d o o o 6 6 10 32. Which is the moon’s true diftance from her afeending node at the true time of her being full; and confequently the argument for finding her true latitude at that time.— Therefore, with this argument enter Table XVI. mak¬ ing proportions between the latitudes belonging to the 6th and 7th degree of the argument at the left hand (the figns being at top) for the io' 32", and it will give 32' 2i// for the moon’s true latitude, which appears by the table to be fouth defeending. 7. To find the angle of the moon's vifible pathyoith the ecliptic. This may be dated at 50 35', without any er¬ ror of confequence in the projection of the eclipfe. 8. To find the moon's true horary motion from the fun. With their refpeCtive anomalies take out their horary mo¬ tions from Table XVII. and the fun’s horary motion fub- traCtedfrom the moon’s, leaves remaining the moon’s true horary motion from the fun: in the prefent cafe 30' 32". Now colled thefe elements together for ufe. D. H. M. S. 1. True time of full moon in May - 8 3 50 50 а. Moon’s horizontal parallax - » 3. Sun’s femidiameter - - _ 4. Moon’s femidiameter - _ „ 5. Semidiameter of the earth’s fiiadow at the moon б. Moon’s true latitude, fouth defeending 7. Angle of her vifible path with the ecliptic S. Her true horary motion from the fun Thefe elements being found for the conftruftion of the moon’s eclipfe in May J762, proceed as follows; a ° 57 23 0 15 56 0 15 38 0 41 37 0 32 21 5 35 o O 30 £2 N O M Y, Appendix, Make a fcale of any convenient length, as WX (fig. of Calcula- 159. a), and divide it into 60 equal parts, each part ting Eclip- ftanding for a minute of a degree. fes, &.c. ^ Draw the right line ACB (fig. 160. «.) for part of ^ J the ecliptic, and CD perpendicular thereto for the fouth- ern part of its axis ; the moon having fouth latitude. Add the femidiameters of the moon and earth’s (lia- dow together, which in this eclipfe will make 57' 15" 3 and take this from the fcale in your compafles, and fel¬ ting one foot on the point C as a centre, with the other foot deferibe the femicircle ADB ; in one point of which the moon’s centre will be at the beginning of the eclipfe, and in another at the end thereof. Take the femidiameter of the earth’s (hadow, 41' 37", in your compaftes from the fcale, and fetting one foot in the centre C, with the other foot deferibe the. femicircle KLM for the fouthern half of the earth’s (Iradow, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth in thi& eclipfe. Make CD equal to the radius of a line of chords on the feClor, and fet off the angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic 50 35'from D to E, and draw the right line CFE for the fouthern half of the axis of the moon’s- orbit lying to the right hand from the axis of the eclip¬ tic CD, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth defeend-. ing.—It would have been the fame way (on the other fide of the ecliptic) if her latitude had been north de¬ feending, but contrary in both cafes, if her latitude had. been either north afeending or fouth afeending. Bife£t the angle DCE by the right line Cg, in which line the true equal time of oppofition of the fun and, moon falls as given by the table. Take the moon’s latitude 32' 21", from the feale. with your compafles, and fet it from C to G in the. line CG^; and through the point G, at right angles to CFE, draw the right line PHGFN for the path of the moon’s centre. Then F (hall be the point in the earth’s fhadoiv, where the moon’s centre is at the. middle of the eclipfe ; G, the point where her centre is at the tabular time of her being full ; and H, the point where her centre is at the inftant of her ecliplical oppofttion. Take the moon’s horary motion.from the fun, 30' 52"^ in your compaffes from the fcale ; and with that extent make marks along the line of the moon’s path PGN : then divide each fpaee from mark to mark into 60 equal parts, or horary minutes, and fet the hours to the proper dots in fuch a manner, that the dot fignifying the inftant of full moon (viz. 30 minutes 30 feconds after III in the morning) may be in the point G, where the line of the moon’s path cuts the line that bifedls the angle. DCE. Take the moon’s femidiameter, 13'S'S", in your com¬ paffes from the fcale, and with that extent, as a radius,, upon the points N, F, and P, as centres, deferibe the, circle Q^for the moon at the beginning of the eclipfe, when (he touches the earth’s (hadow at V; the circle R foy the moon at the middle of the eclipfe ; and the circle S for the moon at the end of the eelipfe, juft leaving the earth’s (hadow at W. The point N denotes the inftant when the eclipfe be¬ gan, namely, at 13 minutes 10 feconds after II in the morning ; the point F the middle of the eclipfe at 47, minutes 44 feconds pad III ; and the point P the end of the eelipfe, at 18 minutes after V.-—At the greateft obfeuration the moon was 10 digits eclipfed. TABLE.E ASTRO NO MICA L TABLES far calculating E CL IP S E S: r6j table I. Tie mean time of New Moon in March, Old Style ; with the mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and the Sun's mean difance from the Moon's afcending Node, from A. D. 1700 to A. D. 1800 inclujive. MeanNew view in March. D. H. M. S. 1700 1701 1702 I7°3 170 424 i7°5 1706 I7°7 1708 17°: 1710 1711 929 17122 3‘5 2 23 36 171 1714 « 171523 8 44 i2 I7I 4 11 12 J38 XS 12 35 9 3 34 47 611 17 33 298 22 50 39 1718 1719 172c 1721 1722 1723 1724 I725 172 I727 17 28, 1729 173° '731 [733 ■734 ‘736 ^37 i738 J739 I74° 1741 1742 '743 J744 '74‘ 1746 1747 1748 *749 750 l75! 1752 258 16 27 13 44 5 16 22 32 41 6 7 21 18 4 53 5 79 13 *3 42 34 2 22 31 11 21 20 3 50 10 4 52 2 2 25 7 18 11 13 43 7 20 2 20 5 J7 34 59 Sun’s Mean Anomaly. 19 58 48 9 8 20 59 8 27 36 51 8 16 52 43 5 J4 54 8 24 30 47 8 13 46 39 9 2 8 5c 21 24 43 78 9 9 46 54 8 29 2 47 8 18 18 39 9 6 40 51 8 25 56 43 1 2 22 r9 23 54 45 9 8 43 22 27 6 16 1 58 12 9 0 8 19 9 8 388 16 15, 4 5 23 53 1 24 21 25 54 13 6 14 31 48 621 2 *5 3 v ^35 47 ro 21 24 23 28 18 57 3 408 [8 3 45 7 22 34 16 26 10 6 56 r4 18 55 33 8 12 10 0 44 16 49 5 25 8 18 54 2 19 16 26 42 9 1 15 18! 27 22 47 16 7 36 348 5 25 11 24 *3 57 521 22 46 27 7 5 35 7 44 !0 13 36 20 29 1 I 29 O 6 32 28 44 44 37 6 49 27 22 41 1(5 38 33 9 5° 45 24 16 37 8 13 32 29 9 1 54 41 8 21 10 34 9 9 52 4<5 28 48 39 18 4 3« 9 6 26 42 25 42 34 98 H 58 26 3 20 39 22 36 30 11 52 22 o 14 34 19 30 26 7 52 38 27 8 3° 16 24 22 4 46 34 48 8 24 22 13 18 20 9 1 4° 32 8 20 c6 24 9 18 36 17 20 17 36 38 53 8 ;8 34 28 5- 6138 17 50 20 9 6 12 32 15 11 27 298 25 28 24 3 20 16 6;8 t 4 44 16 Moon’s mean vnomaly. I 22 30 37 o 28 7 42 7 55 47 9 J7 43 52 8 23 20 57 7 3 9 2 5 12 57 7 4 18 34 l3 2 28 22 18 2 3 59 24 o 13 47 30 10 23 35 36 9 29 12 42 5 9 o 47 6 18 48 52 5 24 25 57 4 4 !4 2 2 14 2 8 1 19 39 13 11 29 27 18 11 5 4 24 9 14 52 29 7 24 4° 34 7 a 17 40 5 i° 5 45 3 T9 53 5° 2 25 30 56 1 5 19 3 o 10 56 7 10 20 44 12 9 0 32 37 8 6 9 23 6 15 57 28 Sun’s mean Ijilt from the Node 34 3i 23 14 1 16 55 9 19 42 18 2 43 9 26 10 4 11 12 5 3° 8 1 51 18 11 20 54 5 o 29 37 1 7 39 54 1 15 42 41 2 14 25 43 3 2 28 30 3 10 31 1 4 19 14 18 4 27 17 s 5 5 19 52 6 14 2 54 6 22 5 41 8 o 48 45 8 8 51 29 8 16 54 16 9 25 37 18 3° 3 40 5 10 11 42 52 11 20 25 54 11 28 28 41 1 7 11 42 1 15 14 29 1 23 17 16 3 2 o 17 3 i° 3 25 45 33 1 22 39 11 10 44 20 58 49 26 35 55 10 6 24 9 12 1 7 21 49 11 6 1 37 16 5 7 14 221 17 2 27 26 50 32 2 27 38 32 35 43 10 17 52 27 4- 54 7 28 59 13 6 5 22 54 ic 242 15 3 18 5 51 4 26 48 53 5 4 5i 4° 5 12 54 27 6 21 37 29 6 29 40 16 8 8 23 18 8 16 26 8 24 28 52 10 3 13 54 10 1 14 41 10 19 17 28 11 28 o 30 o 6 3 17 1 14 46 19 3 22 49 5 2 O 51 52 3 9 34 53 3 17 37 4° 3 25 40 27! 3753 3754 1755 3756 3757 3758 3 7 59 1760 1761 1762 3763 1764 3765 1766 i767 ij68 1769 1770 1771 18 12 49 6 21 38 ic 25 19 10 40 3 59 26 1248 2 r77 3773 3774 3 775 1776 2 22 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 17 85 1786 3787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 3 793 3 794 [795 3796 3 797 3798 Mean Ne w Moon in March. D. H. M. S. 22 17 48 45 12 2 37 22 1 11 25 19 8 58 8 17 47 59 8 389 358 Sun’s mean Anomaly. Moon’s mean Anomaly. 3 6 28 22 22 20 2 8 19 21 Ol8 7 26 II 38 1210 27 55 31 o o 2410 3 32 37 19 16 16 8 13 20 42 15 39 549 7 38 28 8 26 54 20 8 16 10 12 o 831 8 57 8 6 29 47 13 15 18 248 23 48 16 3 0 7 1 20 21 39 40 10 6 28 1 29 4 o 7 8 569 338 28 20 17 i7 36 . 5 58 23 8 25 14 13 8 14 30 5 10 20 43 11 19 91 1 3 57 5(20 I 30 10 19 I 98 55 8 358 28 3777 27 7 53 51 16 16 40 28 6 1 29 4 23 23 1 44 13 7 50 21 2 16 38 578 12 49 58 21 14 11 379 112 jo 9 23 o 138 20 28 3 9 4 32- 24 8 33 4 9 1 26 20 20 42 13 0 9 4 20 2 52 17 22 11 24 1 29 46 13 19 2 } 9 10 7 24 17 26 40 15 56 4 38 13 23 34 28 20 32 53 18 5 21 308 28 6 7 7 14 10 25 11 42 46 34 20 31 23 5 39 2 52 39 68 17 21 59 59 8 5 25 M i5 9 2 38 11 11 41 3° 9 33 55 19 18 2 32 9 2 5i 27 o 23 489 16 9 5 38 24 8 379924 5i 33 800I13 o 22 1 43 9 9 8 5° 35 44 33 Q 3 5 8 23 53 59 9 10 16 11 8 29 32 3 8 18 47 45 7 30 7 18 57 48 28 45 54 8 34 o 14 11 6 23 59 33 o 3 47 16 11 9 24 21 9 19 12 26 8 24 49 32 Sun’s mean Dili, from the Node 5 5 5 20 4 23 28 12 26 it 29 2 12 3 14 5C 8 15 57 52 8 24 o 39 9 2 3 26 10 10 46 17 10 18 49 14 4 37 37 14 25 42 20 2 48 29 50 53 9 38 58 1 c 16 25 4 9 4 52 34 8 10 29 20 6 20 17 25 25 54 33 5 42 36 35 3° 43 21 7 47 ° 55 52 0 30 43 57 9 16 21 7 26 9 7 3 46 34 5 33 34 39 3 21 22 24 2 26 59 3c 3 ^ 47 35 3 3 3 6 35 4c 10 22 12 46 78 26 25 59 35 45 53 4 4 3 23 39 55 o c 2 37 58 26 4 27 14 9 2 53 34 7 37 2 12 39 19 o 22 27 25 4 31 11 28 10 26 52 0 5 35 0 33 37 49 1 22 20 51 o 23 38 8 26 25; 7 9 27 5 32 34 3 i5 33 58 20 o 50 28 3 37 6 46 38 34 49 25 8 23 32 26 9 3 35 33 9 9 38 io- 18 21 10 26 23 48 11 4 26 35 o 13 9 36 o 21 12 2 1 29 55 25 2 7 58 12 59 16 o 24 44 2 46 48 io 49 35 39 32 37 27 35 24 6 18 26 9 9 9 48 9 17 32 35 10 25 55 37 10 7 52 36111 3 58 24 166 ASTRONOMIC JL TABLES for calculating E CL IP SE S. 175214 20 16 68 14 44 16 *753 •754 23 TABLE II. Mean New Moon, b'c. in March, New Style, from A. D. 1752 to A. D. 1800. Mean NewMoon in March. D 1755 756 30 5 4 428 2 37 228 12 11 25 598 8 58 389 x757 758 o 759 28 19 17 47 158 2 35 51 o 8 31 76 761 16 1762 24 15 18 24 8 1763 1764 1765 1766 !4 o 7 8 55 3^8 6 28 1 TO 15 16 538 21 176729 12 49 338 768 1769 770 26 17 21 38 6 26 1771 T5 1772 x773 1774 T775 r77 x777 I778 r779 178 178 1782 x783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 . H. M. S. Sun’s mean Anomaly. 88 8 57 17 45 44 8 98 46 8 3 59 12 48 26 8 3 21 36 398 22 19 9 IQ 12 3 57 1 12 46 31 19 10 19 12 558 288 8 19 7 27 16 40 17 1 29 5 10 *7 24 7 50 21 13 16 3 1 38 578 20 23 10 7 29 5 27 o 48 21 18 6 25 x5 4 14 10 22 58 428 20 31 23 8 5 I4 x9 8 I792 *793 1794 *795 22 11 41 11 20 29 30 18 2 2 51 20 1796 *797 179816 18 22 22 20 11 38 12 o o 24 Moon’s mean Anomaly. Sun’s mean Dift. from the Node. 3 2 42 15 I 12 30 20 o 18 7 26 !o 27 55 31 10 o 32 37 19 16 16 8 32 8 26 54 20 16 10 12 5 26 8 13 6 23 28 8 5 4 2 18 22 48-16 I3 4 8 2 20 010 20 42 13 9 58 28 20 17 17 36 6 52 25 14 x3 x4 3° 3 54 57 22 8 11 24 ° 39 53 19 2 910 11 19 27 25 4 9 4 i2 M 7 14 40 16 6 20 17 25 488 48 4c 8 8 17 57 26 40 15 56- 5 11 53 23 24 SB8 J3 12 49 58 2 5 28 8 20 508 308 43 6 6 8 59 8 358 17 21 59 6 37 51 25 0 I4 x5 55 3 31 58 51 328 21 53 11 9 29 S2 88 18 47 8 8 11 39 448 8 3 47 27 9 12 248 26 25 59 51 25 2 12 39 o 22 27 11 2 15 1800 25 o 22 17)8 23 19 5510 7 56 36 r799 6 2 49 378 8 15 41 4 57 20 42 8 47 45 54 34 ~ 22 23 59 11 3 47 I(5 x3 35 21 19 12 26 29 o 31 3 25 4° 27 4 3 43 J4 5 12 26 15 5 20 29 6 29 12 7 7 x4 5° 7 !5 x7 38 8 24 o 39 9 2 3 26 9 10 6 13 10 18 49 14 10 26 52 11 4 54 48 4 37 37 14 25 42 24 I3 47 29 5° 53 9 38 58 °5 30 5 42 36 *5 3° 41 25 18 46 ° 55 52 5° 55 10 10 43 57 8 20 32 9 26 9 6 5 57 *3 5 11 34 x9 47 21 22 24 1 10 29 6 47 35 16 35 40 26 23 45 59 51 55 920 7 11 48 6 17 26 4 27 14 3 7 2 14 43 *3 37 49 21 40_37 o 23 38 8 26 25 16 29 13 25 12 14 3 !5 11 17 48 20 o 50 28 3 37 6 6 24 14 49 25 *3 22 c2 12 2 35 9 38 !7 40 47 10 26 23 211 11 4 26 35 12 29 22 O 21 12 23 O 29 IC IO 2 7 58 l6 24 3 46 48 *0 49 35 18 52 22 52 5 27 35 24 57 6 5 S8 11 14 21 22 24 o 26 47 19 3° 9 9 9 9 i7 12 9 25 15 11 3 58 48 12 59 46 13 48 35 22 24 N. TABLE III. Mean Anomalies, and Sun’s mean Dijlance from the Node, for 3 mean Lunations. D. H. M. S, 29 12 44 39 1 28 88 14 12 4118 2 56 12 5147 !5 40 !5 Mean Lunations. 177 4 7206 17 8236 5 52 24 24 18 8 21 9265 18 36 21 295 7 20 30 324 20 4 33 354 8 48 36 ‘3383 21 32 49 Sun’s mean Anomaly. 29 6 19 28 12 39 27 18 58 26 25 17 25 3i 37 Moon’s mean Anomaly. Sun’s mean Lift from the Node. o 25 49 O 1 21 38 I 2 17 27 I 3 13 l6 2 4 9 5 2 5 24 37 56 6 23 44 15 7 22 50 35 8 21 56 54 9 21 3 14 to 20 9 33 11 19 x5 55 o 18 22 12 14 18 22 2I o 14 33 10 5 4 54 6 o 43 6 26 32 7 22 21 8 18 10 9 13 59 10 9 48 11 5 37 6 12 54 30 40 14 20 28 o 1 2 o 42 2 4° 56 3 21 10 4 1 24 4 4i 3& 5 21 52 6 2 6 42 20 II 7 22 34 o 8 2 47 1 8 43 0 i5 20 7 TABLE IV. The Dai/s of the Tear, reckoned from the be¬ ginning of March. 15 16 26 36 66 37 46 16 51 93 94 95 96 97 7i 56 86 98 99 100 101 102 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 103 104 i°5 106 107 108 109 no 112 113 114 115 no 117 118 119 120 121 122 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 164 165 166 167 168 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 169 170 171 172 173 143 144 145 146 147 149 150 151 152 153 174 175 176 1*7 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 2C2 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 c 276 307 308 3°9 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 338 339 310 3” 34c 341 342 312 313 3M 343 344 315 346 316 347 3X7 348 3l8 349 319 35c 320 321 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 3o° 3°i 302 3°3 3°4 305 306 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 33° 33i 332 333 334 335 336 137 345 351 352 355 356 357 358 359 ?6c 361 362 363 364 365 366 ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. 267 TABLE V. Mean Lunations from 1 to 100000. Luviaf. Days. Decimal Parts. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 3° 40 5C 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 800c 9000 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000 29.53o59085io8°=: 29 59.061181702160 59 88.591772553240 88 118.122363404320 118 i47-652954255401 j47 I77-l83545lo648i J77 206.714x35957561 206 236.244726808641 236 265-7753i7659722 265 295-3059o85io8° 295 590.61181702160 590 885-9I77255324° 885 1181.22363404320 1181 I476-52954255401 j476 i77i-83545io6481 i77i 2067.14135957561 2067 2362.44726808641 2362 2657-753i7659722 2657 2953'059o851o8° 2953 5906-1181702160 5906 8859-I77255324° 8859 11812.2363404320 11812 i4765.29542554°i 14765 i77i8-3545i°6481 I77l8 2c67i.4i3595756i 20671 23624.4726808641 23624 26577-53I7659722 26577 29530*59o85Io8° 2953° 59061.181702160 59061 8859I-77255324° 8859I 118122.363404320 118122 i47652-9542554°i ^7652 i77i83-545io6481 i77i83 206714.135957561 206714 236244.726808641 236244 265775*3i7659722 265775 295305-9o85io8° 2953°5 590611.81702160 590611 8859i7-7255324° 8859i7 1181223.63404320 1181223 i476329-542554°i i476529 i77i835-45i°6481 177i835 2067141.35957561 2067141 2362447.26808641 2362447 2657753-i76597222§57753 2953059-o85io8° 2953°59 Days. H. M. S. Th. Fo. 12 44 1 28 14 12 2 c6 J5 40 4 24 17 8 5 52 18 36 7 20 14 41 22 1 5 22 12 42 20 3 3 23 10 44 18 4 1 2 2 58 5 57 8 55 25 50 40 5 8 30 9 55 11 20 12 45 14 10 4 21 18 32 8 43 22 54 4 !5 3 6 9 12 II 53 15 14 52 18 17 50 21 20 48 24 23 47 27 26 45 3° 29 43 o 59 26 31 29 1 58 53 32 28 36 2 58 19 33 28 3 57 46 34 27 4 57 9 54 24 14 5i 36 19 48 48 24 46 29 43 12 34 40 24 39 37 36 44 34 48 49 32 39 4 28 36 18 8 7 40 57 12 46 44 36 16 25 48 13 3 - 17 26 7 37 2l 48 15 20 19 36 17 24 15 13 J3 1 10 49 8 37 6 25 4 14 2 2 30 40 46 o 1 20 16 40 32 0 47 20 2 40 18 o 33 20 TABLE VI. The firjl mean New Moon, with the mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and the Sun's mean Diflance from the Afcending Node, next after complete Centuries of Julian Years. Luna¬ tions. I237 2474 37ii 4948 6185 7422 8658 895 D. H. M. S, 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Firft New Moon. 4 8 10 52 8 16 21 44 J3 ° 32 37 17 8 43 29 21 16 54 21 26 1 5 14 o 20 32 3 5 4 42 55 Sun’s mean Anomaly. 0 3 21 o 642 O 10 3 o 13 24 o 16 46 O 20 7 II 24 22 II 27 43 M’s mean Anomaly. 8 15 22 5 ° 44 i 16 6 10 1 28 6 16 50 2 212 10 21 45 7 7 7 Sun from Node. 4 19 27 9 8 55 1 28 22 6 17 49 11 7 16 3 26 44 7 15 3i o 4 58 Luna¬ tions. 11132 12369 13606 i4843' 16080 17316 i8553 19790 21027 22264 235o1 24738 25974 27211 28448 29685 30922 32i59 33396 3463 35869 37106 38343 3 3000 100 3958o3200 40817 420543 4329o3 4452 457643 47001 482383 494754000 507114100 519484200 531854300 544224400 '■% c a> h- 900 1000 1100 1200 I3OO I4OO 1500 l600 1700 1800 I9OO 2000 2100 2200 23OO 24OG 2500 2600 27OO 2 2800 29OO 3300 400 500 00 736 700 3800 1900 2 556594500 568964600 58i33'47oo 593694800 60606 61843 4900 5000 630805100 643175200 65554 66791 68028 6926 55oo 54oo 55oo 556oo 70502 71739 729765 74212 5700 5800 900 6000 Firft New Moon. D. H. M. S 9 12 53 47 13 21 4 40 18 5 15 32 22 13 26 24 26 21 37 16 1 17 4 6 1 14 58 10 9 25 501 14 i7 36 42 19 1 47 35 23 9 58 27 27 18 9 19 2 13 36 6 21 47 11 5 57 5311 19 47 15 14 8 4511 23 nin s mean Anomaly. I 4 2 5 7 46 11 o 14 28 11 1843 11 22 4 1 25 25 11 28 46 o 2 O 5 29 o 8 50 19 22 19 3811 26 29 24 6 30 3011 29 50 11 13 ii 16 26 28 14 41 22 3 10 8 11 7 18 19 12 2 29 56 16 10 40 48 20 18 51 40 25 3 2 33 29 11 13 25 4 6 40 14 8 I4 5i 61 12 23 1 59 17 7 12 51 1 15 23 43 25 23 34 35 o 19 1 25 5 3 12 17 9 11 23 o !3 19 34 54i 18 3 44 22 II 55 46 26 20 6 38 i 15 33 27 5 23 44 20 10 7 55 12 14 16 6 4 19 o 16 56 23 8 27 49 27 16 38 41 2 12 5 3° 6 20 16 22 4 27 15 15 12 38 7 19 20 48 eg 24 4 59 52 11 10 47 11 14 8 11 17 30 11 20 51 11 24 12 11 27 33 11 1 48 1 5 9 11 8 30 11 11 51 11 15 12 11 18 33 10 22 48 10 26 9 10 29 31 11 2 52 M’s mean Anomaly. 3 22 29 O 7 51 8 23 13 5 8 35 1 23 57 9 13 3° 5 28 52 2 14 14 10 29 36 7 14 58 4 o 20 o 15 42 8 5 15 4 20 37 1 5 59 9 21 21 6 6 43 2 22 4 11 7 26 6 26 59 Sun from Node. 4 24 25 9 i3 53 2 3 20 6 22 47 II 12 15 3 1 7 20 o 9 56 4 29 23 9 18 5i 2 818 6 27 45 3 12 2110 21 30 11 27 43 8 VS 4 28 27 1 i3 49 9 29 11 5 i8 44 2 4 10 19 28 7 4 50 3 20 12 o 5 34 7 25 4 10 29 o 25 511 9 11 13 6 13 11 9 34 II 12 55 10 17 9 10 20 31 10 23 52 10 27 13 I! O 34 11 3 55 11 716 10 11 31 10 14 52 10 18 14 10 21 35 10 24 56 10 28 17 5 26 35 2 11 57 10 27 19 6 16 52 3 2 14 11 17 36 8 2 58 4 18 20 1 3 421 9 19 4 5 8 37 1 23 59 10 9 21 6 24 43 3 10 5 11 25 27 3 10 58 8 o 25 o 19 52 5 9 20 9 28 47 1 i7 34 671 10 26 29 2 15 56 8 5 23 o 24 50 4 13 37 9 3 5 1 22 32 6 11 59 11 27 3 20 54 8 10 21 11 29 8 4 I8 36 9 8 3 1 27 30 6 16 57 1 6 25 2 25 52 7 14 39 046 4 23 34 9 i3 1 2 2 28 6 21 56 ASTRONOMIC A L TABLES fir calculating ECLIPSES. ASTRO NO MICA L TABLES for calculating E CL IP SE S. 160 T ABLE X. The third equation of the mean to the true StjKijgij. TABLE IX. Concluded. 4 3 183 14 24 3 24 42 27 3° o Signs FiTmTs 2 53 38 7 24 J9 3 34 587 5£ 24 3 45 11 3 55 21 4 5 26 4 1 c 26 4 25 20 264 35 6 285 54 11 29 11 Signs I Signs H. M. S. 5 12 48 3 47 89 46 448 8 59 7 31 18 7 S8 9 7 44 5I 8 26 33 4 44 428 32 11 8 37 *9 10 Signs 2 Signs H. M. S. 7 57 45 8 3 56 8 9 579 47 x38 45 48 8 15 469 47 368 41 2 8 21 249 47 498 36 6 5 3 33 8 42 189 47 J48 14 33 5 12 488 47 89 46 448 8 59 9 Signs .3 Signs H. M. S. 9 39 89 J4 28 9 4° 519 10 54 9 42 2j 9 43 42 . . 9 44 53 8 59 65 55 38 9 45 528 54 50 5 47 54 9 46 388 50 245 40 4 9 47 538 31 o 9 47 468 25 44 9 47 338 20 18 4 Signs H. M.S 6 2C 40 6 18 i8j 9 7 96 10 49 9 3 136 3 16 .5 Signs Ht. M. S 5 S2 9 5 24 9 5 16 50 47 44 8 Signs 7 56 5 49 42 4 51 l5 4 43 2 4 34 33 7 Signs 1 25 31 116 7 1 641 0 57 J3 0 S8 o 28 41 p 19 8 o 9 34 000 6 Signs Argime?it. Sun’s Anomaly— Moon’s Anomaly. 0 Sub. 6 Add M. Signs 3° 35 4° 45 -1° 55 0 5 10 1«: 20 25 3C 35 40 45 49 52 56 A 9 L3 18 22 Signs 5 Sub. 11 Add Signs Signs 1 Sub. 2 Sub. 7 Add. 8 Add M. S.M. S 22 26 3° 34i 38 42 46 5 54] 58 26 3° 3d 38 4 45 48 51 54 57 Signs 4 Sub. 10 Add 12 J5 18 28 21 3C S2 34 36 3 8 40 42 44 46] 4& 58 58 58 58 58 Signs 3 Sub. 9 Add TAB.XI. The fourth equation of the mean to the true Syz-ygy. Argument. Sun’s mean diftance from the Node, Add Go ]■ Sig- ^ | SigJg | Sig M. S. Voi,, HI. Part I. ic 13 16 20 20 26 29 32 35 S8 41 44 47 5° 52 54 57 o J4 16 18 20 22 f}sig M. SJM. S 23 24 25 26 2 28 29 3° 3< 32 33 33 34 3 34 34 34 34 33 _33 32 31 3c 20 2 s 2 26 25 24 22 4 7 si 10 \ c 57 54 5' 49 2230 29 28 1827 16 26 25 24 23 621 3 20 39 18 *7 16 15 Subtrad. isig- TABLE XII. The Sun's mean Lcng 'tu'ei Motion, and Anomaly, Old Style. One) K 3' 2 aoi 301 401 501 1001 1101 1201 1301 1401 1501 1601 1701 1801 Sun’s mean Longitude. 7 9 10 9 10 54 53 to 23 50 10 30 15 ij 16 11 16 57 39 50 26 30 50 10 30 17 4^ 18 27 50 10 3° 20 43 50 29 10 r9 *3 19 58 21 3 K T? ^ Sun’s mean Motion. 911 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 I7i 18(11 29 45 40 29 31 20 29 17 o O I 49 29 47 2911 Mm s mean Anomaly. 28 48 26 5 26 25 5 24 9 19 32 18 36 17 40 16 44 15 49 14 53 13 57. 13 1 Sun’s mean A noma iy. 49 II II 29 33 7ll 29 18 ° 3 29 49 18 29 34 58 29 20 38 o 5 '26 29 5i 7 29 36 47 29 22 25!ii ° 7 15!11 29 52 55,ii 29 38 35 11 29 45 11 29 29 29 14 29 58 29 42 29 2 29 1 29 55 11 29 40 11 29 2a 11 29 29 53 29 37 29 22 29 29 50 29 35 29 20 Sun’s mean Motion. 19 20 40 6c 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 10 29 24 16 009 Jan. Fek Mar Apr M ay [um July Aug, Sent Oct. Nov. Dec. |io 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 7 15 18 27 12 36 16 45 20 30 4< l6 r 46 40 32 17 20 2 48 33 20 6 40 22 40 o 13 20 7 4d 40 Sun’s mean Anomaly 11 29 4II 29 48 29 37 29 26 29 15 29 28 27 12 26 16 25 21 24 25 23 29 22 33 II 21 3 II 20 41 II II 2 2 2cjtl II II 40)11 15 20 IO -22 44 IO 13 25 oio 4 ( Sun’s mean Motion. o o ® 33 18 28 9 11 28 42 3c 28 16 4c 28 49 5c 24 28 57 2f 29 30 4s 29 4 5, 29 38 12 29 12 22 S ’s mean Anomaly. 000 1 0 33 1 28 9 2 28 42 3 28 17 4 28 50 5 28 24 6 28 5 7 29 30 8 29 9 29 10 29 Sun’s mean Motion and Anomaly. 59 58 Sun’s mean Motion and Anomaly. H|° s!" m * nn 7 Sun’s mean dift. from the Node. 17 2 3 4 5 6 7 •8 5.2 57 25 56 33 55 42 54 50 53 58 53 9 5i 10 50 7 15 23 32 49 40 12 48 48 13 47 5 !5 jo 14 47 15 I 16 46 17.0 16 45 180 17 44 !9 O 18 43 20 'o 19 42 21 {o 20 41 41 22 l0 23 ,0 2 2 40 12 24 Jo 23 39 25 o 24 38 28 26 Jo 25 37 27 o 26 36 37 28 P 27 35 53 29 o 30 p 31 [I 28 35 29 34 10 o 33 20 3|o 4p 28 560 2J 51 Sun’s mean Motion and Anomaly. H y'j 36311 16 2 12321 18 71 48 Sun’s mean dift. from the Node. o 10 3934 50 12 190 12 5935 60 14 47 70 17 15; 8,® 19 43 90 22 11 100 24 380 25 58 27 I2jO 29 34 I3p 32 14*0 34 15!o 36 580 16(0 39 26 270 41 15 35 18 11 20 47 23 23 28 34 10 33 36 38 33 1 36 71 31 33 41 3346 44 8;4 180 44 210 46 44L 19J0 46 490 49 2049 200 49 1 ■ 32IP 51 45 22jo 54 13 230 56 40 2 4 Jo 59 8 36 41 32 o 28 183c 4 6 9 11 13 55 51 54 57 59 2 4 7 10 12 15 56]5° 21 19 2.3 57 26 15 28 42 3*5 38 4i 43 6l !51 852 4353 19542 55J55 31I56 75 10 38 6J 34 2 3c 45 57 48 25 50 53 53 21 55 49j 58 17 45 o 3 5 8 10 13 15 17 59 20 27 58 59 602 27 51 22 55 25 23 20 30 23 6 25 42 28 18 30 54 33 29 3d 5 38 40 41 16 43 52 46 28 49 4 5i 39 54 15 55 5i -59 27 12 25 15 2 17 38 20 14 22 50 25 26 28 2 30 38 33 14 35 50 In Leap years, after February, add one day, and one day’s motion. A" ASTRONOMICAL TJBLESfor calculating ECLIPSES. ItABLE XIII. Equation of the Sun's centre, or the df^ ference between his mean and true place. Argument- Sun’s mean Anomaly. Argument. , , . , .4 I .5 J SignsjSign [Signs.Signs Signs Signs Subtradl. / n o o 5 56 47i 39 6 1 55 37 40 41 42 31 1 42 59 1 43 52 5° 13 48 *5 46 17 43 19_4= 1 *3 9 14 41 16 11 44 44 45 34 1 46 221 54 5c 21 37 23 33 25 29 25 2C 48 35 49 J5 49 54 5° 3° 51 120 58 33 r40 i23 57 7 100 55 19 60 53 3° 00 51 40 49 49 52 27 241 53 27 53 5° 54 10 54 28 54 44 54 58 _29 49 ■ 6\o_ oji a; 1 47ja 5 4ji 484 61 494 502 f 34 43° 47 57 33 3 2 2 46 32 190 44 11 43 42 1621 40 21 20 „ 38_25 po 36 28 34 3° _£3 21 340 28 33 2P 6 3 26 33 l8 363 24 33 53 22 32 !3 23 30 )3 l8 28 3 l6 26 I4 24 12 21 IO l8 43 7 42 10 41 12 < 10 Signs 9 Signs Signs 131 J4 16 19 10 _ Li? i- 5 1 481 54 474 x 4610 58: 1 45!° 56 26 x 440 5425 4 I i S’igns Signs Signs|Signs o O: a 1 47' 28|2 SOL 5 1 Signs Signs ' 1 43i° 5* 1 410 50 ^ x 40 0 48 . x 39b 46 H 37i° 44 Signs Signs Signs 1 IJO 13 1 13 Signs Signs o 11 Add TABLE XVI. The Moon s Latitude in E- clipfes. Arg. Moon’s equated Di- ftance from the Node. g Signs. North Afcend. 6 Signs. South Defend. TABLE XVII. The Moon's horizontal Parallax, with the Semidiameters atid true Horary Motions of the Sun and Moon, to every fixth degree of their mean Anoma¬ lies, the quantities for the intermediate degrees being eafily proportioned by fight. Add TABLE XIV. The Sun's Declination. Argument. Sun’s true place. Signs 3C 23*3 33 Signs 20 11 24 3° 29 Signs Signs o o 1 I! 30 l6 321 53 21 22 [5 32 46 Signs 20 11 28 ?! 3° 56 23 11 0| Signs IQ Signs Signs *9 Signs Signs 5 Signs. North Defend. 5 JS 10 30 J5 45 20 59 26 13 31 26 o 36 39 41 5r ° 47 2 52 *3 57 23 2 31 7 38 i2 44 1 17 49 1 22 52 27 53 r 32 <;2|i2 37 49 41 11 Signs. South Afend. ^ 54 24 12 3 CG 5. p u. 3 3 CG O ft 3 X tn 543° 55 3° 3° 56 1255 i855 55 42 s6 1856 48 24 57 57 657 58 1216 12 1858 24 58 59 6i59 1259 59 ^ ws c/: C o g 3 23I 17I31 22 21 12 II 25 11 lS 3 16 4l 33 4633 5234 5834 03 34 This Table fliows the Moon’s Lati¬ tude a little beyond the ut- moft Limits of Echpfes. 24 x4 35 16 1916 2016 935 M35 19 36 24b6 28136 28 10 i860 60 060 4516 2316 3937 4° 36 33 Appendix. ASTRO Defcription . , . . of Aftrono- II. Defcription of Aftronomicai Injlruments Jerving to mical In- Uluflrate the Motions of the Heavenly Bodies. ftruments. 427 The machine reprefented by fig. 161. is the Graxd The orrery. ORRERY, firft made in this kingdom by Mr Rowley for King George I. The frame of it, which contains the wheel-work, &c. and regulates the whole machine, is made of ebony, and about four feet in diameter j the outfide thereof is adorned with 12 pilafters. . Between thefe the 12 figns of the zodiac are neatly painted with gilded frames. Above the frame is a broad ring fup- ported with 12 pillars. This ring reprefents the plane of the ecliptic ; upon which are two circles of degrees, and between thefe the names and characters of the 12 figns. Near the outfide is a circle of months and days, exactly correfponding to the fun’s place at noon each day throughout the year. Above the ecliptic Hand fome of the principal circles of the fphere, agreeable to their refpective fituations in the heaven? : viz. N° 10. are the two colures, divided into degrees and half degrees 5 N® ll. is one-half the equinottial circle, making an angle of 23^ degrees. Ihe tropic of Can¬ cer and the ar£tic circle are each fixed parallel at their proper diftance from the equinoftial. On the north¬ ern half of the ecliptic is a brafs femicircle, moveable upon two points fixed in T1 and I his femicircle ferves as a moveable horizon to be put to any degree of latitude upon the north part of the meriaian, and the whole machine may be fet to any latitude without difturbing any of the internal motions, by two ftrong hinges (N° 13.) fixed to the bottom-frame upon which the inftrument moves, and a ftrong brafs arch, having holes at every degree, through which a ftrong pin is put at every elevation. This arch and the two hinges iupport the whole machine when it is lifted up accord- in0' to any latitude : and the arch at other times lies conveniently under the bottom-frame. When the ma¬ chine is to be fet to any latitude (which is eafily done by two men, each taking hold of two handles convenient¬ ly fixed for the purpofe), fet the moveable horizon to the fame degree upon the meridian, and hence you may form an idea of the refpeftive altitude or depref- fion of the planets both primary and fecondary. The fun (N° 1.) ftands in the middle of the whole fyftem upon a wire, making an angle with the ecliptic of about 82 degrees. Next the fun is a fmall ball (2.), re- prefenting Mercury. Next to Mercury is Venus (3.), reprefented by a larger ball. The earth is reprefent¬ ed (N° 4O by an ivory ball, having fome circles and a map fketched upon it. The wire which fupports the earth makes an angle with the ecliptic of 66^- degrees, the inclination of the earth’s axis to the ecliptic. Near the bottom of the earth’s axis is a dial-plate (N° 9.), having an index pointing to the hours of the day as the earth turns round its axis. Round the earth is a ring fupported by two fmall pillars, reprefenting the orbit of the moon *, and the divifions upon it anfwer to the moon’s latitude. The motion of this ring reprefents the motion of the moon’s orbit according to that ©f the nodes. Within this ring is the moon (N° 5.), having a black cap or cafe, by which its motion reprefents the phafes of the moon according to her age. Without the orbits of the earth and moon is Mars (N* 6.). The next in order to Mars is Jupiter and his four moons N O M Y. . I’1 (N° 7.). Each of thefe moons is fupported by a wire Defcription fixed in a focket which turns about the pillar fupport- of Aftrono- ing Jupiter. Thefe fatellites may be turned by the hand to any pofition, and yet when the machine is put > v t into motion, they will all move in their proper times. The outermoft of all is Saturn, his five moons, and his ring (Na 8.). Thefe moons are fupported and con¬ trived limilar to thofe of Jupiter, ihe machine is put into motion by turning a imall winch (N J4O ? an?) * now laying hold of the arm of Saturn in the orrery, you place it over or againft the 170 of Capricorn on the ecliptic circle, conftantly placed on or furrounding the inftrument j thus doing the fame for the other planets, they will have the pro¬ per heliocentric places for that day. “ Now, in this fituation of the planets, we obferve, that if a perfon was placed on the earth, he would fee Venus and Jupiter in the fame line and place of the ecliptic, confequently in the heavens they would ap¬ pear together or in conjun&ion 5 Mercury a little to the left or eaftward of them, and nearer to the fun ; Saturn to the right, or weftward, farther from the fun ; Mars dire&ly oppofite to Saturn ; fo that when Saturn appears in the weft, Mars appears in the eaft, and vice verfa. Several other curious and entertaining- particulars, as depending on the above, may be eafily reprefented and fhown by the learner ; particularly the foregoing when the winch is turned, and all the planets fet into their refpeftive motions.” We cannot clofe this detail on orreries more agree¬ ably than by the following account of an inftrument of that fort invented by Mr James Fergufon, to which he gives the name of a Mechanical Paradox, and which is actuated by means of what many, as he ob- ferves, even good mechanics, would be ready to pro¬ nounce impoflible, viz. That the teeth of one wheel, taking equally deep into the teeth of three others, fhould affeft them in fuch a manner, that in turning it any way round its axis, it fhould turn one of them t\\efame way, another the contrary way, and the third no way at all. T. he folution of the paradox is given under the arti¬ cle Mechanics j after which our author proceeds to give the following account of its ufes. 11 This ma¬ chine is fo much of an orrery, as is fufficient to fhow the different lengths of days and nights, the viciffitudes of the feafons, the retrograde motion of the nodes of the moon’s orbit, the dire£l motion of the apogeal point of her orbit, and the months in which the fun and moon muft be eclipfed. “ On the great immoveable plate A (fee fig. 167.) are the months and days of the year, and the figns and degrees of the zodiac fo placed, that when the annual index h is brought to any given day of the year, it will point to the degree of the lign in which the fun is on that day. The index is fixed to the moveable frame BC, and is carried round the immoveable plate, with it, by means of the knob «. The carrying this frame and index round the immoveable plate, anfwers to the earth’s annual motion round the fun, and to the fun’s apparent motion round the ecliptic in a year. “ Ihe central wheel D (being fixed on the axis o, which is fixed in the centre of the immoveable plate) turns the thick wheel E round its own axis by the motion of the frame 5 and the teeth of the wheel E take into the teeth of the three wheels F, G, H, whofe axes turn with one another, like the axes of the hour, minute, and fecond hands of a clock or watch, where the feconds are Ihown from the centre of the dial-plate. “ On the upper ends of thefe axes, are the round plates I, K, L j the plate I being on the axis of the wheel F, K on the axis of G, and L on the axis of H. So that whichever way thefe wheels are affe£led, their refpedlive plates, and what they fupport, muft be af- fedted in the fame manner j each wheel and plate be¬ ing independent of the others. “ The two upright wires M and N are fixed into the plate I ; and they fupport the fmall ecliptic OP, on which, in the machine, the figns and degrees of the ecliptic are marked. This plate alfo fupports the fmall terreftrial globe e, on its inclining axis f, which is fixed into the plate near the foot of the wire N. This axis inclines 23^- degrees from a light line, fuppofed to be perpendicular to the furface of the plate I, and alfo to the plane of the fmall ecliptic OP, which is parallel to that plate. “ On the earth e is the crefcent g, which goes more than half way round the earth, and ftands perpendi¬ cular to the plane of the fmall ecliptic OP, diredtly facing the fun Z : Its ufe is to divide the enlightened half of the earth next the fun from the other half which is then in the dark j fo that it reprefents the boundary of light and darknefs, and therefore ought to go quite round the earth ; but cannot in a machine, becaufe in fome pofitions the earth’s axis would fall upon it. The earth may be freely turned round on its axis by hand, within the crefcent, which is fupported by the crooked wire w, fixed to it, and into the upper plate of the moveable frame BC. “ In the plate K are fixed the two upright wires and R : they fupport the moon’s inclined orbits ST in its nodes, which are the two oppofite points of the moon’s orbit where it interfefts the ecliptic OP. The afeending node is marked SI, to which the defeending node is oppofite below e, but hid from view by the globe e. The half SI T e of this orbit is on the north fide of the ecliptic OP, and the other half ^ S SI is on the fouth fide of the ecliptic. The moon is not in this machine ; but when file is in either of the nodes of her orbit in the heavens, fire is then in the plane of the ecliptic : when fire is at T in her orbit, fire is in her greateft north latitude 5 and when fire is at S, fire is in her greateft fouth latitude. “ In the plate L is fixed the crooked wire U U, which points downward to the fmall ecliptic OP, and flrows the motion of the moon’s apogee therein, and its place at any given time. 175 Defcription of Aftrono¬ mical In- ftruments. “The z-jG ASTRO Defcription “ The ball Z reprefents the fun, which is fupported of Aftrono-by the crooked wire XY, fixed into the upper plate of mical In- frame at X. A ftraight wire W proceeds from /truments. the fun Z, and points always towards the centre of the earth e; but toward different points of its furface at ■different times of the year, on account of the obliquity of its axis, which keeps its parallelifm during the earth’s annual courfe round the fun Z j and therefore muft in- -cline fometimes toward the fun, at other times from him, and twice in the year neither toward nor from the fun, but fidewife to him. The wire W is called the folar ray. “ As the annual-index 7/ fhows the fun’s place in the ecliptic for every day of the year, by turning the frame round the axis of the immoveable plate A, ac- •cording to the order of the months and figns, the folar ray does the fame in the fmall ecliptic OP : for as this ecliptic has no motion on its axis, its figns and degrees flill keep parallel to thofe on the immoveable plate. At the fame time, the nodes of the moon’s orbit ST (or points where it interfe&s the ecliptic OP) are moved backward, or contrary to the order of figns, at the rate of ipf degrees every Julian year*, and the moon’s apogeal wire UU is moved forward, or accord¬ ing to the order of the figns of the ecliptic, nearly at the rate of 41 degrees every Julian year *, the year be¬ ing denoted by a revolution of the earth e round the fun Z ; in which time the annual index h goes round the circles of months and figns on the immoveable plate A. “ Take hold of the knob », and turn the frame round ■thereby ; and in doing this, you will perceive that the ■north pole of the earth e is conftantly before the cref- cent g, in the enlightened part of the earth toward ■the fun, from the 20th of March to the 23d of Sep¬ tember 5 and the fouth pole all that time behind the crefcent in the dark ; and from the 23d of September to the 20th of March, the north pole as conftantly in the dark behind the crefcent, and the fouth pole in the light before it; which (hows, that there is but one day and one night at each pole, in the whole year ; and that when it is day at either pie, it is night at the other. “ From the 20th of March to the 23d of September, the days are longer than the nights in all thofe places of the northern hemifphere of the earth which revolve through the light and dark, and ftiorter in thofe of the fouthern hemifphere. From the 23d of September to the 20th of March, the reverfe. “ There are 24 meridian femicircles drawn on the globe, all meeting in its poles : and as one rotation or turn of the earth on its axis is performed in 24 hours, each of thefe meridians is an hour diftant from the other, in every parallel of latitude. Therefore, if you bring the annual index h to any given day of the year, on the immoveable plate, you may fee how long the day then is at any place of the earth, by counting how many of thefe meridians are in the light, or before the crefcent, in the parallel of latitude of that place *, and this number being fubtrafted from 24 hours, will leave remaining the length of the night. And if you turn the earth round its axis, all thofe places will pafs di- redlly under the point of the folar ray, which the fun jpaffes vertically over on that day, becaufe they are juft; 2 confiding of three horizontal and parallel fine-ftretched filver wires, fixed by pins or fcrews to a brafs circle, the middle one parting through its centre, with a fourth vertical wire like wife parting through the centre, exadlly perpendicular to the for¬ mer three. The horizontal axis MN (fig. 178.) is placed on a ftrong brafs frame, into the middle of which a fteel cy¬ linder GH is fixed perpendicularly, being turned truly round, and terminating in a conical point at its lower extremity *, where it is let into a fmall hole drilled in the middle of the dove-tail flider ; which Aider is fupported Appendix. ASTRONOMY. igq Oefcrip ion fupported by a hollow tube fixed to the fupporting piece if -vftrono- IK, confiding of two ftrong plates of brafi joined toge- unioal ^n* ther at right angles, to which are fixed two iron cramps tnnnen s ^ which it is fattened to the done wall of a fouth window. The upper part G of the fteel fpindle is embraced by a collar d ef, being in contact with the blunt extre¬ mity of three fcrews, whofe particular ufe will be ex¬ plained by and by. O is another cylindrical collar clofely embracing the fteel fpindle at about a third part of its length from the top *, by the means of a fmall fcrew it may be loofened or pinched clofe as occafion requires. From the bottom of this collar proceeds an arm or lever a£ted on by the two fcrews g /i, where¬ by the whole inftrument, excepting the fupporting piece, may be moved laterally, fo that the telefcope may be made to point at a diftant mark fixed in the vertical of the meridian, tk is a graduated femicircle of thin brafs fcrewed to the telefcope, whereby it may be elevated fo as to point to a known celeftial object in the day time. is a fpirit-level parallel to the axis of rotation on the telefcope, on which two trun¬ nions hang by two hooks at M and N. Along the upper fide of the glafs tube of the level Aides a pointer to be fet to the end of the air-bubble ; and when the pofition of the axis of rotation is fo adjufted by the fcrews that the air-bubble keeps to the pointer for a whole revolution of the inftrument, the fpindle GH is certainly perpendicular to the horizon, and then the line of collimation of the telefcope defcribes a circle of equal altitude in the heavens. When the level is fufpended on the axis, raife or deprefs the tube of the level by twifting the neb of the fcrew n till you bring either the end of the air-bubble to reft at any point to¬ wards the middle of the tube, to which Aide the in¬ dex ; then lift off the level, and, turning the ends of it contrary ways, hang it again on the trunnions j and if the air-bubble refts exactly again, the index as be¬ fore, the axis of rotation is truly horizontal: If not, deprefs that end of the axis which lies on the fame fide of the pointer as the bubble does, by turning the neb of the fcrew at N, till the bubble returns about half¬ way towards the pointer; then having moved the pointer to the place where it now refts, invert the ends of the level again, and repeat the fame practice till the bubble refts exactly at the pointer in both pofitions of the level. If, after the teiefcope is turned upfide down, that is, after the trunnions are inverted end for end, you perceive that the fame point of a remote fixed objeft is covered by the vertical wire in the focus of the telefcope, that was covered by it before the in- verfion, it is certain that the line of fight or collima¬ tion is perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis •, but if the faid vertical wire covers any other point, the brafs circle that carries the hairs muft be moved by a fcrew- key introduced through the perforation in the fide of the tube at X, till it appears to bileft the line joining thefe t wo points as near as you can judge j then, by reverting the axis, to its former pofition, you will find whether the w'ires be exaftly adjufted. N. B. The ball o is a counterpoife to the centre of gravity of the femi¬ circle z£, without which the telefcope would not reft in an oblique elevation without being fixed by a fcrew cr fome other contrivance. The feveral beforementioned verifications being ac-Defcr;pt;ots complilhed, if the telefcope be elevated to any angle of Aftrono- with the horizon, and there flopped, all fixed ftars mwal In- which pafs over the three horizontal wires of the ,fl:rumcnta’. reticle on the eaftern fide of the meridian in afcending, * will have precifely the fame altitudes when in defcend- ing they again crofs the fame refpeflive wires on the weft fide, and the middle between the times of each refpeflive equal altitude will be the exaft moment of the liar’s culminating or palling the meridian. By the help of a good pendulum -clock, the hour of their true meridional tranfits will be known, and confequently \ the difference of right afcenfion of different ftars. Now, fince it will be fufficient to obferve a liar which has* north declination two or three hours before and after its pafiing the meridian, in order to deduce the times of it* arrival at that circle •, it follows, that having once found- the difference of right afcenfion of two flars about 60 degrees afunder, and you again obferve the firft of thefe Hand at the fame altitude both in the call and weft fide,, you infer with certainty the moment by the clock at which the fecond liar will be on the meridian that fame night, and by this means the tranfit inftrument may be fixed in the true plane of the meridian till the next day $ when, by deprefling it to fome diftant land objefls, a mark may be difcovered whereby it may ever after be reflified very readily, fo as to take the tranfits of any of the heavenly bodies to great exaflnefs, whether by night or day. When fuch a mark is thus found, the telefcope being dire6led carefully to it, muft be fixed in that pofition by pinching faft the end of the arm or lever between the two oppoiite fcrews g h ; and if at any future time, whe¬ ther from the effedt of heat or cold on the wall to which the inftrument is fixed, or by any fettling of the wall itfelf, the mark appears no longer well bifedled by the vertical wire, the telefcope may eafily be made to bifedl it again, by giving a fmall motion to the pinching fcrews. The tranfit inftrument is now confidered as one of the moft effential particulars of the apparatus of an aftro- nomical obfervatory. Befides the above, may be mentioned, The Equatorial or Portable Observatory ; Portable an inftrument defigned to anfwer a number of ufeful pur-obterva- pofes in pradbcal aftronomy, independent of any patti-tory* cular obfervatory. It may be made ufe of in any fteady room or place, and performs moft of the ufeful problems in the fcience. The following is a defcription of one lately invented by Mr Ramfden, from whom it has re¬ ceived the name of the Univcrfal Equatorial. The principal parts of this inftrument (fig. 179.) are, I. The azimuth or horizontal circle A, which repre- fents the horizon of the place, and moves on a long axis B, called the vertical axis. 2. The equatorial or hour circle C, reprefenting the equator, placed at right angles to the polar axis D, or the axis of the earth, upon which it moves. 3^ The femicircle of declination E, on which the telefcope is placed, and moving on the axis of declination, or the axis of motion of the line of collimation F. Thefe circles are meafared and divided as in the following table : Meafures 4 iB4 ASTRONOMY. I) jfcriptio* ■of .*1 icno- mical In* ftrumentJa Meafures of the feveral circles and divifions on them. Azimuth or hori¬ zontal circle Equatorial or hour circle Vertical femicircle" for declination or latitude; . I Rad us indec- Limb divided to .Nonius ol 3° gives feconds ls' is[ . I'mtime 15' 3° 3° 2‘ 3° Divided ov. limb into parts ot inc 45th 45th 4 2d D.vided by Nonius into parts ofinc. i350th idjcth 1260th Appendix, Defcription of Aftrono. mical In- ftiuments, <4. The telefcope, which is an achromatic refra£lor 'with a triple objeft-glafs, whofe focal diftance is 17 inches, and aperture 2.45 inches, and ftirnilhed with fix different eye-tubes j fo that its magnifying powers -extend from 44 *6®* The telefcope in this equa¬ torial may be brought parallel te the polar axis, as ih the figure, fo as to point to the pole liar in any part bf its diurnal revolution ; and thus it has been obferved bear noon, when the fun has fliown Very bright. 5. The apparatus for corre&ing the error in altitude occafioned by refradlion, which is applied to the eye-end of the telefcope, and confifis of a Aide G moving in a groove or dove tail, and carrying the feveral eye-tubes of the telefcope, on which Aide there is an index correfpond- ing to five fmall divifions engraved on the dove-tail ; a very fmall circle, called the refra&ion circle H, move- able by a finger-fcrew at the extremity of the eye-end of the telefcope 5 which circle is divided into half mi¬ nutes, one entire revolution of it being equal to 3' 18", and by its motion raifes the centre of the crofs hairs on a circle of altitude; and likewife a quadrant I of i4 inch radius, with divifibns on each fide, one exprefiing the degree of altitude of the objeft viewed, and the other exprefiing the minutes and feconds of error occa¬ fioned by refradlion, correfponding to that degree of al¬ titude : to this quadrant is joined a fmall round level K, which is adjufted partly by the pinion that turns the whole of this apparatus, and partly by the index of the quadrant *, for which purpofe the refra&ion circle is fet to the fame minute, &c. which the index points to on the limb of the quadrant •, and if the minute, &c. given by the quadrant exceed the 3' iS'* contained in one en¬ tire revolution of the refradlion circle, this mutt be fet to the excefs above one or more of its entire revolutions; then the centre of the crofs hairs Will appear to be raif- ed on a circle of altitude to the additional height which the error of refradtion will occafion at that altitude. This inftrument (lands on three feet L diftant frotn each other 14.4 inches ; and when all the parts are ho¬ rizontal is about 29 inches high : the weight of the equa¬ torial and apparatus is only 59 lb. avoirdupois, which are contained in a mahogany cafe Weighing 58 lb. The principal adjuftmeht in this inftrument is that ©f making the line of collimation to deferibe a portion ef an hour-circle in the heavens; in order to which, the azimuth circle muft be truly level; the line of col¬ limation, or fame correfponding line reprefented by the fmall brafs rod M parallel to it, muft be perpendi¬ cular to the axis of its own proper motion; and this laft axis muft be perpendicular to the polar axis: on the brafs rod M there is occafionally placed a hanging level N, the ufe of which will appear in the following ad*, juftments : The azimuth circle may be made level by turning the inftrument till one of the levels is parallel to an imaginary line joining two of the feet ferews ; then ad- juft *that level with thefe two feet ferews ; turn the cir¬ cle half round, i. e. 1800; and if the bubble be not then right, corredl half the error by the ferew belonging to the level, and the other half error by the two foot ferews ; repeat this till the bubble comes right; then turn the circle 90° from the two former pofitions, and fet the bubble right, if it be wrong, by the foot ferew at the end of the level ; when this is done, adjuft the other level by its own ferew, and the azimuth circle will be truly level; The hanging level muft then be fixed to the brafs rod by two hooks of equal length, and made truly parallel to it : for this purpofe make the polar axis perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the horizon ; then adjuft the level by the pinion of the declination-femicircle ; reverfe the level, and if it be wrong, corre£t half the error by a fmall Heel ferew that lies under one end of the level, and the .other half-error by the pinion of the declination-femicircle ; repeat this till the bubble be right in both pofitions. In order to make the brafs rod on which the level is fufpended at right angles to the axis of motion of the telefcope or line of collimation, make the polar axis horizontal, or nearly fo : fet the declination-femicircle to 0°, turn thb hour-circle till the bubble comes right ; then turn the declination-circle to 90° ; adjuft the bub¬ ble by raifing or deprefiing the polar axis (firft by hand till it be nearly right, afterwards tighten with an ivory key the focket which runs on the arch with the polar axis, and then apply the fame ivory key to the adjufting ferew at the end of the faid arch till the bubble comes quite right) ; then turn the declination- circle to the oppofite 90° ; if the level be not then right, cotreft half the error by the aforefaid adjufting ferew at the end of the arch, and the other half error by the two ferews which raife or deprefs the end of the brafs rod. The polar axis remaining, nearly hori¬ zontal as before, and the declination-femicircle at o°, adjuft the bubble by the hour circle ; then turn the declination-femicircle to Qo°, and adjuft the bubble by raifing or deprefling the polar axis; then turn the hour-circle 12 hours; and if the bubble be wrong, comet half the error by the polar axis, and the other half error by the two pair of capftan ferews at the feet of the two fopports on one fide of the axis of mo¬ tion ASTRONOM\ PLATE JJX. Tig. 3. Rojtf? Sculpt South A S TRONOMY Plate \.W Fi' PLATE LXYUI. AN TROIVOMY. Fig. 82. b S'cicfy? L / : { • -y' ' r V / : mr AS TROXOM Y PLATE LX/X Fig . £2 . C A Tj-arn ’Sculp '1. AS TROjNTOMY. PLATE L.\X. Fig. S3. ■ **** It'.Airhibald Sailp t ' .. ' • • ; : \ PLATE IsXXIL AS TltONOM Y. | Fig. 102. PLATE LSXm. VS TRO.XO .M V. J'icf.122. A | > / l-Ai ‘eh ibald Sen ip AS T KO N O.M ^ PLATE LXXIY. Fig.121. Fu/.llS Fig. 117. Fig.no. A I) A Fig.120. Fig. 10.9. .T"Piter ^,'l) M’"'s in .A \ V X i f > > i ' AS 'I'll ON OM Y. FIsATK LXX\: J ASTRONOMY. PLATE LXXYL lioffe Sculp? Jin.r‘ jRvtfe Sculp*Edui r ASTRONOMY. PLATE LXXVW. L'itf.lAJ. Fig. 1.5?. Fig. IS A. X Fig AS J. Fig. IS.9. -AS TROAOMY. PLATE UOUX. Tip. ITS. ii. Jltf/e Sfittyf i : Astronomy^ Plate LXXX . Fig. 161. The GRAND ORRERY W Rowley. \ A_S T RO^TC3I Y. PLATE LXXXI. Fig. 271. ti l e IE ' ■ Plate LXXXII Astronomy Fi Greeks, unknown when adronomy was fird cultivated among ^ them’ Greenwich Ilf Greenwich obfervatory bailt,' N° 30 H Ea/Zey, Dr, appointed aftronomer royal, _ 33 difcovers tbe acceleration of the moon, ib. recommends the method of finding the longitude now followed, ib. account of new liars, 200 predids the return of a co¬ met, _ 305 calculates their return, 325 Hamilton'1 s, Dv, opinion-of comets, 315 infufficient, 3 17 Heavens, divifion of, 197 method of gauging, by Her- fchel, 224 interior conftru6Hon, 229 Herfchel, Dr, improves telefcopes, 36 difcovers a planet, ib. fix fatellites, ib. obfervations on the fun, 70 adopts new terms to exprefs the appearances, 71 ©pinion of the conftruflion of the univerfe, 217 of the via laBea, 218 method of gauging the hea¬ vens, 225 hypothefis of celeltial ap¬ pearances, 223 method of finding the pa¬ rallax of fixed liars, 268 planet difcovered by, 36 its fatellites, 183 fix in number, 330 ievelius, a zealous allronomer, 30 compiles his SelenograpMa, ib. his obfervatory and inllru- ments burnt, ib. conjettures of the nature of comets, 321 Nicetas taught the diurnal motion of the earth, 11 Hipparchus difcovers the eccentricity of the planetary orbits, 14 makes a catalogue of the fixed liars, 15 difcovers the preceffion of the equinoxes, 257 charged with plagiarifm, 260 loole, Dr, improves telefcopes, 30 horizon explained, 37 ^iorrox, a young allronomer of great talents, 29 predicted and obferved the tranfit of Venus for the firft time, ib. formed a theory of the moon, ib. I ndians, their knowledge of allrono- roy* 4 A S T R O N O M Y. Indians, authenticity of their aftrono- my, _ _ N° 370 Injlrliments, aftronomical, firll impro¬ ved in England, 31 defcription of, p. 171—184. Jofephus mentions the grand year known to Seth, 1 Jupiter"1 s belts firll difcovered, 166 fpots in them, 167 account of one, 168 no difference of feafons, 169 moons, four in number, 170 dillance and perio¬ dic times, 171 eclipfes, 172 appear fometimes as dark fpots, 173 vary in light and magnitude, 174 lhadows fometimes vifible on Jupi¬ ter’s di Ik, 175 three eclipfed every revolution, 176 eclipfes, when vifible, 177 orbits and dillances, 3 27 irregularities in their motions, 328 K Kepler difcovers the famous laws in allronomy, 26 law explained, 49 opinion of comets, 301 difcovers the caufe of the tides, 400 L of heavenly bodies, 252 how found, 253 Libration of the moon, 133 theory, 134 Line, meridian, method of drawing, 40 Logarithms invented by Baron Napier, improved by Urfinus and Briggs, . 28 Longitude of the heavenly bodies, 251 of places on the earth, me¬ thod of finding, 274 Long, Dr, his account of the folar fpots, 66 Louville's obfervations on the moon’s ring, 226 Lowe's, Mr, method of finding the longitude, 274 Lunation, or month, 61 M Mackay, Mr, method of finding the longitude, 274 Mars, fpots firft feen, 155 bright about the poles, 156 Dr Herfchel’s account of, 157 -appear and difappear, 158 white about the poles, 162 pofition of the poles, 159 feafons, 160 pefembles the earth, 161 Mars, his form fpheroidical, N0 163 difference of diameter, 164 atmofphere, 165 Mafkelyne, Dr, improves the lunar method of finding the longitude, ‘ 36 Mercury's apparent motions* 13 5 diameter, 136 nature, 'll Meridian explained, 37 line, method of drawing, 40 Milky-way, 211 Moon's motion in her orbit, 79 orbit elliptical, 80 eccentricity, 8.1 eveflion, 83 variation, 84 annual equation, 85 revolution of her nodes, 86 parallax, method of determin- ing, 87 diftance, 89 phafes, 90 is opaque, pt mode of meafuring the year, 93 the earth appears a moon to it, 92 longitude found, 94 nonagefimal degree, 98 eclipfes, 99 period, 10.0 why vifible when eclipfed, 101 eclipfes obferved with difficul¬ ty, 102 number in a year, 104 total and annular, 106 extent of fliadow and penum¬ bra, 107 fize, 11 r light, 112 fpots, 113 names of, ib. inequalities of furface, 114 method of meafuring moun¬ tains, 113 mountains height of, overrat¬ ed, 116 volcanoes, 119 Jubilance, conjedlures of, 12a atmofphere, exiltence of, dif- _ puted, 121 ring obferved in eclipfes, 123 lightning, ' 127 height of atmofphere account¬ ed for, 128 has no fenfible atmofphere, 13X libration, 133 theory, _ 134 tendency the fame as gravita¬ tion, . 350 motion explained, 331 inequalities, 377 neareft the earth when leaft attracted, 379 erbit, caufe of dilatation, 380 A a 2 Moon's 188 Moon's orbit changed by the aftion of the fun, N° 381 nodes, 3^2 motion explained, 384 inclination, 383 motion, irregularities from be¬ ing elliptical, 385 orbit, inequality in the eccen¬ tricity, 391 inequalities computed, 392 mean diftance,fecular equation, 393 has no atmofphere, why, 399 Motion, definition of, 331 Motions, of the, 51 N Nadir, _ 37 Napier, Baron, invents logarithms, 26 Nebula, our fidereal fyftem, one, 236 extent, 239 how to be delineated, 241 in the milky-way, 219 arranged in ftrata, 220 affume various (hapes, 221 how formed, 231 vacancies, how occafioned, 232 decay and recompofition, 242 univerfe compofed of, 243 fize and diftanee, 244 time of forming, 245 planetary, 247 Newton, Sir Ifaac, his difcoveries, 31 determines the motions of the comets, 3°4 his opinion of comets defend¬ ed, 3*6 obfervations on the preceffion of equinoxes, 407 Iketch of his inveftigation, 408 determination of the form and dimenfions of the earth, 4°9 examination of phenomena of preceffion on mechanical principles, 410 Node, afcending, 86 Nodules on the luminous clouds of the fun, 75 Number, golden, 61 Nutation, lunar, 421 compared with preceffion, 423 o Obfervatory, portable, _ 434 Openings formed by the fun’s lumi¬ nous clouds being remov¬ ed, 7 2 Ofcillation of the planetary fyftem, 369 P Fallas, planet, elements not precifely known, 183 Perigee of the moon’s orbit, 81 of the planets, 293 Phoenicians taught aftronomy by the Egyptians, _ 7 apply it to navigation, ib. Philolaus alferts the annual motion of the earth round the fun, XI ASTRONOMY. Planets, N° 37 apogee and perigee, 293 difference of apparent diame¬ ters, 294 appearances of fuperior, ex¬ plained, 295 orbits and laws of their mo¬ tions, ib. heliocentric circles, 296 nodes, 297 tables of elements, ib. revolve round the fun, 343 in confequence of a force in the fun, 344 the fame tendency in all, 346 and fame in their fatellites, 347 read! on the fun, 354 denfities calculated, 35^ maffes, table of, 357 gravity at their furfaces, 359 fecular and periodical inequa¬ lities, 360 motion of the aphelion, 361 motions, method of correlat¬ ing, . Jupiter and Saturn influence each others motions, 362 defle&ion of, towards each other, 366 Pendulum regulated by gravitation, 337 PreceJJion of equinoxes, 257—239 obfervations by Newton and others, 407 Newton’s inveftigation, 408 lunar, 420 greateft equation, 425 Ptolemy, his fyftem erroneous, 16 Ptolemy Philadelphus encourages the fciences in E- gypt, 12 , Purback improves aftronomy, 19 Pythagoras improves aftronomy, 11 correct notions of the folar fyftem, ib. of the moon’s light, ib. of the milky-way, ib. Q. Quadrants, 431 Quadratures of the moon, 90 R Revolution of a body round a centre explained, 339 Regiomontanus eonftrudts aftronomical apparatus, 20 calculates lunations and •eclipfes, ib. writes a theory of pla¬ nets and cornets, ib. Ridges of the fun’s luminous clouds, 74 Ring of Saturn, _ 395 difcovery concerning, by Dr Herfchel, 39^ probably confident, 397 origin, 398 Index. Roemer difcovers the progreffive mo¬ tion of light, jijo ^ Rothman, an aftronomer, 2- S 3 Satellites, tend to the fun, 347 to their primaries, 3^ irregularities in Jupiter’s, 3^ Saturn, telefcopic appearance of, ring difcovered by Huygens, 179 fuppofed to revolve round its axis, igo diameter, j|3< fatellites, 181 two difcovered by Herfchel, 182 number, 329 Seafons, explained, 44 changes illuftrated, 250 different, explained, 291 SeBor, equatorial, 432 Selenographia compiled by Hevelius, 30 Shallows of the fun’s luminous clouds, 93 Shepherds, Afiatic,obferve the heavens, 235 Signs of the zodiac, 32 Society, Royal, founded in London, 80 Stars, fixed, occultations by the moon, 130 Style, old, 64 new, ib. Sun, annual motion, 39 altitude, 41 motion, method of afcertaining, 42 not uniform, 43 diameter varies, 46 diftance varies, 47 motion varies, 48 orbit, elliptical, 30 varies, _ 33 diftance determined, 34 fpots, firft difcovered, 63 Long, Dr, his account of them, 66 move from weft to eaft, 67 obferved by different aftro- nomers, 68 Dunn, Mr, his account of them, 69 appearances of the luminous clouds, 72—76 two regions of clouds, 77 theory of phenomena, 7^ eclipfes, 103 beginning and ending 108 account of one by Dr Halley, J?4 his place in the univ.erfe, 224 his centre attradts all bodies, 34^ moves round the common centre of gravity, 3^4 Sy%igies of the moon, 9° Stars, fixed, number increafed by te- lefcopes, 192 difference in magnitude, 393 telefcopic, *94 unformed, *95 divifion in conftellations, and ules, I9° Stars, index. tars, fixed, new, Dr Halley’s account of, N° 200 changes among, 201 accounts of variable ftars, 202—208 method of difcovering variations, 210 conjedtures of their na¬ ture, 212 comparative brightnefs with the fun, 214 method of afcertaining their fituation, 248 vary in right afcenfion and declination, 254 diftance, immeafurable, 266 appear large to the eye, 267 parallax, method of afcer¬ taining, 268 Sy/lm, Pythagorean, _ 279 fuppreffed by the Ptolemaic, 280 Ptolemaic, infufficient, 281 Pythagorean, revived, 282 Tychonic, 283 T Tab/es, Alphonfine, conftrudled, 18 diredlions for ufing, 356 Telefcopes invented, 27 improved by Hooke, 30 by Fontana, 31 by Huygens, ib. by Gregory, ib. by Sir Ifaac New¬ ton, ib. by Dollond, ib. cautions in ufing, 118 theory, mathematical, of the poles of the equator, 262—264 Time, divifions of, 55—57 equation of, computed, 60 fttfor, caufe difcovered by Kepler, 400 ASTRONOMY. Tides, why high at full moon, N° 401 influence of the fun, 402 not higheft when the moon is in the meridian, 403 turn on the axis of the moon’s orbit, 404 irregularities accounted for, 405 TrajeBorium lunare, 430 Tran/it inftruments, 433 Tycho Brahe obferves the connexion of Saturn and Jupiter, 24 makes a more accurate quadrant, ib. fuperintends the build¬ ing of Uraniburg, his obfervatory, 25 revives the true dodlrine of comets, 301 U Ulug Beg cultivates aftronomy, 17 Uraniburg, built by Tycho Brahe, and furnifhed with inftruments, 25 Urjinus, Benjamin, calculates large ta¬ bles of logarithms, 28 Velocity, motion, 335 Venus, apparent motions, 138 revolution round her axis, 139 doubts of the time, 147 fpots firft difcovered, 140 feem to move from fouth to north, and why, 142 appearances at different times, 143 obfervations by Caflini, 141 by Bianchini, 146 fatellites difcovered by Caflini, 149 and by Mr Short, 150 Mr Mon¬ taigne, 151 difficult to be feen, 152 I^9 Venus, atmofphere of, obferved by Mr Hirft, N° 153 Volcanoes in the moon, W Walther cultivates aftronomy, and con- ftru&s inftruments, 20 Weight of bodies increafes towards the poles, 276 Werner, John early attachment to. aftronomy, 21' obferves the motion of a comet, ib. propofes a method of finding the longi¬ tude at fea, ib. difcovers the precef- fion of the equinoxes, ib. conftru&s a planetari¬ um, ib. William IV. landgrave of Heffe-CaC- fel, an aftronomer, 23 World, argument againft its eternity, 36 Wright, Edward,, makes obfervations on the fun’s alti¬ tude, 26 improves the theo¬ ry of his motion, ib. computes tables of his declination, ib. Year, tropical, 59 fidereal, ib. Roman, 62 reformed by Julius Cae- far, 63 leap, ib. lunar, 93 Z Zenith, 3 7- Zodiac, Chinefe names of the figns, 3 fignsof, 52 divifion of, 198 AST Altroi*! ASTROPE-WELLS, near Banbury in Oxfordffiire, weHs are recommended as excellent in many diforders. The y water is a brifk, fpirituous pleafant-tafted chalybeate, Aftruc. and is alfo gently purgative. It (hould be drank from ' three or five quarts in the forenoon. ASTROSCOPE, a kind of aftronomical inftrument, compofed of two cones, on whofe furface the conftella- tions, with their ftars are delineated, by means whereof the ftars may be eafily known. The aftrofcope is the invention of William Schuckhard, formerly profeffor of mathematics at Tubingen, who publilhed a treatife ex- prefsly on it in 1698. ASTRUC, John, a celebrated phyfician, was born in the year 1684, at the little town of Savoy, in the province of Languedoc. His father, who was a Pro- teftant clergyman, beftowed particular pains upon the AST earlieft part of his education. After which he went to Aftruc the univerfity of Montpelier, where he was created , t . mafter of arts in the year 1700. He then began the ftudy of medicine; and, in two years, obtained the degree of bachelor, having upon that occafion written a differtation on the capfe of fermentation, which he defended in a very fpirited manner. On the 25th of January 1703 he was created doftor of phyfic ; after which, before arriving at extenfive pra&ice, he applied to the ftudy of medical authors, both ancient and mo¬ dern, with uncommon afliduity. The good effedls of this ftudy foon appeared; for, in the year 1710, he publiftied a treatife concerning mufcular motion, from which he acquired very high reputation. In the year 1717, he was appointed to teach medicine at Mont¬ pelier J which he did wiith fuch perfpicuity and elo¬ quence. AST [ 190 ] A S V Atone, tjn&nce, that it Was univerfally faid he had been born A-tturia. to be a profeJTor. His fame foon rofe to fuch a height, that the king affigned him an annual falary j and he was, at the fame time, appointed to fuperintend the tnineral waters in the province of Languedoc, But as Montpelier did not afford fufficient fcope for his •afpiring genius, he went to Paris with a great flock of manuferipts, which he intended to publifh, after fub- jefling them to the examination of the learned. Soon after, however, he left it, having in the year 1729 ac¬ cepted the office of firit phyfician to the king of Po¬ land. In this capacity he remained only for a fhort time, and he again returned to Paris. Upon the death of the celebrated Geoffroy, in the year 1731, he was appointed regius profeffor of medicine at Paris. The duties of this office he difeharged in fuch a manner as to anfwer even the mod fanguine expeftations. He taught the pra&ice of phyfic with fo great applaufe, as to draw from other univerfities to that of Paris a great concourfe, of medical fiudents, foreigners as well as na¬ tives of France. At the fame time he was not more celebrated as a profeffor than a pra&itioner. And even at an advanced age, he perfevered with unwea¬ ried affiduity in that intenfe fludy which firft railed his reputation. Hence it is that he has been enabled to tranfmit to pofterity fo many valuable monuments of his medical erudition. He died, univerfally regretted, on the 15th of May 1766, in the 82d year of his age. ASTURIA, an ancient kingdom of Spain, fub- dued by Auguflus, emperor of Rome.—The inhabi¬ tants of this country, along with thofe of ‘Cantabria, afferted their liberty long after the reft of Spain had received the Roman yoke. So great was their defire of liberty, that after being clofely fliut up by the Ro¬ man army, they endured the moft terrible calamities of famine, even to the devouring of one another, rather than fubmit to the enemy. At length, however, the Afturians were for furrendering •, but the Cantabrians oppofed this meafure, maintaining that they ought all to die fword in hand like brave men. Upon this the two nations quarrelled, notwithfianding their defperate fituation ; and a battle enfuing, 10,000 of the Aftu¬ rians were driven to the intrenchments of the Romans, whom they begged in the moft moving manner to re¬ ceive them on any terms they pleafed. But Tiberius, the emperor’s fon-in-law, refufing to admit them into the camp, fome of thefe unhappy people put an end to their lives by falling upon their own fwords j others lighting great fires threw themfelves into them, while Tome poifoned themfelves by drinking the juice of a ve¬ nomous herb. The campaign being put an end to by winter, the next year the Afturians fummoned all their ftrengfh and refolution againft the Romans •, but notwithftand- ing their utmoft efforts of valour and dtfpair, they were entirely defeated in a moft bloody battle, which lafted two days, and for that time entirely fubdued. A few years afterwards they rebelled, in conjundtion with the Cantabrians j but were foon reduced by the Ro¬ mans, who maffacred moft of the young men that were capable of bearing arms. This did not prevent them from revolting anew in a ftiort time afterwards *, but without fuccefs, being obliged to fubmit to the Ro¬ man power, till the fubverlion of that etrrnre by the Aflurus j Goths. _ I! Asturias, anciently the kingdom of Afturia, is Afylum. now a principality of modern Spain, bounded by Bif- 'V"—1 j cay on the eaft, Galicia on the weft, Old Cafiile and Leon on the fouth, and the fea on the north. Its greateft length is about HO miles, and its breadth 54. On the fouth it is feparated from Old Caftile and Leon by high mountains covered with woods. I he province is tolerably fertile, but thinly inhabited. The inhabi¬ tants value themfelves much on being defeended from the ancient Goths. Even the poor peafants, who are fain to go to feek work in other provinces, call them¬ felves illuftrious Goths and Mountaineers, thinking it ignominious to marry even with great and rich fami¬ lies of another race. This pride is flattered by the refpeG paid them by the reft of the nation, and the privileges beftowed upon them by the government. The hereditary prince of Spain is ftyled prince of the SHJiurias. The moft remarkable places in this prin¬ cipality are Oviedo, Gyori, Santillana, and St An- dero. ASTYAGES, fon of Cyaxares, the laft king of the Medes. He dreamed, that from the womb of his daughter Mandane, married to Cambyfes king of Per- fia, there fprung a vine that fpread itfelf over all Afia. She being with child, he refolved to kill the infant as foon as born. Its name was Cyrus j and Harpagus being fent to deftroy it, preferved it; which Aftyages after a long time hearing of, he caufed Harpagus to eat his own fon. Harpagus called in Cyrus, who de¬ throned his grandfather, and thereby ended the mo¬ narchy of the Medes. See MEDIA and PERSIA. ASTYANAX, the only fon of He£lor and Andro¬ mache. After the taking of Troy, he w'as thrown from the top of a tower by Ulyffes’s orders. ASTYNOMI, in Grecian Antiquity, magiftrates in Athens, correfponding to the aediles of the Romans; they were ten in number. See AiDiLE. ASYLUM, a famftuary, or place of refuge, where criminals {belter themfelves from the hands of juftice. The word is compounded of the privative particle <*, and a-vhctM, l hurt; becaufe no perfon could be taken out of an afylum without facrilege. The afyla of altars and temples were very ancient; and likewife thofe of tembs, ftatues, and other monu¬ ments of confiderable perfonages. Thus, the temple of Diana at Ephefus was a refuge for debtors, the tomb of Thefeus for flaves. Among the Romans, a cele¬ brated afylum was opened by Romulus between the mounts Palatine and Capitoline, in order to people Rome, for all forts of perfons indiferiminately, fugitive flaves, debtors, and criminals of every kind. The Jews had their afyla; the melt remarkable of which were, the fix cities of refuge, the temple, and the altar of burnt-offerings. It was cuftomary among the Heathens to allow re¬ fuge and impunity even to the vileft and moft flagrant offenders ; fome out of fuperftition, and others for the fake of peopling their cities : and it was by this means, and with fuch inhabitants, that Thebes, Athens, and Rome, were firft flocked. We even read of afylums at Lyons and Vienne among the ancient Gauls; and there are fome cities in Germany which ftill preferve l A T A [ 191 ] , ATE Afvlum 'll Ualafita- the ancient right of afylum. Hence on the medals of feveral ancient cities, particularly in Syria, we meet with the infcription AZYAOI, to which is added ETAI. This quality of afylum, was given them, according to M. Spanheim, in regard to their temples, and to the gods revered by them. The emperors Honorius and Theodofius granting the like immunities to churches, the bifhops and monks laid hold of a certain tradt or territory, without which they fixed the bounds of the fecular jurifdiclion : and fo well did they manage their privileges, that convents in a little time became next akin to fortreffes ; where the moll notorious villains were in fafety, and braved the power of the magiftrate. Thefe privileges at length were extended not only to the churches and churchyards, but alfo to the bilhops houfes; whence the criminal could not be removed with¬ out a legal ailurance of life, and an entire remiflion of the crime. The reafon of the extenfion was, that they might not be obliged to live altogether in the churches, &c. where feveral of the occalions of life could not be decently performed. But at length thefe afyla or fandluaries were alfo flripped of moll of their immunities, becaufe they fer- ved to make guilt and libertinage more bold and daring. In England, particularly, they were entirely abolifhed. See Sanctuary. ASSYMETRY, the rvantof proportion between the parts of any thing ; being the contrary of fymmetry. Or, it is the relation of two quantities which have no common meafure, as between 1 and -y/ 2, or the fide and diagonal of a fquare. ASYMPTOTE, in Geometry, a line which conti¬ nually approaches nearer to another ; but, though con¬ tinued infinitely, will never meet with it: Of thefe are many kinds. In ftridtnefs, however, the term afymptotes is appropriated to right lines, which approach nearer and nearer to fome curves of which they are faid to be afymptotes ; but if they and their curves are inde¬ finitely continued, they will never meet. See CONIC SeBions. ASYNDETON, in Grammar, a figure which omits the conjundlions in a fentence. As in vent, vidi, vrci, where ET is left out: or in that of Cicero concerning Catiline, abiit, excefit, evafit, erupit: or in that verfe of Virgil, Ferte cito Jlammas, date vela, impellite remos. Afyndeton {lands oppofed to polyfyndeton, where the copulatives are multiplied. ATABULUS, in Physiology, a provincial wind in A.pulia, of a dry pinching quality, and very noxious in its effects. The ancient naturalills fpeak of the Atabu- lus in terms of horror, on account of the ravage it made among the fruits of the earth, which it fcorched or wi¬ thered up. ATABYRIS, a very high mountain in the ifland of Rhodes, on which, according to Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, there flood a temple of Jupiter Atabyrius, whofe worfhip a colony of Rhodians carried into Sicily, where a temple was built to the fame deity at Agrigen- tum. AT AL ANT A, an ifland in the Euripus of Euboea, near the Locri Opuntii, faid to have been originally a city of the Locri, but torn from the continent in the time of an earthquake, and during an eruption of Mount Atalanta ALtna. This happened in the fourth year of the 93d 11 Olympiad, in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon. , ATALANTIS, Atlantica, or Atlantis. See v Atlantis. ATARAXY, a term ufed by the floics and fceptics, to denote that calmnefs of mind which fecures us from all emotions arifing from vanity and felf-conceit. ATARGATIS fanum, the temple of a goddefs worfhipped by the Syrians and Parthians, having the face of a woman and tail of a fifli, and called Derceto by the Greeks. Her temple flood in the city Bambyce, called afterwards Hieropolis. It was extremely rich, infomuch that Craffus, in his march againfl the Par¬ thians, fpent feveral days in weighing the treafure. Voffius makes the name of this goddefs Phoenician from- jdddir dag, “ the great fifh.” ATARNEA, an ancient town of Myfia, fituated between Adrymyttium and Pitane, remarkable for the marriage of Ariilotle with the filler or concubine of the tyrant Hermias j alfu for the doiage of that philofo- pher. ATAXY, in a general fenfe, the want of order : With phyficians, it fignifies irregularity of crifes and paroxyfms of fevers. ATCHE, in commerce, a fmall filver coin ufed in Turkey, and worth only one-third of the Englifli penny. ATCHIEVEMENT, inHera/t/ry,denotes the arms of a perfon or family, together with all the exterior or¬ naments of the fhield ■, as helmet, mantle, crefl, fcroljs, and motto, together with fuch quarterings as may have been acquired by alliances, all marfhalled in or¬ der. ATCHIEVE. This term is derived from the French achever, i. e. to finifli or make an end of; but fignifies, in its ordinary acceptation, to perform great aftions or exploits. ATE, the goddefs of mifchief, in the Pagan theo¬ logy. She was daughter of Jupiter, and call down from heaven at the birth of Hercules. For Juno hav¬ ing deceived Jupiter, in caufing Euryflheus to be born before Hercules, Jupiter expreffed his refentment on Ate, as the author of that mifchief: and threw her headlong from heaven to the earth, fwearing fire fhould never return thither again {Homer II. xix. 125.). The name of this goddefs comes from noceo, “ to hurt.” Her being the daughter of Jupiter, means, according to mythologiils, that no evil happens to us but by the permiffion of Providence ; and her banifhment to earth denotes the terrible effedls of divine juilice among men. ATEGUA, or Attegua, an ancient town of Spain, placed by fome in the road from Antiquara, now Antequera, to Hifpalis, or Seville ; by others near Alcala Real ; which lafl is the more probable fituation, becaufe the Flumen Salfum, now the Salado, was in its neighbourhood. Now Tebala Vieja, or Teivela. ATELLA, an ancient town of Campania in Italy, between Capua and Neapolis. From this town the A- tellarur fabulee, or Atellani ludi, took their name. Thefe were alfo called Ofci, from their inventor, in whofe ter¬ ritory Atella lay. They were generally a fpecies of farce, interlarded with much ribbaldry and buffoonery ; and fometimes were exordia or interludes prefented> between 1 Atella l! Athanafian creed. A T H [i9 between the a£ts of other plays. The a£lors in thefe farces were not reckoned among the common players, nor deemed infamous 5 but retained the rights of their tribe, and might be lifted for foldiers, the privilege only of free men. The ruins of this town are ftill to be feen, about 11 miles from the modern Averfa, which was built out of its materials. ATEMPO GIUSTO, in Muftc, fignifies to fmg or play in an equal, true, and juft time. AT ERG AITS, in Mythology, a goddefs of the Sy¬ rians, fuppofed to be the mother of Semiramis. She •was reprefented with the face and bre#fts of a wo¬ man, but the reft of her body refembled a fifti. Vof- fius fays the term fignifies without JiJh, and con- ie&ures that the votaries of this deity abftained from filh- ATERNUM, a town of Lucania in Italy, now ylterni, (Cluverius) : Alio a town in the territory of the Piceni, now Pefcara, a port town of Naples, fi- tuated on the Adriatic. E. Long. 15- 25. N. Lat. 42. 30. ... ATESTE, a town in the territory of Venice in Italy, now called F-Jlc. E. Long. 12. 6. N. Lat. 45. 25. ATHAMADULET, the prime minifter of the Perfian empire, as the grand vizier is of the lurkilh empire. He is great chancellor of the kingdom, prefi- dent of the council, fuperintendant of the finances, and is charged with all foreign affairs. ATHAMANTA, Spignel. See Botany Index. ATHANASIA, Goldilocks. See Botany In¬ dex. ATH AN ASIAN CREED 5 a formulary, or con- feflion of faith, long fuppofed to have been drawn up by Athanafius bifhop of Alexandria, in the fourth century, to juftify himfelf againft the calumnies of his Arian enemies. But it is now generally allow¬ ed among the learned not to have been his. Dr Waterland afcribes it to Hilary bifhop of Arles, for the following among other reafons: 1. Becaufe Ho- noratus of Marfeilles, the writer of his life, tells us, that he compofed an Expojition of the Creed; a pro- perer title for the Athanajian than that of Creed fim- ply which it now bears. 2. Hilary was a great ad¬ mirer and follower of St Auftin ; and the whole com- pofition of this creed is in a manner upon St Auftin’s plan, both with refpeft to the Trinity and incarnation. 3. It is agreeable to the ftyle of Hilary, as far as we can judge from the little that is left of his works. Up¬ on the whole he concludes, that Hilary, bilhop of Arles, about the year 430, compofed the Expofition of Faith, which now bears the name of the Athana¬ fian Creed, for the ufe of the Gallican clergy, and par¬ ticularly thofe of the diocefe of Arles : That, about the year 570, it became famous enough to be com¬ mented upon } but that all this while, and for feveral years lower, it had not yet acquired the name of Atha- nafian, but was fimply ftyled The Catholic Faith : ihat, before 670, Athanafius’s admired name came in to re¬ commend and adorn it, being in itfelf an excellent fyf- tem of the Athanafian principles of the Trinity and in¬ carnation, in oppofition chiefly to the Arians, Macedo¬ nians and Apollinarians. This is the hypothefis of the learned author of the Critical Hi/lory of the Athanafian Creed. 2 ] AT H As to the reception of this creed in the Chriftian AthanalW churches, we find, that it obtained in France in the creed time of Hincmar, or about 850 : that it was received II in Spain about 100 years later than in France, and in Germany much about the fame time. As to our own 'r~'’ country, we have clear and pofitive proofs of this creed being fung alternately in our churches in the tenth century. It was in common ufe in fome parts of Italy, particularly in the diocefe of Verona, about the year 960, and was received at Rome about the year 1014. As to the Greek and oriental churches, it has been queftioned whether anylof them ever received this creed at all ; though fome very confiderable rvri- ters are of a contrary perfuafion. It appears then, that the reception of this creed has been both general and ancient 5 and may vie with any, in that refpeft, ex¬ cept the Nicene or Conftantinopolitan, the only gene¬ ral creed common to all the churches. As to the matter of this creed, it is given as a fum- mary of the true orthodox faith, and a condemnation of all herefies ancient and modern. Unhappily, how¬ ever, it has proved a fruitful fource of unprofitable con- troverfy and unchriftian animofity even down to the prefent time. ATHANASIUS, St, biftiop of Alexandria, and one of the greateft defenders of the faith againft the Arians, was born in Egypt. He followed St Alex¬ ander to the council of Nice, in 325, where he depu¬ ted again ft Arius, and the following year was made biftiop of Alexandria •, but, in 335, was depofed by the council of Tyre : when, having recourfe to the emperor Conftantine, the Arian deputies accufed him of having hindered the exportation of corn from Alexan¬ dria to Conftantinople; on which the emperor, with¬ out fuffering him to make his defence, baniftied him to Treves. The emperor, two years after, gave orders that he fhould be reftored to his biftiopric: but, on his return to Alexandria, his enemies brought frelh accu- fations againft him, and chofe Gregory of Cappadocia to his fee 5 which obliged Athanafius to go to Rome to reclaim it of Pope Julius. He was there declared innocent, in a council held in 34^» *n that of Sardica in 347 ; and two years after was reftored to his fee by order of the emperor Conftans : but after the death of that prince, be was again baniftied by the emperor Conftantius, which obliged him to retire into the deferts. The Arians then elefted one George in his room •, who being killed in a popular fedition un¬ der Julian in 360, St Athanafius returned to Alexan¬ dria, but was again baniftied under Julian, and reftored to his fee under Jovian. He addrefi'ed to that emperor a letter, in which he propofed that the Nicene creed fhould be the ftandard of the orthodox faith, and con¬ demned thofe who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghoft. He was alfo baniftied by Valens in 367, and^ afterwards recalled. St Athanafius died on the 2d of May 375. His works principally contain a defence of the myf- teries of the Trinity, and of the incarnation and divi¬ nity of the Word and Holy Spirit. There are three editions of his works which are efteemed j that of Com- melin, printed in 1600 •, that of Peter Nannius, in 1627 ; and that of Father Montfaucon. As to the creed which bears his name, fee the preceding ar¬ ticle. ATHANATIy A T H [ i At’nanati ATHANATI, in Perfian antiquity, a body of ca- j] valry, confifting of 10,000 men, always complete. Atheift. They were called athanati (a word originally Greek, — V and fignifying immortal'), becaufe, when one of them happened to die, another was immediately appointed to fucceed him. ATHANOR. Chemifts have diflinguilhed by this name a furnace fo conftru&ed that it can always main¬ tain an equal heat, and which fhall laft a long time without addition of frefli fuel. The body of the athanor has nothing in it particular, and is conftrufted like ordinary furnaces. But at one of its fides, or its middle, there is an upright hollow tower, which communicates with the fireplace by one or more Hoping openings, and which has a lid to clofe its upper opening. This furnace is now rarely ufed. ATHAROTH, or Atroth, in Ancient Geography, the name of feveral towns. Two appear to have been in Samaria, in the tribe of Ephraim ; and one four miles to the north of Sebafle, or the city of Samaria ; the other in the confines of Benjamin and Ephraim, yet fo as to be in the diftri&of Ephraim rather than Benja¬ min (Jofhua). This is the Atroth-Adder mentioned by Jolhua xvi. 5. from which to Upper Bethoron extends the greateft breadth of the tribe of Ephraim. ATHEISM, the difbelief of a deity. See A- THEIST. ATHEIST, a perfon who does not believe the ex¬ igence of a Deity. Many people, both ancient and modern, have pretended to atheifra, or have been rec¬ koned atheifts by the world*, but it is juftly queftioned whether any man ferioufiy adopted fuch a principle. Thefe pretenfions, therefore, muft be founded on pride or affeftation. Atheifm, as abfurd and unreafonable as it is, has had its martyrs. Lucilio Vanini, an Italian, native of Naples, publicly taught atheifm in France, about the beginning of the 17th century, and being convicted of it at Thouloufe, was condemned to death. Being prefled to make public acknowledgment of his crime, and to alk pardon of God, the king, and juflice, he anfwered, he did not believe there was a God*, that he never offended the king ; and, as for juftice, he wifhed it to the devil. He confeffed that he was one of twelve, who parted in company from Naples to fpread their dodtrine in all parts of Europe. His ■tongue was firfl cut out, and then his body burnt, A- pril 9. 1619. Cicero reprefents it as a probable opinion, that they who apply themfelves to the ftudyof philofophy believe there are no gods. This muft, doubtlefi, be meant of the academic philofophy, to which Cicero himfelf was attached, and which doubted of every thing. On the contrary, the Newtonian philofophers are continual¬ ly recurring to a .Deity, whom they always find at the end of their chain of natural caufes. Some foreigners have even charged them with making too much ufe of the notion of a God in philofophy, contrary to the rule of Horace: Nec Deus interjit, niji dignus vindice nodus. Among us, the philofophers have been the principal advocates for the exiftence of a Deity. Witnefs the writings of Sir Ifaac Newton, Boyle, Ray. Cheyne, Vol. HI. Part I. > ' ’ .r* 03 ] A T H Nieuwentyt, &c. To which may be added many Atl.eift others, who, though of the clergy (as was alfo Ray), fl yet have diftinguifhed themfelves by their philofo- phical pieces in behalf of the exiftence of a God ; . r^s' . e. gr. Derham, Bentley, Whifton, Samuel and John Clarke, Fenelon, &c. So true is that faying of Lord Bacon, that though a fmattering of philofophy may lead a man into atheifm, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God and Pro¬ vidence. ATHELING, Adeling, Edeling, Ethling, or Etheling, among the Anglo-Saxons, was a title of honour, properly belonging to the heir-apparent, or prefumptive, to the crown. This honourable appella¬ tion was firft conferred by King Edward the Confeflfor on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, when, being without any iflue of his own, he intended to make him his heir. ATHELSTAN, a Saxon king of England, natu¬ ral fon of Edward the Elder, and grandfon of the great Allred. He fucceeded to the crown in 925, and reigned 16 years. There was a remarkable law palled by this prince, which Ihows his juft fentiments of the advantages of commerce, as well as the early attention to it in this country : it declared, that any merchant who made three voyages on his own account beyond the Britilh channel or narrow feas, Ihould be entitled to the privilege of a thane or gentleman. ATHENALA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated by the ancient Greeks in honour of Minerva, who was called Athene. ATHENAEUM, in antiquity, a public place where¬ in the profeffors of the liberal arts held their aflem- blies, the rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets re- hearfed their performances. Thefe places, of which there were a great number at Athens, were built in the manner of amphitheatres, encompaffed with feats, called cunei. The three moft celebrated Athentea were thofe at Athens, at Rome, and at Lyons j the fecond of which was built by the emperor Adrian. ATHEN^EUS, a phyfician, born in Cicilia, co¬ temporary with Pliny, and founder of the Pneumatic feft. He taught that the fire, air, water, and earth, are not the true elements, but that their qualities are, viz. heat, cold, moifture, and drynefs *, and to thefe he added a fifth element, which he called fpirit, whence his fea had its name. Athen^eus, a Greek grammarian, born at Nau- cratis in Egypt in the third century, one of the mofl: learned men of his time. Of all his works we have none extant but his Deipnofophi, i. e. the fophifts at table. There is an infinity of faas and quotations in this work which render it very agreeable to admirers of antiquity. There was alfo a mathematician of this name, who wrote a treatife on mechanics, which is inferted in the works of the ancient mathematicians, printed at Paris in 1693, in folio, in Greek and Latin. ATHENAGORAS, an Athenian philofopher, flou- riftied about the middle of the 2d century, and was remarkable for his zeal for Chriftianity, and his great learning, as appears from the apology which he ad- dreffed to the emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Commodus. B b ATHENODORUS, A T AtliencJ- clorus 11 Athens. H a famous Stoic By whom founded. ATHENODORUS, born at Tarfus, went to the court of Auguftus, and was made by him tutor to Tiberius. Auguftus had a great efteem for him, and found him by experience a man of virtue and probity. He ufed to fpeak very freely to the emperor. He, before he left the court to return home, warned the emperor not to give him- felf up to anger, but whenever he ftrould be in a paf* lion, to rehearfe the 24 letters of the alphabet before he refolved to fay or do any thing. He did not live to fee his bad fuccefs in the education of Tiberius. ATHENOPOLIS, a town of the Maffilienfes, an ancient nation of Gaul. It is conjectured by Harduin to be the fame with Telo Martias, now Toulon; by others to be the fame with Antipohs or Antibes. ATHENREE, a town of Ireland in the county of Galway, and province of Connaught. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 53, 14. It is governed by a portrieve, and hath a barrack for three companies of foot. It hath been a place of confiderable ftrength \ but, like the numerous churches and caftles which furround it, has felt the refiftlefs force of time. Some of the walls and towers, however, are ftill remaining, as monuments of its former grandeur. ATHENS, a celebrated city of Greece, and capital of the ancient kingdom of Attica, lituated in E. Long. 24. N. Lat. 38. 5. See Attica. In early times, that which was afterwards called the citadel was the whole city 5 and went under the name of Cecropia, from its founder Cecrops, whom the Athenians in after times affirmed to have been the firft builder of cities, and called this therefore by way of eminence Po/fr, i. e. the city. In the reign of Erich- thonius it loft the name of Cecropia, and acquired that of Athens, on what account is not certain 5 the moft probable is, that it was fo named in refpeft to the goddefs Minerva, whom the Greeks call Athene, who was alfo efteemed its protedlrefs. This old city was feated on the top of a rock in the midft of a large and pleafant plain, which, as the number of inhabi¬ tants increafed, became full of buildings, which indu¬ ced the diftindlion of Aero and' Catapolis, i. e. of the upper and lower city. The extent of the citadel was 60 ftadiaq it was furrounded by olive trees, and forti¬ fied, as Tome fay, with a ftrong pallifade •, in fucceed- ing times it was encompaffed with a ftrong wall, in which, there wrere nine gates, one very large one, and the reft fmall. The infide of the citadel was adorned with innumerable edifices. The moft remarkable of which were, 1. The magnificent temple of Minerva, ftyled Parthenion, becaufe that goddefs was a virgin, able build- The Perfians deftroyeef it j but it was rebuilt with'ftill ings. greater fplendour by the famous Pericles, all of the fined; marble, with fuch fkill and ftrength, that, in fpite of the rage of time and barbarous nations, it remains perhaps the firft antiquity in the world, and Hands a witnefs to the truth of what ancient writers have recorded of the prodigious magnificence of Athens in her flourifhing ftate. 2. The temple of Neptune and of Minerva; for it was divided into two parts: one facred to the god, in which was the fait fountain faid to have fprung up on the ftroke of his trident •, the other to the goddefs protedlrefs of Athens, wherein was the facred olive which flie produced, and her image which fell down from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius. Remark- [ 194 ] .. A T H philofopher, At the back of Minerva’s temple was the public trea- Athens. fury, which was burnt to the ground through the kna-y—- very of the treafurers, who having mifapplied the re¬ venues of the ftate, took this ffiort method of making up accounts. The lower city comprehended all the buildings fur¬ rounding the citadel, the fort Munychia, and the ha¬ vens Phalerum and Piraeus, the latter of which was joined to the city by walls five miles in length ^ that on the north was built by Pericles, but that on the fouth by Themiftocles; but by degrees the turrets which were at firft erected on thole walls were turned into dwelling-houfes for the accommodation of the Athenians, whofe large city was now become too fmall for them. The city, or rather the lower city, had 13 great gates, with the names of which it is not necefla- ry to trouble the reader. Among the principal edi¬ fices which adorned it, we may reckon, 1. The temple of Thefeus, ereffed by Conon, near its centre. Ad¬ jacent thereto, the young people performed their exer- cifes. It was alfo a fan&uary for diftreffed perfons, flaves or free. 2. The Olympian temple erefted in ho¬ nour of Jupiter, the honour of Athens, and of all Greece. The foundation of it was laid by Pififtratus: it was carried on but flowly in fucceeding times, 700 years elapfing before it was finiffied, which happened under the reign of Adrian, who was particularly kind to Athens : this was the firft building in which the Athenians beheld pillars. 3. I he Pantheon, dedicat¬ ed to all the gods: a moft noble ftruQure, fupported by 120 marble pillars, and having over its great gate two horfes carved by Praxiteles : it is y7et remaining, as we ffiall have occafion to ffiow hereafter when we come to fpeak of the prefent ftate of this famous city. In feveral parts of it were Jlaoi or porticoes, wherein people walked in rainy weather, and from whence a fe£t of philofophers were denominated Stoics, becaufe their mafter Zeno taught in thofe porticoes. ^ There were at Athens two places called Ceramicus, ceramicut from Ceramus the fon of Bacchus and Ariadne j one within the city, containing a multitude of buildings of all forts ; the other in the fuburbs, in which was the academy and other edifices. The gymnafia of Athens were many j but the moft remarkable were the Ly¬ ceum, Academia, and Cynofarges. The Lyceuiq flood on the banks of the Iliffus ; fome fay it was built by Pififtratus, others by Pericles, others by Lycurgus. Here Ariftotle taught philofophy, inftru£ling fuch as came to hear him as they walked, whence his difciples are generally thought to derive the name of Peripa~ tetics. The Ceramicus without the city was the diftance of fix ftadia from its walls. The academy made part thereof 5 as to the name of which there is fome difpute. Some affirm that it was fo called from Academus, an ancient hero, who, when Helen was ftolen by Thefeus, difeovered the place where file lay hid to Caftor and Pollux: for which reafon the Lacedemonians, w’hen they invaded Attica, always fpared this place. Di- caearchus writes, that Caftor and Pollux had two Ar¬ cadians in their army, the one named Echedemus, the other Marethus ; from the former of thefe he fays-this place took its name, and that the borough of Mara¬ thon was fo called from the other. It was a marfhy unwholefome place, till Cimon was at great pains to have it drained; and then it became extremely plea¬ fant A T H [ Cynofarges. S Havens. Athens, fant and delightful, being adorned with fliady walks, —v ' where Plato read his ledlures, and from thence his fcholars were termed Academics. The Cynofarges was a place in the fuburbs not far from the Lyceum : it was famous on many accounts $ but particularly for a noble gymnafium erected there, appointed for the fpe- cial ufe of fuch as were Athenians only by one fide. In after times Themiftocles derived to himfelf ill will, by carrying many of the nobility to exercife with him here, becauie, being but of the half blood, he could exer¬ cife nowhere elfe but in this gymnafium. Antifthenes inftituted a feft of philofophers, who from the name of this diftridf, as many think, wrere ftyled Cynics. The havens of Athens were three. Firll, the Pi¬ raeus, which was diftant about 35 or 40 fladia from the city, till joined thereto by the long walls before-men¬ tioned, after which it became the principal harbour of the city. It had three docks ; Cantharos, Aphrodi- fium, and Zea •, the firll was fo called from an ancient hero, the fecond from the goddefs Venus who had there two temples, and the third from bread-corn. There were in this port five porticoes, which joining together formed one great one, called from thence Macra Stoa, or the grand portico. There were likewife two great markets or fora : one near the long portico, the other near the city. The fecond port was Munichia, a pro- montory not far diftant from Piraeus 5 a place very ftrong by nature, and afterwards rendered far ftronger by art. It was of this that Epimenides faid, if the Athenians forefaw Avhat mifchief it Avould one day produce to them, they would eat it avvay with their teeth. The third was Phalerum, diftant from the city, according to Thucy dides 35 ftadia, but according to Paufanias only 20 This Avas the moft ancient harbour of Athens, as Piraeus Avas the moft capacious. Of this city, as it ftands at prefent, Ave have the fol- loAving account by Dr Chandler. “ It is iioav called Athini: and is not inconfiderable, either in extent or the number of inhabitants. It enjoys a fine tempera¬ ture, and a ferene fky. The air is clear and Avhole- fome, though not fo delicately foft as in Ionia. The toAvn ftands beneath the acropolis or citadel; not en- eompaffing the rock as formerly, but fpreading into the plain, chiefly on the vveft and north-Aveft. Cor- fairs infefting it, the avenues Avere fecured, and in 1676 the gates Avere regularly (hut after' funfet. It is novv open again : but feveral of the gateAvays remain, and a guard of Turks patrols at midnight. Some mafles of brick-Avork, (landing feparate, Avithout the town, be¬ longed perhaps to the ancient Avail, of Avhich other traces alfo appear. The houfes are moftly mean and ftraggling; many Avith large courts or areas before them. In the lanes, the high Avails on each fide, Avhich are commonly white-walhed, refleft ftrongly the heat of the fun. The ftreets, are very irregular 5 and an¬ ciently Avere neither uniform nor handfome. They have water conveyed in channels from Mount Hymet- tus, and in the bazar or market-place is a large foun¬ tain. The Turks have feveral mofques and public baths. The Greeks have convents for men and avo- men ; Avith many churches, in which fervice is regu¬ larly performed; and befides thefe, they have nume¬ rous oratories or chapels, fome in ruins or confiding of bare Avails, frequented only on the anniverfaries of the faints to Avhom they are dedicated. A portrait of the 6 Prefent Sate. 95 ] A T H oAvner on a board is placed in them on that occafion, ^hens and removed Avhen the folemnity of the day is over. * f - ~ ■ “ The city of Cecrops is now a fortrefs with a thick 7 irregular Avail, (landing on the brink of precipices, and 9lta^e^ or enclofing a large area about twice as long as broad.CIty Some portions of the ancient Avail maybe difcovered^ ’ on the outfide, particularly at the two extreme angles ; and in many places it is patched Avith pieces of columns, and Avith marbles taken from the ruins. A confiderable fum had been recently expended on the fide next Hy- mettus, which Avas finiftied before Ave arrived. The fcaffblding had been removed to the end toward Pen- tele ; but money Avas wanting, and the workmen Avere withdrawn. The garrifon confifts of a few Turks, Avho refide there Avith their families, and are called by the Greeks Cnjiriani, or the foldiers of the caftle. The rock is lofty, abrupt, and inacceflible, except the front, Avhich is towards the Piraeus 5 and on that quarter is a moun¬ tainous ridge, Avithin cannon-flrot. It is deftitute of water fit for drinking ; and fupplies are daily carried up in earthen jars, on horfes and afles, from one of the conduits of the town. “ The acropolis furnifhed a very ample field to the ancient virtuofi. It was filled with monuments of A- thenian glory, and exhibited an amazing difplay of beauty, of opulence, and of art ; each contending as it were for the fuperiority. It appeared as one entire offering to the Deity, furpafling in excellence and alfo- niflring in richnefs. Heliodorus, named Periegetes, the guide, had employed on it 15 books. The curio- fities of various kinds, Avith the pi&ures, ftatues, and pieces of fculpture, were fo many and fo remarkable, as to fupply Polemo Periegetes Avith matter for four volumes : and Strabo affirms, that as many Avould be required in treating of other portions of Athens and of Attica. In particular, the number of ftatues Avas prodigious. Tiberius Nero, Avho Avas fond of images, plundered the acropolis as Avell as Delphi and Olym¬ pia 5 yet Athens, and each of thefe places, had not fewer than 3000 remaining in the time of Pliny. Even Paufanias feems here to be diftrefled by the mul¬ tiplicity of his fubjeft. But this banquet, as it Avere, of the fenfes has long been withdrawn ; and is now be¬ come like the tale of a vifion. The fpedlator vieAvs Avith concern the marble ruins intermixed Avith mean flat-roofed cottages, and extant amid rubbifti 5 the fad memorials of a nobler people ; Avhich, hoAA'ever, as vi- fible from the fea, (hould have introduced modern Athens to more early notice. They Avho reported it Avas only a fmall village, muft,. it has been furmifed, have beheld the acropolis through the Avrong end of their telefcopes. “ The acropolis has now, as formerly, only one entrance, Avhich fronts the Piraeus. The afcent is by traverfes and rude fortifications furnifhed Avith cannon, but Avithout carriages, and negle&ed. By the fecond gate is the ftation of the guard, Avho fits crofs-legged under cover, much at his eafe, fmoking his pipe, or drinking coffee, Avith his companions about him in like attitudes. Over this gateAvay is an infcription in large characters on a (tone turned upfide down, and black from the fires made beloAV. It records a prefent of a pair of gates. s “ Going farther up, you come to the ruins of theEropylca. Propylea, an edifice which graced the entrance of the B b 2 citadel. A thens. Temple of Victory. A T H [ i eitadel. This was one of the ftru£tares of Pericles, who began it when Euthymenes was archon, 435 years before Chrift. It was completed in five years, at the expence of 2012 talents. It was of marble, of the Doric order, and had five doors to afford an eaiy paf- fage to the multitudes which reforted on bufinefs or de¬ votion to the acropolis. While this fabric was building, the archite the fineft m°fque in the world, with- aiofque. out cTParifon- . The Greeks had adapted the fabric ' to their ceremonial, by eonftrudting at one end a femi- circular recefs for the holy tables, with a window $ for 2,. 1 97 ] A T H before it was enlightened only by the door, obfcurity Athens, being preferred under the heathen ritual, except on v*-** feftivals, when it yielded to fplendid illuminations: the reafon, it has been furmifed, why temples are com¬ monly found Ample and unadorned on the infides. In the wall beneath the window were inferted two pieces of the ftone called phengites, a fpecies of marble dif- covered in Cappadocia in the time of Nero ; and ft> tranfparent that he ere6ted with it a temple to For¬ tune, which was luminous within when the door was Unit. Thefe pieces were perforated, and the light which en¬ tered was tinged with a reddiffi or yellowiffi hue. The pifture of the Panagia or Virgin Mary, in mofaic, on the ceiling of the recefs, remained j with two jafper columns belonging to the fcreen, which had feparated that part from the nave j and within, a canopy fupported by four pillars of porphyry, with Corinthian capitals of white marble, under which the table had been placed ; and behind it, beneath the window, a marble chair for the archbiffiop j and alfo a pulpit Handing on four fmall pil¬ lars in the middle aile. The Turks had white-waflied the walls, to obliterate the portraits of faints, and the other paintings, with which the Greeks decorate their places of worfhip ; and had eredted a pulpit on the right hand for their iman or reader. The roof was difpofed in fquare compartments; the ftones maffive ; and fome had fallen in. It had been fuftained in the pronaos by fix columns j but the place of one was then fupplied by a large pile of rude mafonry, the Turks not having been able to fill up the gap more worthily. The roof of the naos was fupported by colonnades ranging with the door, on each fide j and confifting of 22 pillars below, and of 23 above. The odd one was over the entrance, which by that difpofition was left wide and unembarraffed. In the portico were fufpended a few lamps, to be ufed in the mofque at the feafons when the Muffulmans affemble before day-break, or to be lighted up round the minaret, as is the cuftom during their Ramazan or Lent. “ It is not eafy to conceive a more ftriking objedt Magnffi- than the Parthenon, though now a mere ruin. The co- cent ruin* lumns within the naos have all been removed : but on the floor may be feen the circles which diredted the workmen in placing them j and at the farther end is a groove acrofs it, as for one of the partitions of the cell. The recefs eredted by the Chriftians is demoliffi¬ ed ; and from the rubbifli of the ceiling the Turkiflv boys colled! bits of the mofaic, of different colours, which compofed the pidture. We were told at Smyr¬ na, that this fubftance had taken a poliffi, and been fet in buckles. This cell is about half demoliffied j and in the columns which furround it is a large gap near the middle. On the walls are fome traces of the paintings. Before the portico is a refervoir funk in the rock, to fupply the Turks with water for the purifications cuftomary on entering their mofques. In it, on the left hand, is the rubbiffi of the pile eredted to fupply the place of a column 5 and on the right, a. ftaircafe, which leads out on the architrave, and has a marble or two with infcriptions, but worn fo as not to be legible. It belonged to the minaret, which has been.> deftroyed. “ ^ he travellers, to whom we are indebted for an . *5 account of the mofque, have likewife given a defcrip-Scu ptUre* tioa. Athens. A T H [ i txon of the fculpture then remaining in the front. In the middle of the pediment was feen a bearded Jupiter, with a majeftic countenance, Handing, and naked j the right arm broken. The thunderbolt, it has been flip- pofed, was placed in that hand, and the eagle between his feet. On his' right was a figure, it is conjectured, of Victory, clothed to the mid-leg ; the head and arms gone. This was leading on the horfes of a car, in which Minerva fat, young and unarmed ; her head- drefs, inftead of a helmet, refembling that of a Ve¬ nus. The generous ardour and lively fpirit vifible in this pair of celeftial Heeds, was fuch as befpoke the hand of a mafler, bold and delicate, of a Phidias or Praxiteles. Behind Minerva was a female figure, with¬ out a head, fitting with an infant in her lap; and in, this angle of the pediment was the emperor Hadrian with his arm round Sabina, both reclining, and feem- ing to regard Minerva with pleafure. On the left fide of Jupiter were five or fix other trunks, to complete the affembly of deities into which he received her. Thefe figures were all wonderfully carved, and appeared as big as life. Hadrian and his confort, it is likely, were complimented by the Athenians with places among the marble gods in the pediment, as benefaCtors. Both of them may be confidered as intruders on the origi¬ nal company ; and poffibly their heads were placed on trunks, which before had other owners. They Hill poffefs their corner, and are eafy to be recognifed though not unimpaired. The reH of the Hatues are defaced, removed, or fallen. Morofini was ambitious to enrich Venice with the ipoils of Athens ; and by an attempt to take down the principal group, hafiened their ruin. In the other pediment is a head or two of fea-horfes finely executed, with fome mutilated figures ; and on the architrave beneath them are marks of the fixtures of votive offerings, perhaps of the golden fliields, or of fefloons fufpended on folemn occafions, when the temple was dreffed out to receive the votaries of the goddefs. “ Neptune and Minerva, once rival dieties, were joint and amicable tenants of the Ereaheum, in which was an altar of Oblivion. The building was double, a partition wall dividing it into two temples, which fronted different ways. One was the temple of Nep¬ tune Eredheus, the other of Minerva Polias. The latter was entered by a fquare portico conneaed with a marble fkreen, which fronts towards the Propylea. The door of the cell was on the left hand : and at the farther end of the paffage was a door leading down into the Pandrofdum, which was contiguous. Temple of “ Before the temple of Neptune. Ereaheus was. an Neptune E-altar of Jupiter the fupreme, on which no living thing redtheu*. was facrificed, but they offered cakes without wine. Within it was the altar of Neptune and Ereaheus ; and two, belonging to Vulcan and a hero named Eli¬ tes, who had tranfmitted the prieflhood to his pofle- rity, which were called Butadce. On the walls were paintings of this illuflrious family, from which the prieflefs of Minerva Polias was alfo taken. It was af- ferted that Neptune had ordained the well of fait wa¬ ter, and the figure of a trident in the rock, to be me¬ morials of his contending for the country. The for¬ mer, Paufanias remarks, was no great wonder, for other wells of a fimilar nature were found inland ; but 3 16 Ereftheum. 98 ] A T H this when the fouth wind blew, afforded the found of Athens, waves. “ The temple of Minerva Polias was dedicated by V8 all Attica, and poffeffed the mofl ancient Hatue of poi^inrrva the goddefs. The demi or towns had other deities, but their zeal for her fuffered no diminution. The image, which they placed in the acropolis, then the city, was in after ages not only reputed ccnfummately holy, but believed to have fallen down from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius. It was guarded by a large ferpent, which was regularly ferved with offerings of honeyed cakes for his food. This divine reptile was of great fagacity, and attained to an extraordinary age. He wifely withdrew from the temple when in danger from the Medes ; and, it is faid, was living in the fe- cond century. Before this flatue was an owl ; and a golden lamp. This continued burning day and night. It was contrived by a curious artifl, named Callimachus, and did not require to be replenifhed with oil oftener than once a year. A brazen palm-tree, reaching to the roof, received its fmoke. Ariflion had let the holy flame expire while Sylla befieged him, and was abhorred for his impiety. The original olive-tree, faid to have been produced by Minerva, was kept in this temple. When the Medes fet fire to the acropo¬ lis, it was confumed ; but, they afferted, on the follow¬ ing day, was found to have fhot up again as much as a cubit. It grew low and crooked, but was efleemed very holy. The prieflefs of Minerva was not allowed to eat of the new cheefe of Attica; and, among her perquifites, was a meafure of wheat, and one of barley, for every birth and burial. This temple was again burned when Callias was archon, 24 years after the death of Pericles. Near it was the tomb of Cecrops, and Avithin it Eredlheus was buried. “ The ruin of. the Ereftheum is of white marble; the architectural ornaments of very exquifite workman- fhip, and uncommonly curious. The columns of the front of the temple of Neptune are Handing Avith the architrave ; and alfo the ikreen and portico of Minerva Polias, and Avith a portion of the cell retaining traces of the partition-wall. The order is Ionic. An edifice revered by ancient Attica, as holy in the highefl de¬ gree, Avas in 1676 the dwelling of a Turkifli family, and is noAV deferted and neglected ; but many ponde¬ rous Hones and much rubbilh mufl be removed before the well and trident Avould appear. The former, at leaft, might probably be difcovered. The portico is ufed as a powder-magazine; but Ave obtained permif- fion to dig and examine the outfide. The door-Avay of the veflibule is Availed up, and the foil rifen nearly to the top of the door-Avay of the Pandrofeum. By the portico is a battery commanding the toAvn, from Avhich afcends an amufing hum. The Turks fire from it, to give notice of the commencement of Ramazan or of their Lent, and of Bairam or the holy-days, and on other public occafions. “ The Pandrofeum is a fmall, but very particular building, of Avhich no fatisfadlory idea can be commu¬ nicated by defcription. The entablature, is fupported by women called Caryatides. rI heir flory is thus re¬ lated. The Greeks, victorious in the Perfian Avar, jointly ,deflroyed Carya, a city of the Peloponnefus, Avhich had favoured the common enemy. They cut off A T H [ j Athens, off the males, and carried into captivity the women, v—““ whom they compelled to retain their former drefs and ornaments, though in a ftate of fervitude. The archi- te£ts of thofe times, to perpetuate the memory of their punilhment, reprefented them, as in this inftance, each with a burden on her head, one hand uplifted to it and the other hanging down by her fide. The images were in number fix, all looking toward the Parthenon. The four in front, with that next to the Propylea, remain, but mutilated, and their faces befmeared with paint. The foil is rifen almoft to the top of the bafement on which they are placed. This temple was open or latticed between the ftatues ; and in it alfo was a Hunt¬ ed olive-tree, with an altar of Jupiter Herceus Hand¬ ing under it. The Propylea are nearly in a line with the fpace dividing it from the Parthenon ; which dif- pofition, befides its other effects, -occafioned the front and flank of the latter edifice to be feen at once by thofe who approached it from the entrance of the acro- x9 polis. Of Jupiter “ The ruin of the temple of Jupiter Olympius con- Olympms. 0f prodigious columns, tall and beautiful, of the Corinthian order, fluted ; fome Angle, fome fupporting the architraves j with a few maflive marbles beneath : the remnant of a vafl heap, which only many ages could have confumed and reduced into fo fcanty a compafs. The columns are of very extraordinary dimenfions, be¬ ing about fix feet in diameter, and near 60 in height. The number without the cell was n6or 120. Seven¬ teen were Handing in 1676 ; but a few years before we arrived, one was overturned with much difficulty, and applied to the building a new mofque in the bazar or market-place. This violence was avenged by the baftiaw of Negropont, who made it a pretext for ex¬ torting from the vaiwode or governor 15 purfes 5 the pillar being, he alleged, the property of their mafler the Grand Signior. It was an angular column, and of confequence in determining the dimenfions of the fabric. We regretted that the fall of this mighty mafs had not been poflponed until we came, as it would have afford¬ ed an opportunity of infpe&ing and meafuring fome members which we found far too lofty to be attempted. On a piece of the architrave, fupported by a couple of columns, are two parallel walls, of modern mafonry, arched about the middle, and again near the top. You are told it has been the habitation of a hermit, doubt- lefs of a flylite ; but of whatever building it has been part, and for whatever purpofe defigned, it mufi have been erefted thus high in air, while the immenfe ruin of this huge flrufture was yet fcarcely diminiffied, and the heap inclined fo as to render it acceffible. It was remarked that two Hones of a Hep in the front had co- alefced at the extremity, fo that no jun&ure could be perceived ; and the like was difcovered alfo in a Hep of the Parthenon. In both inflances it may be attributed , to a concretory fluid, which pervades the marble in the quarry. Some portion remaining in the pieces, when taken green as it were, and placed in mutual contaft, it exuded and united them by a procefs fimilar to that in a bone of an animal when broken and proper- 20 iy fet. pieSefof1 “ .Befides the more ftable antiquities, many detach- antique ed Pieces are found in the town, by the fountains, in frwlpture, the Hreets, the walls, the houfes, and churches. A- mong thefe are fragments of fculpture $ a marble chair 99 ] A T H or two, which probably belonged to the gymnafia or Athens theatres : a fun-dial at the catholicon or cathedral, in- |j fcribed with the name of the maker ; and, at the ar- Athletac. chiepifcopal houfe clofe by, a very curious veffel of' ""v" " marble, ufed as a ciHern to receive water, but once ferving, it is likely, as a public Handard or meafure. Many columns occur j with fome maimed Hatues ; and pedeHals, feveral with infcriptions, and almofl buried in earth. A cuflom has prevailed, as at Chios, of fixing in the wall, over the gateways and doors of the houfes, carved Hones, moH of which exhibit the fune¬ ral fupper. In the courts of the houfes lie many round Hylae, or pillars, once placed on the graves of the Athenians; and a great number are Hill to be feen applied to the fame ufe in the Turkiffi burying grounds before the acropolis. fhefe generally have concife infcriptions containing the name of the perfon, and of the town and tribe to which the deceafed belonged. Demetrius the Phalerian, who endeavoured to reflrain fepulcbral luxury, enafted, that no perfon ffiould have more than one, and that the height ffiould not exceed three cubits. Another fpecies, which, refembles our modern head-flones, is fometimes adorned with fculp¬ ture, and has an epitaph in verfe. faw a few mu¬ tilated Hermae. Thefe were bufls, on Jong quadran¬ gular bafes, the heads frequently of brafs, invented by the Athenians. At firH they were made to reprefent only Hermes or Mercury, and defigned as guardians of the fepulchres in which they were lodged 5 but af¬ terwards the houfes, flreets, and porticoes of Athens were adorned with them, and rendered venerable by a multitude of portraits of illuflrious men and women, of heroes, and of gods : and, it is related, Hipparchus, fon of Pififtratus, ere&ed them in the demi or borough towns, and by the road fide, infcribed with moral apophthegms in elegiac verfe ; thus making them vehi¬ cles of infiru&ion.” ATHERINA. See Ichthyology Index. ATHEROMA, in Surgery, a tumor without pain or difcoloration of the fldn, containing, in a membra¬ nous bag, matter refembling pap, intermixed with hard and flony particles. Thefe tumors are ufually cured by incifion. ATHERTON, or Atherston, a town of War- wickffiire in England, fituated on the river Stour, in W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is a confiderable town, and had formerly a monafiery j but now is beff known by its fair, which is the greateH in England for cheefe. AT HESIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Cif- alpine Gaul, which, rifing in the Rhetian Alps, in Mount Brenna, in the county of Tirol, runs fouthwards and waflies Tndentum and Verona, which lafi it divides ; and after palling this, bends its courfe eaflwards, in a parallel direflion with the Po, and falls into the Adria¬ tic between Foffa Claudia and Philiflina : it feparated the Euganei, an ancient people, from the Veneti. The people dwelling on it are called Athejini (Pliny). Its modern name is the Adige. ATHLETE, in antiquity, perfons of flrength and agility, difciplined to perform in the public games. 1 he word is originally Greek, : formed from et&Xos, certamen, it combat whence alfo et&Xov, the prize or reward adjudged the viftor.—.Under athlete were comprehended wrefilers, boxers, runners, leapers, throwers A T H [ 200 ] A T H Atliktlc B Athol. throwers of the difk, and thofe praftifed in other ex- ercifes exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and other folemn fports: for the conquerors avherein there were eftablifhed prizes. ATHLETIC habit, denotes a flrong hale con- ftitution of body. Anciently it fignified a full flelhy corpulent ftate, fuch as the athletoe endeavoured to arrive at. The athletic habit is etteemed the higheft pitch of health j yet it is dangerous, and the next door to difeafe ; fince, when the body is no longer capable of being improved, the next alteration mult be for the worfe. The chief obje£l of the athletic diet, was to obtain a firm, bulky, weighty body ; by force of which, more than art and agility, they frequently overpower¬ ed their antagonift : hence they fed altogether on dry, folid, and vifcous meats. In the earlier days, their chief food rvas dry figs and cheefe, which was called arida faginatio, |i)ga6 T{o Various attempts have been made to afcertain the height to which the atmofphere is extended all round the earth. Thefe commenced foon after it was difco- vered, by means of the Torricellian tube, that air is a gravitating fubftance. Thus it alfo became known, that a column of air, whofe bafe is a' fquare inch, and the height that of the whole atmofphere, weighs 15 pounds: and that the weight of air is to that of mer¬ cury, as 1 to to,800 : whence it follows, that if the weight of the atmofphere be fufficient to raife a column of mercury to the height of 30 inches, the height of the aerial column muft be 10,800 times as much, and confequently a little more than five miles high. It was not, however, at any time fuppofed, that this calculation could be juft ; for as the air is an elaftic fluid, the upper parts muft expand to an immenfe bulk, and thus render the calculation above related exceed¬ ingly erroneous. By experiments made in different countries, it has been found, that the fpaces which any portion of air takes up, are reciprocally proportional to the weights with which it is compreffed. Allowances were therefore to be made in calculating the height of the atmofphere. If we fuppofe the height of the whole divided into innumerable equal parts, thedenfity of each of which is as its quantity; and the weight of the whole incumbent atmofphere being alfo as its quantity ; it is evident, that the weight of the incumbent air is every¬ where as the quantity contained in the fubjacent part; which makes a difference between the weights of each two contiguous parts of air. By a theorem in geometry, where the differences of magnitudes are geometrically proportional to the magnitudes themfelves, thefe magni¬ tudes are in continual arithmetical proportion ; there- [ 203 ] ATM Atn-v. fphere. fore, if, according to the fuppofition, the altitude of the air, by the addition of new parts into which it is divided, do continually increafe in arithmetical proportion, its denfity will be diminifhed, or (which is the fame thing) its gravity decreafed, in continual geometrical propor¬ tion. It is now eafy, from fuch a feries, by making two or three barometrical obfervations, and determining the denfity of the atmofphere at two or three different ftations, to determine its abfolute height, or its raritv, at any affignable height. Calculations accordingly were made upon this plan; but it having been found that the barometrical obfervations byno means correfponded with the denfity which, by other experiments, the air ought to have had, it wras fufpedled that the upper parts of the atmofpherical regions were not fubjedt to the fame laws with the lower ones. Philofophers therefore had re-Height of courfe to another method for determining the altitude it deterim- of the atmofphere, viz. by a calculation of the heightned from from which the light of the fun is refradled, fo as to11-® become vifible to us before he himfelf is feen in the hea- emfoftwU vens. By this method it was determined, that at the light, height of 45 miles the atmofphere had no power of re- fradlion ; and confequently beyond that diftance was either a mere vacuum or the next thing to it, and not to be regarded. This theory foon became very generally received, and the height of the atmofphere was fpoken of as fa¬ miliarly as the height of a mountain, and reckoned to be as w'ell afcertained, if not more fo, than the heights of moft mountains are. Very great objeftions, how-Gbjecfticm ever, which have never yet been removed, arife from trorn tiie the appearances of fome meteors, like large globes 0f aPPedrance fire, not unfrequently to be feen at vaft heights above ofmete°rS* the earth (fee Meteor). A very remarkable one of this kind was obferved by Dr Halley in the month of March I7I9’ 'vhofe altitude he computed to have been between 69 and 734 Englilli miles; its diameter 2800 yards, or upwards of a mile and a half; and its velocity about 350 miles in a minute. Others, appa¬ rently of the fame kind, but rvhofe altitude and velo¬ city were ftill greater, have been obferved; particularly that very remarkable one, Auguft 18th, 1783, whofe diftance from the earth could not be Jefs than 90 miles, and its diameter not lefs than the former ; at the fame time that its velocity was certainly not lefs than 1000 miles in a minute. Fire-balls, in appearance fimilar to thefe, though vaftly inferior in fize, have been fome- times obferved at the furface of the earth. Of this kind Dr Prieftley mentions one feen on board the Montague, 4th November 1749, which appeared as big as a large millftone, and broke with a violent ex- plofion. From analogical reafoning, it feems very probable, that the meteors which appear at fuch great heights in the air are not eflentially different from thofe which, like the fire-ball juft mentioned, are met with on the furface of the earth. The perplexing circumftances with regard to the former are, that at the oreat heights above mentioned, the atmofphere ought not to have any denfity fufficient to fupport flame, or to pro¬ pagate lound ; yet thefe meteors are commonly fuc- ceeded by one or more explofions, nay are fometimes faid to be accompanied with a hiffing noife as they pafs over our heads. The meteor of 1719 was not C c 2 only Atmo- fphere. ATM [ 204 ) only very bright, infomuch that for a fhort fpace it contained turned night into day, but was attended with an ex- plofion heard over all the ifland of Britain, occafioning a violent concuffion in the atmofphere, and feeming to thake the earth itfelf. That of 1783 a^°» though much higher than the former, wras fueceeded by ex- plofions ; and, according to the teftimony of feveral people, a hiding noife was heard as it pafled. Dr Halley acknowledged that he was unable to reconcile thefe circumftances with the received theory of the height of the atmofphere ; as, in the regions in which this meteor moved, the air ought to have been 300,000 times more rare than what we breathe, and the next thing to a perfeft vacuum. In the meteor of 1783, the difficulty is ftill greater, as it appears to have been 20 miles farther up in the Dr Halley offers a conjefture, indeed, that the ATM vaff magnitude of fuch bodies might compenfate for the thinnefs of the medium in which they moved. Whether or not this was the cafe indeed cannot be afcertained, as we have fo few data to go upon ; but the greatefi: difficulty is to account for the brightnefs of the light. Appearances of this kind are indeed with great probability attributed to eleftricity, but the dif¬ ficulty is not thus removed. Though the eledfrieal fire pervades with great eafe the vacuum of a common air-pump, yet it does not in that cafe appear in bright well defined fparks, as in the open air, but rather in long ftreams refembling the aurora borealis. From fome late experiments, indeed, Mr Morgan concludes, that the elesffrical fluid cannot penetrate a perfedf va- ^tficit cuum ** If this is the cafe, it ffiows that the regions n" we fpeak of are not fuch a perfedf vacuum as can be artificially made ; but whether it is or not, the ex¬ treme brightnefs of the light (hows that a fluid was prefent in thofe regions, capable of confining and con- denfing the eledfrlc matter as much as the air does at the lurface of the ground ; for the brightnefs of thefe meteors, confidering their diftance, cannot be fuppo- fed inferior to that of the brighteft flaflies of light- 7 ning. Denfity of This being the cafe, it appears reafonable to conclude, tl t alwa”^5 what is called the denfity of the air does not alto- n i a ways get^eJ. pace xvith its gravity. The latter indeed muff in a great meafure be affefted by the vapours, but above all by the quantity of the bafis of fixed or dephlogifticated air contained in it : for Mr Kirwan has difcovered that the bafis of fixed air, when depri¬ ved of its elaftic principle, is not greatly inferior to gold in fpecific gravity j and we cannot fuppofe that of dephlogifticated air to be much lefs. It is poffible, therefore, that pure air, could it be deprived of all the water it contains, might have very little gravity •, and as there is great reafon to believe that the bafis of dephlogifticated air is only one of the conftituent parts of water, we fee an evident reafon why the air ought to become lighter, and likewife lefs fit for refpi- ration, the higher up we go, though there is a poffibi- Jity that its denfity, or power of fupporting flame, may continue unaltered. There are not yet, however, a fufficient number of fads to enable us to determine this queftion ; though fueh as have been difeovered feem rather to favour the above conjefture. Dr Boerhaave was of opinion that the gravity of the air depended entirely on the water it I };ee|> pace with its gravity. and, by the means of alkaline falls, he was Atrrta- enabled to extrawhere fe&ually counteraas the operation of the folar rays in h^aTo/ producing it. This power it feems to exert at all di-'th# fun. ° fiances, at the furface as well as in the higher regions, from fome experiments made by M» Fidet it appears, that even in places expofed to the rays of the fun, the heat, at five feet diftance from the ground, is greater Is colder only by one or two degrees than at 50 feet above theory near furface, though the ground was at that time 15 or 2oothe warmer than the air immediately in contadl with it-°f th<~, Inconfiderable as this difference is, however, it doesfhan at not hold as we go higher up; for if it did, the cold fome di- on the top of the mountain of Saleve, which is 3oooftance- feet above the level of the lake of Geneva, would be. 6o greater than at the foot of it; whereas in reality it is only io°. In the night-time the cafe is reverfed; foi the ftratum of air at five feet from the ground, was found by M. Pi&et to be colder than at 50. Befides this, different ftrata of the atmofphere are found to poffefs very different and variable degrees of cold, with¬ out any regard to their fituation high up or low’down. !n the year 1780, Dr Wilfon of Glafgow found a ve¬ ry remarkable cold exifting clofe to the furface of the ground ; fo that the thermometer, when laid on the- furface of the fnow, funk many degrees lower than one fulpended 24.feet above it. It has been likewife ob- ferved, that in clear weather, though the furface of the earth be then moft liable to be heated by the fun, yet after that is fet, and during the night, the air is col deft near the ground, and particularly in the val¬ leys. Experiments on this fubjeift were made for a whole year by Mr James Sex, who has given an ac-Mr Sex’s count of them in the 78th volume of the Philofophical exPeri- Tranfaftions. He fulpended thermometers (conftruft-m^nP " ed in fuch a manner as to (how the true maximum andS^’ minimum of heat that might take place in the obfer- ver’s abfence) in a fliady northerly afpeft, and at dif¬ ferent heights in the open air. One of thefe was pla¬ ced at the height of 9 feet, and the other at that of 220 from the ground ; and the obfervations were con¬ tinued, with only a few days omiftion, from July 17S4 to July 1785. The greateft variations of heat were in the months of Oaober and June ; in the former the thermometers generally differed moft in the night, and m the latter moftly in the day. From the 25th to the 28th on tins fab- ATM [ 208 ] A T Pvl Atmo- 28th of October, the heat below, m the night-time, fphcre. exceeded in a fmall degree the heat above } at which time there was frequent rain mingled with hail, hrom the nth to the 14th, and alfo on the 31ft, there was no variation at all j during which time likewife the weather was rainy 5 all the reft of the month proving clear, the air below was found colder than that above, feme times by nine or ten degrees. In the month of June, the greateft variations took place from the nth to the 14th, and from the 25th to the 5 anc^ at both thefe times there appeared to be two currents of wind, the upper from the fouth-weft and the lower from the north-eaft. Sometimes thefe were rendered vifible by clouds, in different ftrata, moving in different direftions ; and fometimes by clouds moving in a con¬ trary dire&ion to a very fenlible current of air below. On cloudy nights the loweft thermometer fometimes {bowed the heat to be a degree or two greater than the upper one ; but in the day-time the heat below conftant- ]y exceeded that above more than in the month of Oc¬ tober. To determine whether the nofturnal refrigeration was augmented by a nearer approach to the earih, two thermometers were placed in the midft of an open meadow, on the bank of the river near Canterbury. One was placed on the ground, and the other only fix feet above it. The thermometer, at fix feet diftance from the ground, agreed nearly with the former at nine feet ; but the no&urnal variations were found to correfpond entirely with the clearnefs or the cloudi- nefs of the Iky ; and though they did not always hap¬ pen in proportion to their refpe&ive altitudes, yet when the thermometers differed in any refpeft, that on the ground always indicated the greateft degree of cold. The difference between thefe two thermometers, at the fmall diftance of fix feet from each other, being found no lefs than three degrees and a half, the num¬ ber of thermometers in the meadow was augmented to four. One. was funk in the ground, another placed juft upon it, and the third fufpended at three feet above it. Three others were placed on a rifing ground where the land was level with the cathedral tower, and about a mile diftance from it. One of thefe was likewife funk in the ground, another placed juft upon it, and a third fufpended fix feet above it. With thefe feven thermometers, and the two firft mentioned, which were placed in the city, he continued his ob- fervations for 20 days j but as the weather happened to be cloudy during the whole of that fpace, excepting for feven or eight days, no confiderable variation hap¬ pened excepting on thefe days. -The refult of the ex¬ periments was, that the cold was generally greater in the valley than on the bill •, but the variations between the thermometers on the ground and thofe fix feet above them, were often as great on the hill as in the valley. Thus it was perceived that a difference of tempera¬ ture took place at the diftance of only three feet from the ground ; but the length of the thermometers hi¬ therto made ufe of rendered it impoffible to make any experiment at a fmaller diftance. Two new ones, therefore, were formed by bending down the large tube, the body or bulb of the thermometer, to a ho¬ rizontal politico, while the ftem remained in a vertical one*, by which method the temperature might be ob- Atmo- ferved to the diftance of a fingle inch. - Sometimes, in fyheie. clear weather, thefe two horizontal thermometers were v—— placed in the open air, one within an inch of the ground, and the other nine inches above it. When the variation among the other thermometers was confi¬ derable, a difference was likewife perceived between thefe *, the lower one fometimes indicating more than two degrees lefs heat than the upper one, though placed fo near each other. From thefe experiments, Mr Sex concludes, that a His conelu- greater diminution of heat frequently takes place near fions from the earth in the night-time than at any altitude in the atmofphere within the limits of his inquiry, that is, 220 feet from the ground •, and at fuch times the greateft degrees of cold are always met with neareft the furface of the earth. This is a conftant and regular operation of nature under certain circumftances and difpofitions of the at¬ mofphere, and takes place at all feafons of the year *, and this difference never happens in any confiderable degree but when the air is ftUl, and the Iky perfectly unclouded. The moifteft vapour, as dews and fogs, did not at all impede, but rather promote, the refrige¬ ration. In very fevere frofts, when the air frequently depofites a quantity of frozen vapour, it is commonly found greateft ; but the excefs of heat which in the day-time was found at the loweft ftation in fumxner, di- miniftied in winter almoft to nothing. 24 It has been obferved, that a thermometer, included Mr Dar¬ in a receiver, always finks when the air begins to be win’s expe- rarefied. This has been thought to arife, not from "™eyo®n any degree of cold thus produced, but from the fudden 4uce^ by expanfion of the bulb of the thermometer in confe-the rarefac- quence of the removal of the atmofpherical preffure :tlon of air* But from feme late experiments related, Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxviii. by Mr Darwin, it appears that the atmo¬ fphere always becomes warm by compreflion, and cold by dilatation from a compreffed ftate. Thefe experi¬ ments were, 1. The blaft from an air-gun was repeatedly thrown upon the bulb of a thermometer, and it uniformly funk it about two degrees. In making this experi¬ ment, the thermometer was firmly fixed againft a wall, and the air-gun, after being charged, was left for an hour in its vicinity, that it might previoufly lofe the heat it had acquired in the a£f of charging ; the air was then difeharged in a continued ftream on the bulb of the thermometer, with the effedl already men¬ tioned. 2. A thermometer was fixed in a wooden tube, and fo applied to the receiver of an air-gun, that, on dif- charging the air by means of a ferew preffing on the valve of the receiver, a continued ftream of air, at the very time of its expanfion, paffed over the bulb of the thermometer. This experiment was four times repeat¬ ed, and the thermometer uniformly kink from five to feven degrees. During the time of condenfation there was a great difference in the heat, as perceived by the hand, at the two ends of the condenfing fyringe : that next the air-globe was almoft painful to touch ; and the globe itfelf became hotter than could have been expefted from its contact with the fyringe. “Add to this (fays Mr Darwin), that in exploding an air- gun the ftream of air always becomes vifible, which is owing ATM [ 209 j AT M Atmo- owing to the cold then produced, precipitating the va- fphere. pour it contained j and if this dream of air had been ^ previoufly more condenfed, or in greater quantity, fo as not inftantly to acquire heat from the common at- mofphere in its vicinity, it would probably have fallen in fnow. 3. A thermometer was placed in the receiver of an air-pump, and the air being haftily exhaufted, it funk, two or three degrees j but after fome minutes regain¬ ed its former ftation. The experiment was repeated with a thermometer open at the top, fo that the bulb could not be affedted by any diminution of the exter¬ nal preffure ; but the refult was the fame. Both du¬ ring exhauftion and re-admiflion of the air into the re¬ ceiver, a fleam was regularly obferved to be condenfed on the fides of the glafs *, which, in both cafes, was in a few minutes re-abforbed, and which appeared to be precipitated by being deprived of its heat by the ex¬ panded air. 4. A hole, above the fize of a crow-quill, was bo¬ red into a large air-veffel placed at the commencement of the principal pipe of the water-works of Derby. There are four pumps worked by a water-wheel, the water of which is firfl thrown into the lower part of this air-veflel, and rifes from thence to a refervoir about 35 or 40 feet above the level j fo that the w’ater in this veffel is conftantly in a Hate of compreflion. Two thermometers were previoufly fufpended on the leaden air-velfel, that they might affume the temperature of it, and as foon as the hole above mentioned was opened, had their bulbs applied to the flream of air which iffued out *, the confequence of which was, that the mercury funk fome degrees in each. This finking of the mercury could not be afcribed to any evaporation of moiflure from their furfaces, as it was feen both in exhaufting and admitting the air into the exhaufted receiver men¬ tioned in the laft experiment, that the vapour which it previoufly contained was depofited during its ex¬ pan fion. 5. There is a curious phenomenon obferved in the fountain of Hiero, conftrufted on a very large fcale, in the Chemnifcenfian mines in Hungary. In this ma¬ chine the air, in a large veffel, is compreffed by a co¬ lumn of water 260 feet high : a flop-cock is then opened : and, as the air iffues with great vehemence, and in confequence of its previous condenfation be¬ comes immediately much expanded, the moifture it contains is not only precipitated, as in the exhaufted re¬ ceiver above mentioned, but falls down in a fliower of fnow, with icicles adhering to the nofe of the cock. See Phil. Tranf. vol. lii. His conclu- From this phenomenon, as well as the four experi- 5ons with ments above related, Mr Darwin thinks “ there is good cofdoVh rea^on to conclude, that in all circumftances where air tops of1'™ mechanically expanded, it becomes capable of at- mountains. tra&ing the fluid matter of heat from other bodies in contact with it. “ Now (continues he), as the vaft region of air which furrounds our globe is perpetually moving along its furface, climbing up the fides of mountains, and de- fcending into the valleys ; as it paffes along, it muft be perpetually varying the degree of heat according to the elevations of the country it traverfes: for in riling to the fummits of mountains, it becomes expanded. Vot. III. Part I. 1 having fo much of the preffure of the fuperiRcumbent Atma- atmofphere taken away ; and when thus expanded, it fphere. attracts or abforbs heat from the mountains in conti- —v—— guity with it; and, when it defcends into the valleys, and is compreffed into lefs compafs, it again gives out the heat it has acquired to the bodies it comes in con- ta£t with. The fame thing muft happen to the higher regions of the atmofphere, which are regions of perpe¬ tual froft, as has lately been difcovered by the aerial navigators. When large diftrifls of air, from the lower parts of the atmofphere, are raifed two or three miles high, they become fo much expanded by the great di¬ minution of the preffure over them, and thence become fo cold, that hail or fnow is produced by the precipita¬ tion of the vapour : and as there is, in thefe high re¬ gions of the atmofphere, nothing elfe for the expanded air to acquire heat from after it has parted with its va¬ pour, the fame degree of cold continues, till the air, on defcending to the earth, acquires its former ftate of condenfation and of warmth. “ The Andes, almoft under the line, refts its bafe on burning fands; about its middle height is a moft pleafant and temperate climate covering an extenfive plain, on which is built the city of Quito ; w'hile its forehead is encircled with eternal fnow, perhaps coeval ■with the mountain. Yet, according to the accounts of Don Ulloa, thefe three difcordant climates feldom en¬ croach much upon each other’s territories. The hot winds below, if they afcend, become cooled by their expanfion ; and hence they cannot affeft the fnow up¬ on the fummit ; and the cold winds that fweep the fummit, become condenfed as they defcend, and of temperate warmth before they reach the fertile plains of Quito.” ,25 Notwithftanding all thefe explanations, however, fe-Difficulties veral very confiderable difficulties remain with regard rema’n to the heat and cold of the atmofphere. That warm °”^he ful)' air fhould always afcend j and thus, when the fource ofJ C * heat is taken away by the abfence of the fun, that the ftratum of atmofphere lying immediately next to the earth Ihould be fomewhat colder than that which lies a little farther up ; is not at all to be wondered at. We have an example fomewhat fimilar to this in the pot¬ ter’s kiln j where, after the vefl'els have been intenfely heated for fome time, and the fire is then withdrawn, the cooling always begins at bottom, and thofe which ftand lowermoft will often be quite black, while all the upper part of the furnace and the veflels next to it are of a bright red. It doth not, however, appear why fuch degrees of cold ftiould take place at the furface of the earth as we fometimes meet with. It is, befides, no uncommon thing to meet with large flrata in the upper regions of the atmofphere, remarkable for their cold, while others are warmer than tbofe at the furface ; as we have been aflured by the teftimony of feveral aerial navigators. It is alfo difficult to fee why the air which has once afeended, and become rarefied to an extreme degree, thould afterwards defcend among a denfer fluid of fuperior gravity, though indeed the atmofpherical currents by which this fluid is continual¬ ly agitated may have confiderable effeft in this way. See the article Winds. For the quantity of water contained in the atmo¬ fphere, fee the articles Hygrometer, Clouds, Va- D d FOUR, Atmo- fphere. Of the fa- lubrity of the atmo- fphere. 28 DrIngeu- houfz’s ex. periments. ATM [ 210 ] POUR, &c. For the caufe of the elafticity of the at- mofphere, fee Elasticity •, and for an explanation of its various operations, fee Meteorology. The ufes of the atmofphere are fo many and fo vari¬ ous that it is impoflible to enumerate them. One of the moft effential is its power of giving life to vege tables, and fupporting that of all animated beings. For the latter purpofe, however, it is not in all places equal¬ ly proper : we (hall therefore conclude this article with fome remarks on The Salubrity of the ATMOSPHERE. The air on the tops of mountains is generally more falubrious than that in pits. Denfe air indeed is always more proper for refpiration than fuch as is more rare j yet the air on mountains, though much more rare, is more free from phlogiftic vapours than that of pits. Hence it has been found, that people can live very well on the tops of mountains where the barometer (inks to 15 or 16 inches. M. de Sauflure, in his journey upon the Alps, having obferved the air at the foot, on the middle, and on the fummits of various mountains, obferves, that the air of the very low plains feems to be the lead falubrious j that the air of very high mountains is neither very pure, nor, upon the whole, feems fo (it for the lives of men, as that of a certain height above the level of the fea, which he eftimates to be about 200 or 300 toifes, that is, about 430 or 650 yards. Dr White, in the 68th volume of the Phil. Tranf. giving an account of his experiments on air made at York, fays, that the atmofpherical air was in a very bad (late, and indeed in the word he had ever ob¬ ferved it, the 13th of September 1777; when the barometer dood at 30.30, the thermometer at 69° ; the weather being calm, clear, and the air dry and fultry, no rain having fallen for above a fortnight. flight ftrock of an earthquake was perceived that day* . . The air of a bed-room at various times, viz. at night, and in the morning after deeping in it, has been exa¬ mined by various perfons and it has been generally found, that after deeping in it the air is lefs pure than at any other time. The air of privies, even in calm weather, has not been found to be fo much phlogidi- cated as might have been expe&ed, notwithdanding its difagreeable fmell. From this and other obfervations, it is thought that the exhalations of human excrements are very little if at all injurious, except when they become putrid, or proceed from a difeafed body j in which cafe they in- feft the air very quickly. Dr Ingenhoufz, foon after he left London, fent an account of his experiments made in the year 1779 up¬ on the purity of the air at fea and other parts j which account was read at the Pmyal Society the 24th of A- pril 1780, and inferted in the 70th vol. of the Phil. Tranf. His fird obfervations were made on board a veffel in the mouth of the Thames, between Sheernefs and Margate, where he found that the air was purer than any other fort of common air he had met with be¬ fore. He found that the fea-atr taken farther from the land, viz. between the Englidr coad and Odend, was not fo pure as that tried before j yet this inferior purity feems not to take place always. The Do&or’s general obverfations, deduced from his numerous expe- A T M . riments, are, “ That the air at fea, and clofe to it, is in general purer, and fitter for animal life, than the air on the land, though it feems to be fubjeft to fome inconfidency in its degree of purity with that of the land : That probably the air will be found in gene¬ ral much purer far from the land than near the (hore, the former being never fubjedt to be mixed with land air.” The Dodlor in the fame paper tranfcribes a journal of experiments, diowing the degree of purity of the atmofphere in various places, and under different cir- cumdances 5 which we (hall infert here in an abridged A tmo- fphere. manner. The method ufed thofe experiments was to in-Hisj^rnal troduce one meafure of common air into the eudiome-0f the puri- ter tube, and then one meafure of nitrous air. The mo-ty ot the air ment that thefe two forts of eladic fluids came into con-lrJ different tadf, he agitated the tube in the water-trough, and'>iaces‘ then meafured the diminution, exprefling it by hun¬ dredth parts of a meafure j thus, when he fays, that fuch air was found to be 130, it fignifies, that after mixing one meafure of it with one of nitrous air, the whole mixed and diminifhed quantity was 130 hun¬ dredths of a meafure, viz, one meafure and 30 hun¬ dredths of a meafure more. “ The different degrees of falubrity of the atmo¬ fphere, as I found it in general in my country houfe at Southal-Grcen, ten miles from London, from June to September, lay between 103 and 109. I was fur- prifed when, upon my return to town to my former lodgings in Pall Mall Court, I found the common air purer in general in O&ober than I ufed to find it in the middle of fummer in the country j for on the 22d of October, at nine o’clock in the morning, the wea¬ ther being fair and frofty, I found that one meafure of common air, and one of nitrous air, occupied 100 fub- divifions in the glafs-tube, or exadlly one meafure. That very day, at two o’clock in the afternoon (it be¬ ing then rainy weather), the air was fome what altered for the worfe. It gave 102. O&ober the 23d, it being rainy weather, the air gave 10 2. 061ober the 24th, the weather being ferene, the air at nine o’clock in the morning gave 100. O&ober the 25th, the Iky being cloudy at 11 o’clock in the morning, the air gave 102. At II o’clock at night, from five different trials, it gave 105. Oftober the 26th, the weather being very dark and rainy, the air gave 105, as before.” The air at Oftend was found by the Dodlor to be generally very good, giving between 94 and 98. At Bruges, the air taken at feven o’clock at night gave 103. November the 8th, the air at Ghent at three in the afternoon gave 103. November the 12th, the air of Bruffels at feven o’clock P. M. gave 105^. The next day, the air of the lower part of the fame city gave 106 ; that of the highefi: appeared to be purer, as it gave 104 : which agrees with the common popular obfervation. Novem¬ ber the 14th, both the air of the highefi: and that of the loweft part of the city appeared to be of the fame goodnefs, giving 103. The weather was frofty. November the 22d, the air of Antwerp in the even- ing gave 10944 the weather being rainy, damp, and cold. November the 23d, the air of Breda gave 106^ The next day about 11 o’clock the air gave 102 j the weather being fair, cold, and inclining to froft. At fevery / ATM [2 At mo- feven o’clock it gave 103. Next day, being the 25th, fphere. the air ga\,^ 104 •, the weather being cold and rainy. V(«—Y -..1 rf|ie 26th it gave 103 j the weather being very rainy, cold, and fturmy. November the 27th, the air at the Moordyke clofe to the water gave loii; the weather being fair and cold, but not frolty. This fpot is rec¬ koned very healthy. November the 28th, the air of Rotterdam gave 103 ; the weather being rainy and cold. November the 29th, the air of Delft gave 103 ; the weather being flormy and rainy. November the 30th, the air of the Hague gave 104 •, the weather being cold, and the wind northerly. The firft of December the weather underwent a fudden change ; the wind becoming foutherly and ftormy, and the atmofphere becoming very hot. The day after, Fahrenheit’s thermometer flood at 540 ; and the com¬ mon air being repeatedly and accurately tried gave 116 J and that preferved in a glafs phial from the pre¬ ceding day gave 117 j and that gathered clofe to the fea gave 115. December the 4th, the air of Amfterdam gave 103 •, the weather being rainy, windy, and cold. The day after, the weather continuing nearly the fame, the air gave 102. December the 10th, the air of Rotterdam gave lor ; the weather being rainy. December the 12th, being in the middle of the water between Dort and the Moordyke, the air gave 109 ; the weather be¬ ing remarkably dark, rainy, and windy. December the 13th, the air of Breda in the morning gave 109; the weather continuing as the day before. And in the afternoon, the air gave 106^ *, the weather having cleared up. December the 16th, the air of the lower part of the city of Antwerp gave 105, that of the higher part 104 j the weather being rainy and tempe¬ rate. December the 17th, the air of Antwerp gave 107*, the weather continuing nearly as in the preced¬ ing day. December the 19th, the air of Bruffels gave 109 ; the weather being rainy, windy, and rather warm. December the 21ft, the air of Bruffels gave 106 ; the weather being dry and cold. The next day the air and the weather continued the fame. December the 23d, the air of Mons gave 104; the weather being rainy and cold. December the 24th, the air near Bouchain gove 1044- ; the weather being cloudy and cold. De¬ cember the 25th, the air of Peronne gave l02-§-; the weather being frofty. December the 26th, the air of Cuvilli gave 103 ; the weather frofty. December the 27th ; the air of Senlis gave io2£ ; the weather frofly. December the 29th, the air of Paris gave 103 ; the weather frofty. 1780, January the 8th, the air of Paris gave 100 ; the weather frofty. January the 13th, the 30 air of Paris gave 98 ; hard froft. Apparatus Thus far with Dr Ingenhoufz’s obfervations. His ^Kwhl.ch apparatus was a very portable one, made by Mr Mar- ment^were t‘n’ which m real>tV is the eudiometer-tube and mea- fflade. ^ure as ufedby Mr Fontana before he made his laft im¬ provement. “ The whole of this apparatus (fays Dr Ingenhoufz) was packed up in a box about ten inches long, five broad, and three and a half high. The glafs- tube or great meafure, w'hich was 16 inches long, and ii ] ATM divided into two feparate pieces, lay in a fmall compafs, Atrao- and could be put together by brafs fcrews adapted to iplure. the divided extremities. Inftead of a watyr trough, v fucb as is uftd commonly, I made ufe of a fmall round wooden tub,” &c. 31 The abbe Fontana, who has made a great number of Montana’s very accurate experiments upon this fubjeft, gives his°Pn^pn* ^ opinion in the following words : “ I have not the leaft j 1C 11 hefitation in afferting, that the experiments made to- afcertain the falubrity of the atmofpherical air in vari¬ ous places in different countries and fituations, men¬ tioned by feveral authors, are not to be depended up¬ on ; becaufe the method they ufed was far from being exas ed, thefe plantations were regularly divided by deep Voyage- ditches 5 the fences were formed with a neatnefs ap¬ proaching to elegance 5 and the roads through them were finiftied in fuch a manner as would have refleded credit even on an European engineer. The ifland is about 300 miles in circumference. The road, or anchoring place, which our veffels occupied, is on the fouth-weft fide of the ifland, about two leagues from the weft end, before a village named Wymoa. As far as was founded, the bank was free from rocks ; except to the eaftward of the village, where there pro- jeds a flroal on which are fome rocks and breakers. This road is fomewhat expofed to the trade wind 5 not¬ withftanding which defed, it is far from being a bad ftation, and greatly fuperior to thofe W'hich neceflity continually obliges (hips to ufe, in countries where the winds are not only more variable but more boifterous 5 as at Madeira, Teneriffe, the Azores, &c. The land¬ ing too is not fo difficult as at moft of thofe places 5 and, unlefs in very bad weather, is always pradi- cable. The water in the neighbourhood is excellent, and may be conveyed with eafe to the boats. But no wood can be cut at any convenient diftance, unlefs the iflanders could be prevailed upon to part with the few etooa trees {cordia febefina) that grow about their vil¬ lages, or a fpecies called dooe dooe, which grows farther up the country. The ground from the wooded part to the fea, is covered with an excellent kind of grafs, about two feet in height, which fometimes grows in tufts, and appeared capable of being converted into abundant crops of fine hay. But on this extenfive fpace not even a fhrub grows naturally. Befides taro, the fweet potato, and other fimilar ve¬ getables ufed by our crews as refrefhments, among which were at leaft five or fix varieties of plantains, the ifland produces bread fruit 5 which, however, feems to be fcarce. There are alfo a few cocoa palms 5 fome yams 5 the kappe of the Friendly iflands, or Virginian arum j the etooa tree, and odoriferous gardenia, or cape 4 A T O [2 Atooi. cape jafmine. Our people alfo met with feveral trees of —y—— the dooe doee, that bear the oily nuts, which are ftuck upon a kind of fkewer and made ufe of as candles. There is a fpecies of lida, or Indian mallow 5 alfo the morinda citrifolia, which is here called ; a fpecies of con¬ volvulus ; the ava or intoxicating pepper, befides great quantities of gourds. Thefe lait grow to a very large fize, and are of a remarkable variety of fhapes, which are perhaps the effe£l of art. The fcarlet birds, which were brought for fale, were never met with alive •, but one fmall one was feen, about the fize of a canary bird, of a deep crimfon colour ; alfo a large owl, two brown hawks or kites, and a wild duck. Other birds were mentioned by the natives j among which were the otoo or bluifli heron, and the torata, a fort of whimbrel. It is probable that the fpecies of birds are numerous, if we may judge by the quantity of fine yellow, green, and fmall velvet-like blackilh feathers, ufed upon the cloaks and other ornaments worn by thefe people. Fith, and other productions of the fea, were, to appearance, not various. The only tame or domef- tic animals found here were hogs, dogs, and fowls, which were all of the fame kind that had been met with at the iflands of the South Pacific. There were alfo fmall lizards, and fome rats. The inhabitants of Atooi are of the middle fize, and in general ftoutly made. They are neither femarkable for a beautiful (liape nor for flriking features. Their vifage, particularly that of the women, is fometimes round, but others have it long j nor can it juftly be faid, that they are diftinguilhed as a nation by any general call of countenance. Their complexion is nearly of a nut-brown; but fome individuals are of a darker hue. They are far from being ugly, and have to all appearance few natural deformities of any kind. Their Ikin is not very foft nor fhining; but their eyes and teeth are, for the moft part, pretty good. Their hair in general is flraight; and though its natural co¬ lour is ufually black, they ftain it, as at the Friendly and other iflands. They are aCIive, vigorous, and moil expert iwimmers ; leaving their canoes upon the moft frivolous occafion, diving under them, and fwimming to others, though at a confiderable diftance. Women, with infants at their breaft, when the furf was fo high as to prevent their landing in the canoes, frequently leaped overboard, and fwam to the fnore, frequently endangering their little ones. They appeared to be of a frank, cheerful difpofition j and are equally free from the fickle levity which characterizes the inhabitants of Otaheite, and the fedate caft which is obfervable among many of thofe of Tongataboo. They feem to culti¬ vate a fociable intercourfe with each other ; and ex¬ cept the propenfity to thieving, which is as it were in¬ nate in moft of the people in thofe feas, they appeared extremely friendly. It was pleafing to obferve with what affeCtion the women managed their infants, and with what alacrity the men contributed their afliftance in fuch a tender office •, thus diftinguifhing themfelves from thofe favages who confider a wife and child as things rather neceflary than defirable or worthy of their regard and efteem. From the numbers that were feen afiembled at every village in coafting along, it was conjeCtured that the inhabitants of this itland are pretty numerous. Including the ftraggling houfes, it was computed that there might perhaps be, in the whole ifland, 3 1 a T R fixty fuch villages as that near which our (hips an¬ chored ; and allowing five perfons to each houfe, there would be in every village five hundred, or thirty thou- fand upon the ifland. This number is by no means exaggerated ; for there were fometimes three thoufand people at leaft colleCled upon the beach, when it could not be fuppofed that above a tenth part of the natives were prefent. ATRAbilis, Black Bile, or Melancholy. Ac¬ cording to the ancients it hath a twofold origin : ift, From the gruffer parts of the blood, and this they called the melancholy humour. 2d, From yellow bile being highly concofted. Dr Percival, in his Eflays Med. and Exp. fuggefts, that it is the gall rendered acrid by a ftagnation in the gall-bladder, and rendered vifeid by the ablorption of its fluid parts. Bile in this ftate difeharged into the duodenum, occafions univerfal dillurbance and diforder until it is evacuated : it oc¬ cafions violent vomiting, or purging, or both ; and pre¬ vious to this the pulfe is quick, the head aches, a deli¬ rium comes on, a hiccough, intenfe thirft, inward heat, and a fetid breath. Some dei'eribe this kind of bile as being acid, harffi, corroding, and, when poured on the ground, bubbling up and raifing the earth after the manner of a ferment. Dr Percival fays, that by the ufe of the inftf. fence Union, warmed with the tinci. cohmb. he had checked the vomitings occafroned by this matter. Atra dies, in antiquity, denotes a fatal day where¬ on the Romans received fome memorable defeat. The word literally imports a black day; a denomination taken from the colour j which is the emblem of death and mourning. Whence the Thracians had a cuftom of marking all their happy days with white ftones or calculi, and their unhappy days with black ones j which they caft, at the clofe of each day, into an urn. At the perfon’s death the ftones were taken out; and from a comparifon of the numbers of each complexion, a judgment was made of the felicity or infelicity of his courfe of life. The dies atree or atri were after¬ wards denominated nefafi and poflen. Such in parti¬ cular was the day when the tribunes were defeated by the Gauls at the river Allia, and loft the city ; alfo that whereon the battle of Cannae was fought j and fe¬ veral others marked in the Roman calendar, as atree or unfortunate. ATRACTYLIS,Distaff Thistle. See Botany Index. ATRiETI, in Medicine, infants having no perfo¬ ration in the anus, or perfons Imperforated in the vagina or urethra. ATRAGENE. See Botany Index. ATRAPHAXIS. See Botany Index. ATREBATII, a people of Britain, feated next to the Bibroci, in part of Berkfliire and part of Ox- fordfhire. This was one of thofe Belgic colonies which had come out of Gaul into Britain, and there retained their ancient name. For the Atrebatii were a tribe of the Belgae, who inhabited the country which is now called Artois. They are mentioned by Cccfar among the nations which compofed the Belgic confe¬ deracy againft him : and the quota of troops which they engaged to furnifh on that occasion was 15,000. Comius of Arras was a king or chieftain among the Atrebatii in Gaul in Caffar’s time : and he feems to have Alrebatii A T U [2 Lave poffered feme authority, or at leafi: fome influence, over our Atiebatii in Britain j for he was fent by Csefar to perfuade them to fubmiflion. This circumdance makes it probable that this colony of the Atrebatii had not been fettled in Britain very long before that time. The Atrebatii were among thofe Britifli tribes which ftibmitted to CaTar 5 nor do we hear of any remarkable refiftance they made againfl the Romans at their next i'nvafion under Claudius. It is indeed probable, that before the time of this fecond invafion they had been fubdued by fome of the neighbouring dates, perhaps by the powerful nation of the Cattivellauni, which may be the reafon they are fo little mentioned in hidory. Cal- liva Atfebatum, mentioned in the feventh, twelfth, thir¬ teenth, and fourteenth Itinera of Antoninus, and called by Ptolemy Ca/cua, feems to have been the capital of the Atrebatii ; though our antiquaries differ in their fentiments about the fituation of this ancient city, fome of them placing it at Wallingford, and others at Ilchef- ter. ATREUS, in fabulous hidory, the fon of Pelops and Hippodarnia, and the father of Agamemnon and Mene- laus, is fuppofed to have been king of Mycenae and Ar¬ gos about 1228 years before the Chridian era. He drove his brother Thyedes from court, for having a cri¬ minal commerce with TErope his wife : but underdand- ing that he had had two children by her, he fent for him again, and made him eat them ; at which horrid action, the fun, it is faid, withdrew his light. ATRI, a town of Italy, in the farther Abruzzo, in the kingdom of Naples, with the title of a duchy •, it is the fee of a bidrop, and is feated on a craggy moun¬ tain, four miles from the Adriatic fea. E. Long. 13.8. N. Lat. 42. 45. . ATRIENSES, in antiquity, a kind of fervants or officers in the great families at Rome, who had the care and infpeftion of the atrias and the things lodged therein. Thefe are otherwife called atriarii, though fome make a didinction between atrienfes and atriarii; fuggeding that the latter were an inferior order of fervants, per¬ haps affidants of the atrienfes, and employed in the more fervile offices of the atrium, as to attend at the door, fweep the area, &c. The atrienfes are reprefented as fervants of authority and command over the red : they aided as procurators, or agents, of their mader, in felling his goods, &c. To their care were committed the datues and images of the mader’s ancedors, &c. which were placed round the atrium •, and which they carried in proceffion at fune¬ rals, &c. In the villas, or country houfes, the atrienfes had the care of the other furniture and utenfils, particularly thofe of metal, which they were to keep bright from rud. Other things they were to hang from time to time in the fun, to keep them dry, &c. They were clothed in a fhort white linen-habit, to didinguifli them, and prevent their loitering from home. ATRIP, in nautical language, is applied either to the anchor or fails. The anchor is atrip, when it is drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction, either by the cable or buoy-rope. The topfails are atrip, when they are hoifted up to the mad-head, or to their Utmod extent. 14 ] A T R ATRIPLEX, Orach, or Arach. See Botany Atrlpicx Index. H ATRIUM, in ecclefiadical antiquity, denotes an open Atrcl:ia- place or court before a church, making part of what was v™— called the narthex or antetemple. The atrium in the ancient churches was a large area or fquare plat of ground, furrounded with a portico or cloyfler, fituated between the porch or vedibule of the church and the body of the church. Some have miltakenly confounded the atrium with the porch or vedibule, from which it was didimd j others with the narthex, of which it was only a part. The atrium was the manfion of thofe who were not differed to enter farther into the church. More particu¬ larly, it was the place where the firfl clafs of penitents dood to beg the prayers of the faithful as they went into the church. Atrium is alfo ufed in the canon law, for the ceme- try or churchyard. In this fenfe we find a law prohi¬ biting buildings to be raifed in atrio ecc/ejice, except for the clergy : which the gloffary explains thus, id ejl in cemeterio, which includes the fpace of forty paces around a large church, or thirty round a little church or cha¬ pel. ATROPA, Deadly Nightshade. See Botany Index. Buchanan gives an account of the deflruftion of the army of Sweno the Dane, when he invaded Scot¬ land, by mixing a quantity of the belladonna berries with the drink which the Scots were, according to a treaty of truce, to fupply them with. This fo intoxi¬ cated the Danes, that the Scots fell upon them in their deep, and killed the greatefl: part of them, fo that there were fcarcely men enough left to carry off their king. There have alfo been many inflances in Britain of children being killed by eating berries of a fine black colour, and about the fize of a fmall cherry, which are no other than thofe of belladon¬ na. When an accident of this kind is difeovered in time, a glafs of warm vinegar will prevent the bad effeiRs. Naturalifts tell ftrange ftories of this plant : but fet- ting afide its foporiferous virtue, the modern botanifts will fcarce warrant any of them, nor even that human figure ordinarily aferibed to its roots, efpecially fine© the difeovery of the artifice of charletans in falhioning it, to furprife the credulity of the people. Mofes informs us (Gen. xxx. 14.) that Reuben the fon of Leah, being in the field, happened to find mandrakes, which he brought home to his mother. Rachel had a mind to them, and obtained them from Leah, upon condition that ffie Ihould confent that Ja¬ cob ffiould be Leah’s bedfellow the night following. The term DivYll, dudaim, here made ufe of by Mo¬ fes, is one of thole words of which the Jews at this day do pot underftand the true fignification. Some tranflate it ’violets, others lilies, or jejfamine. Junius calls it agreeable flowers ; Codurquus makes it trnjfle, or mujhroom; and Calmet will have it to be the citron. Thofe that would fupport the tranllation of mandrakes plead, that Rachel being barren, and having a great defire to conceive, coveted Leah’s mandrakes, it may be prefumed, with a view to its prolific virtues. The ancients have given to mandrakes the name of the ATT [ 215 ] ATT Atropa apples of love, and to Venus the name of Mamlrago- (| ritis; and the emperor Julian, in his epiftle to Ca- Attacotti. lixenes, lays, that he drinks the juice of mandrakes to ; 1 * excite amorous inclinations. ATROPHY, in Medicine, a difeafe, wherein the body or fome of its parts, does not receive the necef- fary nutriment, but waftes and decays inceflantly. See Medicine Index. ATROPOS, in fabulous hiftory, the name of the third of the Parcae, or Fates, whufe bufinefs it was to Cut the thread of life. AT PACHMENT, in the Luvj of England, im¬ plies the taking or apprehending a perfon by virtue of a writ or precept. It is diflinguillied from an arrejl, by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ j whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrell lies only on the body of a man; whereas an attachment lies often on the goods only, and fometimes on the body and goods. An attachment by writ differs from dif refs, in not extending to lands, as the latter does; nor does a ditlrefs touch the body, as an attachment does. ATTACHMENT out of the Chancery, is obtained upon an affidavit made, that the defendant was ferved with a fubpoena, and made no appearance j or it iflues upon not performing fome order or decree. Upon the re¬ turn of this attachment by the ffieriff. quod non eji in¬ ventus in balliva fua, another attachment, with a pro¬ clamation, iflues ; and if he Hill refufes to appear, a commiffion of rebellion. ATTACHMENT of the Forefl, is one of the three courts held in the foreft. The lowed court is called the court of attachment, or wood-mote court; the mean, fwan- mote, and the higheft, the jufice in eyre's feat. The court of attachments has its name from the verdurers of the foreft having no other authority in it, but to re¬ ceive the attachments of offenders againft vert and ve- nifon taken by the forefters, and to enroll them, that they may be prefented or puniftied at the next juftice in eyre’s feat. This attachment is by three means : by goods and chattels ; by body, pledges, or main- prize ; or by the body only. This court is held every 40 days throughout the year ; and is thence called forty days court. Foreign ATTACHMENT, is an attachment of money or goods found within a liberty or city, to fatisfy fome creditor within fuch liberty or city. By the cuftom of London, and feveral other places, a man can attach money or goods in the hands of a ftramjer, to fatisfy himfelf. 7 ATTACK, a violent attempt upon any perfon or thing, an affault, or the a . Epimeni- des’s expia¬ tion and prophecy. , 37 Solon the >vife legi¬ slator. 3* Salamis re¬ covered by his pieans. ATT [ 226 ] Delphi Tvas therefore confulted, and an anfwer return¬ ed that the city behoved to be expiated. Upon this, Epimenides the Pheftian was fent for from Crete, to perform the neceffary ceremonies, he being reputed a holy man, and one that was deeply {killed in all the myfteries of religion. His expiation confifted in ta¬ king fome black, and fome white (heep, turning them all loofe, and directing fome perfons to follow them to thofe places where they couched, and there to facrifice them to the local deity. He caufed alfo many temples and chapels to be erefted, two of which have been par¬ ticularly noted, viz. the chapel of Contumely and that of Impudence. This man is faid to have looked will¬ fully on the port of Munychia for a long time, and then to have fpoke as follows to thofe that were near him : “ How blind is man to future things ! for did the Athenians know what mifchief will one day be deri¬ ved to them from this place, they would eat it with their teeth.” This prediction was thought to be ac- complilhed 270 years after, when Antipater conltrained the Athenians to admit a Macedonian garrifon into that place. About 597 years before Chrift, Solon the famed Athenian legillator began to Ihow himfelf to his coun¬ trymen. He is faid to have been lineally defcended from Codrus ; but left by his father in circumftances rather neceflitous, which obliged him to apply to mer- chandife j it is plain, however, both from his words and writings, that he was a difinterefted patriot. The lhameful decree, that none under pain of death Ihould propofe the recovery of Salamis, grieved him fo much, that having compofed an elegy of 100 verfes, fuch as he thought would be moll proper to inflame the minds of the people, he ran into the market-place as if he had been mad, with his night-cap on his head, re¬ peating his elegy. A crowd being gathered round the pretended madman, his kinfman Pififtratus mingled among the reft, and obferving the people moved with Solon’s words, he alfo feconded him with all the elo¬ quence he was mailer of \ and between them they pre¬ vailed fo far as to have the law repealed, and a war was immediately commenced againft the people of Me- gara. Who was commander in this expedition is not certain *, but the city was recovered, according to the molt general account, by the following ftratagem. So¬ lon coming with Piliftratus to Colias, and finding there the women bufy in celebrating, according to cuflom, the feaft of Ceres, fent a confidant of his to Salamis, who pretended to be no friend to the people of Attica, telling the inhabitants of Salamis, that if they had a mind to feize the faireft of the Athenian ladies, they might now do it by palling over to Colias. The Mega- renfians giving eafy credit to what the man faid, imme¬ diately fitted out a Ihip; which Solon perceiving from the oppofite lhore,difmifl'ed the women, and having dref- fed a number of beardlefs youths in female habits, under which they concealed every one a dagger, he fent them to the fea-fide to dance and divert themfelves as the wo¬ men were wont to do. When thofe who came from Sala¬ mis faw thefe young perfons Ikipping up and down, they llrove who Ihould be firft on Ihore ; but were everv one of them killed, and their veflel feized ; aboard which the Athenians embarking, failed immediately to Salamis and took it. On the return of Solon to Athens, he was greatly ATT honoured by the people, to whom another occafiun of Attica, admiring his wifdom was quickly afforded. The in- ' - v~- -j habitants of Cirrha, a town fituated in the bay of Co-^. 39 rinth, after having by repeated incurfions wafted the pkewjfe territory of Delphi, at laft belieged the capital itfelf, reduce(] with a view of making themfelves mailers of the trea-Solon’s fures contained in the temple of Apollo. Advice of wh(lom. this intended facrilege being fent to the Amphi£lyons, who were the ftates-general of Greece, Solon advifed that the matter Ihould be univerfally refented, and that all the ftates Ihould join in punifhing the Cirrhaeans, and faving the Delphic oracle. This advice was complied with, and a general war againft Cirrha declared. Cly- fthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, commanded in chief and Alc- mseon w’as general of the Athenian quota. Solon went as affiftant or counfellor to Clyfthenes, and by follow¬ ing his advice the war was conduced to a profperous iffue. For when the Greek army had befieged Cirrha for fome time without any appearance of fuccefs, the oracle at Delphi was confulted, from whence the follow¬ ing anfwer was returned : “In vain you hope to take the place before “ The fea’s blue waves roll o’er the hallowed Ihore.’* This anfwer ftruck the whole army with furprife, till Solon advifed Clyfthenes to confecrate folemnly the whole territory of Cirrha to the Delphic Apollo j fo as that was a maritime country, the fea mull then walh the facred coaft. According to Paufanias, the city was reduced by the following ftratagem, likewife in¬ vented by Solon. He caufed the river Pliftus, which run through Cirrha, to be turned into another chan¬ nel, hoping thereby to have diftreffed the inhabitants for want of water : but finding they had many wells within the city, and were not to be reduced by that means, he caufed a vail quantity of roots of hellebore to be thrown into the river, which was then fullered to re¬ turn into its former bed. The inhabitants, overjoyed at the fight of running water, came in troops to drink of it: whereupon an epidemic flux enfued, and the ci¬ tizens being no longer able to defend the walls, the town was eafily taken. On the return of Solon to Athens he found things again in the utmoft confufion. The remnant of Cy-great con- ion’s fadlion gave out, that all forts of misfortunes had fufion. befallen the republic on account of the impiety of Me- gacles and his followers 5 which clamour was heighten¬ ed by the retaking of Salamis about this time by the Megarenfians. Solon interpofed, and perfuaded thofe who were ftyled execrable to abide a trial, and 300 per- fons w:ere chofen to judge them. The event was, that Megacles’s 300 of Megacles’s party who were alive v'ere fent in-Pfrty t>a- to perpetual banilhment, and the bones of fuch as were nl^ie dead wrere dug up and fent without the limits of their country. 42 Though thisdecifion reftored the public quiet for the Three fac- prefent, it was not long before the people v7ere divided tions ftart into three fa6lions, contending about the proper form11!5’ of government. Thefe were called the Dtacni, Pedicel, and Parali; the firft of thefe were the inhabitants of the hilly country, who declared pofitively for demo¬ cracy ; the fecond, dwelling in the lower parts, and who were far more opulent than the former, declared for an oligarchy, as fuppofing the government would fall moftly into their hands 5 the third party, who lived • on Attica. ATT [ 227 ] A on the fea-coaft, were people of moderate principles, fulted Conon, Clinias, and and therefore were for a mixed government. Befides the difturbances raifed on this account, others Attica. 43 Solon cho- fen archon, 44 Ssttles all diforders. Infamous behaviour his three friends. railed on this account, others were occafioned by the rich opprefling the poor. According to Plutarch, the poor being indebted to the rich, ei¬ ther tilled their grounds and paid them the fixth part of the produce, or engaged their bodies for their debts, fo that many were made flaves at home, and many fold into other countries ; nay, feme were obliged to fell their children to pay their debts, and others in defpair quitted Attica altogether. The greatefl: part, how¬ ever, were for throwing off the yoke, and began to look about for a leader, openly declaring that they in¬ tended to change the form of government, and make a repartition of lands. In this extremity, the eyes of all the citizens were caft upon Solon. The moft prudent were for offering him the fovereignty 5 but he perceiving their intentions, behaved in fuch a manner as to cheat both parties, and fhowed a fpirit of patriotifm perhaps never equalled. ITerefufed the fovereignty as far as it might have benefited himfelf; and yet took upon him- felf all the care and trouble of a prince, for the fake of his people. He was chofen archon without having recourfe to lots, and after his eleftion difappointed the hopes of both parties. It was Solon’s fundamental maxim, That thofe laws will be beft obferved which power and juf- tice equally fupport. Wherever, therefore, he found the old conflitution confonant to juftice in any tole¬ rable degree, he refufed to make any alteration at all, and was at extraordinary pains to (how the reafon of the changes he did make. In ftiort, being a perfeft judge of human nature, he fought to rule only by (bowing his fubjefts that it was their intereft to obey, and not by forcing upon them what he himfelf efteem- ed bed. Therefore, to a perfon who afked whether he had given the Athenians the befl: laws in his power, he replied, “ I have eftablilhed the beft they could re¬ ceive.” , As to the main caufe of fedition, viz. the oppreffed date of the meaner fort, Solon removed it by a contri¬ vance which he called fifachthia, i. e. difchat'ge ; but what this was, authors are not agreed upon. Some fay that he releafed all debts then in being, and prohi¬ bited the taking any man’s perfon for payment of a debt for the future. According to others, the poor were eafed, not by cancelling the debts, but by lower¬ ing the intereft, and increafing the value of money ; a mina, which before was made equal to 73 drachms only, being by him made equal to 100 ; which was of great advantage to the debtor, and did the creditor no hurt. It is, however, moft probable that the fifachthia was a general remittance of all debts whatever, other wife Solon could not have boafted in his verfes that he had removed fo many marks of mortgages (b) as were everywhere frequent; that he had freed from apprehenfion fuch as were driven to defpair, &c. But in the midft of all Solon’s glory, an accident befel him, which, for a time, hurt his reputation, and had almoft entirely ruined his fchemes. He had con- 4raad for continually teazed for explanations and alterations 0ftenyeais* them. He therefore pretended an inclination to mer- chandife, and obtained leave to abfent himfelf for 10 years, during which time he hoped the laws would be grown familiar. From Athens Solon travelled into Egypt, where he converfed with Pfenophis the He- liopolitan, and Sonchis the Saite, the moft learned priefts of that age. From thefe he learned the fitua- tion of the ifland Atlantis, of which he wrote an ac¬ count in verfe, which Plato afterwards continued See F f 2 From lantis> (b) The Athenians had a cuftom of hanging up billets to (how that houfes were engaged for fuch and fuch furas of money. 49 Things fall into rlifor- uler in his abfence. SO He returns his office. ATT £ 2 2 Attica. From Egypt he went to Cyprus, where he was ex- tremely well received by one of the petty kings. This prince lived in a city called Apeia, built by Demo- phon the fon of Thefeus, on an eminence near the ri¬ ver Clarius, but in a foil craggy and barren. Solon obferving a very pleafant plain below, engaged the king to remove thither ; aflifted in executing the fcheme he had formed ; and fucceeded fo well, that a new city was formed, which foon became populous, and out of gratitude to the Athenian legiflator was called Solos. But while Solon was thus travelling in queft of wif- dom, and with a view to benefit thofe among whom he came, his countrymen, who feem to have refolved on being diffatisfied at all events, had again divided them- felves into three factions. Lycurgus put himfelf at the head of the country, people j Megacles the fon of Alcmaeon was at the head of thofe who lived on the fea coaft j and Pififtratus put himfelf at the head of the poorer fort, to protect them, as he pretended, from tyranny, but in reality to feize on the fovereignty for himfelf. All the factions pretended to have a vaft re¬ gard for Solon and his laws, at the fame time that they were very defirous of a change ; but how they were to be bettered, none of them knew, or pretended to know. In the midft of this confufion the legiflator returned, to Athens, Each of the factions paid their court to him, and af* mreffinie* ^e<^ec^ to receive him with the dee pelf reverence and refpe£t j befeeching him to reaffume his authority, and compofe the diforders which they themfelves kept up. This Solon declined on account of his age, which, he faid, rendered him unable to fpeak and aft for the good of his country as formerly ; however, he fent for the chiefs of each party, befeeching them in the molt pathetic manner not to ruin their common parent, but to prefer the public good to their own private inte- relt. Pififlratus, who of all the three had perhaps the lealt intention to follow Solon’s advice, feemed to be the molt affedted with his difeourfes •, but as Solon perceiv¬ ed he affected popularity by all poflible methods, he eafily penetrated into his defigns of affuming the fo- vereign power. This he fpoke of to Pifiltratus him¬ felf, at firlt privately $ but as he,faw that his admoni¬ tions in this way had no effedt, he then faid the fame things to others, that the public might be on their guard againlt him. All the wife difeourfes of Solon, however, were loll affumes the upon the Athenians. Pifiltratus had got the meaner fovereign- porj. entirely at his devotion, and therefore refolved to cheat them out of the liberty which they certainly de- ferved to lofe. With this view he wounded himfelf, and, as Herodotus fays, the mules that drew his cha¬ riot ; then he drove into the market-place, and there Ihowed his bleeding body, imploring the protedlion of the people from thofe whom his kindnefs to them had rendered his implacable enemies. A concourfe of peo¬ ple being inllantly formed, Soh n came among the reft, and, fufpedling the deceit, openly taxed Piliflratus with bis perfidious condu£l ; but to no purpofe. A general affembly of the people rvas called, wherein it was mo¬ ved by one Arifton, that Pififtratus Ihould have a guard. Solon was the only perlon prefent who had refolution enough to oppofe this meafure; the richer Athenians, 2i 51 Pififtratus ty. 8 ] A T T perceiving that the multitude implicitly followed Pi- Attic*, liftratus, and applauded every thing he faid, remaining y— filent through fear. Solon himfelf, when he faw he could prevail nothing, left the affembly, faying he was wifer than fome, and Jlouter than others. A guard of 400 men was now unanimoufly decreed to Pififtratus, as we are told by Solon himfelf. This inconfiderable body he made ufe of to enflave the people, but in what manner he accomplilhed his purpofe is not agreed. Certain it is, that with his guard he feized the citadel \ but Polyaenus hath given an account of a very Angular method which he took to put it out of the power of the Athenians to defend themfelves even againft fuch a fmall number. He fummoned an affembly to be held at the Anacium, and directed that the people ftiould come thither armed. They accordingly came *, and Pififtratus harangued them, but in a voice fo low that they could not tell what he faid. The people com¬ plaining of this, Pififtratus told them that they were hindered from hearing him by the clangour of their- arms $ but if they would lay them down in the por¬ tico-, he would then be heard diftindfly. This they did } and while they liftened very attentively to a long and eloquent oration, Pififtratus’s guard conveyed away their arms, fo that they found themfelves depri- 52 ved of all power of refiftance. During the confufion Solon leaves which followed this event, another affembly was held, Athens, wherein Solon inveighed bitterly againft the meannefs of his countrymen, inviting them to take up arms in defence of their liberty. When he faw that no¬ thing would do, he laid down his own arms, faying, that he had done his utmoft for his country and his laws. According to Plutarch, he refufed to quit the city ; but the moft probable opinion is, that he imme¬ diately retired from the dominion of Athens, and re¬ fufed to return, even at the folicitation of Pififtratus himfelf. Pififtratus having thus obtained the fovereignty, did pififtratus not overturn the laws of Solon, but ufed his power governs with the greateft moderation. It is not to be expeft- ed, however, that fo turbulent a people as the Athe-tionj nians could be fatisfied by any method of government he could lay down. At the beginning of his admini- ftration, Megacles and his family retired out of Athens to fave their own lives, yet without defpairing of being able fome time or other to return. With this view Megacles and his affociates entered into a treaty with Lycurgus; and having brought him and his party into a fcheme for depofing Pififtratus, they concerted mat¬ ters fo well, that Pififtratus was foon obliged to feek q)rjven ont for Ihelter fomewhere elfe, and, on his departure, the by Mega- Athenians ordered his goods to be fold. Nobody, how-cles. ever, except one perfon (Calhas)y would venture to buy any of them, from an apprebenfion, no doubt, that they would foon be reftored to their proper owner, which ac¬ cordingly happened in a very ihort time. ^ As Megacles and his party had negociated with Ly-Who foon curgus to turn out Pitiftratus, fo they now entered into after rein-- a treaty with Pififtratus to reinftate him in his princi-ftates him* pality, as foon as they found Lycurgus would not be implicitly governed by them. To accomplifh this, they fell upon a very ridiculous project 5 which, however, was attended with the defired fuccefs. They found out a woman whole name was Phya, of a mean lamily and fortune, but of a great ftature, and very handfome.. Her ATT . 5'6 Driven out a fecond time; Attica. Her they dreffed in armour, placed her in a chariot, ."-v—and having difpofed things fo as to make her appear with all poffible advantage, they conduced her towards the city, fending heralds before, with orders to fpeak to the people in the following terms : “ Give a kind reception^ O Athenians, to Pififtratus, who is fo much honoured by Minerva above all other men, that (he herfelf condefcends to bring him back to the citadel.” The report being univerfally fpread that Minerva was bringing home Piliftratus, and the ignorant multitude believing this woman to be the goddefi, addreffed their prayers to her, and received Pififtratus with the utmoft joy. When he had recovered the fovereignty, Pifi¬ ftratus married the daughter of Megacles ^as he had promifed, and gave the pretended goddefs to his fon Hipparchus. Pififtratus did not long enjoy the kingdom to which he had been reftored in fo ftrange a manner. He had married the daughter of Megacles, as already obfervedj but having children by a former wife, and remembering that the whole family of Megacles was reprobated by the Athenians, he thought proper to let his new fpoufe remain in a ftate of perpetual widowhood. This fhe patiently bore for fome time, but at laft acquainted her mother. An affront fo grievous could not fail to be highly refented. Megacles inftantly entered into a treaty with the malcontents, of whom there were al¬ ways great plenty at Athens w'hatever was the form of government. This Pififtratus being apprized of, and perceiving a new ftorm gathering, he voluntarily quit¬ ted Athens, and retired to Eretria. Here having con¬ sulted with his fons, it was refolved to reduce Athens by force. With this view he applied to feveral of the Greek ftates, who furniftied him with the troops he de- 57 fired, but the Thebans exceeded all the reft in their but returns liberality ; and with this army he returned to Attica with an according to Herodotus, in the nth year of his banilh- ment. _ They firft reduced Marathon, the inhabitants of which had taken no meafures for their defence, though they knew that Pififtratus was preparing to at¬ tack them. 1 he republican forces in the mean time marched out of Athens to attack him ; but behaving in a fecure and carelefs manner, they were furprifed by Pififtratus, and totally routed. While they were en¬ deavouring to make their efeape, he caufed his two fons to ride before him with all fpeed, and tell thofe they came up with that nobody had any thing to fear, but that they might every one return to his own home. firatagem fo effe&ually difperfed the republican ScitT army’ thatitwas impoffible to rally them, and Pifi- ‘ '^ ftratus became a third time abfolute mafter of Attica. Hisfubjefts Pififtratus being once more in poffeffion of the fove- ftill difcon- reignty, took a method of eftablifhing himfelf on the withstand-* thr°ne direai? 0??^ to what Thefeus had done, ing his mo- Jtiftead of colleifting the inhabitants from the country duration. jnt° cities, Pififtratus made them retire from the cities into the country, in order to apply themfelves to agri¬ culture. This prevented their meeting together, and caballing againft him in fuch bodies as they had been accuitomed to do. By this means alfo the territory of Athens was greatly meliorated, and great plantations of olives were made over all Attica, which had before not only been deftitute of corn, but alfp bare of trees. He alfo coiamandedj that, in the city, men ftiould wear [ 229 ] ATT A ttica. » 58 He takes ffo a kind of ftieep-fkin veft, reaching to the knees ; but fo intolerable were the laws of Pififtratus to his fubjedts, that this kind of garment in fucceeding times became proverbially the habit of flavery. As prince of Athens, Pififtratus received the tenth part of every man’s revenues, and even of the fruits of the earth ; and this alfo, though for the fervice of the ftate, feemed to- the Athenians a moil grievous bur¬ den. In fhort, though Pififtratus behaved in all re- fpedls as a moft excellent prince, his fubjedls fancied themfelves oppreffed by tyranny, and were perpetual¬ ly grumbling from the time he firft afcended the throne to the day of his death, which happened about 33 years after he had firft affumed the fovereignty, of which time, according to Ariftotle, he reigned 17 years. Pififtratus left behind him two fons named Htppar- Hipparchus chus and Hippias, both men of great abilities, whoandHip- ftiared the government betw een them, and behaved with Pias’ lenity and moderation. But though by the mildnefs of their government the family of the Pififtratidre feemed to be fully eftablilhed on the throne of Athens, a con- fpiracy was unexpectedly formed againft both the bro¬ thers, by which Hipparchus was taken off, and Hippias narrowly efcaped The rooft material faCls relating to this confpiracy are what follow. there were at that time in Athens two young men, Confpiracy- called Harmodius and Arijlvgiton ; the former of thefe of Harmo- was exquifitely beautiful in his perfon, and on that d.,l,s and A~ account, according to the infamous cuftom of thenl 0^lton* Greeks, violently beloved of the other. This Harmo¬ dius was alfo beloved of Hipparchus ; who, if we may believe Thucydides, forced him. This w-as grievoufi’y refented, and revenge determined on j to haften which, another accident concurred. Hipparchus, finding that Harmodius endeavoured to avoid him, publicly af¬ fronted him, by not fuffering his fifter to carry the of¬ fering of Minerva, as if (he was a perfon unworthy of that office. The two young men, not daring to ffiow any public figns of refentment, confulted privately with their friends ; among whom it was refolved, that at the approaching feftival of Panathenaea, when the citizens were allowed to appear in arms, they ftiould attempt to reftore Athens to its former liberty. In this they imagined that they ffiould find themfelves fe- conded by the whole body of the people. But when the day appointed was come, they perceived one of their number talking very familiarly with Hippias; and H- } fearing that they were difeovered, they immediately ^ fell upon Hipparchus, and defpatched him with a mul¬ titude of wounds. In this exploit the people were fo far from feconding them, as they expefted, that they fuffered Harmodius to be killed by Hipparchus’s guards, and feizing Ariftogiton themfelves, delivered him up to Hippias. Some time afterwards, however, the refpeCt they paid to thefe two young men exceeded all bounds. They caufed their praifes to be fung at the Tjie®3 f . Panathenaea, forbade any citizen to call a Have by either rators ex-P^ of their names, and erefted brazen ftatues to them in travagamlj the forum 5 which ftatues were afterward6 carried intoh°n0Hrech Perfia by Xerxes, and fent back from thence by A- lexander the Great, Antiochus, or Seleucus, for au¬ thors are not agreed by which. Several immunities and privileges were alfo granted to the defendants of thefah. ATT C 230 ] ATT Attica, tliefe two patriots, and all poffible means were taken to t.., / render their memory venerable and refpe£ted by pofte- 64 rity. Cruelty of Hippias being now foie mafter of Athens, and proba- Hippias. bly exafperated by the murder of his brother, began to alter his condudt greatly, and treat his fubjeftsin an oppreffive and cruel manner. He began with torturing Ariftogiton, in order to make him confefs his accompli¬ ces : but this proved fatal to his own friends : for Arif¬ togiton impeaching fuch as he knew to be belt affefted to Hippias, they were immediately put to death j and when he had deftroyed all thofe he knew, at laft told Hippias, that now he knew of none that defervedto fuf- fer death except the tyrant himfelf. Hippias next vent¬ ed his rage on a woman named Lecena, who was kept by Ariftogiton. She endured the torture as long as (he could ; but finding herfelf unable to bear it any longer, (he at laft bit off her tongue, that ftie might not have it in her power to make any difcovery. To her the Athe¬ nians erected the ftatue of a lionefs, alluding to her name, without a tongue, on which was engraved a fuit- able infcription. After the confpiracy was, as Hippias thought, tho¬ roughly quaftied, he fet himfelf about ftrengthening his government by all the means he could think of. He contra&ed leagues with foreign princes, increafed his revenues by various methods, &c. But thefe precau¬ tions were of little avail ; the lenity of Pififtratus’s government had alone fupported it j and Hippias purfuing contrary methods, was deprived of his fo- vereignty in lefs than four years after the death of his brother. He is cfri- This revolution was likewife owing to the family of ven out of Megacles, who were ftyled Alariceonidce, and had fet- Athcns; tied at Lipfydrum. In times of difcontent, which at Athens were very frequent, this family was the com¬ mon refuge of all who fled from that city $ and at laft they thought of a method of expelling the Pififtratidie altogether. The method they took to accomplifli their purpofe was as follows. They agreed with the Amphiftyons to rebuild the temple at Delphi •, and being poffefiedof immenfe riches, they performed their engagement in a much more magnificent manner than they were bound to do j for having agreed only to build the front of common ftone, they built it of Parian marble. At the fame time they corrupted the pro- phetefs Pythia, engaging her to exhort all the Lace¬ daemonians that came to confult the oracle either in behalf of the ftate, or their own private affairs, to at¬ tempt the delivery of Athens. This had the defired ef¬ fect : the Lacedaemonians, furprifed at hearing this ad¬ monition inceflantly repeated, at laft refolved to obey the divine command, as they imagined it to be 5 and fent Anchimolius, a man of great quality, at the head of an army, into Attica, though they were at that time in league with Hippias, and accounted by him his good friends and allies. Hippias demanding afliftance from the Theflalians, they readily fent him 1000 horfe, under the command of one of their princes named Si- neas. The Lacedaemonians being landed, Hippias fell upon them fo fuddenly, that he defeated them with great flaughter, killed their general, and forced the lhattered remains of their army to fly to their ftiips. The Spartans, incenfed at this unfortunate expedition, •“determined to fend another army into Attica j which 3 they accordingly did foon after under their king Cleo- Attica, menes : and he having, at his entrance into the Athe-—v— nian territories, defeated the Theflalian horie, obliged Hippias to ftiut himfelf up in the city of Athens, w Inch he was foon after forced to abandon altogether. He was, however, in no want of a place of refuge *, the Theflalian princes inviting him into their country, and the king of Macedon offering his family a city and territory, if they chofe to retire into his dominions. 55 But Hippias chofe rather to go to the city of Sigeum, and retires 1 which Pififtratus had conquered, and left to his own fa-t0 Sigeum. mily. After the expulfion of the Pififtratidae, the Atheni¬ ans did not long enjoy the quiet they had propofed to ^7 themfelves. They were quickly divided into two fac-Two fac¬ tions •, at the head of one was Clyfthenes, one of the1'0^15’11 chief of the Alcmaeonidte *, and of the other, Ifagoras,Athen5* a man of great quality, and highly in favour with the Athenian nobility. Clyfthenes applied himfelf to the people, and endeavoured to gain their affedlion by in- creafing their power as much as poffible. Ifagoras per¬ ceiving that by this means his rival would get the bet¬ ter, applied to the Lacedaemonians for affulance, revi¬ ving at the fame time the old ftory of Megacles’s fa- crilege, and infilling that Clyfthenes ought to be ba- gg nilhed as being of the family of Megacles. CleomenesThe Spar¬ king of Sparta readily came into his meafures, and fud-tans fnpport denly defpatched a herald to Athens with a declara-I,aSorasi tion of war in cafe all the Alcmseonidae were not im¬ mediately banilhed. The Athenians did not hefitate to banilh their benefadlor Clyfthenes, and all his rela¬ tions } but this piece of ingratitude did not anfwer their purpofe. Cleomenes entered Attica at the head of a Spartan army; and, arriving at Athens, con¬ demned to banilhment 70c families more than what had been fent into exile before. Not content with this, he would have diffolved the fenate, and veiled the go¬ vernment in 300 of the chief of Ifagoras’s faftion. This the Athenians would by no means fubmit to ; and therefore took up arms, and drove Cleomenes and his troops into the citadel, where they were befieged for two days. On the third day Cleomenes furrendered, on condition that all thofe who were in the citadel Ihould retire unmolefted. This, though agreed to, was not performed by the Athenians. They fell upon fuch as were feparated from the army, and put them to death without mercy. Among the number of thofe flain on this occafion was Timefitheus the brother of Cleomenes himfelf. 5^ The Spartan king was no fooner withdrawn from but with- Athens, than he formed a ftrong combination in fa- out fuccefs. vour of Ifagoras. He engaged the Boeotians to at¬ tack Attica on the one fide, and the Chalcidians on the other, while he at the head of a powerful Spartan army entered the territories of Eleufina. In this di- ftrefs, the Athenians, not being able to cope with fo many enemies at once, refolved to fuffer their terri¬ tories to be ravaged by the Chalcidians and Boeo¬ tians, contenting themfelves with oppofing the army commanded by Cleomenes in perfon. But this power¬ ful confederacy was quickly diflblved : the Corin¬ thians, who were allied with Cleomenes, doubting the juftice of their caufe, returned home j his other allies likewife beginning to waver, and his colleague Arifton, the other king of Sparta, differing in fentiments, Cleo¬ menes ATT [2 Attica, menes was obliged to abandon the enterprife. The u—- Spartans and their allies being withdrawn, the Athe- BceoUans n.ia.ns took a revere revenge of the Boeotians and Chal- and Chal- cidians, totally routing their forces, and carrying off a cidians de- great number of prifoners. The prifoners taken in this feated. war were put in irons, but afterwards fet at liberty on paying a ranfom of two minae per head. Their fetters were, however, hung up in the citadel 5 and the Athe¬ nians confecrating the tenth of what they had received for ranfom, purchafed a ftatue, reprefenting a chariot and four horfes, which they fet up in the portico of the citadel, with a triumphant infcription in token of their victory. # Thefe indignities roufing the Boeotians, they imme¬ diately vowed revenge, and engaged on their fide the people of iEgina, who had an hereditary hatred at the Athenians; and while the latter bent all their attention to the Boeotian war, the iEginetans landing a confider- able army, ravaged the coafts of Attica. Attempt of But while the Athenians were thus employed againft the Spar- the Boeotians and Aiginetans, a jealoufy fprung up on ftore Hip- Par*' Lacedaemon, whicli was never afterwards pias. eradicated. Cleomenes, after his unfuccelsful expedi¬ tion againft Attica, produced at Sparta certain oracles which he faid he had found in the citadel of Athens while he was befieged therein : the purport of thefe oracles was, that Athens would in time become a rival to Sparta. At the fame time it was difcovered, that Clyfthenes had bribed the prieftefs of Apollo to caufe the Lacedaemonians to expel the Pififtratidae from A- thensj which was facrificing their beft friends to thofe whom intereft obliged to be their enemies. This had fuch an effeft, that the Spartans, repenting their folly in expelling Hippias, lent for him from Sigeum, in order to reftore him to his principality : but this not being- agreed to by the reft of the ftates, they were forced to abandon the enterprife, and Hippias returned to Sigeum ^2 as he came. 1 Caufeofthe About this time, too, Ariftagoras-the Milefian ha- I ST11 vi.ng fet a revolt in Ionia againft the Perfian 1 ria‘ king, applied to the Spartans for affiftance j but they declining to have any hand in the matter, he next ap¬ plied to the Athenians, and was by them furniftied with 20 ftiips under the command of Melanthus, a noble¬ man univerfally efteemed. This ralh aftion coft the Greeks very dear, as it brought upon them the whole power of the Perfian empire ; for no fooner did the king of Perfia hear of the aftiftance fent from Athens to his rebellious fubjects, than he declared himfelf the fworn enemy of that city, and folemnly befought God that he might one day have it in his power to be revenged on them. The Ionian war being ended, by the redu&Ion of that country again under the Perfian government, the king of Perfia fent to demand earth and water as tokens of filbmiflion from the Greeks. Moft of the ifianders yielded to this command out of fear, and among the reft the people of Aigina } upon which the Athenians accufed the inhabitants of this ifland of treachery to¬ wards Greece, and a war w’as carried on with them for a long time. How it ended we are not informed ; but its continuance was fortunate for Greece in general, as, by inuring them to war, and fea-affairs in "particu¬ lar, it prevented the whole of the Grecian ftates from 31 ] ATT being fwallowed up by the Perfians who were now Attica, about to invade them. ! ' Befides the difpleafure which Darius had conceived againft the Athenians on account of the afliftance they had afforded the lonians, he was further engaged to an expedition againft Greece by the intrigues of Hippias. Immediately on his returning unfuccefsfully from La-Hipp7ja _ cedaemon, as above related, Hippias paffed over into plies to the Alia, went to Artaphernes, governor of the adjacent ^erfians» provinces belonging to the Perfian king, and excited him to make war upon his country, promifing to be obedient to the Perfian monarch provided he was re- ftored to the principality of Athens. Of this the A- thenians being apprifed, fent ambaffadors to Arta¬ phernes, defiring leave to enjoy their liberty in quiet: but that nobleman returned for anfwer, that if they would have peace with the great king, they muft im¬ mediately receive Hippias; upon which anfwer the Athenians refolved to aflift the enemies of Darius as much as poflible. The confequence of this refolution was, that Darius commiflioned Mardonius to revenge him of the infults he thought the Greeks had offered him. But Mardonius having met with a ftorm at fea, and other accidents which rendered him unable to do any thing, Datis and Artaphernes the fon of Artapher¬ nes above mentioned, were commiflioned to do what he was to have done. The Perfian commanders, fearing again to attempt T}ley74 to double the promontory of Athos, where their fleet invade had formerly fuffered, drew their forces into the plains Greece, of Cilicia : and palling from thence through the Cy¬ clades to Euboea, dire&ed their courfe to Athens. Their charge from Darius was to deftroy both Eretria and Athens j and to bring away the inhabitants, that they might be at his difpofal. Their firft attempt wasEretmde on Eretiia,. the inhabitants of which fent to Athens ftroyed. for afliftance on-the firft approach of the Perfian fleet. The Athenians, with a magnanimity almoft unparallel¬ ed at fuch a jundture, fent 4000 men to their aflift¬ ance ; but the Eretrians were fo much divided amongft themfelves, that nothing could be refolved on. One party among them was for receiving the Athenian fuc- couirs into the city •, another, for abandoning the city and retiring into the mountains of Euboea ; while a third fought to betray their country to the Perfians for their own private intereft. Seeing things in this fitua- tion, therefore, and that no good could poflibly be done, one AEfchines, a man of great authority among the Eretrians, generoufly informed the Athenian com¬ manders that they might return home. They accord¬ ingly retired to Oropus, by which means they efeaped deftruftion : for Eretria being foon after betrayed to the Perfians, was pillaged, burnt, and its inhabitants fold for Haves. On the news of this difafter the Athenians immedi¬ ately drew together all the forces they were able, which after all amounted to no more than 9000 men. Thefe, with 1000 Plataeans who afterwards joined them, were commanded by ten general officers, who had equal power; among whom were Miltiades, Ariftides, and Themiftocles, men of diftinguilhed valour and great abilities. But it being generally imagined that fo fmall a body of troops would be unable to refift the formidable power of the Perfians, a meffenger was def- patched .. Attica. ATT [ 232 patched to Sparta to entreat the immediate afhftance of that ftate. He communicated his bufinefs to the fenate in the following terms : “ Men of Lacedaemon, the A- thenians defire you to aflift them, and not to fuffer the moft ancient of all the Grecian cities to be enflaved by the barbarians. Eretria is already deftroyed, and Greece confequently weakened by the lols of fo confi- derable a place.” The aflitlance was readily granted •, 6 but at the fame time the fuccours arrived fo flowly, that Perfians de-the Athenians were forced to fight without them. In feated at this memorable engagement in the plains of Marathon, Marathon. whither Hippias had conduced the Perfians, the latter ■were defeated with the lofs of 6300 men, while. the Greeks loft only 192. The Perfians being thus driven to their fhips, endeavoured to double Cape Sunium, in order to furprife Athens itfelf before the army could re- turn : but in this they tvere prevented by Miltiades j who, leaving Ariftides with 1000 men to guard the prifoners, returned fo expeditioufly with the other 9000, that he was at the temple of Hercules, which was but a fmall way diftant, before the barbarians could attack the city. Integrity of After the battle, Ariftides difchairged the truft re- Ariftides. pofed in him with the greateft integrity. Though there was much gold and filver in the Perfian camp, and the tents and ftiips they had taken were filled with all forts of riches, he not only forbore touching any thing himfelf, but to the utmoft of his power prevented others from doing it. Some, however, found means to enrich themfelves •, among the reft, one Callias, coufin- german to Ariftides himfelf. This man being a torch- bearer, and, in virtue of his office, having a fillet on his head, one of the Perfians took him for a king, and, fall¬ ing down at his feet, difcovered to him a vaft quantity of gold hid in a well. Callias not only feized, and ap¬ plied it to his own ufe, but had the cruelty to kill the poor man who difcovered it to him, that he might not mention it to others ; by which infamous a&ion he en¬ tailed on his pofterity the name of Laccopluti, or enriched , by the well. Miltiades After the battle of Marathon, all the inhabitants .of ungrateful- Plataea were declared free citizens of Athens, and Mil- ly treated t;ades, Themiftocles, and Ariftides, were treated with all poffible marks of gratitude and refpeft. This, however, was but very ffiort-lived ; Miltiades propofed an expedition againft the ifiand of Paros, in which ha¬ ving been unfuccefsful, through what caufe is not well known, he was, on his return, accufed, and condemned to pay 50 talents, the whole expence of the fcheme ; and, being unable to pay the debt, was thrown into prifon, where he foon died of a wound received at Paros. If any thing can exceed the enormity of fuch a pro¬ ceeding as this, it was the treatment Ariftides next re¬ ceived. Miltiades had propofed an expedition, which had not proved fuccefsful, and in which he might pof- fibly have had bad defigns •, but againft Ariftides not fo much as a Ihadow of guilt was pretended. On the contrary, his extraordinary virtue had procured him the title of Juft, and he had never been found to fwerve from the maxims of equity. His downfal was occa- fioned by the intrigues of Themiftocles •, who being a man of great abilities, and hating Ariftides on account of the character he defervedly bore among his country- 1 ATT Attica. by the A- thenians. 79 . As likewife Ariftides. men, took all opportunities of infinuating, that his ri¬ val had in fa£t made himfelf mafter of Athens without — v — the parade of guards and royalty. “ He gives laws to> the people (faid he) ; and what conftitutes a tyrant, but giving laws ?” In confequence of this ftrange ar¬ gument, a ftrong party was formed againft the virtuous Ariftides, and it was refolved to banifti him for 10 years by the oftracifm. In this cafe, the name of the perfon to be banifned was written upon a (hell by every one who defired his exile, and carried to a certain .place within the forum enclofed with rails. If the num¬ ber of ftiells fo colledled exceeded 6oco, the fentence was infliffed •, if not, it was otherwife. When the agents of Themiftocles had fufficiently accompliffied their purpofe, on a hidden the people flocked to the forum, defiring the oftracifm. One of the clowns who had come from a borough in the country, bringing a fliell to Ariftides, faid to him, “ Write me Ariftides upon this.” Ariftides, furprifed, alked him if he knew any ill of that Athenian, or if he had ever done him any hurt ? “ Me hurt ! (faid the fellow), no, I don’t fo much as know him •, but I am weary and Pick at heart on hearing him everywhere called thie jlift.” A- riftides, thereupon, took the fhell, and wrote his own name upon it $ and when informed that the oftracifm fell upon him, modeftly retired out of the forum, fay¬ ing, “ I befeech the gods that the Athenians may never fee that day which ftiall force them to remember Arifti¬ des.” After the battle of Marathon, the v'ar with iEgina was revived with great vigour } but the ALginetans generally had the fuperiority, on account of their great go naval power. Themiftocles obferving this, was conti-xhemifto- nually exhorting his countrymen to build a fleet, not cles advifes only to make them an equal match for the Aiginetans, die build- but alfo becaufe he was of opinion that the Perfians a would foon pay them another vifit. At laft, he had the boldnefs to propofe, that the money produced by the filver mines, which the Athenians had hitherto divided among themfelves, ffiould be applied to the building of a fleet: which propofal being complied with, 100 galleys were immediately put upon the flocks •, and this fudden increafe of their maritime power proved the means of faving all Greece from flavery. gr About three years after the banifhment of Ariftides, Xerxes in- Xerxes king of Perfia fent to demand earth and water : vades but Themiftocles defiring to make the breach with that01660'15* monarch ftill wider, put to death the interpreter for publifhing the decree of the king of Perfia in the lan¬ guage of the Greeks ; and having prevailed upon the feveral ftates to lay afide their animofities and provide for their common fafety, got himfelf eleded general of the Athenian army. When the news arrived that the Perfians were ad¬ vancing to invade Greece by the ftraits of Thermopy- 1*, and that they were for this purpofe tranfporting their forces by fea, Themiftocles advifed his country¬ men to quit the city, embark on board their galleys, and meet their enemies while yet at a diftance. This they would by no means comply with ; for which reafon Themiftocles put himfelf at the head of the army, and having joined the Lacedaemonians, marched towards Tempe. Here, having received advice that the ftraits of Thermopylae were forced, and that both Bosotia and Theflaly ATT Attica. *—v—«■ 82 Athi-ns a- bandoned by its inha feitants, 83 and de- ftroyed by the t*er- fians. S4 They are totally de¬ feated at Salainis. Theflaly had fubmitted to the Perfians, the army re- turned without doing any thing. In this diftrefs the Athenians applied to the oracle at Delphi : from whence they received at fird a very fevere anfwer, threatening them with total deftruftion ; but after much humiliation, a more favourable one -was delivered, in which, probably by the direclion of The- miftocles, they were promifed fafety in walls of wood. This was by Themiftocles and the greateif part of the citizens interpreted as a command to abandon Athens, and put all their hopes of fafety in their fleet. Upon tins, the opinion of Themiftocles prevailing, the great- eft part began to prepare for this embarkation ; and had money diftributed among them by the council of the Areopagus, to the amount of eight drachms per man: but this not proving fufticient, Themiftocles gave out that fomebody had ftolen the ftiield of Mi¬ nerva •, under pretence of fearching for which, he feized on all the money he could find. Some, how¬ ever, there were who refufed to embark with the reft, but railed to themfelves fortifications of wood; under- ftanding the oracle in its literal fenfe, and refolving to wait the arrival of the Perfians, and defend them¬ felves to the laft. In the mean time Ariftides was re¬ called, when the Athenians faw it their intereft, left he fhould have gone over to the Perfians and aflifted them with his advice. The Perfians having advanced to Athens foon after the inhabitants had deferted it, met with no oppofition except from a few juft now mentioned ; who, as they M'ould hearken to no terms of accommodation, w-ere all cut in pieces, and the city utterly deftroyed. Xerxes, however, being defeated in a fea fight at Salarnis, was forced to lly with prodigious lofs. See Salamis. The- miftocles wras for purfuing him, and breaking; down 233 ] ATT Atti-a. S« with the moft magnificent chariot in Sparta : and when he returned to Athens, he was efcorted by 500 horfe, ‘~ an honour never paid to any ftranger but himfelf. On his arrival at Athens, however, there were not want¬ ing fume who infinuated that the receiving fuch honours from the Lacedaemonians was injurious to the republic ; but Themiftocles, confiding in his innocence, treated thele clamours with contempt, and exhorted his coun¬ trymen to entertain no doubts of their allies, but ra¬ ther endeavour to preferve the great reputation they had acquired throughout all Greece. The defeat of Xerxes at Salamis made Mardonius, who was left to carry on the war by land, more ready to treat with the Athenians than to fight them ; and with this view' he fent Alexander king of Macedon to Athens to make propofals of alliance with that repub¬ lic, exclufively of all the other Grecian ftates. This 0(J propofal, however, was reje&ed ; and the confequence Athens a was, that Athens was a fecond time deftroyed, the fe''ond tun® Spartans fending aftiftance fo flowly, that the Athenians deftro>,ed* were forced to retire to Salamis ; but they were foon The p^r. freed from all apprehenfions by the total defeat and fians de¬ death of Mardonius at Plataca ; where Ariftides, audited at the body of troops under his command, diftinguiibed Plataea and themfelves in a moft extraordinary manner. Mycale. The fame day that the battle of Platsea was fought, the Perfians were defeated in a fea-fight at Mycale in Ionia, wherein it was allowed that the Athenians who were there behaved better than any of the other Greeks ; but when it was propofed to tranfport the lonians into Europe, that they might be in perfeft fafety, and give them the territories of fuch Grecian ftates as had fided Avith the Perfians, the Athenians refufed to comply, fearing the lonians rvould rival them in trade, or refufe the obedience they ufed to pay them ; befides which, 4.] 1 *1 L 1 1 /T 1 ^ T y~'j V-v-i \.\J isciy LIICIIj ^ UCIjGCS Wiiicll® the bridge he had caft over the Hellefpont ; but this they would then lofe the opportunity of plundering the advice hemcr rpierfpn a D._/! • r 11 , . , _ - o *5 Themifto- :les ho- wured by he Lace- isemonians advice being reje&ed, he fent a trufty meffenger to Xerxes, acquainting him that the Greeks intended to break down his bridge, and therefore defired him to make all the hafte he could, left by that means he ftiould be ftmt up in Europe. According to Herodo¬ tus, he alfo adv'ifed the Athenians to quit the purfuit and return home, in order to build their ruined houfes. This advice, though mifinterpreted by fome, was cer¬ tainly a very prudent one, as Xerxes, though once de¬ feated, was ftill at the head of an army capable of de- ftroying all Greece ; and had he been driven to defpair by finding himfelf (hut up or warmly purfued, it was impoflible to fay what might have been the event. Af¬ ter this, Themiftocles formed a fcheme for the aggran- difement of Athens indeed, but a moft unjuft and in¬ famous one. It was, in Ihort, to make Athens miftrefs of the fea, by burning all the (hips except tliofe belong¬ ing to that republic. He told his countrymen, that he had fomething to propofe of great confequence, but which could not be fpoken publicly: whereupon he Avas defired to communicate it to Ariftides, by Avhom the propofal was reje&ed ; and Ariftides having in¬ formed the Athenians that what Themiftocles had faid was very advantageous but very unjuft, they defired him to think no more of it. When the fleet returned to Salamis, extraordinary honours were paid to Themiftocles by the Lacedgemo- nians. On his entering that city, they decreed him a wreath of olives as the prize of prudence ; prefented him Vol. HE Part E Perfians in cafe of any quarrel Avith Ionia. Before they returned home, hoAvever, the Athenians crofted over to the Cherfonefus, and befieged Seftos. The fiege Avas long and troublefome : but at laft the garrifon^bcing Seftos8 prefled with hunger, and having no hopes of relief, ken by the dmded themlelves into Iavo bodies, and endeavoured to Athenian?, make their efcape ; but Avere purfued, and all either killed or taken. Oiba’zus, one of their commanders, Avas facrificed to a Thracian god ; and the other, call¬ ed Artya&es, impaled alive, and his fon ftoned before his face, becaufe he had rifled the fepulchre of Prote- filaus. *9 After the \M6tones at Platasa and IVIycale, the Athe- They re¬ mans returned Avithout any apprehenfion, and began tobuild tbei[? rebuild their city in a more magnificent manner thanClty' before. Here they were no fooner arrived than a dif- pute Avas ready to be commenced about the form of government. The commons, with Themiftocles at their head, Avere for a democracy; to Avhich Ariftides rather than hazard the raifing difturbances, confented! It Avas therefore propofed, that every citizen fhould have an equal right to the government; and that the archons ftiould be chofen out of the body of the people, without preference or diftindfion : £;nd this propofal being agreed to, put an end to all difeontents for the prefent. At this time alfo Themiftocles propofed that the city nf Athens ftiould be fortified in the beft manner pof- fible, that it might not be liable to be again deftroyed, - G g when Attica. 90 Themifto- cles adviies to fortify Athens, and de¬ ceives the Spartans who oppofe it. ATT [234 when the Perfians fhould take it into their heads to invade Greece. At this propofal the Lacedaemonians were exceedingly alarmed } and therefore remonfl rated, that fhould Athens once be ftrongly fortified, and the Perfians become poffeffed of it, it would be impoflible to get them out of it again. At laft, feeing thefe ar- ] ATT ty behaviour of Paufanias the Lacedtemonian. He Attica, had commanded at Plataea, and ftill enjoyed the fu-—v-—>> preme authority in the war which was all this time ^ 92 carrying on againft the Perfians j but being elated with °^/the”* his fuccefs at Plataea, and having entered into a trea-feamnSfer- fonable correfpondence with the enemy, he treated the red to to get tliem OUl OI ll again. 1 . <1 U U Athens. guments had no effea, they abfolutely forbade the A- captains-under his command with the greateit haugh-Athens. ,1 n,. 'Tl-.Io ..rtm_ tinpfs oivincr the nrefe.rence to the Snartans in fuch a 91 Makes the Pyrajus the port of Athens. dienians to carry their walls any higher. This com mand gave great offence j but T. hemiitocles, confidenng the power of Sparta at that time, advifedthe Athenians to temporize j and to aifure the ambafladors that they fhould proceed no farther in their work, till, by an em- baffy of their own, fatisfa&ion fhould be given to their allies. Being named ambaffador at his own defire to Sparta, with home other Athenians, Themiftocles fet out alone, telling the fenate that it would be for the interefl of the ftate to delay fending the other ambaffadors as long as poflible. When arrived at Sparta, he put off from time to time receiving an audience, on account of his colleagues not being arrived : but in the mean time the walls of Athens were building with the utmofl ex¬ pedition •, neither houfes nor fepulchres being fpared for materials 5 and men, women, children, ftrangers, citizens, and fervants, working without intermiflion. Of this the Lacedaemonians having notice, and the reft of the Athenian ambaffadors being arrived, Themi¬ ftocles and his colleagues were fummoned before the ephori, who immediately began to exclaim againft the Athenians for their breach of promife. Themiftocles denied the charge : he faid his colleagues affured him of the contrary : that it did not become a great ftate to give heed to vague reports, but that deputies ought to be fent from Sparta to inquire into the truth of the matter, and that he himfelf would remain as a hoftage, to be anfwerable for the event. 1 his being agreed to, he engaged his affociates to advife the Athenians to commit the Spartan ambaffadors to fafe cuftody till he fhould be releafed ; after which be publicly avowed the whole tranfadtion, took the fcheme upon himfelf, and told the Lacedaemonians that “ all things are lawful for our country.” The Spartans, feeing no remedy, con¬ cealed their refentment, and fent Themiftocles home in fafety. The next year, being the laft of the 75th Olympiad, Themiftocles obferving the inconvenience of the port Phalerum, thought of making the Pyraus the port of Athens. This he did not at firft think proper to men¬ tion publicly j but having fignified to the people that he had fomething of importance to communicate, they appointed Xanthippus and Arirtides to judge of his propofal. They readily came into his meafures, and told the people that what Themiflocles propofed would be of the utmoft advantage to the ftate, at the fame time that it might be performed with eafe. Upon this they were defired to lay the matter before the fenate j who coming unanimoufly into their meafures, ambaffa- dprs were defpatched to Sparta to infinuate there how proper it would be for the Greeks to have fome great port, where a fleet might always watch the defigns of the Perfians j and thus having prevented any umbrage from their firft undertakings, the work was fet about with fuch expedition, that it was finilhed before the La¬ cedaemonians knew well what they were about. At this time alfo the fovereignty of the fea was transferred from Sparta to Athens, through the haugh- 93 tinefs, giving the preference to the Spartans in fuch a manner that the reft of the Greeks could no longer bear his infolence. On the contrary, Ariftides, and Cimon the fon of Miltiades, who commanded the Athenians, by their obliging behaviour gained the favour of every body j fo that the allies, having publicly affronted Pau¬ fanias, put themfelves under the protedlion of the A- thenian republic j and thenceforward the Athenians, and not the Lacedaemonians, had the fupreme com¬ mand. yj The Greeks being now fenfible that they would al-Ariftides ways have occafion to be on their guard againft the taxes Perfians, and that it was neceffary to eftablilh a fund by a common taxation of all the Hates, Ariftides pitched upon as the only perfon that could be trufted appuufe. with the power of allotting to each of the ftates its proper quota. This difficult talk he undertook, and executed in a manner unparalleled in the annals of hi- ftory. All parties wTere pleafed, and his taxation was ftyled t/ie happy lot of Greece. The grofs amount of it was 450 talents. . 94 It now came to the turn of Themiftocles to experi-Theimfto- ence the ingratitude of his countrymen. His fervices^sbam " had been fo effential, that the treatment he received^’ may perhaps be a fufficient excufe for modern patriots when they connedt their own intereft with the fervice of their country. Themiftocles had plainly faved the ftate from ruin by his advice 5 he had diftinguilhed him¬ felf by his valour $ had rendered Athens, by his policy, fu peri or to the other ftates of Greece } and entirely fubverted the Lacedaemonian fcheme of power. Yet, notwithftanding all this, he was baniftied by the oftra- cifm, without the fmalleft crime pretended, unlefs that he was hated by the Lacedaemonians, and that he had eredted a temple, near his own houfe, dedicated to Diana, the giver of the bef counfel; intimating that he himfelf had given the beft counfel for the fafety both of Athens and of all Greece, which was no more than the truth. Nay, he was not only driven out of Athens, but out of all Greece j fo that he was forced to feek ffielter from the king of Perfia, againft whom he had fought with fo much valour. That monarch gave him a gracious reception •, and he was never recalled, be- caufe the Greeks had no occafion for his frrvices. The war with Perfia was not yet difcontinued ; theSuecefs of Greeks found their advantage in plundering and en-Cimon ^ riching themfelves with the fpoils of the king of Per-pgjgnatis. fia’s fubjedts. For this reafon, in the end of the 77th Olympiad, they equipped a navy, under a pretence of relieving fuch of the Greek cities in Afia as were fub- jedt to the Perfians. Of this fleet Cimon, the fon of Miltiades by the daughter of the king of i brace, was appointed commander in chief. He had already tafted the juftice and generofity of his countrymen, having been thrown into prifon for his father’s fine, from which he was releafed by Ca/has, whom his After Elpinice married on account of his great wealth procured by no very honourable means. He accepted of the command, however. A T T Attica/ however, and gained fuch immenfe booty in this expe- —V—■“ dition, that the Athenians were thereby enabled to lay the foundation of thofe long extended walls which united the port to the city. The foundation was laid in a moorifh ground ; fo that they were forced to fink it very deep, and at a great expence j but to this Cirnon himfelf contributed out of his own (hare of the fpoils, which was very confiderable. He alfo adorned the fo¬ rum with palm trees, and beautified the academy with delightful walks and fountains. The Perfians having foon after this expedition invaded [ 235 ] A 1 Attica. 97 Makes Athens irrefiftible at fea. 96 He fnbdues o r the Cherfo-the Cherfonefus, and with the afiiftance of the Thracians nefus. made themfelves mailers of it, Cimon was fent againft them in a great hurry. He had only four fliips j but neverthelefs with thefe he took 13 of the Perfian gal¬ leys, and reduced the whole of the Cherfonefus. After this he marched againft the Thracians, who revolting againft the Athenians, had made themfelves mailers of the gold mines lying between the rivers Nyflus and Strymon. The Thracians were quickly obliged to yield j after which the Athenians fent a great colony to Amphipolis, a city of Thrace, which for feme time made a confiderable figure, but afterward attempting to pene¬ trate into the country of the EJones, great part of them Were deftroyed. Cimon alfo fell upon the following expedient to make Athens irrefiftible at fea by the other Hates of Greece. Many of the Greek Hates, by virtue of A- ritlides’s taxation, were bound to furnilh men and gal¬ leys as well as to pay the tax for their fupport. But w-hen they faw themfelves out of danger from the Per¬ fians, moll of them were very unwilling to furnilh their quota of men. 1 his the Athenian generals being of¬ fended with, were for having recourfe to force j but Cimon permitted fuch as were defirous- of Haying at home to do fo, and accepted a fum of money in lieu of a galley completely manned. By this means he in¬ ured the Athenians, whom he took on board his galleys, to hardllrip and difcipline 5 while the allies who re¬ mained at home became enervated through idlenefs, and from being confederates, dwindled into tributaries, and almoll Haves. In the ball year of the 77th Olym¬ piad, Cimon was fent to aftift the Lacedaemonians againft their Helotes, who had revolted from them. In this he was attended with his ufual fuccefs; but, feme time after, the Lacedtemonians being engaged in the liege of Ithome, fent again to the Athenians for fuccour, and Cimon was a fecond time fent to their relief j but the Spartans having received a fufficient fupport of troops from other quarters before the arrival of the A- thenian general, he and his men were difmified without doing any thing. This grievoufiy offended the people of Athens, who thenceforward hated not only the La¬ cedaemonians, but all their own citizens who were thought to be friends to that Hate. It was not pofiible, however, that any perfen who had ferved the Hate Ihould efcape banilhment at A- thens. Cimon had gained great wealth both to the public and to himfelf. In his public charafter he had behaved with unimpeached honefty, and as a private citizen he dedicated his wealth to the moft excellent purpofes. He demoliftied the enclofures about his grounds and gardens, permitting every one to enter and take what fruits they pleafed ; he kept an open table, where both rich and poor were plentifully en¬ tertained. If he met a citizen in a tattered fuit of - 58 ris is ba¬ siled. clothes, he made feme of hie attendants exchange with him j or if the quality of the perfon rendered that kindnefs unfuitable, he caufed a fum of money to be privately given him. All this, however, was not fuf¬ ficient : he did not concur with every meafure of the commonalty; and therefore the popular party deter¬ mined not to banifh him, but to put him to death. The crime laid to his charge was, that byprefents from the Macedonians he was prevailed upon to let flip a manifeft opportunity of enlarging his conquefts, after taking from the Perfians the gold mines of Thrace. To this accufation Cimon replied, that to the utmoft of his power he had profecuted the war againft the Thracians, and other enemies of the ftate of Athens $ but that, it was true, he had not made any inroads into Macedonia, becaufe he did not imagine he was to a6l as a public enemy of mankind, and becaufe he was ftruck with refpedl for a nation modeft in their car- r*age> juft in their dealings, and ftridlly honourable in their behaviour towards him and the Athenians : that if his countrymen looked upon this as a crime, he muft abide their judgment j but, for his part, he could never be brought to think fuch condufl amifs. Elpi- nice, Cimon’s fifter, ufed all her intereft in his behalf, and amongft others fpoke to Pericles the celebrated ftatefman and orator. He was indeed Cimon’s rival, and had no doubt aflifted in ftirring up the profecution againll him; but he did not defire his death; and there¬ fore, though appointed to accufe him, Pericles fpoke in Inch a manner that it plainly appeared he did not think him guilty ; and, in confequence of this lenity, Cimon was only banifhed by the oftracifm. The Athenian power was now rifen to fuch a height, that all the other ftates of Peloponnefus looked upon this republic with a jealous eye, and were continually watching every opportunity of. making war upon it when the ftate was engaged in troublefeme affairs, and feemed to be lefs able to refill. Thefe attempts, how¬ ever, fo far from leffening, generally contributed to in- creafe, the power of the Athenians ; but in the year before Chrift 458, the republic entered into a war with Wa/be- Sparta, which was fcarcely put an end to but by the de- tween A. ftruflion of the city of Athens. For this vrar, therethens anc* was no recent provocation on the part of the Spartans.Sparta' T hey had fent a great army to aflift the Dorians againft the Phocians, and the Athenians took this opportunity to revenge themfelves of former quarrels. Having therefore drawn in the Argives and Theffalians to be their confederates, they polled themfelves on the ifth- mus, fo that the Spartan army could not return with¬ out engaging them. The Athenians and their con¬ federates amounted to 14,000, and the Spartans to 11,500. The Spartan general, however, not very will¬ ing to hazard a battle, turned afide to Tanagra, a city in Bceotia, where feme of the Athenians w ho inclined to ariftocracy entered into a correfpondence with him. But before their defigns were ripe for execution, the, Athenian army marched with great expedition to Ta¬ nagra, fo that a battle became inevitable. When the Athenians at mies rvere drawn up in order of battle, Cimon pre-defeated, lented himfelf before his countrymen in complete ar¬ mour, and went to take pod among thofe of his own tribe ; but the popular party raifed fuch a clamour againft him, that he was forced to retire. Before he departed, however, he exhorted Euthippus and the reft of his friends to behave, in fuch a manner that they G g 2 niight ATT [ 236 ] ATT Attica, might wipe off the afperfion thrown upon him, as if he '“—v—had defigned to betray his country’s caufe to the La- cedsemonians. Euthippus defired him to leave his ar¬ mour, which he did 5 and a battle enfuing, the Athe¬ nians were defeated with great lofs, and Euthippus with the reft of Cimon’s friends were all killed in defence of his armour which they had iurrounded. Another engagement foon followed, wherein both armies fuffer- ed fo much, that they were glad to conclude a ftiort truce, that each might have time to recruit their ftiat- 101 tered forces. They gain '['he fcale of fortune now feemed to turn in favour great ad- 0p Athenians. The Thebans, who had been de- tover the prived of the command of Bceotia on account of their Spartans, having fided with Xerxes, were now reftored to it by the Lacedaemonians. At this the Athenians were fo difpleafed, that they fent an army under Myronides the fon of Callias into Boeotia to overturn all that had been done. That general was met by the Thebans and their allies, who compofed a numerous and well-difciplined army. Neverthelefs, though the Athenian army was but a handful in comparifon of their enemies, Myroni¬ des gained a complete victory over the allies, in fome fenfe more glorious than either that of Marathon or Plataea. In thefe battles they had fought againft effe¬ minate and ill-difciplined Perfians, but now they en¬ countered and defeated a fuperior army compofed of the braveft Greeks. After this viflory, Myronides marched to Tanagra, which he took by ftorm, and ra¬ zed to the ground : he then plundered Boeotia ; defeated another army which the Boeotians had drawn together to oppofe him ; then fell upon the Locrians; and ha¬ ving penetrated into Theffaly, chaftifed the inhabitants of that country for having revolted from the Atheniansj and from thence returned to Athens laden with riches and glory. The next year Tolmides the Athenian admiral in¬ vaded Laconia, where he made himfelf mafter of feve- ral places ; and on the back of this, Pericles invaded zcz Peloponnefus with great fuccefs, burning, fpoiling, of Oimon re- taking, whatever places he attempted. On his return called. founc} the people greatly out of humour on account of Cimon’s banilhment j fo he was immediately re¬ called. Cimon rvas no fooner returned than he fell to his old employment of plundering the Perfians; and, accord¬ ing to Plutarch, he had now nothing lefs in view than the conqueft of the whole Perfian empire. The Per- fian monarch finding he could have no reft, at laft fent orders to Artabazus and Megabizus, his commanders, to conclude a treaty ; which was done on the following conditions : 1. That the Greek cities in Afia fhould be free, and governed by their own laws. 2. That the Per¬ fians fhould fend no army within three days journey of the fea. 3. That no Perfian Ihip of war ftiould fail be- tween Thefalis and Cyrene, the former a city of Pam- I03 phvlia, and the latter of Lycia. His death. While this treaty was going on, Cimon died, whe¬ ther of ficknefs or of a wound he had received is not known •, and after his death the Athenian affairs be¬ gan to fall into confufion. It was now the misfortune of this ftate to be alike hated by her enemies and allies; the confequence of which was, that the latter were per¬ petually revolting whenever they thought they had an Opportunity of doing fo with impunity. The Mega- rians, at this time, who had been long under the pro- 'Attica. teftion or dominion of Athens, thought proper for J fome reafon or other to difclaim all dependence on their former proteftors, and have recourfe to Sparta, with which ftate they entered into a ftricl alliance. This the Athenians revenged by ravaging the country of the Megarians ; which foon brought on a renewal of the Lacedaemonian war that had been for a little time fufpended. Pericles, however, procured the return of the firft Lacedaemonian army, without bloodihed, by bribing Chandrides the young king of Sparta’s tutor. In the winter, Tolmides refolved to undertake an expe¬ dition into Boeotia with a fmall body of troops : which defign he put in execution contrary to the advice of Pericles ; and his rafhnefs was foon punithed by his own death and the total defeat of his army. Notwithftand- I04 ing this misfortune, however, Pericles foon after inva-A thirty ded and reduced Euboea; and the Lacedaemonians, years truce finding it was not for their intereft to carry on the Laceckemo- Avar, concluded a truce with the Athenians for 30 nians. years. About this time Pfammiticus, king of Egypt, fent by way of prefent to the people of Athens 40,000 buftiels of wheat; which proved a great misfortune to I05 the city : for Pericles, out of fpite to Cimon, who had Cruelty of children by an Arcadian woman, had preferred a law Pericles, whereby the Athenians of the half blood were disfran- chifed ; and this law, on account of the diftribution of the corn above mentioned, Avas profecuted with fuch feverity, that no lefs than 5000 perfons, Avho till then had been confidered as free-men, Avere fold for flaves. I06 This piece of cruelty has been of great fervice to the Number of critics, as by means of it Ave know exa&ly the number ll’e Ath.e' of Athenian citizens, which at this time amounted to™™ Cltl' no more then 14,040 perfons, though Athens Avas noAV aiming at no lefs than erecting an univerfal mo¬ narchy. Six years after the conclufion of the peace betAveen Athens and Sparta, a war broke out between the Sa¬ mians and Milefians about the city of Priene, feated under Mount Mycale in Ionia. Hoav this Avar came to affeft the Athenians is not certainly known ; but,fome- how or other, this republic Avas induced to take the part of the Milefians; and the illand of Samos Avas reduced by Pericles,, who eftablifhed there a democracy, and left an Athenian garrifon. He Avas no fooner gone, 107 however, than the Samians diftiking their new form Samos de- of government, drove out the garrifon he had left ; but.p^f^^ Pericles quickly returning, befieged and took their ci¬ ty, demolifhed their walls, and fined them of the Avhole expence of the Avar; part of which he obliged them to pay down, and took hoftages for the remainder. When Pericles returned, he procured himfelf to be appointed to pronounce the public oration in honour of thofe who fell : which he did with fuch eloquence, that when he came down from the pulpit the Avomen gathered about him, took him by the hand, and crowned him with garlands. 108 A little after this commenced the Avar betAveen the War be- Corcyrians and Corinthians, which by degrees brought ^ the Athenians into thofe engagements that proved the anti Corin- ruin of their flate. The caufes of this war Avere the thians. following. An inteftine Avar breaking out in the little territory of Epidamnum, a city of Macedonia, found¬ ed by the Corcyrians, one party called in to their af- fiftance A T T [ Attics 109 Athens Sides with the Corey- rians. U° Potidseabe- lieged by the Athe¬ nians. , fifhnce the Illyrians, and the other the Corey rians —' The latter neglefting the matter, Corinth was applied to, as the Coreyrians were a colony from that place. The Corinthians, partly out of pity to the Epidani- nians, and partly out of fpleen to the Corcyrians, fent a very great fleet to the affiftance of the former, by which means that party which had applied to Corinth was thoroughly etiablifhed. This being refented by the Corcyrians, they fent a fleet to Epidamnum to fup- port the exiles ; and accordingly this fleet began to add oftenfively on its entering the port, the chief com¬ manders having inftru£lions to propofe terms of accom¬ modation, to which the Corinthians would by no means agree. The next year the Corcyrians defeated at fea the Corinthians and their allies, and took Epidamnum by florin ; after which they wafted the territories of the allies of the Corinthians, which greatly exafperated the latter. At Corinth, therefore, they began to make great preparations for carrying on the war, and preffed their confederates to do the fame, that they might be in a condition to retrieve the honour they had loft, and humble this ungrateful colony which had thus infulted her mother city. The Coreyrians were no fooner acquainted with thefe proceedings, than they defpatched ambaffadors to Athens with their complaints 5 and thefe were quickly followed by others from Corinth on the fame errand. At firft the people of Athens inclined to favour the Corinthians: but they foon changed their minds, and . took part with the Corcyrians: they contented them- felves, however, with entering into a defenfive alliance with that little ftate, Avhereby they promifed to aflift each other, in cafe either party fhould be attacked ; and in confequence of this treaty, they furnithed the Corcy¬ rians with ten galleys, under Lacedaemonius the fon of Cimon, with whom were joined Diotenes and Proteus as colleagues. As foon as the feafon of the year permitted, the Corinthians failed for the coaft of Corcyra with a fleet of 150 (hips, under the command of Xenoclides, af- lifted by four other Corinthian admirals j each fqua- dron of their allies being commanded by a chief of their own. The Corcyrian and Athenian fleet amount¬ ed to 120, but the Athenians had orders to give as little afliftance as poflible. The a<51ion was very brilk for fome time : the Corcyrian right wing broke the left of the Corinthian fleet; and forcing fome of the fhips on fliore, landed, pillaged their camp, and made a great number of them prifoners j on the other hand, the Corinthian fhips in the right wing beat the Cor¬ cyrian (hips there, they being but very faintly aflifted by the Athenians, till the latter were at laft obliged to defend themfelves, which they did fu well, that the Corinthians were glad to retire. The next day pre¬ parations were made on both fides for another engage¬ ment ; but 20 fhips coming from Athens to the afllft- ance of the Corcyrians, the Corinthians declined the combat. . As foon as the Corcyrian war broke out, the Athe-> nians fent orders to the citizens of Potidcea to demolifh a part of their wall, to fend back the magiftrates they had received from Corinth, and to give hoftages for their own behaviour. Potidaea was a town in Mace¬ donia, founded by the Corinthians, but at that time in alliance with the Athenians.— Perdiccas king of I , 237 ] ATT . Macedon, who hated the Athenians, took this oppor- Attica, tunity to perfuade the Potidaeans to revolt. Accor- —y—“• dingly they fent ambafladors to Athens to entreat the revocation of thefe orders 5 but at the fame time fent deputies to Sparta, to join with the Corinthians and Megarians in their complaints againft the Athenians. The Athenians upon this fent a confiderable fleet againft Potidaea, under the command of Callias, a no¬ bleman of great courage. The Corinthians on their part defpatched one Arifteus with a confiderable body of troops to the afliftance of that city. An engage¬ ment following, the Athenians were vigors, but with the lofs of their general. Phormio, who fueceeded in the command, inverted the city in form, and fhut up its port with his fleet; but the Potidaeans dreading to fall into the hands of the Athenians, made a molt ob- llinate defence, while in the mean time they warmly Elicited the Corinthians to perform their promifes, and engage the reft of the Hates of Peloponnefus in their quarrel. The Lacedoemonians having heard what the Corin- , 111 thians and other little Hates of Greece had to fay t againft the Athenians, fent ambafladors to the latter, mand repa- demanding reparation for the injuries, with orders, in ration for cafe of a refufal, to declare war. The terms demand-th? injunes ed were, in the firft place, the expullion of thofe A- (^ate°of thenians who were allied to the family of Megacles fo Greece, often mentioned. This article was on account of Pe¬ ricles ; for he was the fon of Xanthippus the Athenian commander at Mycale by Agarifte niece to the famous Clyfthenes, who corrupted the prieftefs of Apollo in order to procure the expulfion of the Pififtratidse. They next infifted that the fiege of Potidaea fhould be raifed ; thirdly, that the inhabitants of iEgina ftiould be left free ; and laftly, that a decree made againft the Megarians, whereby they were forbid the ports and markets of Athens, fhould be revoked, and all the Grecian ftates under the dominion of Athens fet at li- berty- . 112 I'hefe terms the Athenians were perfuaded by Peri-Their terms cles to rejeft. The arguments ufed by him were in fub- fiance as follows : That whatever the Lacedaemonians might pretend as to the injuftice of the complaints of the L ' ' allies, the true ground of this refentment was the pro- fperity of the Athenian republic, which the Spartans always hated, and now fought an opportunity of hum¬ bling : that it muft be owing to the Athenians them- fel ves if this defign fucceeded, becaufe for many rea- fons Athens was better able to engage in a long and expenfive war than the Peloponnefians. He then laid before the people an exact account of their circum- ftances ; putting them in mind, that the treafure brought from Delos amounted to 10,000 talents ; and that though 400c of thefe had been expended on the ftately gate of their citadel, yet that 6000 were ftill in hand ; that they were alfo entitled to the fublidics paid by the confederate ftates; that the ftatues of their gods, the Perfian fpoils, &c. were worth immenfe fums; that private men were arrived at vail fortunes; and that, confidering their trade by fea, they had a certain annual increafe of wealth ; that they had on foot an army of 12,000 men, and in their colonies and garrifons 17,000 ; that their fleet confided of 300 fail; whereas the Peloponnefians had no fuch advantages. For thefe reafons he propofed as the moft feafible and likewife ATT [ 238 ] ATT < bans on Plataea. Attica, likewife the moft equitable fatisfa£Hon that could be gi- v—»> verij jjjgj- |.]iey Would reverfe their decree againft Me* gara, if the Lacedcemonians would allow free egrefs and regrefs in their city to the Athenians and their al¬ lies •, that they would leave all thofe Hates free who were free at the making of the laft peace with Sparta, provided the Spartans would alfo leave all Hates free who were under their dominion ; and that future dif- putes fliould be fubmitted to arbitration. In cafe thefe offers fliould be reje&ed, he advifed them to hazard a war j telling them, that they fliould not think they ran that hazard for a trifle, or retain a fcruple in their minds as if a fmall matter moved them to it, becaufe on this fmall matter depended their fafety, and the reputa¬ tion of their conflancy and refolution j whereas, if they yielded in this, the next demand of the Lacedaemonians would be of a higher nature j for having once difcover- cd that the Athenians were fubje£t to fear, they would thence conclude that nothing could be denied to Spar¬ ta 5 whereas a fliff denial in this cafe would teach them to treat Athens for the future on terms of equality. He enforced thefe reafons by (bowing that their anceflors had always afted on the like principles, and in all cafes preferred their glory to their eafe, and their liberty to 1I^ their poffeffions. Attempt of This was the origin of the Peloponnefian war, which the The- makes fo great a figure in ancient hiflory. The im¬ mediate preliminary to general hoflilities was an at¬ tempt of the Thebans to furprife Platsea. With this view they fent Eurymachus with 300 Thebans to aflifl fuch of the Plataeans as they had drawn over to their interefl, in making themfelves maflers of the place. In this defign, they fucceeded very well at firfl, the Plataeans, who had promifed to open the gates, keepir g their words exaftly, fo that they were inflantly in pof- feflion of the city. The other party, however, per¬ ceiving how fmall a number they had to contend with, unanimoufly rofe upon them, killed a great many, and forced the reff to furrender themfelves prifoners of war. Another party came from Thebes to afliff their countrymen ; but they arrived too late : the Pla- taeans, however, forefeeing that they would wafle their country, promifed to releafe their prifoners if they would forbear to fpoil their lands. On this the The¬ bans withdrew ; and the Piataeans cruelly put to death all their prifoners, to the number of 1 80, with Eury¬ machus their chief, alleging that they had not pro¬ mifed their releafe but in cafe of peace. The Athe¬ nians, as foon as they had notice of this attempt of the Phebans, caufed all the Boeotians in their terri¬ tory to be arrefled ; and when they underflood how the Plataeans had delivered themfelves, they fent a great convoy of provifions to that city, and a numerous body of troops to efcort their wives and children to Athens. Both parties now prepared in earned for war, both fent ambaffadors to the Perfians, and both fought to roufe their allies. Moft of the Greek dates inclined to favour the Spartans, becaufe they afted on this occa- fion as the deliverers of Greece, and becaufe they either had been, or feared that they would be, oppreffed by the Athenians, \yith the Spartans joined all the Pe- loponnefians, except the Argives and part of the A- chaeans ; without Peloponnefus, the Megarians, Pho- cians, Locrians, Boeotians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, 4 114 They are naaffacred. Account of the allies on both fules. and Ana&orians, declared themfelves on their fide. On Attica, the other hand, the Chians, Lefbians, Platteans, Meffe- —v——•/ nians, Acarnanians, Corcyrians, Zacynthians, Carians, Dorians, Thracians, moft part of the iflands, and all the Cyclades excepting Melos and Thera, with Eubcea and Samos, joined the Athenians. ll5 The Peloponnefian war commenced 431 years before year Chrift. The Lacedaemonian army was affembled attheofthe war. ifthmus, and confided of no lefs than 60,000 men ; but before Archidamus king of Sparta, who commanded in chief, would enter Attica, he defpatched a herald to Athens. The herald was fent back without any an- fwer, by which all hopes of peace were cut oft'. As Archidamus was a friend to Pericles, the latter appre¬ hended that he might forbear plundering his eftates. With this he immediately acquainted the people j tell¬ ing them at the fame time, that in fuch a cafe he made a prefent of his lands to the public. He then advifed the citizens to take no care of defending their country- feats, but to attend only to the city, bufy themfelves in the equipping of (hips, and fettle a thorough refolution not to be intimidated with the firft evils of war. This propofal the Athenians readily complied with, and ap¬ pointed Pericles commander in chief, with nine more generals to aflift him. The firft year, the Spartan army committed great ravages in Attica, Pericles having no force capable of oppofing it, and refufing to engage on difadvantageous terms, notwithftanding prodigious clamours were raifed againft him by his countrymen. The allies, however, had no great reafon to boaft of the advantages they gained this year: an Athenian fleet ravaged the coafts of Peloponnefus •, another infefted the Locrians, drove out the inhabitants of TEgins, and repeopled the ifland from Athens. They likewife reduced Cephalenia, and fume towns in Acarnania and Leucas which had decla¬ red for the Lacedaemonians 3 and in the autumn, when the Peloponnefians were retired, Pericles entering the Megarian territory, did all the mifchief that could be expelled from a provoked enemy. 117 The fpring of the fecond year was very fatal to A-Second thens, by a dreadful plague which deftroyed great num-}^1^^ bers of the citizens, while the Peloponnefians under|‘[^euat Archidamus wafted every thing abroad. In the midft Athens, of thefe diftreffes, however, Pericles retained his cou¬ rage, and would fuffer none of hrs countrymen to ftir without the city either to efcape the plague or infeft the enemy. He caufed a great fleet to be equipped, on board which he embarked 4000 foot and 300 horfe, with which he failed to Epidaurus. Upon this the enemy withdrew their forces out of Attica j but Peri¬ cles was able to do no great matter on account of the plague, which made fo great havock among his men, that he brought back to Athens only 1500 (he 4000 ns he carried out. By this misfortune the Athenians were Athenians thrown into defpair •, they immediately fued for peace/116 for which the Spartans were now too proud to grant; thenlleace‘ turning their rage upon Pericles, they dflmiffed and fined him. Soon after, Pericles’s children and almoft all his relations died of the plague; fo that this great ftatefman rvas overwhelmed with melancholy, and for fome time (hut himfelf up from public view : at laft, through the perfuafion of Alcibiades and fome others, he fliowed himfelf to the people. They received him with acclamations, and at his requeft repealed the un- juft ATT [ Attica, juft law he had made, whereby all Athenians of the half —v—^ blood were disfranchifed, and then reinftated him in all ”9 his former honours. Hereupon he inrolled the only fon quett/the6" he *ia<^ wh0 before had been counted a baftard on repeal of his aec<)unt of his mother being a Milefian. law. This year alio the ifland of Zucynthus was wafted by the Peloponnefians j and the city of Potidaea fubmitted to the Athenians, after the inhabitants had been driven to fuch extremity as to feed upon human fleth. The Athenians permitted the men to depart with one gar¬ ment, and the women with two; after which, the town was repeopled by a colony from Athens. The third year of the Peloponneliah war was re¬ markable for the death of the great Pericles, who was taken off by the plague. Piataea alfo was befieged by Archidamus 5 but without fuceefs, even though the greateft part of it was fet on fire ; the Plataeans refol- ving to luomit to every kind of mifery rather than abandon the Athenian caufe. In the end, therefore, the king of Sparta was obliged to turn the fiege into a blockade; and having thrown up an intrenchment for¬ tified with a deep ditch, he left a fufficient number of men to guard his lines, and then returned back to Pe- 122 loponnefus. Fourth The following fummer, the Peloponnefians under the Derate af6" COipmand ot' Arcll>damus invaded Attica, where they tempt of wafted every thing with fire and fword j at the fame the Platae- time the whole iilaud of Leibos, except the diftruSl of 120 Third year Pericles dies. I 21 Plattea befieged. 123 &c. taken by the \- thenians. Methymna, revolted from the A;henians, who here upon inverted the city of Mitylene. All this time the city of Piataea was blocked up by the Peloponnefians j and its inhabitants being now greatly diftrefledfor want of provifions, the garrifin, confiding ot 400 natives and 80 Athenians, came to the defperate refolution of forcing a paffage through the enemy’s lines. When they came to attempt this, however, many of them were intimidated: but 300 perfifted in their relolution ; and of thefe 212 got late through and marched to Athens, but the reft were compelled to retire. Fifth year. In the beginning of the fifth year, the Peloponne- Stc^aken ^anS ^ent t0 ^ re^ Mitylene $ but with¬ out effect, for the place had furrendered before the fleet could come to its afliftance. Paches, the Athe¬ nian commander, like wife chafed away the Peloponne- fian fleet upon its arrival ; and returning to Lefbos fentthe Lacedaemonian minifter, whom he found in Mi¬ tylene, together with a deputation, to Athens. On their arrival, the Lacedaemonian was immediately put to death ; and in a general affembly of the people, it was refolved, that all the Mitylenians who were ar¬ rived at man’s eftate (hould be put to death, and the women and children fold for flaves. The next day, however, this cruel decree was reverfed, and a galley fent with all expedition to countermand the bloody or¬ ders. This lalt veffel, however, could not get before the other : but Paches, being a man of great humani¬ ty, had taken a day to confider on the orders he had received ; during which time the laft mentioned galley arrived ; in confluence of which, only about 1000 of the moft forward rebels were put to death ; the walls of the city were alfo demoliflied, their (hips taken awav, and their lands divided among the Athenians, who let them again to their old mailers at very high rents. The fame fummer the Athenians feized the ifland of Mino- as, lying over againil the territory of Megara $ and 139 1 ATT likewife the port of Nifsea, which laft they fortified, Attica. and it proved afterwards a place of the utmoft import- < v- ' j ance to them. At this time alfo the Plataeans, driven 124 to the laft extremity, furrendered to the Lacedaemoni-Plat£ea ans, by whom they were, to the number of 208, in- ani eluding 25 Athenians, put to death, and their women fold for flaves. Their city was foon after razed by their implacable enemies the Thebans, ivho left only . an inn to Ihow where it flood. The fame of Plataea, however, induced Alexander the Great afterwards to re¬ build it. In this year happened the famous fedition of Cor- Sedition of cyra, whence other feditions, when their effedfts ren-Corcyra. dered them terrible, have been called Corcyrian. It hath been already obferved, that the war between the Corcynans and Corinthians brought on the general war throughout Peloponnefus. A great number of Corcy- rians were in the beginning of this war carried away priloners into Peloponnefus, where the chief of them were very well treated, but the reft fold for flaves. I he reafon of this condudlof the Corinthians was a de- fign they had lorrued of engaging thefe Corcyrians to influence their countrymen to fide with them and their allits. With this view they treated them with all ima¬ ginable lenity and tendernefs, inftilling into them by degrees a hatred of democratic government j after which they were told, that they might obtain their li- beity upon condition of ufing all their influence at home in favour of the allies, and to the prejudice of Athens. lifts the Corcyrians readily promifed and en¬ deavoured to perform. At firfl, thofe who were for an ariftocracy prevailed, and murdered all thofe of the oppofite party that fell into their hands, in which they were aflifted by a fleet of Peloponnefians : but the A— thenians fending firft one fleet and then another to the afliflance of the diftreffed party, the Peloponnefians were forced to withdraw ; after which the democratic party fufficiently revenged themfelves, and deftroyed their an- tagomfts without mercy. The worft of all was, that this example once fet, the feveral Hates of Greece felt in their turns the like commotions, which were always heighten¬ ed by agents from Sparta and Athens ; the former en- deavouring to fettle ariftocracy, and the latter democra- - cy, wherever they came.. 126 While the Athenians were thus engaged in a war wherein they were already overmatched, they fonlifldy en£age in 3 1 J war with en£aSt;d in a new one, which in the end proved fatal than all the reft. The inhabitants of Sicily were U y" fplit into two faftions *, the one called the Doric, at the head of which was the city of Syracufe j the other the Ionic, which owned the Leontines for their chiefs: the latter perceiving themfelves too weak without fo¬ reign aid, fent one Gorgias, a celebrated orator, to apply to Athens for relief*, and he by his fine fpeeches fo captivated the giddy and inconftant Athenians, that they ran headlong into a war which they were unable to maintain while engaged with all the Peloponnefi- ans. Enticed by this new profpedl, therefore, and grafping at the conqueft of Sicily, as well as of all Greece, they fent a fleet to the afliflance of the Le¬ ontines, under the command of Laehetes and Chabriasj and they were no foonef failed than another fleet for the fame purpofe was begun to be fitted out. All this time the plague continued to rage with great violence at Athens, cutting off this year 4000 citizens, be- fides Attica. . I27 Sixth year. isS Seventh year. Pylus forti¬ fied by the Athenians. 129 Befieged. 130 Spartan fleet de¬ ft royed. *3* Treachery of the Athenians. 132 They at¬ tack Sphac teria. I33 Cleon the orator appointed general. ATT [ 24 lides a mucli greater number of the meaner fort of people. The fixth year of the Peloponnefian tvar was remark¬ able for no great exploit: -Agis the fon of Archfda- mus, king of Sparta, affembled an army in order to invade Attica, but was prevented from fo doing by many great earthquakes which happened throughout Greece. The next year, however, he entered Attica with his army, while the Athenians on their part lent a fleet under the command of Demoflhenes, to infeft the coafts of Peloponnelus. As this fleet paffed by La¬ conia, the commander took notice that the promonto¬ ry of Pylus, which was joined to the continent by a narrow neck of land, had before it a barren ifland a- bout two miles in circumference, in which, however, there was a good and fafe port, all winds being kept off by the headland, or by the ifle. Thefe advantages made him apprehend, that a garrifon left here would give the Peloponnefians fo much trouble, that they would find it more advifable to proteft their own coun¬ try than to invade that of their neighbours. Accord¬ ingly, having raifed a ftrong fortification, be bimfelf with five (hips ftaid to defend it, while the reft of the fleet proceeded on their intended expedition. On the news of this event, the Peloponnefian army immedi¬ ately returned to befiege Pylus. When they arrived before the place they took poffeflion of the harbour, and then caufed a chofen body of Spartans take poflef- fton of the ifland of Sphafteria, after which they at¬ tacked the fort with great vigour. Demofthenes and his garrifon defended themfelves with great valour ; and an Athenian fleet arriving very feafonably, offer¬ ed battle to the Peloponnefian fleet. This being re- fufed, the Athenians boldly failed into the harbour, broke and funk moft of the veffels therein, after which they befieged the Spartans in Spha&eria. The Pelo- ponnefians now began to treat with their enemies, and a truce was concluded during the time that negocia- tions were carried on at Athens, One of the articles of this truce was, that the Peloponnefians Humid deli¬ ver up all their (hips, on condition of having them punctually returned in cafe the treaty did not take ef- feCt. The Athenians having heard the Spartan atn- baffadors, were inclined to put an end to this deftruc* live war : but Cleon, one of their orators, a warm and obftinate man, perfuaded his countrymen to infift on very unreafonable terms j upon which the ambaffadors returned, and by doing fo put an end to the truce. The Peloponnefians then demanded their veffels ; but the Athenians refufed to deliver them, under pretence of their having broke the truce. Hoftilities being thus recommenced on both fides, the Lacedaemonians attacked the Athenians at Pylus, while the latter attacked the Spartans at SphaCferia. The Spartans, though but a handful of men, and under every imaginable difeouragement, behaved with fuch bravery, that the fiege proceeded very (lowly, fo that the people of Athens became very uneafy. They be¬ gan then to wifti they had embraced the offers of the Spartans, and to rail vehemently againft Cleon, who, to excufe himfelf, faid, it would be eafy for the gene¬ ral of the forces they were at that time fending to at¬ tack the Spartans in the ifle, and reduce them at once. Nicias, who had been appointed to this command, re¬ plied, that if Cleon believed he could do fuch great 0 ] ATT A ttica. things, he would do well to go thither in perfon : the latter, imagining this only meant to try him, faid he was ready to go with all his heart j whereby Nieias catched him, and declared that he had relinquiftied his charge. Cleon thereupon faid, that he was no gene¬ ral •, but Nicias told him that he might become one j and the people, pleafed with the controverfy, held the orator to his word. Cleon then advancing, told them lie was fo little afraid of the enemy, that, with a very inconfiderable force, he would undertake, in conjunc¬ tion with thofe already at Pylus, to bring to Athens the Spartans who gave them fo much trouble in 20 clays. The people laughed at thefe promifes : however, they furniftied him with the troops he defired ; and to He takes their furprife, Cleon brought the Spartans prifoners to the place. Athens within the time appointed. 135 This fummer, likewife, an Athenian fleet was fent End of the to Sicily, with inftruftions to putin at Corcyra, and ^tL7nan aflifl the government againft the Lacedaemonian (ac¬ tion which (till fubfifled in that ifland. This they ef- fedtually performed ; for by their means-the exiles fell into the hands of the other party : thefe they imprifon- ed ; and then drew them out by 20 at a time, to fuffer death, which was inflidted with all the circumftanees of cruelty that party-rage could fugged. When only 6d remained, they entreated the Athenians to put them to death, and not to deliver them up to their country¬ men •, but upon this the Corcyrians furrounded the place where they were confined, endeavouring to bury them under their darts ; upon which the unhappy cap¬ tives all put an end to their own lives. In the eighth year Nicias reduced the ifle of Cythe Eighth ra on the coaft of Laconia j as likewife Thyraea, on year, the confines of that country. The latter had been huceefs of given to the iEginetans when expelled from their own^v®^1 e* country by the Athenians: and they were now con demned to death, as inveterate enemies of the Atheni¬ an ftate and nation.—In Sicily, one Hermocrates of Syracufe perfuaded all the inhabitants of the ifland to adjuft their differences among themfelves ; upon which the Athenian generals returned home, and for fo doing two of them were banifhed, and the third fentenced to pay a heavy fine. The Athenians next laid fiege to Megara under the condudl of Hippocrates and Demofthenes ; but Brafi- das a Spartan general coming to its relief, a battle en- fued, by which, though neither party got the better, 237 the Lacedaemonian fadlion prevailed in Megara, andsPartan many who favoured the Athenians were forced to with-^rjJLre draw. After this, fuch as had been baniflied for ad-^^3, hering to the Lacedaemonians were allowed to return, on their taking an oath to forget what was paft, and attempt nothing that might difturb their country. As foon as they were fettled, however, they forgot their oath ; and caufing 100 of thofe who were moft obnoxious to be ap¬ prehended, forced the people to condemn them to death. They then changed the whole form of government, in¬ troduced an oligarchy, and pofleffed themfelves of the fupreme power. x3? In Boeotia fome commotions were raifed in favour the Athenians j but their generals Hippocrates andp0Werin Demofthenes being defeated by the oppofite party, allBoeetia. hopes ceafed of the Athenian power being eflabliftied in Bceotia. In the mean time Brafidas reduced the ci¬ ty of Amphipolisj which greatly alarmed the Atheni- A T T Attica. V39 Ninth year, A truce concluded and broken 140 Cleon de- Yeated and killed by Brafidas. t4t A fifty >ears peace i 142 New dif- -Ontents. ans, who thereupon fent new fupplies of men, money, and (hips to the Macedonian coaft; but all their care could not prevent a great defertion from their intereft in thofe parts, Avhere the conduct and valour of Brafidas carried all before him. In the ninth year, the Spartans made new propofals of peace, which the Athenians were now more inclined to accept than formerly ; and finding their affairs very much unfettled by the lofs of Amphipolis, a truce for a year was quickly agreed on, while negociations were in the mean time carrying on for a general peace. This pacific fcheme, however, was very foon over¬ thrown by the following accident in Thrace. The ci¬ ty of Scione, and that of Menda, revolted to Brafi¬ das j who, knowing nothing of the truce, fought to draw over Potidaea alfo. The Athenians, pretending that Scione revolted two days after the truce was con¬ cluded, made heavy complaints, afierting that this was a breach of the truce, and that both it and Menda Ihould be refiored to them. This not being elfetfed by negociations, an army was fent againfi the two ci¬ ties, by which Menda was reduced ; but Scione ma¬ king an obftinate defence, the fiege was turned into a blockade. In the tenth year Brafidas made an attempt upon Po- tidsea ; which having failed, the Athenians began to re¬ cover fome courage. The truce expiring on the day of the Pythian games, Cleon perfuaded the Athenians to fend an army into Thrace under his own command. It confified of 1200 foot and 300 horfe, all Athenian citi¬ zens, who embarked on board 30 galleys. Brafidas had an army much inferior ; but obferving that the A- thenian general was become carelefs, and neglefted dif- cipline, he attacked him. In this engagement Cleon was killed, and the Athenians were defeated with the lofs of 600 men, while the Spartans loft only feven ; but among thefe was their brave commander Brafidas, whofe death affe&ed them almoft as much as the lofs of their army did the Athenians. As the death of Cleon deprived the Athenians of one of their beft fpeakers, and one who had been very induftrious in promoting the war, they were now much more difpofed than formerly to hearken to terms of ac¬ commodation. Amongft the Spartans, too, there was a party, at the head of whom was Pliftonax their king, who earneftly wifiied for peace; and as Nicias labour¬ ed no lefs aftiduoufly at Athens to bring about this de- firable event, a peace was at laft concluded for fifty years between the two nations. The conditions were, that a reftitution of places and prifoners ftrould be made on both fides; excepting that Nifsea fhould remain to the Athenians, who had taken it from the Megarians, and that Plataea (hould continue with the Thebans, be- caufe they abfolutely would not give it up. The Boeo¬ tians, Corinthians, and Megarians, refufed to be in¬ cluded in this peace : but the reft of the allies yielded to it ; and it was accordingly ratified, receiving the name of the Nician peace, from Nicias who had fo vi- goroufly promoted it. By this means, however, tranquillity was far from being reftored'. Such of the ftates of Peloponnefus as were diffatisfied, began immediately to league among themfelves, and to let on foot a new confederacy, the head of which was to be the ftate of Argos. The La¬ cedaemonians, too, found it impoffible to perform ex- Vol. III. Part I. r C 241 ] ATT a&ly the articles of agreement; the city of Amphipolis, Attica, in particular, abfolutely refufed to return under the A- ■—* thenian government; for which reafon the Athenians refufed to evacuate Pylus. In the winter, new negoci¬ ations were entered into on all fides, but nothing deter¬ mined, and univerfal murmuring and difcontent took place. Thefe difeontents were not a little heightened Heightened by Alcibiades, who now began to rival Nicias, and, per-by Alci- ceiving the Lacedaemonians paid their court moftly to hishiades* rival, took all opportunities to incenfe his countrymen againft that nation. Nicias, on the other hand, who wiftied for nothing fo much as peace, ufed all his endea¬ vours to bring about a reconciliation. The artifices of Alcibiades, however, added to the turbulent and haugh¬ ty difpofition of both nations, rendered this impoftible ; fo that though Nicias went on purpofe to Sparta, he re¬ turned without doing any thing. . Alcibiades having thus difpofed every thing accord-His mea- ing to his wifties, and a war being inevitable, he began ^ures.tor to take the moft prudent methods for preferving his of country in fafety. With this view he entered into a league for 100 years with the Argives, which he hoped would keep the war at a diftance; he next paffed over into the territories of Argos, at the head of a confider- able army; and laboured, both at that city and at Pa- trae, to perfuade the people to build walls to the fea, that fo they might the more eafily receive afliftance from the Athenians. But though great preparations for war were now made, nothing was undertaken this year ; on¬ ly the Argives thought to have made themfelves mafters of Epidaurus, but were hindered by the Lacedaemonians putting a garrifon into it. The next year (the 14th after the Peloponnefian war Foaftlentli was firft begun) a Spartan army, under the command year. War of Agis, entered the territory of Argos, where the con- renewed, federate army lay ; but juft as the engagement was about to begin, a truce was fuddenly concluded by two of the Argive generals and the king of Sparta. With this neither party was pleafed, and both the king and generals were very ill treated by their citizens. On the arrival of fome frefh troops from Athens, therefore, the I46 Argives immediately broke the truce ; but the allied Athenians, army was foon after defeated with great {laughter by defeat- Agis ; notwithftanding which, however, the Eleans and e.d at Man- Athenians inverted Epidaurus. In the winter a ftrongtln3ed* party in Argos joined the Lacedaemonians; in confe- quence of which that city renounced her alliance with Athens, and concluded one with Sparta for 50 years. In compliment to their new allies, alfo, the Argives abolifhed democracy in their city, eftabli filing an arifto- cracy in its place, and affifted the Lacedaemonians with a confiderable body of troops to force the Sicyonians to do the fame. In the beginning of the 15th year, the Argives, with Fifteenth a levrty feemingly natural to all the Greeks, renounced year> their alliance with Sparta, aboliftied ariftocracy, drove all the Lacedaemonians out of the city, and renewed their league with Athens. The Athenians, in the mean time, being convinced of the treachery of Perdiccas king of Macedon, renounced their alliance with him, and declared war againft him. 14s Next year Alcihiades terminated the difputes in the Sixteenth city of Argos, by the banilhment of the Spartan fac-fear , Me,‘ tion; after which he failed to the ifland of Melo-, [ST- whofe inhabitants had afted with the greateft invete-thenians. H h racy Attica. ATT- [ 242 ] racy againft his countrymen : perceiving, however, that up fuch the reduction of the ifland would be a work of time, he left a confiderable body of forces there, and returned to Athens. In his abfence the capital of Melos furrender- ed at difcretion, and the inhabitants were treated with the utmoft cruelty: all the men capable of bearing arms being flaughtered, and the women and children carried into captivity. , uIn the beginning of the 17th year, Nicias was ap- ^^n^ar‘pointed commander of an expedition againft the Syra- army in cufans, along with Alcibiades and Lamachus as col- Sicily loft, leagues. But while the neceffary preparations were ma- and Alcibi- kinrr all things w’ere thrown into confulion by the de- ades flies to/• ■ _r «.i „ .. — ^^n^.r 111 / ■ b 149 Seven¬ Sparta. &c. .15* Alcibiades flies to Terlia. facing of the Hermae, or ftatues of Mercury, of which there was a great number in the city. The authors of this facrilege could by no means be difcovered, though rewards were offered for this purpofe : at laft the fufpi- cion fell upon Alcibiades j and for this weighty reafon he was commanded to return from Sicily to take his trial. Alcibiades, however, knew the temper of his countrymen too well to truft himfelf to their mercy ; and therefore, inftead of returning to Athens, he fled immediately to Sparta, where he met with a gracious reception 5 while the infatuated Athenians were feverely punifhed by the lofs of their army, generals, and fleet, in Sicily, which the fuperior abilities of Alcibiades would in all probability have prevented. Nineteenth I9th and 2°lh years of the war were fpent by and twen- the Athenians in equipping a new fleet in order to re- tieth years, pair their vaft Ioffes j but Alcibiades hart their inte- refts very much, by perfuading Tiffaphernes the Per- fian to league with the Spartans againft them : at the fame time he perfuaded feveral of the Ionian ftates to revolt from Athens, but they were in a fliort time obliged again to fubmit. Notwithftanding all thefe fervices, however, Alcibiades had rendered himfelf fo hateful to Agis, by debauching his wife, that he foon found himfelf obliged to fly to the Perfians, where Tiffaphernes gave him a very favourable reception, and profited much by his advice, which was, to let the Greeks weaken one another by their mutual wars, and that the Perfians ought never to fee one ftate to¬ tally deftroyed, but always to fupport the weaker party. When Tiffaphernes had acquiefced with thefe coun- fels, Alcibiades privately wrote to fome of the officers in the Athenian army at Samos, that he had been mocracy at treating with the Perfians in behalf of his countrymen, Athens. ^ut ^ not ch00fe to return till the democracy fhould be abolilhed j and to incline the citizens to comply with this meafure, he told them that the Perfian king difliked a democracy, but would immediately aflift them if that was aboliftied, and an oligarchy ere&ed in its ftead. On the arrival of Pifander and other deputies from ■ the army, with the propofals of Alcibiades, the Athe¬ nians without hefitation refolved to overturn that de¬ mocracy which they had all along fo ftrenuoufly de¬ fended. The iffue of their prefent debate was, that Pifander with ten deputies Ihould return to Alcibi¬ ades, in order to know on what terms the king of Perfia would make an alliance with them : but that cunning Athenian having perceived that Tiffaphernes was by no means difpofed to aflift the Athenians on account of their having been lately fuccefsful, he fet rs* Propofes the aboli¬ tion of «e- A T T _r high demands in the king of Perfia’s name, Attica. that the Athenians of themfelves broke off the treaty, and thus Alcibiades preferved the friendlhip of both parties. Pifander having engaged the army at Samos in his fcheme of overturning democracy, that form of go¬ vernment was aboliftied firft in the cities fubjeft to Athens, and laftly in the capital itfelf. Pifander’s new New form fcheme was, That the old form of government ftiould of govern- be totally diffolved : that five prytanes ftiould be cleft- ed: that thefe five ftiould choofe 100 : and that each of the hundred fhould choofe three : that the 400 thus defied ftiould become a fenate with full power *, but fhould occafionally confult with 50CO of the moft weal¬ thy citizens, who ftiould thenceforward be efteemed only t/ie people; and that no authority fliould remain with the loweft clafs. Though the people were not very fond of this change, thofe who condufted it, being men of great parts, found means to eftablifh it by force j for when the people were gone out of the city to their ordinary employments, the 400, hav¬ ing each a dagger concealed under his veil, attend¬ ed by a guard of 120 men, entered the fenate houfe, diffolved the old fenate, and without ceremony turn¬ ed them out •, after which the commons, not knowing whom to fubmit to, or to whom to apply, made no op- pofition. The firft ftep of the new governors was to deftroy all their enemies ; who, however, were not very nu¬ merous, fo that little blood was fhed. They next fent ambaffadors to Agis to fue for peace •, but he, taking for granted that the Athenians would never defend an oligarchy, gave no anfwer to the ambaffadors, but im¬ mediately marched towards the capital with a defign to attack it. On his arrival, however, he was quickly convinced of his miftake, being repulfed with lofs, and obliged to retire to his old poft. 154 In the mean time the Athenian army declared again The army for a democracy •, and having recalled Alcibiades, in- cfoclara for veiled him with full power, and infilled on his imme- diate return to Athens to reftore the ancient govern-recai’Ai£i. ment. This meafure he refufed to comply with, and blades, perfuaded them to Hay where they were, in order to fave Ionia : he alfo prevailed on them to allow fome deputies, who had been fent from the new gover¬ nors of Athens, to come and deliver their meffage. To thefe deputies Alcibiades replied, that they Ihould immediately return to Athens, and acquaint the 40°> that they were commanded immediately to refign their power and reftore the fenate ; but that the 5000 might retain theirs, provided they ufed it with mode¬ ration. _ _ 155 By this anfwer the city was thrown into the utmoft Great con- confufion ; but the new government party prevailing, ambaffadors were defpatched to Sparta with orders toAt en5‘ procure peace on any terms. This, however, was not to be effected 5 and Phrynicus, the head of the em- baffy, and likewife of the new government party, was murdered on his return. After his death, Theramenes, the head of the other party, feized the chiefs of the 400 ; upon which a tumult enfued that had almoft pro¬ ved fatal to the city itfelf. The mob, however, being at laft difperfed, the 400 affembled, though in great fear, and fent deputies to the people, promifing to fet all things to rights. In confequence of this deputa- 9 tion, Attica. IS6 Athenian fleet de- ftroyed by the Spar- tans. 157 Exploits of Alcibiades. 158 The Spar¬ tans fue for peace. They take Pylus. ATT [ 243 ] ATT tion, a day was appointed for convoking a general af- fembly, and fettling the ftate j but when that day came, news was brought that the Lacedaemonian fleet appear¬ ed in view, and fleered direftly for Salamis. Thus all was again thrown into confufion ; for the people, in- ftead of deliberating on the fubjeft propofed, ran in crowds down to the port, and perceiving the Spartans made towards Eubcea, a fleet of 36 flaps was immedi¬ ately defpatched under the command of Thymochares, to engage the enemy. This fleet was utterly defeated, 22 of the Athenian (hips being taken, and moft of the others funk or difabled ; but what wras worfe, this de¬ feat was followed by the revolt of all the country of Euboea except Orcus. When thefe difmal tidings arrived at Athens, every thing was given up for loft ; and had the Lacedemo¬ nians taken this opportunity of attacking the city, they had undoubtedly fucceeded, and thus put an end to the war : but being at all times (low, efpecially in naval affairs, they gave the Athenians time to equip a new fleet, and to retrieve their affairs. One good ef- fedl of this difafter, however, was the putting an end for a time to the internal diffenfions of this turbulent people ; infomuch that Thucydides the hiftorian is of opiniipn, that the republic never enjoyed fo much quiet as at this time. Alcibiades now (bowed his abilities and inclination to ferve his country in an eminent manner. By his intrigues he fo effe&ually embroiled the Perfians and Peloponnefians with each other, that neither party knew whom to truft. Thrafybulus, with 55 (hips, gained a viftory over the Peloponnefian fleet cunfifting of 73 : after which he took eight galleys coming from Byzantium ; which city had revolted from the Athe¬ nians, but was foon after taken, and the inhabitants fe- verely fined. The fleet being afterwards joined by Al¬ cibiades, nine more of the Peloponnefian galleys were taken, the Halicarnaflians were conftrained to pay a large fum of money, and Cos was ftrongly fortified : which tranfa&ions ended the 21ft year of the Pelo¬ ponnefian war. In the fucceeding years of this famous war, the Athenians had at firft great advantages. Thrafybulus gained a fignal vi&ory at fea ; and Alcibiades gained two vi&ories, one by fea and another by land, In one day } took the whole Peloponnefian fleet, and more fpoil than his men could carry away. The Spartans were now humbled in their turn, and fued for peace $ but the Athenians were fo intoxicated with their fuc- cefs, that they fent back the ambalfadars without an an- fwer : which they foon had fufficient reafon to repent of. The beginning of the Athenian misfortunes was the taking of Pylus by the Spartans. The Athenians had fent a fleet under the command of one Anytus to its defence : but he was driven back by contrary winds; upon which he was condemned to death, be- caufe he could not caufe the wind blow from what quarter he pleafed : this fentence, however, was re¬ mitted on his paying a vaft fum of money. This mif- fortune was quickly followed by another. The Me- garians furprifed Nyfaea; which enraged the Athe¬ nians fo much, that they immediately fent an army into that country, who defeated the Megarians who oppofed them with great (laughter, and committed horrid deva- ftations. Thefe misfortunes as yet, however, were overbalan- Attica, ced by the great adlions of Alcibiades, Thrafybulus,—\r—-J and Theramenes. When Alcibiades returned, he brought with him a fleet of 200 (hips, and fuch a load of fpoils as had never been feen in Athens fince the them in conclufion of the Perfian war. The people left their triumph, city deftitute, that they might crowd to the port, to behold Alcibiades as he landed $ old and young blefled him as he palled j and next day when he made a ha¬ rangue to the affembly, they diredled the record of his banifhment to be thrown into the fea, abfolved him from the curfes he lay under, and created him general with full power. Nor did he feem inclined to indulge ^ himfelf in eafe, but foon put to fea again with a fleet He is dif- of 100 (hips. He had not been long gone, howTever, graced, before all this was forgot. Alcibiades failed to the Hellefpont with part of his fleet, leaving the reft un¬ der the command of Antiochus his pilot, but with ftridt orders to attempt nothing before his return. This command the pilot paid no regard to, but provoked Lyfander the Lacedaemonian admiral to an engage¬ ment, and in confequence of his temerity was defeated with the lofs of 15 (hips, himfelf being killed in the engagement. On the news of this defeat Alcibiades returned, and endeavoured to provoke the Lacedaemo¬ nians to a fecond battle ; but this Lyfander prudently declined ; and in the mean time, the Athenians, with unparalleled ingratitude and inconftancy, deprived Al¬ cibiades of his command, naming ten new generals in his room. lSl This was the laft ftep the Athenians had to take for The Athe- perfedling their ruin. Conon, who fucceeded to the nians gai,t command, was defeated by Callicratides, Lyfander’sa Srea^^c‘“ fucceffor j but being afterwards ftrongly reinforced, the Lacedaemonians were entirely defeated with the lofs their gene, of 77 (hips. Such a viclory might at this time haveralsto infpired the Athenians with fome kind of gratitude to-^eat^‘ wards the generals who gained it ; but inftead of this, on pretence of their not having aflifted the wounded during the engagement, eight of them were recalled j two were wife enough not to return ; and the fix who trufted to the juftice of their country were all put to death. l6s The next year Lyfander was appointed commander They are of what fleet the Peloponnefians had left, with which “tterJ,y t*e” he took Thafus and Lampfacus. Conon was defpatch- £ ^andeJ- ed againft him with 180 (hips, which being greatly } ’ fuperior to Lyfander’s fleet, that general refufed to come to an engagement, and was blocked up in the river ALgos. While the Athenians lay there, they grew quite idle and carelefs; infomuch that Alcibiades, who had built a caftle for hitnfelf in the neighbour¬ hood, entreated them to be more on their guard, aS he well knew Lyfander’s abilities. They anfwered, that they wondered at his aflurance, who was an exile and a vagabond, to come and give laws to them ; telling him, that if he gave them any farther trouble, they would feize and fend him to Athens. At the fame time they looked on viftory as fo certain, that they confulted what they (hould do with their prifoners j which, by the advice of Philocles their general, was to cut off all their right hands, or, according to Plutarch, their right thumbs $ and Adiamantus, one of their of¬ ficers, rendered himfelf very obnoxious by faying, that fuch idle dxfcourfe did not become Athenians. The Hh2 confequences i <54 who takes Athens. 165 Terms of peace. ATT [ 244 ] Attica, conft'quences of fuch condu£t may be eafily imagined, bis own 1 Lyfander fell unexpedledly upon them, and gained a moft complete vidlory j Conon, with eight galleys only, efcaping to Cyprus; after which Lyfander re¬ turned to Lampfacus, where he put to death Philocles with 3000 of his foldiers, and all the officers except Adiamantus. This execution being over, he reduced all the cities fubjeft to Athens; and with great civi¬ lity fent home their garrifons, that fo the city might be overftocked with inhabitants, and deftitute of provi- iions, when he came to befiege it ; which tie did foon after by fea, while Agis, with a great army, invefted it by land. For a long time the Athenians did not fo much as defire a peace ; but at laft were forced to fend deputies to Agis, who fent them to Sparta, where no terms could be granted except they confented to demoliffi their walls. They next fent to Lyfander, who after a long attendance referred them to Sparta ; and thither Theramenes with fome other deputies was immediately fent. On their arrival, they found the council of the confederates fitting, who all except the Spartans gave their votes that Athens ffiould be utterly deftroyed ; but they would not confent to the ruin of that city, which had deferved fo well of Greece. On the return of Theramenes, peace was concluded, on condition that the long walls and the fortifications of the port ffiould be demoliffied ; that they ffiould give up all their ffiips but 12, receive all they had banilhed, and follow the fortune of the Lacedaemonians. Thefe fe- vere terms were punctually executed. Lyfander caufed the walls to be pulled down, all the mufic in his army playing, on that very day of the year on which they had beat the Perfians at Salamis. He likewife efta- bliffied an oligarchy exprefsly againft the will of the people ; and thus the min of Athens ended the 27th year of the Peloponnefiar; war, and the 404th before Chrift. As foon as Lyfander had demolilhed the long walls, and the fortifications of the Piraeus, he conftituted a council of thirty, with power, as was pretended, to make laws, but in truth to fubjugate the ftate. Thefe are the perfons fo famous in hiftory, under the title of the thirty tyrants. They were all the creatures of Lyfander ; who, as they derived their rife from conqueft and the law of the fvvord, exercifed their offices in a fuitable manner ; that is, with the higheft teftimonies of pride, infolence, and cruelty. Inftead of making laws, they governed without them ; appointed a fenate and magiftrates at their will; and, that they might do all things without danger of controul, they fent for a garrifon from Lace- dsemon; which was accordingly granted them, under the command of Callidius, upon their promife to pay the foldiers regularly. One of the firft fteps they took was to puniffi all informers ; which, though fevere, was po¬ pular ; but when, through flattery and bribes, they had wholly drawn over Callidius to their party, they fuffered bad men to live in quiet, and turned their rage againft the good. Critias and Theramenes were at the head of the thirty, men of the greateft power and abilities in Athens. The former was ambitious and cruel with¬ out meafure ; the latter was fomewhat more merciful: the former puffied on all the bloody fchemes framed by his confederates; and carried into execution many of 2 166 The thirty- tyrants. 167 Crittas and Therame- nes, their oppofite characters. ATT the latter always oppofed them, at firft with Attica, moderation, at laft with vehemence. He faid, that t—v— power was given them to rule, and not to fpoil, the commonwealth ; that it became them to a£t like fliep- herds, not like wolves ; and that they ought to be¬ ware of rendering themfelyes at once odious and ridi¬ culous, by attempting to domineer over all, being fuch a handful of men as they were. The reft, difliking much the former part of his difcourfe, catched hold of the lat¬ ter, and immediately chofe out 3000, whom they made the reprefentatives of the people, and to whom they granted this notable privilege, that none of them ffiould be put to death but by judgment of the fenate, thereby openly affuming a power of putting any other of the Athenian citizens to death by their own authority. A glorious ufe they made of this new-aflumed privilege ; for as many as they conjedlured to be no friends to the government in general, or to any of themfelves in par¬ ticular, they put to death, without caufe, and without mercy. Theramenes openly oppofing this, and abfo- lutely refufing to concur in fuch meafures, Critias ac- cufed him to the fenate as a man of unfteady princi¬ ples, fometimes for the people, fometimes againft them, always for new things and ftate-revolutions. Thera¬ menes owned, that he had fometimes changed his mea¬ fures, but alleged that he had always done it to ferve the people. He faid that it was folely with this view he made the peace with Sparta, and accepted the office of one of the thirty: that he had never oppofed their meafures while they cut off the wicked ; but when they began to deftroy men of fortune and family, then he owned he had differed with them, which he conceived to be no crime againft the ftate. While Theramenes was fpeaking, Critias withdrew,Thera- perceiving that the fenate were thoroughly convinced ofmenes put the truth of what Tharamenes had faid : but he quicklyt0 clealli* returned with a guard, crying out, that he had ftruck Theramenes’s name out of the lift of the 3000 ; that the fenate had, therefore, no longer cognizance of the caufe, when the thirty had already judged and con¬ demned him to death. Theramenes perceiving ‘hat they intended to feize him, fled to the altar, which was in the midft of the fenate-houfe, and laying his hands thereon, faid, “ I do not feek refuge here be- caufe I expedt to efcape death, or defire it ; but that, tearing me from the altar, the impious authors of my murder may intereft the gods in bringing them to fpeedy judgment, and thereby reftore freedom to my country.” The guards then dragged him from the altar, and car¬ ried him to the place of execution, where he drank the poifon with undaunted courage, putting the people in mind with his laft breath, that as they had ftruck his. name out of the 3000, they might alfo ftrike out any of theirs. His death was followed by a train of mur¬ ders, fo that, in a ffiort time, 60 of the worthieft and moft eminent citizens of Athens fell by the cruelty of the thirty. Among thefe, the moft pitied was Ni- ceratus the fon of Nicias; a man univerfally beloved for his goodnefs, and univerfally admired for his vir¬ tues. As for the Spartans, they, loling their former generofity, were extremely pleafed with thefe things, and, by a public decree, commanded that fuch as fled from the thirty tyrants fliould be carried back bound to Athens : which extraordinary proceeding frightened all Greece; but the Argives and Thebans only had courage ATT [ 24s ] ATT Attica, coifrage to oppofe it: the former received the Athenian ■ v— • exiles with humanity and kindnefs, the latter punilhed with a mul6t fuch of their citizens as did not rife and refcue the Athenian prifoners, who in purfuance of the Lacedaemonian decree were carried bound through their territories. Thrafybulus, and fuch as with him had taken (belter in the Theban territory, refolved to hazard every thing, rather than remain perpetual exiles from their country $ and though he had but 30 men on whom he could de¬ pend, yet confidering the viftories he bad heretofore ob- 169 tained in the caufe of his country, he made an irruption Thraiabu- into Attica, where he feized Phyla, a caftle at a very lus leizes fman diftance from Athens, where in a very (hort fpace his forces were augmented to 700 men ; and though the tyrants made ufe of the Spartan garrifon in their endeavours to reduce him and his party, yet Thrafybu¬ lus prevailed in various (kirmilhes, and at laft obliged them to break up the blockade of Phyla, which they had formed. The thirty and their party conceiving it very advantageous for them to have the poffeflion of Eleufina, marched thither, and having perfuaded the people to go unarmed out of their city, that they might number them, took this opportunity mod inhu¬ manly to murder them. The forces of Thrafybulus in- creafing daily, he at length poffeffed himfelf of the Pi¬ raeus, which he fortified in the beft manner he could ; but the tyrants being determined to drive him from thence, came down againft him with the utmoft force they could raife. Thrafybulus defended himfelf with great obftinacy ; and in the end they were forced to re- 170 treat, having loft before the place not only a great num- Gritias kill- ber of their men, but Critias the prefident of the thirty, e<*’ another of the fame body, and one who had been a cap¬ tain of the Piraeus. When they came to demand the dead from Thrafy¬ bulus, in order for their interment, he caufed a crier he had with him to make a (hort Ipeech in a very loud voice to the people, entreating them to confider, that as they were citizens of Athens without, fo thofe againft whom they fought, and thofe who fought to preferve themfelves within the fort, were Athenian citizens alfoj wherefore, inftead of thinking how to ruin and deftroy their brethren, they ought rather to confult how all differences might be compofed, and efpecially ought to rid themfelves of thofe bloody tyrants, who, in the (hort time they had had the adminiftration in their hands, had deftroyed more than had fallen in the Pelo- ponnefian war. The people, though moved by thefe dif- 171 courfes, differed among tliemfelves; the confequence of The tyrants which was, that they expelled the thirty, and chofe ten expdied. out 0p eaejj tribe to govern in their (lead, where¬ upon the tyrants retired to Eleufina. The citizens, however, though they changed the government, made no agreement with thofe in the Piraeus •, but fent away deputies to Sparta, as did alfo the tyrants from Eleu¬ fina, complaining, that the Athenians had revolted, 172 and defiring their afliftance to reduce them. The Spar- Attem >t of tans fent thereupon a large fum of money to encourage tars tore their confederates, and appointed Lyfander commander duce -i- in chief, and his brothtr to be admiral; refolving to then!- a fe- ffnd fea and land forces to reduce Athens a feeond cynd time, time ; intending, as moft of the Greek dates fufpefted, to add it. now to their own dominions. It is very pro¬ bable that this defign of theirs would have taken effeft, Attica, if Paufanias king of Sparta, envying Lyfander, had not y—- refolved to obftruft it. With this view, he procured another army to be raifed againft the Athenians, of which himfelf had the command, and with which he marched immediately to befiege the Piraeus. While he lay before the place, and pretended to attack it, he en¬ tered into a private correfpondence with Thrafybulus, informing hirq what propofitions he (hould make in or¬ der to force the Lacedaemonians, who were fufpefted by their allies, to grant them peace. 173 The intrigues of Paufanias had all the fuccefs heHowfm- could wi(h. The Ephori who were with him in the camp ^rated- concurred in his meafures, fo that in a fliort fpace a treaty was concluded on the following terms : That all the citizens of Athens (hould be reftored to their houfes and privileges, excepting the thirty, the ten which had fucceeded them and who had adfed no lefs tyrannically than they, and the eleven who during the time of the oligarchy had been conftituted governors or keepers of the Pineus : that all (hould remain quiet for the fu¬ ture in the city; and that, if any were afraid to truft to this agreement, they (hould have free leave to retire to Eleufina. Paufanias then marched away with the Spar¬ tan army, and Tbrafybulus at the head of his forces marched into Athens, where having laid down their arms, they facrificed with the reft of the citizens in the temple of Minerva, after which the popular govern¬ ment was reftored. Yet quiet was not thoroughly efta- bliftied. 1 he exiles at Eleufina having endeavoured by the help of money to raife an army of foreigners, by whofe aid they might recover the authority they had loft but firft depending on their friends in the city, they fent feme of the principal perfons amongft them as deputies, to treat with the citizens; but ftriiftly inftrudted them to fow jealoufies and excite difeords among them. I his the latter quickly perceiving, put thefe perfons to death : and then remonftrating to thofe at Eleufina, that thefe contentions would undoubtedly end either in their own or tire deftruftion of their coun¬ try, they offered immediately to pafs an aft of oblivion, which they would confirm with an oath. This being accepted, tbofe who had withdrawn re¬ turned to the city, where all differences were adjufted, and both parties moft religioufly obferved the agree¬ ment they had made, and thereby thoroughly refettled 174 the date. In this whole tranfaftion, the virtue of Thra-Virtue of fybulus deferves chiefly to be admired. When he firft Thrafybu- feized the caftle of Phyla, the tyrants privately offeredluS* to receive him into their number inftead of Theramenes, and to pardon at his requeft any 12 perfons he (hould name : but he generoufly anfwered. That his exile was far more honourable than any authority could be, pur- chafed on fuch terms ; and by perfifting in his defign, accompliflied, as we have feen, the deliverance of his country. A glorious deliverance it was ; fince, as Ifo- crates informs us, they had put 1400 citizens to death contrary to and without any form of law, and driven 5000 more into baniihment ; procuring alfo the death of Alcibiades, as many think, though at a great diftance from them. From this time to the reign of Philip of Macedon, the Athenians continued in a pretty profperous fituation, though they never performed any fuch great exploits as... ATT [ 246 1 ATT Attica. '* Travels into Greece. p. 28, &c. I75 Hiftory of Athens from the time of Alexan'der the Great to the pre- fent. 176 Athens be- lieged and taken by Sylla. as formerly. By that monarch and his fon Alexander all Greece was in tffeft fubdued, and the hiftory of all the Grecian ftates from that time becomes much lefs interefting. Of the hiftory of Athens from that time to the prefent, the following elegant abridgement is gi¬ ven by Dr Chandler *. “ On the death of Alexander, the Athenians revolted, but were defeated by Anti¬ pater, who garrifoned Munychia. They rebelled again, but the garrifon and oligarchy were reinftated. De¬ metrius the Phalerean, who was made governor, beau¬ tified the city, and they erefted to him 360 ftatues j which on his expulfion they demoliftred, except one in the Acropolis. Demetrius Poliocertes withdrew the garrifon, and reftored the democracy ; when they deified him, and lodged him in the Opifthodomos or the back part of the Parthenon, as a gueft to be entertained by their goddefs Minerva. Afterwards they decreed, that the Piraeus, with Munychia, ftiould be at his difpofal j and he took the Mufeum, They expelled his garrifon, and he was perfuaded by Craterus a philofopher to leave them free. Antigonus Gonatas, the next king, maintained a garrifon in Athens: but on the death of his fon Demetrius, the people, with the afliftance of Aratus, regained their liberty j and the Piraeus, Mu¬ nychia, Salamis, and Sunium, on paying a fum of mo¬ ney. “ Philip, fon of Demetrius, encamping near the city, deftroying and burning the fepulchres and temples in the villages, and laying their territory wafte, the Athe¬ nians were reduced to folicit protedlion from the Ro¬ mans, and to receive a garrifon, which remained until the war with Mithridates king of Pontus, when the tyrant Arillion made them revolt. “ Archelaus the Athenian general, unable to with- ftand the Roman fury, relinquiftied the long walls, and retreated into the Piraeus and Munychia. Sylla laid fiege to the Piraeus and to the city, in which Ariftion com¬ manded. He was informed that fome perfons had been overheard talking in the Ceramicus, and blaming Arif¬ tion for his negleft of the avenues about the Heptachal- cos, where the wall was acceflible. Sylla refolved to ftorm there, and about midnight entered the town at the gate called Dypylon or the Pircean ; having levelled all obftacles in the way between it and the gate of the Piraeus. Ariftion fled to the Acropolis, but was com¬ pelled to furrender by the want of water ; when he was dragged from the temple of Minerva, and put to death. Sylla burned the Piraeus and Munychia, and defaced the city and fuburbs, not fparing even the fepulchres. “ The civil war between Csefar and Pompey foon fol¬ lowed, and their natural love of liberty made them fide with Pompey. Here again they were unfortunate, for Caefar conquered. But Caefar did not treat them like Sylla. With that clemency which made fo amiable a part of his character, he difmiffed them by a fine allu- fion to their illuftrious anceftors, faying, that he fpared the living for the fake of the dead. “ Another ftorm followed foon after this j the wars of Brutus and Caflius with Auguftus and Antony. Their partiality for liberty did not here forfake them: they took part in the conteft with the two patriot Romans, and ere&ed their ftatues near their own ancient deliver¬ ers Harmodius and Ariftogiton, who had flain Hippar¬ chus. But they were ftill unhappy, for their enemies triumphed. “ They next joined Antony, who gave them iEgina Attica, and Cea, with other iflands. Auguftus was unkind to —y-——* them •, and they revolted four years before he died. Under Tiberius the city was declining, but free, and regarded as an ally of the Romans. The high privi¬ lege of having a lidlor to precede the magiftrates was conferred on it by Germanicus ; but he was cenfured as treating with too much condefcenfion a mixture of na¬ tions, inftead of genuine Athenians, which race was then confidered as extinft. “ The emperor Vefpafian reduced Achaia to a pro¬ vince paying tribute and governed by a proconful. Nerva was more propitious to the Athenians; and Pli¬ ny, under Trajan his fucceffor, exhorts Maximus to be mindful whither he was fent, to rule genuine Greece, a ftate compofed of free cities. ‘ You will revere the gods and heroes their founders. You will refpedt their priftine glory, and even their age. You will honour them for the famous deeds, which are truly, nay for thofe which are fabuloufly, recorded of them. Re¬ member, it is Athens you approach.’ This city was now entirely dependent on Rome, and was reduced to fell Delos and the iflands in its pofleffion. “ Hadrian, who was at once emperor and an archon of Athens, gave the city laws, compiled from Draco, Solon, and the codes of other legiflators ; and difplayed his affedlion for it by unbounded liberality. Athens reflouriflied, and its beauty was renerved. Antoninus Pius who fucceeded, and Antoninus the Philofopher, were both benefactors. “ The barbarians of the north, in the reign of Vale¬ rian, befieging Theffalonica, all Greece wTas terri¬ fied, and the Athenians reftored their city-wall, which had been difmantled by Sylla, and afterwards ne- gleCted. “ Under the next emperor, wrho was the archon Gal- lienus, Athens was befieged, the archontic office ceaf- ed $ and the ftrataegus or general, who had before a£ted as overfeer of the agora or market, then became the fupreme magiftrate. Under Claudius his fucceflor, the city was taken, but foon recovered. “ It is related, that Conflantine, when emperor, gloried in the title of general of Athens ; and rejoiced exceedingly on obtaining from the people the honour of a ftatue with an infcription, which he acknowledged by an yearly gratuity of many bufhels of grain. He conferred on the governor of Attica and Athens the title of grand duke, piyccs That office was at firft annual, but afterwards hereditary. His fon Conftans bellowed feveral iflands on the city, to fupply it v'ith corn. “ In the time of Theodefius I. 380 years after Chrift, the Goths laid wafte Theffaly and Epirus; but Theo¬ dore, general of the Achaeans, by his prudent conduft preferved the cities of Greece from pillage, and the in¬ habitants from being led into captivity. A ftatue of marble was erefted to him at Athens by order of the city j and afterwards one of brafs, by command of the emperor, as appears by an infcription in a church de¬ dicated to a faint of the fame name, not far from the French convent. It is on a round pedeftal, which fup- ports a flat ftone ferving for the holy table. Eudocia the wife of Theodofius II. was an Athenian. “ The fatal period now approached, and Athens jjy Alaric was about to experience » conqueror more favage even the Goth. than 3 ATT Attica. 178 By the Turks. than Sylla. This was Alaric king of the Goths : who, under the emperors Arcadius and Honorius, overran Greece and Italy, facking, pillaging, and deftroying. Then the Peloponnefian towns were overturned, Arca¬ dia and Lacedaemon were laid wafte, the two feas by the ifthmus were burniflied with the flames of Corinth, and the Athenian matrons were dragged in chains by barbarians. The invaluable treafures of antiquity, it is related, were removed j the flately and magnificent flruftures converted into piles of ruin ; and Athens was dripped of every thing fplendid or remarkable. Syne- lius, a writer of that age, compares the city to a vidtim of which the body had been confumed, and the hide only remained. “ After this event, Athens became an unimportant place, and as obfcure as it once had been famous. We read that the cities of Hellas were put into a date of defence by Judinian, who repaired the walls, which at Corinth had been fubverted by an earthquake, and at Athens and in Boeotia were impaired by age; and here we take a long farewell of this city. A chafm of near 700 years enfues in its hidory, except that, about the year 1130, it furnifhed Roger the fird king of Sicily with a number of artificers, whom he fettled at Palermo, where they introduced the culture of filk, which then ?ailed into Italy. The worms had been brought from ndia to Condantinople in the reign of Judinian. “ Athens, as it were, re-emerges from oblivion in the 13th century, under Baldwin, but befieged by a general of Theodorus Lafcaris, the Greek emperor. It was taken in 1427 by Sultan Morat. Boniface, mar¬ quis of Montferrat, poffelTed it with a garrifon ; after whom it was governed by Delves of the houfe of Ar- ragon. On his death, it was feized, with Macedonia, Theffaly, Boeotia, Phocis, and the Peloponnefus, by Bajazet ; and then, with the illand Zante, by the Spa¬ niards of Catalonia in the reign of the Greek emperor Andronicus Palaeologus the elder. Thefe were difpof- feffed by Reinerius Acciaioli, a Florentine; who, leaving no legitimate male iflue, bequeathed it to the date of Ve¬ nice. His natural fon, Antony, to whom he had given Thebes with Boeotia, expelled the Venetians. He uTas fucceeded in the dukedom by his kinfman Nerius, who was difplaced by his own brother named Antony, but recovered the government when he died. Nerius, lea¬ ving only an infant fon, was fucceeded by his wife. She was ejected by Mahomet on a complaint from Francus fon of the fecond Antony, who confined her at Me- gara, and made away with her; but her fon aecufing him to Mahomet the Second, the Turkifh army under Omar advanced, and he furrendered the citadel in 1455; the Latins refufing to fuccour him unlefs the Athe¬ nians would embrace their religious tenets. Mahomet, it is related, when he had finilhed the war with the defpot of the Morea, four years after, furveyed the city and Acropolis with admiration. The janizariesinformed him of a confpiracy ; and Francus Acciaioli, who re¬ mained lord of Boeotia, was put to death. In 1464 the Venetians landed at the Piraeus, furprifed the city, and carried off their plunder and captives to Euboea. “ It is remarkable, that after thefe events Athens was again in a manner forgotten. So lately as about the middle of the 16th century, the city was commonly be¬ lieved to have been utterly deftroyed, and not to exift, except a few huts of poor fifhermen, Crufius. a learned [ 247 1 ATT and inquifitive German, procured more authentic in- Attica, formation from his Greek correfpondents refiding in y— Turkey, which he publiftied in 1584, to awaken curio- fity and to prompt farther difcoveries. One of thefe letters is from a native of Nauplia, a town near Argos in the Morea. This writer fays that he had been often at Athens, and that it ftill contained many things wor¬ thy to be feen, fome of which he enumerates, and then fubjoins ; “ But why do I dwell on this place ? It is as the Ikin of an animal which has been long dead.” It now remains to give fome idea of the charac¬ ter, government, and religion of this once fo famous people. I7S, The Athenians, fays Plutarch, are very fubjeft to Charafter violent anger; but they are foon pacified. They are 0ft^ie arl" likewife eafily impreffed with humanity and compaffion. C1.ent e“ That this was their temper, is proved by many hiftori- cal examples. We (hall produce a few. The fentence of death pronounced againft the inhabitants of Mity- lene, and revoked the next day : The condemnation of Socrates, and that of the ten chiefs, each followed by quick repentance and moft pungent grief. The minds of the fame people, adds Plutarch, are not formed for laborious refearches. They feize a fub- jeft, as it were, by intuition ; they have not patience and phlegm enough to examine it gradually and mi¬ nutely. This part of their charafter may feem fur- prifing and incredible. Artifans, and other people of their rank, are in general flow of comprehenfiom But the Athenians of every degree were endowed with an inconceivable vivacity, penetration, and deli¬ cacy of tafte. Even the Athenian foldiers could re¬ peat the fine paffages of the tragedies of Euripides.- Tbofe artifans and thofe foldiers affifted at public de¬ bates^ were bred to political affairs, and were equally acute in apprehenfion and in judgment. We may in¬ fer the underftanding of the hearers of Demofthenes from the genius of his orations, which were laconic and poignant. As their inclination, continues Plutarch, leads them to affiil and fupport people of low condition, they like difcourfe feafoned with pleafantry, and productive of mirth. The Athenians patronize people of low de¬ gree ; becaufe from them their liberty is in no danger, and becaufe fuch patronage tends to fupport a demo- cratical conftitution. They love pleafantry; which turn of mind proves that they are a humane focial people, who have a tafte for raillery and wit, and are not foured with that referve which marks the defpot or the flave. They take pleafure in hearing themfelves praifed; but they can likewife patiently bear raillery and cen- fure. We know with what art and fuccefs Arifto- phanes and Demofthenes applied their praife and their irony to the Athenian people. When the republic enjoyed peace, fays the fame Plutarch in another place, it encouraged the adulation of its orators : but when it had important affairs to difcufs, when the ftate was in danger, it became ferious; and preferred to its eloquent fycophants, the honeft orators who oppofed its follies and its vices ; fuch ingenious and bold patriots as a Pericles, a Phocion, and a Demof¬ thenes. The Athenians, continues Plutarch, often make their governors tremble, and Ihow great humanity to their ATT [ 248 J ATT Attica, their enemies. They were very attentive to the infor- ■y—m.* mation and inflrudion of thofe citizens who were moft eminent for their policy and eloquence ; but they were on their guard again ft the fuperiority of their talents $ they often checked their boldnefs, and repreffed their exuberant reputation and glory. That this was their temper, we are convinced by the oftracifm : which was eftabliftied to reftrain the ambition of thofe who had great talents and influence, and which fpared neither the greateft nor the beft men. The deteftation of ty¬ ranny and of tyrants, which was inherent in the Athe¬ nians, rendered them extremely jealous ef their privi¬ leges, made them zealous and adive in defence of their liberty, whenever they thought it was violated by men in power. As to their enemies, they did not treat them with rigour. They did not abufe vidory by a brutal inhu¬ manity to the vanquifhed. The adt of amnefty, which they paffed after the ufurpation of the 30 tyrants, proves that they could eafily forgive injuries. It was this mildnefs, this humanity of difpofition, which made the Athenians fo attentive to the rules of politenefs and decorum. In their war with Philip, having fei- zed one of his courtiers, they read all the letters he bore, except one from Olympias to her hufband, which they fent back unopened. Such was their ve¬ neration of love and conjugal fecrecy ; thofe facred rights, which no enmity, no hoftility, warrants us to violate ! The views of conqueft cherifhed by a fmall republic, were extenftve and aftoniftiing j but this people, fo great, fo ambitious in their projeds, were, in other refpeds, of a different charader. In the expences of the table, in drefs, in furniture, in houfes, in thort, in private life, they were frugal, Ample, modeft, poor j but fumptuous and magnificent whenever the ho¬ nour of the ftate was concerned. Their conquefts, their vidories, their riches, their connedions with the inhabitants of Afia Minor, never reduced them to luxury, to riot, to pomp, to profufion. Xenophon remarks, that a citizen was not diftinguiftied from a Have by his drefs. The wealthieft citizen, the moft renowned general, was not aftiamed to go himfelf to market. The tafte of the Athenians, for all the arts and fciences, is well known. When they had delivered themfelves from the tyranny of Pififtratus, and after this had defeated the vaft efforts of the Perfians, they may be confidered as at the fummit of their national glory. For more than half a century afterwards they maintained, without controul,the fovereignty of Greece j and that afcendant produced a fecurity, which left their minds at cafe, and gave them leifure to cultivate every thing liberal or elegant. It was then that Peri¬ cles adorned the city with temples, theatres, and other beautiful public buildings. Phidias, the great fculp- tor, was employed as his architefl, who, when he had erected edifices, adorned them himfelf, and added fta- tues and baffo-relievos, the admiration of every be¬ holder. It was then that Polignotus and Myro paint¬ ed , that Sophocles and Euripides wrote j and not long ^after, that they faw the divine Socrates. Human affairs are, by nature, prone to change j and ftates, as well as individuals, are born to decay. Jealoufy and ambition infenfibly fomented wars, and fuccefs in thefe wars, as in others, was often various. Attica. The military ftrength of the Athenians was firft im- paired by the Lacedaemonians j after that it was again humiliated, under Epaminondas, by the Thebans : and laft of all it was wholly crulhed by the Macedonian Philip. Nor, when their political fovereignty was loft, did their love of literature and the arts fink along with it. Juft at the clofe of their golden days of empire flou- riftied Xenophon and Plato, the difciples of Socrates j and from Plato defended that race of philofophers called the O/d Academy. Ariftotle, who was Plato’s difciple, may be faid not to have invented a new phi- lofophy, but rather to have tempered the fublime and rapturous myfteries of his matter with method, order, and a ftri&er mode of reafoning. Zeno, who was himfelf alfo educated in the principles of Platonifm, only differed from Plato in the comparative eftimate of things, allowing nothing to be intrinfically good but virtue, nothing intrinfically bad but vice, and con- fidering all other things to be in themfelves indifferent. He too and Ariftotle accurately cultivated logic, but in different ways \ for Ariftotle chiefly dwelt upon the fimple fyllogifm ; Zeno upon that which is derived out of it, the compound or hypothetic. Both too, as well as other philofophers, cultivated rhetoric along with logic ; holding a knowledge in both to be requi- fite for thofe who think of addrefling mankind with all the efficacy of perfuafion. Zeno elegantly illuftra- ted the force of thefe two powers by a fimile taken from the hand : the clofe power of logic he compared to the fill, or hand compreft : the diffufe power of lo¬ gic, to the palm, or hand open. The new academy was founded by Arcefilas, and ably maintained by Carneades. From a miflaken imi¬ tation of the great parent of philofophy Socrates (par¬ ticularly as he appears in the dialogues of Plato), be- caufe Socrates doubted feme things, therefore Arce¬ filas and Carneades doubted all.—Epicurus drew from another fource •, Democritus had taught him atoms and a void: by the fortuitous concourfe of atoms he fan¬ cied he could form a World ; while by a feigned vene¬ ration he complimented away his gods, and totally de¬ nied their providential care, left the trouble of it ftiould impair their uninterrupted ftate of blifs. Virtue he recommended, though not for the fake of virtue, but pleafure j pleafure, according to him, being our chief and fevereign good. See Aristotle, Epicurus, Plato, Socrates, &c. We have already mentioned the alliance between philofephy and rhetoric. This cannot be thought wonderful, if rhetoric be the art by which men are per- fuaded, and if men cannot be perfeaded without a knowledge of human nature : for what but philofephy can procure us this knowledge ? It was for this reafon the ableft Greek philofophers not only taught, but wrote alfo treatifes upon rhetoric. They had a farther induce¬ ment, and that was the intrinftc beautv of their lan¬ guage as it was then fpoken among the learned and po¬ lite. They would have been aftiamed to have deliver¬ ed philofophy, as it has been too often delivered fince, in compofitions as clumfy as the common dialect of the mere vulgar. The fame love of elegance, which made them at¬ tend to their ftyle, made them attend even to the pla¬ ces ATT [ 249 ] ATT Attica, ces where their philufophy was taught. Plato deli- *—v vered his lectures in a place fliaded with groves, on the banks of the river Iliifus $ and which, as it once be¬ longed to a perfon called Acadcmus, was called after his name, the Academy. Ariftotlechofe another fpot of a fimilar character, where there were trees and (hade; a fpot called the Lyceum. Zeno taught in a portico or colonnade, diftinguifhed from other buildings of that tort (of which the Athenians had many) by the name of the Variegated Portico, the walls being decorated with various paintings of Polygnotus and Myro, two ca¬ pital matters of that tranfeendant period. Epicurus addrefled his hearers in thofe well known gardens, call¬ ed, after his own name, The gardens of Epicurus. Thefe places of public inftitution were called among the Greeks by the name of Gymnafia; in which, what¬ ever that word might have originally meant, were taught all thofe exercifes, and all thofe arts, which tended to cultivate not only the body but the mind. As man was a being confiding of both, the Greeks could not confider that education as complete, in which both were not regarded, and both properly formed. Hence their Gymnafia, with reference to this double end, were adorned with two ftatues, thofe of Mercury and of Hercules, the corporeal accomplifhments being patronized (as they fuppofed) by the god of ftrength, the mental accomplifhments by the god of ingenuity. It was for the cultivation of every liberal aceom- plifhment that Athens was celebrated (as we have faid) during many centuries, long after her political influence was loft and at an end. She was the place of education, not only for Greeks but for Romans. It was hither that Horace was fent by his father; it was here that Cicero put his fon Mar¬ cus under Cratippus, one of the ablefl philofophers then belonging to that city. The fefts of philofo¬ phers which we have already deferibed, were dill ex- . iding when St Paul came thither. We cannot enough admire the fuperior eloquence of that apodle, in his manner of addrefling fo intelligent an audience. We cannot enough admire the fublimity of his exordium ; the propriety of his mentioning an altar which he had found there ; and his quotation from Aratus, one of their well known poets. Nor was Athens only cele¬ brated for the refidence of philofophers, and the infli- tution of youth : men of rank and fortune found plea- fure in a retreat, which contributed fo much to their liberal enjoyment. We fhall finifh this piflure of the Athenians by the addition of one objeft more, to which every one will admit they have a right; an object which was promi¬ nent and driking, in all their adlions and in all their enterprifes: We mean their ardent love of liberty. This was their predominant quality ; the main fpring of their government. From the beginning of the Per- fian war, they facrificed every thing to the liberty of Greece. They left, without hefitation, their cities, their houfes, to fight at fea the common enemy, from whom they were in danger of fervitude. What a glo¬ rious day was it for Athens, when all her allies, growing flexible to the advantageous offers which were made to them by the king of Perfia, {he replied by Ariflides, to the ambafladors of that monarch,—“ That it was impoflible for all the gold in the world to tempt the re¬ public of Athens : to prevail with her to fell her liber- Vol. III. Part I. ty, and that of Greece.” It was by thefe generous Attxa. fentiments that the Athenians not only became the v bulwark of Greece, but likewife guarded the red of Europe from a Perfian invafion. Thefe great qualities were blended with gnat fail¬ ings, feemingly incompatible with patriotifm. For the Athenians, notwithdanding their tenacious jealoufy of the rights of their country, were a volatile, inconflant, capricious people. lSo There never was a people more attentive to the wor- Pve'igloru fhip of the gods than the Athenians. The worfliip of their principal deities was diflfufed over all Greece, and even beyond its limits. Each temple had its particular religious rites : the pomp, the ceremonies, the duration, and the fuccef- fion of the folemn feafl's were all appointed by fixed rules. The wordiip paid to each divinity, whether public or private, was founded on traditions, or on laws condantly obeyed. The feafl of Bacchus, the Pana- thenaea, the fead of the myderies of Eleufis, were ce¬ lebrated according to edabliflied rules, mod of which were as ancient as the feafls themfelves. The old cu- fionw, of which the priefls were the guardians, were obferved in the temples. It is probable that the priefls were confulted on affairs in which the wordiip of a deity was interefled, and that their anfwer was decifive. We are certain that the Eumolpidae had this authority. They were the interpreters of the ancient laws on which the wordiip of Ceres was founded, its magnificence, and its mode—laws which were not‘written, as Lyfias informs us, but were perpetuated by a conflant obferva- tion. The abufes which had gradually crept into the celebration of thofe feafls, had given rife to feveral new regulations; to that of the orator Lycurgus, for ex¬ ample, and to the law of Solon, which enjoined the fenate to repair to Eleufis on the fecond day of the feafl : but neither thefe, nor the other particular regu¬ lations which We find in Samuel Petit’s colltdtion of Attic laws, could make a religious code. There was no general fy.dem which comprehended all the branches of their religion, which, by combining all its articles, might regulate their belief and conduct, and direft the judges in their decifions. ^ Crimes againfl religion were only puniflied as they Crimes a- affefted the date; and confequently they were tried bygamft reli- the magidrate. Mere raillery, though fomewhat pro-£ion> why fane, was thought prodiuftive of no worfe confi quence fomTn\es than offending the miniflers of the gods. The Athe-with feve- nians acknowledged no other religion than the heredi-rity. tary public wordiip ; no other gods than thofe they had received from their anceflors ; no other ceremonies but thofe which had been eflablifhed by the laws of the date, and pradlifed by their country from time im¬ memorial. They were only felicitous to preferve this worfliip, which was clofely interwoven with their go¬ vernment, and made a part of its policy. They were likewife attentive to the ceremonial pomp ; becaufe or¬ der, the regular vigour of legiflation, depends greatly on the awe impreffed by externals. But as to the in- confiflent and monflrous romance of fable, foreign opi¬ nions, popular traditions, and poetical fidions, which formed a religion quite different from that of the date —in it they were very little interefled, and allowed every one to think of it as he pleafed. Xhis explanation will reconcile a feeming contradic- I i tion ATT [ 25° ] ATT Attica, lion in the conduft of the Athenians, who gave great L~—v hcenfe to their poets, and feverely punifhed the ci¬ tizens who were guilty of impiety. Ariltophanes, who made as free with the gods as with the great, was applauded by the Athenians. They condemned So¬ crates to death, who revered the Deity, but difepproved the public manner of worfliipping him. U he life of yEfchylus was in danger, from a fufpicion that he had revealed fome of the fecrets of Eleufis in one of his pieces. The wit of Ariltophanes’s drama was unpu- ,82 nilhed. priefts, The priefls were not confined to the care of the al- their duty, tars; they who were vefted with the facerdetal dignity, which was only incompatible with profeflions merely ufe- ful and lucrative, might like wife hold the mod impor¬ tant offices of the commonwealth. This we could prove by a great number of examples ; we ffiall cite that of Xenophon the illuftrious hiftorian and philofopher : he was likewife a famous general, and he was a pried. He was performing the facerdotal function when he received lire news of his fon’s death, who rvas killed at the battle of Mantinea. The facred minidry was not only compatible with civil offices, but likewife with the profeffion of arms. The pried and the foldier were often blended. Cal- lias, the pried of Ceres, fought at Plataea. This cu- dom was not peculiar to the Athenians. The La- cedeemonians, after the battle w'hich we have jud men¬ tioned, made three graves for their flain ; one for the prieils, one for the other Spartans, and one for the lS Helots. Sacred re- the ordinary bufinefs of life was incompatible venue?, &c. with the facerdotal dignity, the prieds had a revenue fixed to their office. We know that a part of the vic¬ tims was their right, and that apartments were affigned them near the temples. But, befides thefe advantages, • they had a faiary proportioned to the dignity of their fun&ions and to the rank of the deities whom they ferved. Their faiary was probably paid from the re¬ venue of the temples. Thofe revenues, which kept the temples in repair, and defrayed the facrificial expences, were very confiderable. I hey were of many different kinds. A great part of the facred revenues arofe from fines, which individuals were condemned to pay for various offences ; fines, of which the tenth part was appro¬ priated to Minerva Polias, and the fiftieth to the other gods, and to the heroes whofe names their tribes bore. Befides, if the Prytanes did not hold the affemblies conformably with the laws, they were obliged to pay a fine of 1000 drachms to the goddefs. If the Proe- dri, i. e. the fenators whofe office it was to lay before the affembly the matters on which they were to delibe¬ rate, did not difeharge that duty according to the rules preferibed to them, they were likew ife condemned to pay a fine, which, as the former, was applied to the ufe of Minerva. By thefe fines her temple muff have been greatly enriched. Befides this revenue, which was the common pro¬ perty of the gods, and whick vatied according to the number and degrees of the mifdemeanours, the temples had their permanent revenues : We mean the produce of the lands which were confecrated to the deities. We do not here allude to the lands confecrated to the gods, which were, never to be cultivated; fuch as the territory of Cirrha, proferibed by a folemn decree of Attica, the Amphidtyons; the land betwixt Megara and At-v-—** tica, which was confecrated to the goddefles of Eleu¬ fis, and many others. We would fpeak only of thofe which were cultivated, the fruits of which enriched the temples. There were likewife lands belonging to theftate, the produce of which was deftined to defray the expence of the facrifices which were offered in the name of the re¬ public. There were likewife firft fruits which the pub¬ lic officers levied on all lands, for the ufe of the gods. All thefe emoluments made a part of the revenue of the temples. The gods, befides the revenues immediately apper¬ taining to their temples, had certain rights which were granted them by particular compaft. The Lepreatae, for inftance, were obliged to pay every year a talent to Olympian Jupiter, on account of a treaty of alliance which they made with the Eleans in one of their wars. The inhabitants of Epidaurus, to obtain leave from the Athenians to cut down olive-trees for ftatues, which the Pythian prieftefs had commanded them to make, engaged to fend deputies every year to Athens, to offer facrifices in their name to Minerva and to Nep¬ tune. But this prerogative was rather honorary than lucrative. The tenth part of the fpoils taken in war was like- Avife the property of Minerva. Sacred veffels Avere bought with the effects of the 30 tyrants. In ffiort, the gods were profited by almoft every public accident. But Avhat contributed moft to enrich the famous tem¬ ples of Greece, Avas the money which Avas conftantly brought to them by individuals, in conftquenee of vows they had made, or to pay for facrifices Avhich Avere offered in their names. The credulity of the people Avas an inexhauftible fund. That credulity en¬ riched the temples of Delos and Eleufis, and fupported the magnificence of Delphi. And thole immenfe trea- fures Avhich were the fruit of fuperftition, were often a prey to avarice. Thefe revenues Avere not depofited Avith the priefls j nor did they expend them. A moderate faiary Avas all their gain *, and to offer facrifices to the deities whofe minifters they Avere, Avas all their employment. It is very probable that all the facred revenues Avere paid into the hands of officers Avho Avere appointed to receive them, and Avho Avere to give an account of the difeharge of their truft. Nay, avc cannot doubt of this, after reading a paffage in Ariflotle, Avho, fpeak- ing of the officers of the temples, exprefsly mentions thofe Avho are intruded with the money appertaining to the gods. Citizens, without doubt, of approved inte¬ grity, were chofen to this office ; and their duty muff have been, to keep the temples in repair and order, and to difburfe and keep an account of the ordinary facred expences. As to the fitlemn feafts, which Avere incredibly mag¬ nificent, fuch as the feaft of Bacchus, and the Pana- thencea, they Avere celebrated at the expence of the choregus •, i. e. of the chief of the choir of each tribe *, for each tribe had its poet and its muficians, Avho fung, emulating each other, hymns in honour of the deity- The richefl: citizens Avere appointed chiefs of the dif¬ ferent choirs j and as their office Avas very expenfive, to indemnify them in fome degree, the choregus of ATT [ 251 ] ATT Attica, the vi&orious tribe had the privilege of engraving his —v*-*' name on the tripod which that tribe fufpended to the roof of the temple. This office, though ruinous, was eagerly folicited j and naturally, in a republican date. It led to honours, like the curule dignity at Rome j and it greatly tended to ingratiate its pofleffor with a people who were more afte&ed with pleafures than with effential fervices, and who, confequently, would more highly efteem a profufe choregus than a vifto- rious general. With regard to the fines, which were in the whole, or in part, the property of Minerva and of the other deities, there were at Athens public treafurers appointed to re¬ ceive them. They were ten in number, and they were nominated by lot. They were called Treafurers of the goddefs, or Receivers of the facred moneij. That money they received in the prefence of the fenate •, and they were empowered to diminiffi or to annihilate the fine, if they thought it unjuft. The ftatue of Minerva, that of the Victories, and the other invaluable pledges of the duration of the ftate, were depofited with them. The treafury in which the money confecrated to the gods was kept, was in the citadel, behind the temple of Minerva Polias; and from its fituation it was term¬ ed Opijihodomus. It was furrounded with a double wall. It had but one door, the key of which was kept by the Epiftates, or chief of the Prytanes : his dignity was very confiderable 5 but it lafted only one day". In this treafury a regifter was kept, in which were written the names of all thofe who were indebted to the ftate ; he who owed the fmalleft fine was not omitted. If the debtors proved infolvent, they were profecuted with ex¬ treme rigour, and often puniflied with a cruelty which religion could not cxcufe j though the intereft of the gods was the motive, or rather the pretext. The fa¬ cred treafurers held a confiderable rank among the ma- giftrates who received the public finances. Of thefe luagiftrates there were many kinds, as there were many forts of revenues. The Athenian priefts did not compofe an order di- ftinft and feparate from the other orders of the ftate. They did not form a body united by particular laws, under a chief whofe authority extended to all his infe¬ riors. The dignity of fovereign pontiff was unknown at Athens ^ and each of the priefts ferved his particular temple, unconnefted with his brethren. The temples, indeed, of the principal deities j thofe of Minerva, for inftance, of Neptune, of Ceres, and of Proferpine, had many minifters ; and in each of them a chief prefided, 'who had the title of High Prieji. The number of fub- •altern minifters was in proportion to the rank of the deity 5 but the priefts of one temple were altogether a feparate fociety from thofe of another. Thus at Athens there was a great number of high priefts, becaufe many ( deities were worthipped there, whofe fervice required many miuifters. The power of each prieft was confined to his temple $ and there was no fovereign pontiff, the minifter general of the gods, and. theprefident at all the feafts. It naturally follows from this account, that the mi¬ nifters of the gods at Athens were not judges in matters of religion. ^ They were neither authorized to take cognizance of crimes committed againft the deity, nor to puniffi them. Their fundlion was to offer facrifices to the gods, and to entreat their acceptance of the adorations of the people. But the puniflnnent of impie- Attica, ty, of facrilege, of the profanation of myfteries, and of ——v~" other irreligious crimes, was not entrufted to their zeal. The priefts were not only incapable of avenging crimes againft religion by a criminal procefs j they even could not, without an exprefs order either from the fenate or the people, exercife their right of de¬ voting criminals to the infernal gods. It was in eon- fequence of a civil fentence pronounced againft: Alci- biades, that the Eumolpidae launched their anathema againft him. It was in virtue of another decree that they revoked their imprecations, when his countrymen wanted his fervice, and therefore reftored him to their favour. Religious caufes, according to M. de Bougainville, fell under the jurifdiflion of the Heliaftae. The government, though often altered, continued pretty much on the plan eftabliffied by Solon. lS< '1 he people of Athens were freemen, fojourners, or People tii- flaves. The citizens, called in Greek Po/itai, were ve- videc! int» ry numerous j but what may feem ftrange, were as ma-(^erent ny in the time of Cecrops as in the moft flouriftiingtnbes’&C ' ftate of the commonwealth, hardly ever exceeding 20,000. It was Solon who decreed that none ffiould be accounted free but fuch as were Athenians both by fa* ther and mother. After his time it fell into defuetude, till revived by Pericles *, and was again at his inftance repealed. After the expulfion of the 30 tyrants, Solon’s law was reftored. A perfon born of a ftranger was ftyled Nothos, a baftard j whereas the fon of a free wo¬ man was called Cnejios, i. e. legitimate. There was in Cynofarges a court of judicature, to which caufes of il¬ legitimacy properly belonged j and the utmoft care was taken to prevent any from being enrolled Athe¬ nian citizens, who had not a clear title thereto. The citizens were divided by Cecrops into four tribes : the firft called Cecropes, from Cecrops ; the fecond, Au¬ tochthon, from a king of that name ; the third, JBai, from Acteus, another king of Athens, or rather from Adle, which fignifies a Jhore; the fourth, Pura/ia : thefe names were altered by Cranaus, and again by Eritthonius. In the reign of Eriftheus, they were again changed ; the foldicrs were called Oblitai, the craftfmen Ergatai, the farmers Georgoi, the graziers and (hepherds Aigicorai: in this ftate they were when Solon fettled the commonwealth, and appointed the fe¬ nate to be compofed of 400, 100 out of each tribe. Clyfthenes increafed the number of the tribes to ten 5 and made the fenate confift of 500, taking 30 out of each tribe. In fucceeding times, two other tribes were added. Each tribe was fubdivided into its Dernoi or wards : and with refpett to thefe it was that Solon infti- tuted the public feafts before-mentioned, at which fome- times the whole tribe affembled, fometimes feveral wards, and fometimes only the inhabitants of one ward. The fecond fort of inhabitants we mentioned were called Metoicoi, i. e. fojourners; thefe were perfons who lived always at Athens, yet were not admitted free denizens : as for fuch as did not conftantly refide in Athens, they were ftyled Xenoi; i. c. Jlrangers. The fojourners were obliged to choofe out of the citi¬ zens proteflors, who were ftyled Patrons; they paid fervices to the ftate, and befides thefe an annual tribute of 12 drachms for every man, and fix for every wo¬ man j but fuch as had Tons, and paid for them, were I i 2 exempted. ATT [ 252 ] ATT Attica, exempted. If people fell to poverty, and were not *-■ v—»able to pay the tribute, they were feized by the tax- mafters, and actually fold for flaves } which, as Dio¬ genes Laertius tells us, was the fate of Xenocrates the philofopher. The fojourners in Attica were under the fame law as thofe in Athens. As to fervants, they were freemen, who through indigency were driven to receive wages, and while they were in thisflate had no vote in the affembly. As to flaves, they were abfo- lutely the property of their mafters, and as fuch were ufed as they thought fit : They were forbidden to wear clothes, or to cut "their hair like their mafters; and, which is indeed amazing, Solon prohibited them to love boys, as if that had been honourable : 1 hey were likewife debarred from anointing or perfuming them- felves, and from worfliipping certain deities: They were not allowed to be called by honourable names ; and in moft other refpefts were ufed like dogs. They fligmatized them at their pleafure, that is, branded them with letters in the forehead and elfewhere. How¬ ever, Thefeus’s temple was allowed them as a fan£tuary, whither, if they were exceedingly ill ufed, they might fly, and thereby oblige their owners to let them be transferred to another mafler. In this and many other refpeds the Athenian flaves were in a much better con¬ dition than thofe throughout the reft of Greece : they were permitted to get eftates for themfelves, giving a fmall premium to their mafters, who rvere obliged to make them free if they could pay their ranfom ; they likewife obtained the fame favour from the kindnefs of their mafters, or for having rendered military fervices to the ftates. When they were made free, they were obliged to choofe patrons ; and had likewife the privi¬ lege of choofing a curator, who, in cafe their patrons 1S5 injured them, was bound to defend them. Cleneiul af- The general aflembly of the people, which Solon fenjbly of the dernier refort, was called l\\e Ecc/ejia ; and tbe confifted of all the freemen of Athens, excepting fuch as were atimoi or infamous. The meetings of thefe af- femblies Avere either ordinary or extraordinary. The ordinary were fuch as were appointed by law, the ex¬ traordinary fuch as neceflity required. Of the firft there were four in 35 days. In the firft aflembly they approved or rejedled magiftrates, heard propofals for the public good, and certain caufts. In the fecond they received petitions, and heard every man’s judge¬ ment on the matters that were before them. In the third they gave audience to foreign ambafiadors. The fourth was employed altogether in affairs relating to the gods and their worflflp. The extraordinary meet¬ ings were appointed by the magiftrates when occafion required, whereas to the ordinary affemblies the peo¬ ple came of their own accord. The firft were held ei¬ ther in the market-place, in the Pnyx a place near the citadel, or in the theatre of Bacchus : as to the latter, the magiftrates who appointed the extraordinary meet¬ ing appointed alfo the place where it (hould be held. If any hidden tempeft rofe, or any earthquake hap¬ pened, or any fign notorioufly inaufpicious appeared, the affembly was immediately adjourned, to prevent the people from apprehending unhappy confequences from their deliberations. But if the weather was fair and ferene, and nothing happened out of the ordinary courfe of things, they proceeded to purify the place where the aflembly was held, which was done by fprinkling it round with the blond of young pigs ; then the crier Attica, made a folemn prayer for the profperity of the republic, v—— and that heaven would beftow a happy iffue on their counfels and undertakings : he then pronounced a bit¬ ter execration againfl any who fliould in that affembly propound what might be disadvantageous to the flate. Theie ceremonies being over, they proceeded to bufi- nefs. 1S5 There were feveral magiftrates who had the overfee-Method of ing and regulating thefe affemblies. Thefe were, firft, "1V!"S tlie>f the Epiflate, or prefident of the affembly, who w as1'1 ris* chofen by lot out of the Proedri : his office was to give the fignal for the people’s voting. Next to him were the Prytanes, i. e. a committee of the fenate, who of courfe were prefent on this occafioir : by their order a programma, or fcheme of the bufinefs to be propofed at the affembly, was previoufly fet up in fome public place, that every man might know what bufinefs to apply his thoughts to. The Proedri were nine in num¬ ber, appointed by lots out of all the tribes to which the Prytanes did not belong : they had the right of pro- pofing to the people what they were to deliberate upon, and their office ended with the affembly ; there fat with them afl’effors, who were to take care that no¬ thing they propofed was detrimental to the common¬ wealth. The firft ftep to bufinefs was the crier’s read¬ ing the decree of the fenate w hereon the affembly was to deliberate ; when he had finifhed this, he made pro¬ clamation in thefe Avords : IV/io of the men above 50 will make an oration ? When the old men had done fpeaking, the crier made proclamation again that any Athenian might then offer his fentiments, whom the laAV alloAved fo to do ; that is, all fuch as Avere above 30 years old, and Avere not infamous. If fuch a one rofe up to fpeak, the Prytanes interpofed, and bid him be filent; and if he did not obey them, the liftors pull¬ ed him down by force. When the debates were over, the prefident permitted the people to vote; Avhieh they did by cafting firft beans, but in after times pebbles, into certain veffels : thefe were counted, and then it was declared that the decree of the fenate was either rejefted or approved : after which, the Prytanes dif- miffed the affembly. ^ The fenate Avas inftituted by Solon to prevent the xhe fenate. dangerous confequhnces of leaving the fupreme poAver in the people. At the time of his inftitution, it Avas to confift of 400, 100 out of each tribe ; it was increafed to 500, Avhen the tribes Avere augmented to 10 *, and Avhen they came to 12, it Avas alfo fwelled to 600. They Avere eledted by lots after this manner : At a day- appointed, towards the clofe of the year, the prefident of each tribe gave in a lift of fuch perfons belonging thereto, as were fit for and defired to appear for this dignity : thefe names Avere engraven on tables of brafs, and a number of beans equal to the number of the amount of them, among which Avere 100 white ones, put into a veffel; and then the names of the candidates and the beans Avere draAvn one by one, and fuch as Avere draAvn by the Avhite beans Avere received into the fenate. After the fenate Avas eledled, they proceeded to appoint the officers Avho Avere to prefide in the fe¬ nate : thefe Avere the Prytanes before mentioned ; and they AA'ere elected thus : The names of the ten tribes were throAvn into one veffel, and nine black beans and a white one into another veffel. Then the names of the tribes ATT [2 Attica, tribes were drawn with the beans. The tribe to which v the white bean anfwered, prefided firtl 5 and the reft according to the order in which they were drawn. { Iip Prvt'cmpc -f^ f ,— n. il . J r Attica, iSS Prytanes. The Prytanes, while the fenate' confiiled of 500, were 50 in number. For the farther avoiding of con- fufion, therefore, 10 of thefe prefided a week, during which fpace they were called Froedri; and out of thefe an Epiiiate or prefident was chofen, whofe office lafted but one day, and by law no man could hold it more than once : the reafon of this was, that he had in his cuftody the public feal,.the keys of the citadel, and the charge of the exchequer. The reader muft difiinguilh between the Epiltates and Proedri laft mentioned, and thofe fpoken of in the former paragraph, becaufe, though their titles were the fame, their offices were perfectly di- ftinft. 1 he fenate aflembled by diredlion of the Pry¬ tanes once every day, excepting fefiivals, and fome- times oftener, in the fenate-houfe, which was thence call- ed Pnjtcmeum. Laws how When a member of the fenate made a motion for a eftabliflied, new law, it was immediately engraven on tablets, that the members when they came next might be prepared to fpeak to it. At the fubfequent affembly the Epi- flates opened the matter j after which every lenator that pleafed delivered his lentiments j then any of the Prytanes drew up the decree, and repeated it aloud: after which they proceeded to vote 5 and if there was a majority of white beans, then it became pfephijtna^ and was afterwards propounded to the people : if they approved it, it became a law ; otherwife it was of no force longer than the fenate who decreed it fubfifted. The power of the fenate was very great ; for they took the account of magilfrates at the expiration of their of¬ fices *, they directed the provilions made for poor citi¬ zens out of the public treafure 5 they had the fuperin- tendency of public prifons, and a power of punilhino- fuch as committed a&s morally evil, though not prohit bited by any law ; they had the care likewife of the fleet; and. befides all thefe they had many other branches of authority, which it is not neceffary for us to men¬ tion. Before they took their feats, they were con- ftrained to undergo a very ftrifl examination, wherein the whole courfe of their lives was inquired into; and if the leaf! f!ur on their reputation appeared, they were fet afide. When this examination was over, they took an oath, whereby they bound themfelves to promote in all their counfels the public good, to advife nothing contrary to the laws, and to execute their functions ex- a6Hy. The higheft fine the fenate could impofe v'as 500 drachms : if they thought the offender deferved a heavier muldf, they then tranfmitted the caufe to the Thefmothetae, who puniffied them as they thought fit. The fenators, when their year was out, gave an ac¬ count of their management to the people: but that they might, have the lefs to do, they always puniffied fuch of their number as they found had offended by expulfion ; and in this they were mighty exadf. Yet an expelled fenator was notwithflanding eligible to any other office, the moft trivial omiffion being fufficient to occafion a difmiffion from the fenatorial dignity ; and therefore, when the tribes chofe their fenators5, they alfo chofe a certain number of fubfidiaries, out of which, when a fenator was expelled, another was fub- ftituted in his place. Each fenator was allowed a drachm every day : for it -was a conftant rule with the 53 ] ,A T T Athenians, that the public ought to pay for every man’s time j and therefore fuch of the poor Athenians as1 » thought fit to demand it, had three oboli for going to the aflembly. If during their adminiffration any (hips of war were built, the fenators had crowns decreed them ; but if not, they were forbid to fue for them. Next to the fenate was the court of Arkopagus ■ for a defeription of which fee that article. * . T!ie cliief magnates „f Athens were Archons, and Ardlons, inferior to them there were many others 5 of whom it Nomopby* vyill be neceffary to mention fome. In the firft place lace5* &c* they had Numophylaces, who were alfo ftyled the eleven becaufe they were fo many in number, one chofen out of each tribe, and a clerk or fecretary who made up the eleventh. Their duty it was to look to the exe¬ cution of the laws : they had authority to feize robbers and other capital offenders ; and if they confeffed to put them to death. Dr Potter thinks they refembled our ffienffs. The Phylarcbi were the prefidents of the Athenian tribes j but in time this became a military title. I. he Philobafileus was an officer in each tribe ™h° d,d I.1'6 fa.me tllings within his jurifdiaion as the Eafileus did with refped to the Hate. The Deraarchi were the principal magiftrates in wards. The Lexar- chi were fix in number, and were bound to take care that the people came duly to the affemblies : in their cuffody was the public regifter of the citizens names. u Hadi Under them Toxolae> who were lidors or bailiffs j they were fometimes 1000 in number • thefe men were neceffary : but, like moft of their fort, were in a manner infamous, as may be gathered from the comedies of Anftophanes j they were generally Scy¬ thians raw-boned, brawny fellows, ready to execute any thing they were commanded. The Nomothetic were loop in number j their bufinefs was to watch oyer and infpeft into the laws. There were two forts of.orators in the fervice of the ftate. Some were ap¬ pointed to defend an old law, when a motion was made to repeal it ; thefe had their fee from the ftate, but the lame man was incapable of being eledled twice. Be- lides thefe there were 10 fettled orators called Rheto- ™ defted by lot j their bufinefs was to plead public caufes in the fenate boufe. For this they had their fta- ted fees; and with refpea to their qualifications, the I0I aw run thus: “ Let no one be a public orator who Laws’re- hath ftruck h,s parents, denied them maintenance, orS-ding jhut tnem out of his doors ; who hath refufed to ferveoratorS• in the army ; who hath thrown away his ftfield ; who hath oeen addled to lewd women, notorioufiy effe¬ minate, or has run out his patrimony. If any man who has been guilty of thefe crimes dare to deliver an ora¬ tion, let him be brought to trial upon the fpot Let an orator have children lawfully begotten, and an eftate within Attica ; if in bis oration he talks imperti¬ nently, makes idle repetitions, affeaS an unbecoming raiHery, digreffes from the point in queftion, or, after the affembly is over, abufes the prefident, let the Pro- edn fine him 50 drachms; and if that is not thought LTIned1;^’ br°Ught bef0rethen^ verl^w-ir111'6 tMS draU,ght °f the AtIienian go- Counfof vernment with an account of their courts of jufticeJ^e. vhicb exclufive of. the Areopagus, were 10 in num- ber four had cognizance of criminal, and fix of civil caufes. Thefe 10 courts were numbered with the ro firft ATT [ 254 1 ATT Attica. firH; letters of the alphabet, and were thence ftyled, —v ' Alpha, Beta, Gamma, &c. When an Athenian was at leifure to hear caufes, he wrote his own name, that of his father, and the ward to which he belonged, up¬ on a tablet ; this he prefented to the Thefmothetae, who returned it again to him with another tablet, with the letter which fell to his lot ; then he went to the crier of the court, who prefented him a fceptre, and o-ave him admiflion. When the caufes were over, every judge went and delivered his fceptre to the Prytanes, and^received a dated fee for every caufe that was tried. But this was intended only to compenfate their lofs of time ; fo that there might be no appearance of covetouf- nefs, a man was forbid to fit in two courts on the fame day. The firft criminal court after the Areopagus was that of the Ephetcv. It confided of 51 members, all up¬ wards of 51 years old. Draco gave it a very extenfive jurifdiftion ; but Solon took away from them the power of judging in any other caufes than thofe of mandaugh- ter, accidental killing, and lying in wait to dedroy : the Bafileus entered all caufes in this court. The fecond criminal court was called Delphinium, becaufe it was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius ; it had cog¬ nizance of fuch murders as were confeffed by the crimi¬ nal, but at the fame time judified under fome pretence or ^ther. The Prytaneum was the third criminal court. It held plea of fuch cafes where death enfued from inanimate things } caufes were heard here with the fame folemnity as in other courts •, and on judgment given, the thing, whatever it was, that had occafioned the death of a man, was thrown out of the territory of Athens. The lad criminal court was dyled Phreatum. It fat in a place not far from the fea diore ; and fuch perfons were brought before this court as had committed murders in their own country and fled to Attica j the proceedings of this court ivere fo fevere, that they did not permit the criminal to come on diore, but obliged him to plead his caufe in his veffel; and if he was found guilty, he was committed to the mercy of the winds and feas. Of the judicatures for hearing civil caufes, the fird was the Parabajlon, fo called, as fome think, becaufe in it no matter could be heard if the caufe of a&ion ivas above one drachm. I he Cainon, or new couit, was the fecond tribunal. The third was dyled the court of Lycus, becaufe it afiembled in a temple dedi¬ cated to that hero, whofe datue, reprefented with the face of a wolf, was fet up in all courts of judice. The Trigonon was fo called, becaufe it was triangiflar in its form. The court Meticlius derived its appellation from the architeft who built it. The fixth and lad court Avas called He/ice a; it was by far the greated, and is generally believed to have derived its name from the judges fitting in the open air expofed to the fun. All the Athenians who were free citizens were allowed by law to fit in thefe courts as judges ; but before they took their feats were fworn by Apollo Patrius, Ceres, and Jupiter the king, that they would decide all things righteoufly and according to law, where there was any law to guide them •, and by the rules of natural equity, where there was none. The Helaeadic court confided at lead of 50, but its ufual number was 500, judges; when caufes of very great confequence Avere to be tried, 1000 fat therein j and now and then the judges were increafed to 1500, and even to 2000. There were 4 many inferior courts in Athens for the decifion of tri- Attica vial caufes $ but of thefe there is no necedity of fpeak- [] ing, fince we defign no more than a fuccin£t view of, Attila. the Athenian republic, as it was fettled by and in con¬ fequence of Solon’s laws. ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, one of the mod honourable men in ancient Rome. He underdood the art of managing himfelf with fuch addrefs, that with¬ out leaving his date of neutrality, he preferved the edeem and affeftion of all parties. His drift friendfhip with Cicero did not hinder him from having great in¬ timacy with Hortenfius. The conteds at Rome be¬ tween Cinna’s party and that of Marius induced him to go to Athens, where he continued for a long time. He was very fond of polite learning, and kept at his houfe feveral librarians and readers. He might have obtained the mod confiderable pods in the government -7 but chofe rather not to meddle, becaufe in the corrup¬ tion and faftion which then prevailed he could not dif- charge them according to the laws. He wrote Annals. He married his daughter to Agrippa j and attained to the age of '77. ATTILA, king of the Huns, furnamed thefcourge of God, lived in the fifth century. He may be ranked amongd the greated conquerors, fince there was fcarcely any province of Europe which did not feel the weight of his viftorious arms. Attila deduced his noble, perhaps his regal, de-Gibbon’s fcent from the ancient Huns, who had formerly con- hiome, tended with the monarchs of China. His features, ac-vo1, n1' cording to the obfervation of a Gothic hidorian, borep' 3;>r the damp of his national origin : and the portrait of Attila exhibits the genuine deformity of a modern Calmuck ; a large head, a fwarthy complexion, fmall deep-feated eyes, a flat nofe, a few hairs in the place of a beard, broad fhoulders, and a fliort fquare body, of nervous flrength, though of a difproportioned form. The haughty ftep and demeanour of the king of the Huns exprefled the confcioufnefs of his fuperiority above the red of mankind and he had a cudom of fiercely rolling his eyes, as if he wiflied to enjoy the terror which he infpired. Yet this favage hero was not inacceflible to pity } his fuppliant enemies might confide in the aflurance of peace or pardon *, and At¬ tila was confidered by his fubjefts as a jud and indul¬ gent mader. He delighted in Avar : but after he had afeended the throne in a mature age, his head, rather than his hand, achieved the conquefl of the north *, and the fame of an adventurous foldier was ufefully ex¬ changed for that of a prudent and fuccefsful general. The effefts of perfonal valour are fo inconfiderable, except in poetry er romance, that viftory, even among barbarians, mud depend on the degree of fkill, Avith Avhich the paflions of the multitude are combined and guided for the fervice of a Angle man. The arts of Attila Avere fkilfully adapted to the charafter of his age and country. It was natural enough, that the Scythians fliould adore Avith peculiar devotion, the. god of war ; but as they Avere incapable of forming either an ahdraft idea, or a corporeal reprefentation, they \yordiipped their tutelar deity under the fymbol of an iron feimitar. One of the fliepherds of the Huns perceived, that a heifer, Avbo ay as grazing, had wound¬ ed herfelf in the foot •, and curioudy follow'ed the track of the blood, till he difeovered, among the long grajs, A T T C 255 ] AT T Atttla. tne point ot an ancient iword ; which he dug out of —the ground, and prefented to Attila. That magnani¬ mous, or rather that artful, prince, accepted with pi¬ ous gratitude this celeftial favour; and, as the right¬ ful poffeffor of the /word of Mars, afferted his divine and indefeafible claim to the dominion of the earth. If the rites of Scythia were pradtifed on this folemn occa- fion, a lofty altar, or rather pile of faggots, 300 yards in length and in breadth, was raifed in a fpacious plain ; and the fword of Mars was placed ereft on the fummit of this ruftic altar, which was annually confe- crated by the blood of (lieep, horfes, and of the hun¬ dredth captive. Whether human facrifices formed any part of the worfhip of Attila, or whether he propitia¬ ted the god of war with the viftims which he continu¬ ally offered in the field of battle, the favourite of Mars foon acquired a facred charafter, which rendered his conquefts more eafy and more permanent ; and the barbarian princes confelfed, in the language of devo¬ tion or flattery, that they could not prefume to gaze with a Heady eye on the divine majefty of the king of the Huns. His brother Bieda, who reigned over a confiderable part of the nation, was compelled to re- fign his fceptre and his life. Yet even this cruel aft Avas attributed to a fupernatural impulfe ; and the vi¬ gour with which Attila wielded the fword of Mars, con¬ vinced the world that it had been referved alone for his invincible arm. But the extent of his empire affords the only remaining evidence of the number and impor¬ tance of his victories ; and the Scythian monarch, how¬ ever ignorant of the value of fcience and philofophy, might perhaps lament that his illiterate fubje&s were deftitute of the art which could perpetuate the memory of his exploits. If a line of feparation were drawn between the civi¬ lized and the favage climates of the globe j between the inhabitants of cities who cultivated the earth, and the hunters and fliepherds who dwelt in tents j Attila might afpire to the title of fupreme and foie monarch of the. Barbarians. He alone, among the conquerors of ancient and modern times, united the two mighty kingdoms of Germany and Scythia; and thofe vague appellations, when they are applied to his reign, may be underftood with an extenfive latitude. Thuringia, which ftrelched beyond its aaual limits as far as the Danube, was in the number of his provinces : he in- terpofed, with the weight of a powerful neighbour, in the domefiic affairs of the Franks ; and one of his lieu¬ tenants chaftifed, and almofl exterminated, the Bur¬ gundians of the Rhine. He fubdued the iflands of the ocean, the kingdoms: of' Scandinavia, encompaffed and divided by the waters of the Baltic ; and the Huns might derive a tribute of furs from that northern re¬ gion, which has been protefled from all other conque¬ rors by.the feverity of the climate, and the courage of the native-. Towards the eafl, it is difficult to cir- cumfcribe the dominion of Attila over the Scythian de- ferts : yet we may be affured, that he reigned on the banks of the Volga ; that the king of the Huns was dreaded not only as a warrior but as a magician j that he infulted and vanquilhed the khan of the formi¬ dable Geougen •, and that he fent ambalfadors to nego- ciate an equal alliance with the empire of China. In the proud review of the nations Who acknowledged the ftvereignty of Attitej and who neve* entertained du¬ ring his lifetime the thought of a revolt, the Gepidse Attila and the Oftrogoths were diftinguifhed by their num- || bers, their bravery, and the perfonal merit of their Attorney- chiefs. The renowned Ardaric king of the Gepidae, ’’“■"V”—- was the faithful and fagacious counfellor of the mo¬ narch ; who efleemed his intrepid genius, whilft he lo¬ ved the mild and difcreet virtues of the noble Walamir king of the Oftrogoths. The crowd of the vulgar kings, the leader of fo many martial tribes, who ferved under the ftandard of Attila, were ranged in the fub- miffive order of guards and domeflics round the perfon of their mailer, i hey watched his nod j they trembled at his frown ; and at the firil fignal of his will, they ex¬ ecuted without murmur or hefitation his Hern and abfo- lute commands. In time of peace, the dependent' princes, with their national troops, attended the royal camp in regular fucceflion ; but when Attila colle&ed his military force, he was able to bring into the field an army of five, or, according to another account, of feven hundred thoufand Barbarians. I he death of Attila was attended with lingular cir- cumflances. He had married a new wife, a beautiful virgin named I/dico. His nuptials were celebrated with great feflivity, at his palace beyond the Danube, and he retired late to bed oppreffed with wine. In the night, a blood-veffel burff in his lungs, which fuf- fucated him. 1 he bride was found in the mornin^ fit- ting by the bedfide, lamenting his death and her own danger. The body of Attila was expofed in the plain, Avhile the Huns, fingirig funeral fongs to his praife, marched round it in martial order. The body, cnclo- fed in three coffins, of gold, filver, and iron, was pri¬ vately interred during the night ; and to prevent the violation of his remains by the difeovery of the place where he was buried, all the captive Haves who were employed in the folemnity were barbaroufly maflfacred. This happened about the year 453. With Attila end¬ ed the empire of the Huns. His fons, by diffenfion and civil war, mutually deflroyed each other, or were dTpofTefled by more powerful and independent chief- . tains. For a farther account of his exploits, fee the article^ • Huns. . ATTIRE, in hunting, fignifies the head or horns of a deer. The attire of a flag, if perfetf, eonfifls of bur, pearls, beam, gutters, antler, fur-antler, royal, fur- royal, and crotches j of a buck, of the bur, beam, brow- antler, advancer, palm, and fpellers. f f f rUDE, in Painting and Sculpture, the* geflure of a figure or flatue ; or it is fuch a difpofition of their parts as ferves to exprefs the action and fentiments of the perfon reprefented. ATRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on the north-weft of Corfica, (Ptolemy). It Hill retains fome traces of its ancient name, being now called fW- ta di Acciuolo (Cluverius). . Ai 1 LEBURY, a town in the county of Norfolk m England. E Long. 0. 40. N. Lat. 52. 23. A 1 FOLLENS, in Anatomy, an appellation given to feveral mufcles, otherwife called /evatores and eleva- tores. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles. AT FORNEY at taw, anfwers to the Procurator or Proctor of, the civilians and canonifts; And he is one who is put in the place, Head, or turn, of ano¬ ther, to manage his natters of law. Formerly every fuitor ; I ATT Attorney, fuitor was obliged to appear in perfon, to proftcute or —v—-- defend his fuit (according to the old Gothic conftitu- tion), unlefs by fpecial licenfe under the king’s letters patent. This is Hill the law in criminal cafes. And an idiot cannot to this day appear by attorney, but in perfon for he hath not difcretion to enable him to appoint a proper fubftitute: and upon his being brought before the court in fo defencelefs a condition, the judges are bound to take care of his interefts, and they lliall admit the beft plea in his behalf that any one prefent can fuggeft. But, as in the Roman law, cum olim in ufu fuijjet, a/terius nomine agi non pojje, fed quia hoc non minimum incommoditalem habebat, cceperunt homines per prociiratores litigare; fo, with us, on the f^me principle of convenience, it is now permitted in gene¬ ral, by divers ancient llatutes, whereof the firlt is fta- tute Weft. 2. c. 10. that attorneys may be made to profecute or defend any action in the abfence of the parties to the fuit. Thefe attorneys are now formed into a regular corps; they are admitted to the execu¬ tion of their office by the fuperior courts of Weftmin- ller hall j and are in all points officers of the refpec- tive courts in which they are admitted ; and as they have many privileges on account of their attendance there, fo they are peculiarly fubjedl to the cenfure and animadverfion of the judges. No man can praftife as an attorney in any of thole courts, but fuch as is ad¬ mitted and fworn an attorney of that particular court : an attorney of the court of king’s bench cannot prac- tife in the court of common pleas j nor ’vice verfa. To pradlife in the court of chancery, it is alfo necef- fary to be admitted a folicitor therein : and by the fta- tute 2 2 Geo. II. c. 46. no perfon ffiall a6I as an attor¬ ney at the court of quarter-feffions, but fuch as has been regularly admitted in fome fuperior court of re¬ cord. So early as the ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 18. it ■was enabled, that attorneys ftiould be examined by the judges, and none admitted but fuch as were virtuous, learned, and fworn to do their duty. And many fub- fequent ftatutes have laid them under farther regula¬ tions. Letter of attorney pays by different afls, 6s. By 25 Geo. III. c. 80. the following duties are to be paid by every folicitor, attorney, notary, prodor, agent, or procurator, viz. for every warrant to profecute for a debt of 40s. or to defend, a ftamp duty of 2s. 6d. And they are to take out certificates annually j and if refident in London, Weftminfter, the bills of mor¬ tality, or Edinburgh, they are now obliged to pay 5I. for the fame *, and in every other part of Great Bri¬ tain, 3I. The duties are under the management of the commiffioners of ftamps : and every ading folici¬ tor, and other perfons as above, ffiall annually deliver in a note of his name and refidence, to the proper offi¬ cer of the court in which he pradifes; the entering officers are to certify notes delivered, and iffue annual certificates, ftamped as above, which muff be renewed ten days before the expiration. Refilling to iffue, or improperly iffuing certificates, is a penalty of 30I. and damages to the party aggrieved. Ading without a eertificate, or giving in a falfe place of refidence, is a penalty of 50I. and incapacity to fue for fees due. A ftamped memorandum (hall be given to the proper officer, of the names of the parties in every adion ; and in fuch cafes as ufed to require precipes. Officers ATT who receive ftamped memorandums, are to file the fame, Attorney on penalty of 50L and perfons not ading conformable 1) to this ad forfeit 5I. Attra&ion. ATTORNET-General, is a great officer under the v J king, made by letters patent. It is his place to exhibit informations, and profecute for the crown, in matters criminal ; and to file bills in the exchequer, for any thing concerning the king in inheritance or profits ; and others may bring bills againft the king’s attorney. His proper place in court, upon any fpecial matters of a criminal nature, wherein his attendance is required, is under the judges on the left hand of the clerk of the crown : but this is only upon folemn and extraordinary occafions ; for ufually he does not fit here, but within the bar in the face of the court. ATTOURNMENT, or Attornment, in Law, a transfer from one lord to another ol the homage and fer- vice a tenant makes j or that acknowledgment of duty to a new lord. ATTRACTION, in Natural Philofophy, a general term ufed to denote the caufe by which bodies tend to¬ wards each other, and cohere till feparated by fome other power. The principle of attradion, in the Newtonian fenfe of it, feems to have been firft fiirmifed by Copernicus, “ As for gravity,” fays Copernicus, “ I confider it as nothing more than a certain natural appetence {appe- tentia) that the Creator has impreffed upon all the parts of matter, in order to their uniting or coalefcing into a globular form, for their better prefervation 5 and it is credible that the fame power is alfo inherent in the fun and moon, and planets, that thofe bodies may conftantly retain that round figure in which we behold them.” De Rev. Orb. Ccehf. lib. i. cap. 9. And Kepler calls gra¬ vity a corporeal and mutual affedion between fimilar bodies, in order to their union. Ad. Nov. in Introd. And he pronounces more pofitiv’ely, that no bodies whatfoever were abfolutely light, but only relatively fo j and confequently, that all matter was fubjeded to the law of gravitation. Ibid. The firft in this country who adopted the notion of attradion was Dr Gilbert in his book De Magnete; and the next was the celebrated Lord Bacon, Nov. Or¬ gan. lib. ii. aphor. 36. 45. 48. Sylv. cent. i. exp. 33. In France it was received by Fermat and Roberval; and in Italy by Galileo and Borelli. But till Sir Ifaac New¬ ton appeared, this principle was very imperfedly defined and applied. It muft be obferved, that though this great author makes ufe of the word attradion, in common with the fchool philofophers j yet he very ftudioufly diftinguiffies between the ideas. The ancient attradion was fup* pofed a kind of quality, inherent in certain bodies themfelves, and arifing from their particular or fpecifie forms. The Newtonian attradion is a more indefinite principle •, denoting not any particular kind or man¬ ner of adion, nor the phyfical caufe of fuch adion; but only a tendency in the general, a conatus accedendi, to whatever caufe, phyfical or metaphyfical, fuch ef- fed be owing, whether to a power inherent in the bodies themfelves, or to the impulfe of an external agent. Accordingly, that author, in his Philofoph. Nat. Prin. Math, notes, “ that he ufes the words attraSlion, impulfe, and propenfion to the centre, indif¬ ferently j and cautions the reader not Jo imagine that [ 2^ ] A T Atiration, by attraftion he exprefl'es the modus of the adlion, or -y~—j the efficient caufe thereof, as if there were any proper powers in the centres, which in reality are only ma¬ thematical points ; or as if centres could attract.” Lio. i. p. 5. So he “ confiders centripetal powers as attractions, though, phyfically fpeaking, it were per¬ haps more juft to call them impulfes.” lb. p. 147. He adds, “ that what he calls attraction may poffiblv be effeCted by impulfej though not a common or corporeal impulfe, or after fome other manner unknown to us.” Optic, p. 322. Attraction, if confidered as a quality arifing from the fpecific forms of bodies, ought,, together with fym- pathy, antipathy, and the whole tribe of occult quali¬ ties, to be exploded. But when we have fet thefe afide, there will remain innumerable phenomena of na¬ ture, and particularly the gravity or weight of bodies, or their tendency to a centre, which argue a principle of aCtion feemingly diftinCt from impulfe, where at leaft there is no fenfible impullion concerned. Nay, what is more, this aCtion in fome refpeCts differs from all impulfion we know of; impulfe being always found to aCt in proportion to the furfaces of bodies, whereas gravity aCts according to their folid content, and confequently muft arife from fome caufe that pe¬ netrates or pervades the whole fubftance thereof. This unknown principle, unknown we mean in refpeCt of its caufe, for its phenomena and effeCts are moft obvious, with all the fpecies and modifications thereof, we call attratfion ; which is a general name, under which all mutual tendencies, where no phyfical impulfe appears, and which cannot therefore be accounted for from any known laws of nature, may be ranged. And hence arife divers particular kinds of attrac¬ tion ; as, Gravity, Magnetifm, Electricity, &c. which are fo many different principles afting by different laws, and only agreeing in this, that we do not fee any phyfical caufes thereof; but that, as to our fenfes, they inay really anfe from fome power or efficacy in fuch bodies, whereby they are enabled to aCl: even upon di- ffant bodies, though our reafon abfolutely difallows of any fuch a£lion. Attraction may be divided, with refpeCt to the law it obferves, into two kinds. 1. i hat which extends to a fenfible diftance. Such are tne attraction of gravity, found in all bodies j and the attraction of magnetifm and eleCtricity, found in particular bodies. 1 he feveral laws and phenomena of each, fee under their refpeCtive articles. 1 he attraction of gravity, called alfo among mathe¬ maticians the centripetal force, is one of the greateft and moft. univerfal principles in all nature. We fee and feel it operate on bodies near the earth, and find by. obfervation that the fame power (i. e. a power which aCts in the fame manner, and by the fame rules, viz. always proportionably to the quantities of matter’ and as the fquares of the diftances reciprocally) does alfo obtain in the moon, and the other planets primary and fecondary, as well as in the comets; and even that this is the very power whereby they are all retained in , ei^or1blts.’ And hence, as gravity is found in •all the bodies which come under our obfervation it is «afily inferred., by one of the fettled rules of philofo- phizing, that it obtains in all others : and as it is found So be as the quantity of matter in each body, it muft Vol. JII. Part I. [ 257 1 ATT be in every particle thereof; and hence every particle Attra&ronv in nature is proved to attraCl every other particle, &c. I—y—^ See Attraction, Astronomy Index. From this attraction arifes all the motion, and con¬ fequently all the mutation, in the material world. By this heavy bodies defcend, and light ones afcend ; by this projeCtiles are direCted, vapours and exhalations rife, and rains, &c. fall. By this rivers glide, the air preffes, the ocean fwells, &c. In effeCt, the motions arifing from this principle make the fubjeCt of that extenfive branch of mathematics, called mechanics or fatics, with the parts or appendages thereof, hydroftatics, pneuma¬ tics, &c. 2. That which does not extend to fenfible diftances. Such is found to obtain in the minute particles where¬ of bodies are compofed, which attraCl each other at or extremely near the point of contaCl, with a force much fuperior to that of gravity, but which at any diftance from it decreafes much fafter than the power of gravity. This power a late ingenious author choofes to call the attraBion of cohefon, as being that whereby the atoms or infenfible particles of bodies are united into fenfible maffes. 1 his latter kind of attraClion owns Sir Ifaac New¬ ton for its difcoverer; as the former does for its im¬ prover. The laws of motion, percuffion, &c, in fen¬ fible bodies under various circumftances, as falling, projected, &c. afcertained by the later philofophers, do not reach to thofe more remote inteftine motions of the component particles of the fame bodies, whereon the changes of the texture, colour, properties, &c. of bodies depend : fo that our philofophy, if it were on¬ ly founded on the principle of gravitation, and carried fo far as that would lead us, wmuld neceffarily be very deficient. But befide the common laws of fenfible maffes, the minute parts they are compofed of are found fubjeCt to fome others, which have been but lately taken no¬ tice of, and are even yet imperfeftly known. Sir Ifaac Newton, to whofe happy penetration we owe the hint, contents himfelf to eftabliffi that there are fuch mo¬ tions in the minima naturce, and that they flow from certain powers or forces, not reducible to any of thofe in the great world. In virtue of thefe powers, he fliows, “ I hat the fmall particles aCl on one another even at a diftance ; and that many of the phenomena of nature are the refult thereof. Senfible bodies, w7e have already - obferved, aCl on one another divers ways : and as we thus perceive the tenor and courfe of nature, it appears highly probable that there may be other powers of the like kind ; nature being very uniform and confiftent with herfelf. Thofe juft men¬ tioned reach to fenfible diftances, and fo have been obferved by vulgar eyes; but there may be others which reach to fuch fmall diftances as have hitherto efcaped obfervation ; and it is probable eledlricity may- reach to fuch diftances, even without being excited bv fri6tion. The great author juft mentioned proceeds to confirm the reality of thefe fufpicions from a great number of phenomena and experiments, which plainly argue fuch powers and aftions between the particles, e. g. of falts and water, fulphuric acid and water, nitric acid and iron, fulphuric acid and nitre. He alfo ftiows, that thefe powers, &c. are unequally ftrong between dift’e- K k rent ATT [2: Attradlion. rent bodies j ftronger, e. g. between the particles of < v t potafli and thofe of nitric acid than thofe of iUver, be¬ tween nitric acid and zinc than iron, between iron and copper than filver or mercury. So fulphuric acid adts on water, but more on iron or copper, &c. The other experiments which countenance the exift- ence of fuch principle of attradlion in the particles of matter are innumerable. Thefe adlions, in virtue whereof the particles of the bodies above mentioned tend towards each other, the author calls by a general indefinite name attraBion ; which is equally applicable to all adlions whereby di- flant bodies tend towards one another, whether by im- pulfe or by any other more latent power : and from hence he accounts for an infinity of phenomena, other- wife inexplicable, to which the principle of gravity is inadequate. “ Thus (adds our author) will nature be found very conformable to herfelf and very fimple ; performing all the great motions of the heavenly bodies by the attradlion of gravity, which intercides thofe bo¬ dies, and almoft all the fmall ones of their parts, by fome other attradlive power diffufed through the par¬ ticles thereof. Without fuch principles, there never would have been any motion in the world 5 and with¬ out the continuance thereof, motion would foon perilh, there being otherwife a great decreafe or diminution thereof, which is only fupplied by thefe adlive princi- ples. We need not fay how unjuft it is in the generality of foreign philofonhers to declare againft a principle which furnifhes fo beautiful a view, for no other realon but becaufe they cannot conceive how one body Ihould aft on another at a diftance. It is certain, philofophy allows of no adlion but what is by immediate contadl and impulfion (for how can a body exert any adlive power there where it does not exift ? to fuppofe this of any thing, even the Supreme Being himfelf, would per¬ haps imply a contradidlion) : yet we fee effedls without feeing any fueh impulfe ; and where there are effedls, we can eafily infer there are caufes, whether we lee them or not. But a man may confider fuch effedls without entering into the confideration of the caufes, as indeed it feems the bufinefs of a philofopher to do : for to exclude a number of phenomena which we do fee, will be to leave a great chafm in the hiftory of nature ; and to argue about adlions which we do not fee, will be to build caftles in the air.—It follows, therefore, that the phenomena of attradlion are matter of pbyfical confideration, and as fuch entitled to a (hare in the fyftem of phyfics ', but that the caufes thereof will only become fo when they become fenfible, i. e. when they appear to be the effedl of fome other higher caufes (for a caufe is no otherwife feen than as itfelf is an effedl, fo that the firft caufe muft from the nature of things be invifible) : we are therefore at liberty to fuv'.pofe the caufes of attradlion what we pleafe, with¬ out any injury to the effedls.—The illuftrious author himfelf feems a little irrefolute as to the caufes j incli¬ ning fometiraes to attribute gravity to the adlion of an immaterial caufe (Optics, p. 343, &c.) and fometimes to that of a material one (lb. p. 325.). In his philofophy, the refearch into caufes is the laft thing, and never comes under confideration till the laws and phenomena of the effedl be fettled } it being 8 ] ATT to thefe phenomena that the caufe is to be accommo- Attrrftion dated. The caufe even of any, the groffeft and moft || fenfible adlion, is not adequately known. Plow im- Attribute.. pulfe or percuffion itfelf produces its effects, i. e. how v motion is communicated by body to body, confounds the deepeft philofophers j yet is impulfe received not only into philofophy, but into mathematics: and ac¬ cordingly the laws and phenomena of its effedls make the greateft part of common mechanics. The other fpecies of attraction, therefore, in which no impulfe is remarkable, when their phenomena are fufficiently afeertained, have the fame title to be pro¬ moted from phyfical to mathematical confideration ; and this without any previous inquiry into their caufes, which our conceptions may not be proportionate to : let their caufes be occult, as all caufes ftridtly fpeaking are, fo that their effedls, which alone immediately concern us, be but apparent. Our great philofopher, then, far from adulterating fcience with any thing foreign or metaphyfical, as many have reproached him with doing, has the glory of ha¬ ving thrown every thing of this kind out of his fyftem, and of having opened a new fource of fublimer mecha¬ nics, which duly cultivated might be of infinitely great¬ er extent than all the mechanics yet known. It is hence alone we muft expedl to learn the manner of the changes, produdlions, generations, corruptions, &c. of natural things 5 with all that feene of wonders opened to us by the operations of chemiftry. Some of our own countrymen have profecuted the difeovery with laudable zeal: Dr Keill particularly has endeavoured to deduce fome of the laws of this new adlion, and applied them to folve divers of the more general phenomena of bodies, as cohefion, fluidity, elafticity, foftnefs, fermentation, coagulation, &c.} and Dr Freind, feconding him, has made a further applica¬ tion of the fame principles, to account at once for almoft all the phenomena that chemiftry prefects : fo that fome philofophers are inclined to think that the new mechanics fhould feem already railed to a com¬ plete fcience, and that nothing now can occur but what we have an immediate folution of from the attradlive force. # • • 1 But this feems a little too precipitate : A principle fo fertile ftiould have been further explored ; its parti¬ cular laws, limits, &c. more induftrioufly detedled and laid down, before we had proceeded to the application. Attradlion in the grofs is fo complex a thing, that it may folve a thoufand different phenomena alike. The notion is but one degree more fimple and precife than ad-ion itfelf*, and, till more of its_properties are afeer¬ tained, it were better to apply it lefs and ftudy it more. It may be added, that fome of Sir Ifaac New¬ ton’s followers have been charged with falling into that error which he induftrioufly avoided, viz. of confidering attradion as a caufe or adlive property in bodies, not merely as a phenomenon or effed. Attraction of Mountains. See Mountains. EleBive ATTRACTION. See Chemistry Index. ATTREBATII. See Atrebatii. ATTRIBUTE, in a general fenfe, that which agrees with fome perfon or thing *, or a quality deter¬ mining fomething to be after a certain manner. 1 hus underftanding is an attribute of mind, and extenfion an attribute of body. That attribute which the mind conceives A V A Attribute conceives as the foundation of all the reft, is called its || ejfentinl attribute ; thus extenfion is by fome, and fuli- Ava. dity by others, efteemed the effential attribute of body Uj‘ 'v '' or matter. ATTRIBUTES, in Theology, the feveral qualities or perfections of the Divine nature. Attributes, in Logic, are the predicates of any fubjeCt, or what may be affirmed or denied of any thing. Attributes, in Painting and Sculpture, are fym- bols added to feveral figures, to intimate their parti¬ cular office and character. Thus the eagle is an attri¬ bute of Jupiter j a peacock, of Juno 5 a caduce, of Mercury $ a club, of Hercules j and a palm, of Vic¬ tory. ATTRIBUTIVES, in Grammar, are words which are fignificantof attributes; and thus include adjeCtives; verbs, and particles, which are attributes of fubftanees; and adverbs, which denote the attributes only of attri¬ butes. Mr Harris, who has introduced this diftribu- tion of words, denominates the former attributives of the frjl order, and the latter attributives of the fecond order. ATTRITION, the rubbing or ftriking of bodies one againft another, fo as to throw off" fume of their fu- perficial particles. ATURZE, an ancient town in the diftriCt of Novem- populana in Aquitania, on the river Aturus; now Aire in Gafcony, on the Adour. E. Long. o. 3. N. Lat. 43. 40. AVA, a kingdom of Afia, in the peninfula beyond the Ganges. The king is very powerful, his dominions being bounded by Mogulftan on the weft, Siam on the fouth, Tonquin and Cochin China on the eaft, and by Tibet and China on the north. Several large rivers run through this country, ivhich annually overflow their banks like the Nile, and thus render it extremely fertile. Here are mines of lead and copper, together with fome of gold and filver, befides large quantities of the fineft oriental rubies, fapphires, emeralds, &c. See Asia, N° 81, &c. Ava, formerly the metropolis of the kingdom of the fame name, is fituated in E. Long. 96. 30. N. Lat. 21. o. It is pretty large; the houfes built with timber or bamboo canes, with thatched roofs, and floors made of teak plank or fplit bamboo. The ftreets are very ftraight, with rows of trees planted on each fide. The king’s palace is an exaCt quadrangle, each fide of which is 800 paces, and is furrounded with a brick wall; but the palace itfelf is of ftone. It has four gates : the golden gate, through which all ambafladors enter ; the gate of juftice, through which the people bring petitions, accufations, or complaints ; the gate of grace, through which thofe pafs who have received any favours, or have been acquitted of crimes laid to their charge ; and the gate of ftate, through which his majefty himfelf pafles when he ftiows himfelf to the people. Ava ava, a plant fo called by the inhabitants of O- taheite, in the South fea, from the leaves of which they exprefs an intoxicating juice. It is drunk very freely by the chiefs and other confiderable perfons, who vie with each other in drinking the greateft number of draughts, each draught being about a pint; but it is carefully kept from their women. A U B AVADOUTAS, a feff of Indian Bramins, who Avadoutas in aufterity furpafs all the reft. The other fefts retain jj earthen vefiels for holding their provilions, and a ftick Aubigne. to lean on; but none of thefe are ufed by the Avadou- v tas ; they only cover their nakednefs with a piece of cloth ; and fome of them lay even that afide, and go ftark naked, befmearing their bodies with cow-dung. When hungry, fome go into houfes, and, without fpeaking, hold out their hand ; eating on the fpot whatever is given them. Others retire to the Tides of holy rivers, and there expe£t the peafants to bring them provifions, which they generally do very libe¬ rally. AVx\IL of Marriage, in Scots Law, thatcafualty in wardholding, by which the fuperior was entitled to a certain Turn from his vaflal, upon his attaining the age of puberty, as the value or avail of his tocher. AVALANCHES, a name given to prodigious fnow- balls that frequently roll down the mountains in Savoy, particularly Mount Blanc, to the extreme danger of fuch adventurous travellers as attempt to afcend thofe ftupendous heights. Some of the avalanches are about 200 feet diameter ; being fragments of the ice-rocks which break by their own weight from the tops of the precipices. See Mount BLANC. AVALON, a fmall but ancient city of Burgundy in France, about 500 paces long and 300 broad. E. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 47. 38. AVANIA, in the Turkifh legiflature, a fine for crimes and on deaths, paid to the governor of the place. In the places wherein feveral nations live together un¬ der a Turkifti governor, he takes this profitable method of puniftiing all crimes among the Chriftians or Jews, unlefs it be the murder of a Turk. AVARICUM, an ancient town of the Bituriges in Gallia Celtica, fituated on the rivulet Avara, in a very fertile foil (Caefar.) Now Bw/rgej, in Berry. E. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 47. 10. AVAST, in the fea language, a term requiring to flop or to flay. AVAUNCHERS, among hunters, the fecond branch¬ es of a deer’s horns. AUB AGNE, a town of Provence in France, fituated on the river Veaune, on the road from Marfeilles to Toulon. The ftates formerly held their feflion at this place. E. Long. 5. 52. N. Lat. 43. 17. AUB AINE, in the old cuftoms of France, a right veiled in the king of being heir to a foreigner that dies within his dominions. By this right the French king claimed the inheritance of all foreigners that died within his dominions, notwith- ftanding of any teftament the deceafed could make. An ambaflador was not fubjeft to the right of aubaine; and the Swifs, Savoyards, Scots, and Portuguefe were alfo exempted, being deemed natives and regnicoles. AUBENAS, a town of France, in the department of Ardeche, fituated on the river Ardeche, at the foot of the mountains called the Cevennes. E. Long. 4. 32. N. Lat. 44. 40. AUBENTON, a town of France, in the department of Aifne, fituated on the river Aube. E. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 49. 51. AUBETERRE, a town of France in the Angumois, on the river Dronne. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 15. AUBIGNE, a town of France, in the department K k 2 ef 1 259 1 Aubura A U B [ 260 ] A U D Aubigne 0f Cher, fituated on the river Verre, in a flat and II agreeable country. It is furrounded with high ftrong A u ’rey‘ walls, wide ditches, and high counterfcarps. The caftle is within the town, and is very handfome. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 47. 29. AUBIGNEY, a dukedom in France belonging to the dukes of Richmond in England : confirmed to the prefent duke, and regiftered in the parliament of Paris 1777. AUBIN DU COMIER, a town of France, in the de¬ partment of Ifle and Vilaine. W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat. 48. 15. . Aubin, in Horfetnavjhip, a broken kind of gait, be¬ tween an amble and a gallop, accounted a defeft. AUBONNE, a town of Switzerland, in the can¬ ton of Bern. E. Long. 5. 54. N. Lat. 48. 30. It is fituated near a river of the fame name, feven miles north of the lake of Geneva, upon an eminence which has a gentle declivity, at the foot of which runs the river with an impetuous torrent. The town is built in the form of an amphitheatre *, on the upper part of which Hands a very handfome caftle with a fine court, and a portico fnpported by pillars of a Angle ftone each j above there is a covered gallery that runs round the court *, and as the caftle Hands high, there is a moft delightful profpeft, not only of the town and neigh¬ bouring fields, but of the whole lake of Geneva and the land that furrounds it. At Thonen, in Savoy, on the other fide of the lake, is a town covered with tin, which makes a glittering appearance when the fun is in a certain pofition •, and the caftle of Aubonne has like- wife a tower of the fame kind, which at certain hours makes a fimilar appearance to the Savoyards. The bailiage of Aubonne contains feveral villages, which are moftly at the foot of the mountain Jura. In one part of this mountain there is a very deep cave, where¬ in thofe that go down find a natural and perpetual ice- houfe. At the bottom is heard a great noife like that of a fubterraneous river, which is fuppofed to be that of the river Aubonne, becaufe it firft appears, with fe¬ veral fources, about 100 paces from the foot of that mountain. AUBREY, JoHK, a famous Engliflr antiquary, de- fcended from an ancient family in Wiltfhire, was bom in 1626. He made the hiftory and antiquities of England his peculiar ftudy and delight ; and contri¬ buted confiderable afliftance to the famous Motiajiicon slnglicanum. He fuceeeded to feveral good eftates ; but law fuits and other misfortunes confumed them all, fo that he was reduced to abfolute want. In this ex¬ tremity he found a valuable benefadirefs in the Lady Long of Draycot in Wilts, who gave him an apart¬ ment in her houfe, and fupported him to his death, which happened about the year 1700. He was a man of confiderable ability, learning, and application, a c-ood Latin poet, an excellent naturalift, but fomewhat credulous, and tinttured with fuperftition. He left many works behind him. He wrote, I. Mifcellanies. 2. A Perambulation of the county of Surrv, ih five volumes, odlavo. 3. The Life of Mr Hobbes of Malmfbury. 4. Monumenta Britannica, or a difcourfe concerning Stonehenge, and Roll Rich (tones in Ox- fordfinre. 5. ArchiteSlonica Sacra; and feveral other ■works Hill in manufcript. AUBURN, a market-town of Wiltftiire, in Eng¬ land. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 53. 20. || AUBUSSON, a fmall town of France, in the pro- Audience, vince of La Marche, and the government of the Lyon- ' ' * "' nois, now the department of Creufe. Its fituation is very irregular, on the river Creufe, in a bottom fus- rounded with rocks and mountains. A manuladlure of tapeftry is carried on here, by which the town is rendered very populous. E. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 45. 58- AUCAUGREL, the capital of the kingdom of Adel in Africa, feated on a mountain. E. Long. 44. 25. N. Lat. 9. 10. AUCH, a city of France, the capital of the coun¬ ty of Armagnac, now the department of Gers, and the metropolis of all Gafcony. The archbifhop formerly aflumed the title of primate of Aquitain. It lies on the fummit and declivity of a very deep hill, which is fur— rounded by other hills that rife at a fmall diftance ; and through the vale below runs a rivulet, called the Gers. The inhabitants are about 6000 j the buildings are mo¬ dern and elegant; the ftreets, though in general narrow, yet are clean and well paved. In the centre of the city Hands the cathedral, which is one of the moft mag¬ nificent in France, both as to its eonftrudlion and the internal decorations. The painted windows are only inferior to thofe of Gouda in Holland. The chapels are of equal beauty, and ornamented at a prodigious expence. The revenues of the fee of Auch amount annually to three hundred thoufand livres. The palace is a very handfome building *, and its apartments are furniftied with voluptuous fplendour, rather becoming a temporal than a fpiritual prince. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 43. 40. AUCTION, a kind of public fale, very much m ufe for houfehold goods, books, plate, &c. By this method of fale the higheft bidder is always the buyer. This was originally a kind of fale among the ancient Romans, performed by the public crier fub hajla, i. e. under a fpear ftuck up on that occafion, and by fome- magiftrate, who made good the fale by delivery of the goods. AUDE ANISM, the fame with anthropomerphiftn. See Anthropomorphites. AUDEUS, the chief of the Audeans, obtained the name of .a heretic, and the punifhment of ba- nifhment, for celebrating Eafter in the manner of the Jews, and attributing a human form to the Dei¬ ty. He died in the country of the Goths, about the year 370. AUDIENCE given to ambaffadors, a ceremony obferved in courts at the admiflion of ambafladors or public minifters to a hearing. In England, audience is given to ambafiadors in the prefence chambers •, to envoys and refidents, in a gal¬ lery, clofet, or in any place where the king happens to be. Upon being admitted, as is the cuftom of all courts, they make three bows 5 after which they cover and fit down y but not before the king is covered and fat down, and has given them the fign to put on their hats. When the king does not care to have them co¬ vered, and fit, he himfelf Hands uncovered ; which is taken as a flight. At Conftantinople, minifters ufual- ly have audience of the prime vizier. Audience A U D [ 261 ] A U 13 Audience AUDIENCE is alfo the name of a court of juftice H eftablilhed in the Weft Indies by the Spaniards, an- Auditores. fwerjng in effefl to the parliament in France. Thefe courts take in feveral provinces, called alfo audien¬ ces, from the name of the tribunal to which they be¬ long. Audience is alfo the name of an ecclefiaftical court held by the archbiftiop of Canterbury, wherein differ¬ ences upon eledtions, confecrations, inftitutions, mar¬ riages, &c. are heard. AUD1ENDO & terminando, a writ, or rather a commiffion to certain perfons, when any infurredlion or great riot is committed in any place, for the appeaf- ing and punilhment thereof. AUDIENTES, or Auditores, in church hiftory, an order of catechumens ; confifting of thofe newly in- ftrudted in the myfteries of the Chriftian religion, and not yet admitted to baptifm. AUDIT, a regular hearing and examination of an account by fome proper officers, appointed for that pur- pofe. AUDITOR, in a general fenfe, a hearer, or one who liftens or attends to any thing. Auditor, according to our Law, is an officer of the king, or fome other great perfon, who, by examin¬ ing yearly the accounts of the under officers, makes up a general book, with the difference between their receipts and charges, and their allowances to alloca¬ tions. AUDITOR of the Receipts, is an officer of the exche¬ quer who files the tellers bills, makes an entry of them, and gives the lord treafurer a certificate of the money received the week before. He alfo makes deben¬ tures to every teller, before they receive any money, and takes their accounts. He keeps the black book of receipts, and the treafurer’s key of the treafury, and fees every teller’s money locked up in the new treafury. AUDITORS of the Revenue, or of the exchequer, offi¬ cers who take the accounts of thofe who colled! the re¬ venues and taxes raifed by parliament, and take the accounts of the ffieriffs, efcheators, colledtors, tenants, and cuftomers, and fet them down in a book, and per- fedl them. AUDITORS of thePreJi and Impref, officers of the ex¬ chequer, who take and make up the accounts of Ire¬ land, Berwick, the mint, and of any money impreffed to any man for the king’s fervice. They received pound¬ age on all accounts paffed by them, which amounted to a prodigious fum, efpecially in time of war. But the office is now aboliffied, and 7000I. a-year given to the incumbents. AUDITORS Collegiate, Conventual, &c. officers for¬ merly appointed in colleges, &c. to examine and pafs their accounts. AUDITORES, in church hiftory. See Audj- ENTES. The auditores formed one branch of the Manichean feel, which was divided into elect and auditors; cor- refponding, according to fome writers, to clergy and laity ; and, according to others, to the faithful and ca¬ techumens among the Catholics. By the Manichean rule, a different courfe of life was preferibed to the cleft from that of the auditors. The latter might cat ' Z fleffi, drink wine, bathe, marry, traffic, poffefs ellates, Auditores bear magiftracy, and the like 5 all which things were |} forbidden to the eleft. The auditors were obliged to , maintain the eleft, and kneeled down to alk their blef- v _' fing. Beaufobre obferves, that the eleft were eccleft- allics, and in general, fuch as made profeffion of ob- • ferving certain counfels, called evangelic; fuch as the clergy and monks j and they were called the perfect by Theodoret. The auditors were the laity, and fo denominated, becaufe they heard in the church, whilft others taught and inrtrufted. AUDITORIUM, in the ancient churches, was that part of the church w'here the audientes flood to hear and be inftrufted. The auditorium was that part now called navis ec- clejice*. In the primitive times, the church was fo*T^® ftrift in keeping the people together in that place, that a%C' the perfon who went from thence in fermon-time, was ordered by the council of Carthage to be excommuni¬ cated. AUDITORY, fomething relating to the fenfe of hearing. Auditory, or Audience, an affembly of people who attend to hear a perfon who fpeaks in public. Auditory is alfo ufed for the bench whereon a ma- giftrate or judge hears caufes. Auditory, in ancient churches. See Audito¬ rium. yJUDITOR T Rajfage, (meatus auditoriusf in Ana¬ tomy; the entrance of the ear. See Anatomy In¬ dex.. Auditort Nerves. See Anatomy Index. AUDRAN, Claude, a French engraver, the firft of the celebrated artifts of that name, was the fon of Lewis Audran, an officer belonging to the wolf-hun¬ ters, in the reign of Henry IV. of France ; and was born at Paris in 1592. He never made any great pro- grefs in that art ; lo that his prints are held in little or no eftimation. Yet though he acquired no great re¬ putation by his own works, it was no fmall honour to him to be the father of three great artifts, Germain, Claude, and Girard ; the laft of whom has immorta¬ lized the name of the family. Claude Audran retired from Paris to Lyons, where he refided, and died in i67> Audran, Carl, a very eminent engraver, was bro¬ ther to the preceding, though fome affert he was only his coufin-german j and was born at Paris in 1594. In his infancy he difeovered much tafte, and a great difpo-- fition for the arts •, and to perfeft himfelf in engrav¬ ing, which he appears to have been chiefly fond ofr he went to Rome, where he produced feveral prints that did him great honour. At his return, he adopt¬ ed that fpecies of engraving which is performed with, the graver only. He fettled at Paris, where he died in 1674, without having ever been married. The Abbe Marolles, who always fpeaks of this artift with great praife, attributes 130 prints to him: amongft which, the annunciation, a middle-fized plate, upright, from Hannibal Carracci ; and the ajjumption, in a circle, from Domenichino, are the moft efteemed. In th e early part of his life he marked his prints with C, or the name of Carl, till his brother Claude publiffied fom% plates with the initial only of his bap- tifmal A U D [ Audran. tifmal name j when, for diftinftion’s fake, he uied the u——y I, .< letter K, or wrrote his name Karl, with the K inftead of the C. Audran, Germaine, the eldeft fon of Claude, men¬ tioned in the preceding article but one, wras born in 1631 at Lyons, where his parents then refided. Not content with the inftruftions of his father, he went to Paris, and perfected himfelf under his uncle Carl; fo that, upon his return to Lyons, he publifhed feveral prints which did great honour to his graver. His me¬ rit was in fuch eftimation, that he was made a mem¬ ber of the academy ettablilhed in that town, and cho- fen a profeffor. He died at Lyons in lyio, and left behind him four fons, all artifts $ namely, Claude, Be- noilf, John, and Louis. Audran, Claude, the fecond of this name, and fe- cond fon to Claude above mentioned, was born^ at Lyons in 1639, and went to Rome to ftudy paint¬ ing } where he lucceeded fo well, that at his return he was employed by Le Brun to affift him in the battles of Alexander, which he was then painting for the king of France. He was received into the Royal Academy in the year 1675, and died unmarried at Paris in 1684. His virtues (fays Abbe Fontenai) were as praifeworthy as his talents were great. M. Heineken mentions this artift as an engraver, without fpecifying any of his works in that line. Audran, Girard, or Gerard, the moft celebrated artift of the whole family of the Audrans, was the third fon of Claude Audran mentioned in a preceding article, and born at Lyons in 1640. He learned from his father the firft principles of defign and engra¬ ving •, and following the example of his brother, he left Lyons and went to Paris, where his genius foon began to manifeft itfelf. His reputation there brought him to the knowledge of Le Brun, who employed him to engrave the battles of Conjlantine, and the triumph of that emperor •, and for thefe works he obtained apart¬ ments at the Gobelins. At Rome, whither he went for improvement, he is faid to have ftudied under Carlo Maratti, in order to perfeft himfelf in drawing *, and in that city, where he refided three years, he engraved feveral fine plates. M. Colbert, that great encourager of the arts, was fo ftruck with the beauty of Audran’s works whilft he refided at Rome, that he perfuaded Louis XIV. to recal him. On his return, he applied himfelf afliduoufly to engraving and was appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. In the year 1681 he was named coun- fellor of the Royal Academy j and died at Paris in 1703. He had been married j but left no male iffue behind him. Strutt's The great excellency of this artift above that of any Dictionary. engraver was, that though he drew admirably himfelf, yet he contrafted no manner of his own •, but tranfcribed on copper fimply, with great truth and fpirit, the ftyle of the mafter whofe pictures he copied. On viewing his prints you lofe fight of the engraver, and naturally fay, it is Le Brun, it is Pouflin, it is Mignard, or it is Le Sueur, &c. as you turn to the prints which he engraved from thofe mafters. Let any one examine the battles above-mentioned from Le Brun, the prefer vat ion of the young Pyrrhus from Nicholas Pouffin, the pefl from Mignard, and the mar¬ tyrdom of St Lawrence from Le Sueur, and then judge 3 262 ] A U D candidly of the truth of this obfervation. The fol- Audran. lowing judicious obfervations by the abbe Fontenai,—y—« taken chiefly from M. Bafan, with fome fmall varia¬ tion and additions, will fully illuftrate the merits of Gerard Audran. “ This fublime artift, far from con¬ ceiving that a fervile arrangement of ftrokes, and the too frequently cold and affe£ted clearnefs of the gra¬ ver, were the great effentials of hiftorical engraving, gave worth to his works by a bold mixture of free hatchings and dots, placed together apparently without order, but with an inimitable degree of tafte ; and has left to pofterity moft admirable examples of the ftyle in which grand compofitions ought to be treated. His greateft works, which have not a very flattering ap¬ pearance to the ignorant eye, are the admiration of true connoifleurs and perfons of fine tafte. He ac¬ quired the moft profound knowledge of the art by the conftant attention and ftudy which he beftowed upon the fcience of defign, and the frequent ufe he made of painting from nature. This great man always knew how to penetrate into the genius of the painter he copied from •, often improved upon, and fometimes even furpafled him. Without exception, he was the moft celebrated engraver that ever exifled in the hifto¬ rical line. We have feveral fubje£ls which he engra¬ ved from his own defigns, that manifefted as much tafte as character and facility. But, in the battles of Alex¬ ander, he furpaffed even the expectations of Le Brun himfelf.” Thefe confift of three very large, prints, length wife, each confifting of four plates, which join together, from Le Brun; namely, the paffage of the Granicus; the battle of Arbela; Porus brought to A- lexander, after his defeat. To this fet are added two more large prints lengthwife, on two plates each, alfo from Le Brun, as follow : Alexander entering the tent of Darius; and The triumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon. The former was engraved by Gerard Ede- link, and the latter by Gerard Audran. It is to be re¬ marked of all thefe plates, that thofe impreflions are generally moft efteemed which have the name of Goy- ton the printer marked upon them. The Pef, from Peter Mignard, a large plate, lengthwife, alfo deferves particular notice. In the firft impreflions, the figure in the clouds is Juno with her peacock behind her j in the latter, the peacock is obliterated, and the wings of an angel are added to the figure. Audran, Benoit, the fecond fon of Germain Au¬ dran, was born at Lyons in l66r, where he learn¬ ed the firft principles of defign and engraving under the inftruCHon of his father. But fson after going to Paris, his uncle Gerard Audran took him under his tuition •, and Benoit fo greatly profited by his inftruc- tions, that though he never equalled the fublime ftyle of his tutor, yet he defervedly acquired great reputa¬ tion. Nay, the abbe Fontenai adds this eulogium : “ We admire in his works a fhare of thofe beauties which we find in the engravings of the illuftrious Ge¬ rard.” He was honoured with the appellation of the king’s engraver, and received the royal penfion. He was made an academician, and admitted into the coun¬ cil in 1715* He died unmarried at Louzouer, where he had an eftate, in 1721. His manner was founded upon the bold clear ftyle of his uncle. His outlines were firm and determined j his drawing correCt ; the heads of his figures are in general very expreflive $ and the A U D [ 263 1 A V E Audran. other extremities well marked. His works, when —»’ compared with thofe of his uncle, appear to want that mellownefs and harmony which are fo confpicuous in the latter ; they are more dry ; and the round dots with which he finifhed his fleth upon the lights are of¬ ten too predominant. In his moft finifhed plates, wTe find the mechanical part of the engraving extremely neat, and managed with great tafte and judgment. Among his neateft prints may be reckoned that which reprefents Alexander Jich, drinking from the cup which his phyfician prefents to him : a circular plate, from Le Sueur. Audran, John, the third fon of Germain Audran, was born at Lyons in 16675 and, after having receiv¬ ed inftru£Hons from his father, went to Paris to perfe& bimfelf in the art of engraving under his uncle Gerard Audran. At the age of 20 years, the genius of this great artift began to difplay itfelf in a furprifing man¬ ner 5 and his future fuccefs wras fuch, that in 1707, he obtained the title of engraver to the king, and had a penfion allowed him by his majefty, with apartments in the Gobelins ; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal Academy. He was 80 years of age before he quitted the graver : and near 90 when he died at his apartments affigned him by the king. He left three fons behind him 5 One of whom was alfo an engraver, as we fhall fee below. “ The mofl ma- fterly and beft prints of this artift (in Mr Strutt’s opi¬ nion) are thofe which are not fo pleafing to the eye at firft fight. In thefe the etching conftitutes a great part; and he has finifhed them in a bold rough ftyle. The fcientific hand of the mafter appears in them on exami¬ nation. The drawing of the human figure, where it is fhown, is correct. The heads are expreftive and fine¬ ly finifhed 5 the other extremities well marked. He has not, however, equalled his uncle. He wants that harmony in the effedft 5 his lights are too much and too equally covered 5 and there is not fufficient difference between the ftyle in which he has engraved his back grounds and his draperies. This obfervation refers to a fine print by him of Athaliah, and fuch as he engra¬ ved in that ftyle. At other times he feems almoft to have quitted the point, and fubftituted the graver. But here I think he has not fo well fucceeded. The effeft is cold and filvery : fee, for example, the Andro¬ mache from Sylveftre. One of his beft finifhed prints, in this neat ftyle, feems to me to be Cupid and Pfijche from Ant. Coy pel.” Audran, Louis, the laft fon of Germain Audran, was born at Lyons in 1670 ; from whence he went to Paris, after the example of his brothers, to complete his ftudies in the fcbool of his uncle Gerard. He died fuddenly at Paris in 1712, before he had produced any great number of prints by his own hand. He aflifted, it is prefumed, his brothers in their more ex- tenfive works. Among the moft efteemed prints by this artift are the /even acts of mercy, on feven middling fized plates, lengthwife, from Sebaftian Bourdon. Audran, Benoit, the fecond engraver of that name, was the fon of John Audran, and nephew to the for¬ mer Benoit: and was alfo eftablifhed at Paris. He engraved but a few plates. It is neceflary, however, to be careful not to confound him with his uncle. But a little attention will eafily prevent this miftake j for the fecond Benoit is vaftly inferior to the firft in point of merit. We have fome few portraits by this Audran artift : and among other plates, the defcent from the jj crofs, from a pi&ure of Pouflin. Avellino. AVEIRO, a confiderable city of Portugal, feated near the head of a fmall gulf formed by the tide at the mouth of the river Vouga. This river forms a fmall haven with-a bar, over which veflels may pafs that do not draw above eight or nine feet water. The city Hands in a long plain well watered, and very fertile. 1 nis plain is nine miles broad, from Porto to Coimbra 5 and is bounded on the eaft by a chain of mountains called lara d'Alcoba, which reach from the one town to the other. Near this city there is fait made in fuf¬ ficient quantity to ferve two or three provinces. Here is a remarkable nunnery, where none are received but the daughters of the ancient nobility. The inhabitants of Aveiro have the Angular privilege, that no ftranger whatever can pafs a night there without leave of the magiftrate. W. Long. 9. 8. N. Lat. 40. 30. AVELLANE, in Heraldry, a crofs, the quarters of which fomewhat referable a filbert-nut. Sylvanus Morgan fays, that it is the crofs which enfigns the mound of authority, or the fovereign’s globe. AVELLINO, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, with a bilhop’s fee. It was almoft ruined by an earthquake in 1694- ft is, however, at prefent a pretty confiderable place, extending a mile in length down the declivity of a hill, with ugly ftreets, but to¬ lerable houfes. The churches have nothing to recom¬ mend them, being crowded with monftrous ornaments, in a barbarous ftyle, which the Neapolitans feem to have borrowed from the Spaniards. The cathedral is a poor building, in a wretched fituation, with little to attraft the eye. The good people here need not run to Naples to fee the blood of St Januarius : for they have a ftatue of St Lawrence, with a phial of his blood, which for eight days in Auguft entertains them with a fimilar miraculous liquefa&ion. Their only edi¬ fice of note is a public granary, of the Compofite or¬ der, adorned with antique ftatues, and a very elegant bronze one of Charles II. of Spain, while a boy, call by Cavalier Cofimo. The number of inhabitants amounts to 8000, forae fay 10,000. The bilhop’s re¬ venue is about 6000 ducats (1125I.) a-year. The magiftracy confifts of a fyndic and four eletti, all annual 5 which offices are engrofl'ed by a certain num¬ ber of families of fome diftin&ion, that neither inter¬ marry nor alfociate with the reft of the burghers. There is a confiderable manufacture, of cloth here of various qualities and colours, but chiefly blue. Many wealthy merchants have a concern in this bufinefs, fome with a capital of eighty thoufand ducats (15,000!.) The poor women who fpin the wool muft work very hard to earn above four grana a-day. The fecond article of trade is maccaroni and pafte of many kinds, which be¬ ing of an excellent quality, are in high repute all over the country. Wooden chairs are alfo made and fold here in great quantities. Avellino abounds with pro- vifions of every fort; each ftreet is fupplied with whole- fome water 5 the wine is but indifferent. The foil of this diftrieft, which confifts chiefly of volcanic fubftan- ces, produces little corn, but fruit in abundance, of which the apple is defervedly held in great efteem. The moft profitable, however, of all its fruit-trees is the hazel. Nut bulhes cover the face of the valley, and in good = A V E Avellino good years bring in a profit of fixty tlioufand ducats 11 (11,250!.). The nuts are moftly of the large round Aventine. fpecies 0f filbert, which we call Spani/h. Thefe bullies 'v'"""' were originally imported into Italy from Pontus, and known among the Romans by the appellation of Nux Pontica, which in procefs of time was changed into that of Nux Avellana, from the place where they had been propagated with the greatelt fuccefs. The proprietors plant them in rows, and by drefiing, form them into large bullies of many Items. Every year they refrelh the roots with new earth, and prune off the ftraggling Ihoots with great attention. AVE-MARIA, the angel Gabriel’s falutation of the Virgin Mary, when he brought her the tidings of the incarnation.—It is become a prayer or form of de¬ votion in the Romilh church. The chaplets and ro- faries are divided into fo many ave-marias, and fo many pater-nofters, to which the Papills afcribe a wonderful efficacy. AVEN A, Oats. See Botany Index. AVENACEOUS, fomething belonging to of pair- taking of the nature of oats. x AVEN AGE, in i>au>, a certain quantity of oats paid by a tenant to a landlord, inftead of rent or fome other duties. AVENCHE, an ancient city of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, formerly the capital of all Switzerland, but now ffiows its former greatnefs only by its ruins. E. Long. 7. 7. N. Lat. 46. 50. AVENES, a fmall but ftrong town in French Flan¬ ders, in the county of Hainault, feated on the river Thefpis. It contains about 2500 inhabitants ; but the houfes are wretchedly built, and the ftreets irregular. It was fortified by M. Vauban in a ftrong regular man¬ ner. About this place is a prodigious number of white ftones proper for building, and ufed by fculptors for fta- tues : they are known by the name of Stones of Avenes. E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 50. 10. AVEN 10, an ancient town of the Cavares, and one of the moft opulent in Gallia Narbonenfis ; nowr Avig¬ non, in Provence. See AVIGNON. AVENOR, an officer belonging to the king’s ftables, who provides oats for the horfes. He a£ls by warrant from the mailer of the horfe. AVENS. See Cariophyllus, Botany Index. AVENTINE, John, author of the Annals of Ba¬ varia, was born of mean parentage, in the year 1466, at Abenfperg in the country juft named. He ftudied firft at Ingoldftadt, and afterwards in the univerfity of Paris. In 1503, he privately taught eloquence and poetry at Vienna j and in 1507 he publicly taught Greek at Cracow in Poland. In 1509, he read lectures pn fome of Cicero’s works at Ingoldftadt: and in I5I2> was appointed to be preceptor to Prince Louis and Prince Erneft, fons of Albert the Wife, duke of Bava¬ ria, and travelled with the latter of thefe two princes. After this he undertook to write the annals of Bava¬ ria : being encouraged by the dukes of that name, who fettled a penfion upon him, and gave him hopes that they would defray the charges of the book. This work, which gained its author great reputation, was firft publilhed in 1554, by Jerome Zieglerus, profeffor of poetry in the univerfity of Ingoldftadt 5 and afterwards at Bafil in 1580, by Nicholas Cifner. An affront which .Aventine received in the year 1529, ftuck by him all A V E the reft of his life : he was forcibly taken out of his fift Avetitlne. ter’s houfe at Abenfperg, and hurried to jail •, the true |j caufe of which violence w’as never known : but it would Avenues, probably have been carried to a much greater length, '-‘“■“■V”4** had not the duke of Bavaria interpofed, and taken this learned man into his proteftion. Mr Bayle remarks, that the incurable melancholy which from this time pof- feffed Aventine, wTas fo far from determining him to lead a life of celibacy, as he had done till he was 64, that it induced him perhaps to think of marrying. The violence of his new paffion was not, however, fo great, but that it fullered him to advife with two of his friends, and confult certain paffages of the Bible relative to mar¬ riage. The refult was, that it was beft for him to marry ; and having already loft too much time, confi- dering his age, lie took the firft woman he met with, who happened to be his own maid, ill-tempered, ugly, and extremely poor. He died in 1534, aged 68; leav¬ ing one daughter, who was then but two months old. He had a fon, who died before. AVENTINUS mons, one of the feven hills on which ancient Rome Hood. The origin of the name Aventinus is uncertain : but this hill was alfo called Murcius, from Murcia the goddefs of fiotb, who had a little chapel there ; and Collis Diance, from the temple of Diana $ likewife Rcmonius, from Remus, who want¬ ed to build the city, and who was buried there. It was taken within the compafs of the city by Ancus Mar- tius. To the eaft it had the city walls y to the fouth, the Campus Figulinus ; to the weft, the Tiber ; and to the north,. Mons Palatinus: in circuit two miles and a quarter. AVENTURE, in law books, means a mifchance caufing the death of a perfon without felony. AVENUE, in Gardening, a walk planted on each fide with trees, and leading to a houfe, garden-gate, wood, &c. and generally terminated by fome diftant objedl. All avenues that lead to a houfe ought to be at leaft: as wide as the whole front of the houfe, if wider they are better full and avenues to woods, and profpedts, ought not to be lefs than 60 feet wide. The trees fnould not be planted nearer to one another than 35 feet, efpecially if they are trees of a fpreading kind 5 and the fame ought to be the diftance, if they are for a regular grove. The trees moft proper for avenues with us, are the Engliffi elm, the lime, the horfe-chefnut, the common chefnut, the beech, and the abele. The Englilh elm will do in all grounds, except fuch as are very wet and fhallow } and this is preferred to all other trees, be- caufe it will bear cutting, heading, or lopping in any manner, better than moft others. The rough orfmooth Dutch elm is approved by fome, becaufe of its quick growth. This is a tree which will bear removing very well ; it is alfo green almoft as foon as any plant what¬ ever in fpring, and continues fo as long as any, and it makes an incomparable hedge, and is preferable to all other trees for lofty efpaliers. The lime is valued for its natural growth and fine ftiade. The horfe-chefnut is proper for all places that are not too much expofed to rough winds. The common chefnut will do very well in a good foil $ and rifes to a confiderable height, when planted fomewhat clofe ; though, when it Hands fingle, it is rather inclined to fpread than to grow tall* [ 264 1 AYE [ 265 ] AYE Avenue, The beech is a beautiful tree, and naturally grows well Avenzoar. with us in its wild date j but it is lefs to be chofen for avenues than the before-mentioned, becaufe it does not bear tranfplanting well, but is very fubjeft to mifcarry. Laftly, the abele is fit for any foil, and is the quickeft grower ©f any foreft-tree. It feldom fails in tranf¬ planting } and fucceeds very well in wet foils, in which the others are apt to fail. The oak is but little ufed for avenues, becaufe of its flow growth. The old method of planting avenues was with re¬ gular rows of trees, and this has been always kept to till of late : but we have now a much more magnifi¬ cent way of planting avenues j this is by fetting the trees in clumps, or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing the clumps of trees at about 300 feet dillant from one another. In each of thefe clumps there ftiould be planted either fe- ven or nine trees ; but it is to be obferved, that this is only to be praftifed where the avenue is to be of fome confiderable length, for in Ihort walks this will not ap¬ pear fo lightly as Angle rows of trees. The avenues made by clumps are fitteft of all for parks. The trees in each clump Ihould be planted about 30 feet afunder; and a trench Ihould be thrown up round the whole clump, to prevent the deer from coming to the trees to bark them. AVENZOAR, Abu Merwan Abdalmalec ebn Zohr, an eminent Arabian phyfician, flourifhed about the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century. He was of noble defcent, and born at Se¬ ville, the capital of Andalufia, where lie exercifed his profeflion with great reputation. His grandfather and father were both phyficians. The large eftate he inherited from his anceftors, fet him above praftifing al¬ together for gain : he therefore took no fees from the poor, or from artificers, though he refufed not the pre- fents of princes and great men. His liberality was ex¬ tended even to his enemies j for which reafon he ufed to fay, that they hated him not for any fault of his, but rather out of envy. Dr Freind writes, that he lived to the age of 135 j that he began to pradlife at 40, or (as others fay) at 20; and had the advantage of a longer experience than almoft any one ever had, for he enjoyed perfect health to his laft hour. Fie left a fon, known alfo by the name of Ebn Z,ohr, who followed his father’s profeflion, was in great favour with A1 Manzur emperor of Morocco, and wrote feveral treatifes of phyfic. Avenzoar was cotemporary with Averroes, who, ac¬ cording to Leo Africanus, heard the ledlures of the former, and learned phyfic of him ; this feems the more probable, becaufe Av@«£>es more than once gives Aven¬ zoar a very high and deferved encomium, calling him ^admirable, glorious, the treafure of all knowledge, and the tnojl fupreme in physic from the time of Galen to his own.' Avenzoar, notwithflanding, is by the generality of writers reckoned an empiric: but Dr Freind obferves, that this character fuits him lefs than any of the reft of the Arabians. “ He was bred,” continues that author, in a phyfical family, his father and grandfather being both practitioners, whom he always remembers with great gratitude and honour. We have his own teftimo- ny that he had a regular education *, and that he not -only learned what properly belongs to a phyfician, but, out of a great defire of knowledge, every thing befides Vol. Ill, Part L 6 which relates to pharmacy or forgery.” Dr Freind Avenzoar afterwards obferves, “ that he was averfe to quackery, || and rejects the idle fuperftitions of aftrologtrs j and Avernus. throughout all his works profefles himfelf fo much of ^ v the dogmatical or rational feCt, which was diredtly op- pofite to the empirical, that he has a great deal of rea- foning about the caufes and fymptoms of diftempers ; and as in his theory he chiefly, if not only, follows Ga¬ len, fo he quotes him upon all occafions, oftener than the reft of the Arabians do. Notwithftanding he is fo Galenical, there are feveral particulars in him which feldom or ever occur in other authors ; and there are fome cafes which he relates from his own experience, which are worth perufing.” He wrote a book entitled, TaynJJir f'lmddawdt w'altadbir, i. e. “ The method of preparing medicines and diet $” which is much efteemed. This work was tranflated into Hebrew, in the year of Chrift 1280, and thence into Latin by Pa- ravicius, whofe verfion has had feveral editions. The author added a fupplement to it, under the title of Jdmd, or a ColleBion. He alfo wrote a treatife Fi'lad- wiyat wadlaughdiyat, i. e. “ Of Medicines and Food j”. wherein he treats of their qualities. AVERAGE, in Commerce, fignifies the accidents and misfortunes which happen to (hips and their car¬ goes, from the time of their loading and failing to their return and unloading 5 and is divided into three kinds. 1. The Ample or particular average, which confifts in the extraordinary expences incurred for the fhip alone, or for the merchandifes alone. Such is the lofs of anchors, mafts, and rigging, occafioned by the common accidents at fea ; the damages which happen to merchants by ftorm, prize, Ihipwreck, wet, or rot- ting •, all which muft be borne and paid by the thing which fuflfered the damage. 2. The large and common average, being thofe expences incurred, and damages fuftained, for the common good and fecurity both of the merchandifes and veffels, confequently to be borne by the ihip and cargo, and to be regulated upon the whole. Of this number are the goods or money given for the ranfom of the ftiip and cargo, things thrown overboard for the fafety of the (hip, the expences for unloading for entering into a river or harbour, and the provifions and hire of the failors when the {hip is put under an embargo. 3. The fmall averages, which are the expences for towing and piloting the ihip out of or into harbours, creeks, or rivers, one third of Avhich muft be charged to the ihip, and two thirds to the cargo. Average is more particularly ufed for a certain con¬ tribution that merchants make proportionably to their lofles, who have had their goods caft into the fea in the time of a tempeft. It alfo fignifies a fmall duty which thofe merchants, who fend goods in another man’s {hip, pay to the mafter for his care of them over and above the freight. Hence it is exprefled in the bills of lading, paying fo much freight for the faid goods, with primage and average accuftomcd. AVERDUPOIS. See Avoirdupois. AVERNUS, a lake of Campania in Italy, near Baiae, famous among the ancients for its poifonous qualities. It is deferibed by Strabo as lying within the Lucrine bay, deep and darkfome, furrounded with fteep banks that hang threatening over it, and only L 1 acceflible Averous. A V E [ 266 ] .AYE acccffible by the narrow paffage through which you fail in. Black aged groves ftretched their boughs over the watery abyfs, and with impenetrable foliage exclu¬ ded almoft every ray of wholefome light ; mephitic vapours afcending from the hot bowels of the earth, being denied free paffage to the upper atmofphere, floated along the furface in poifonous mifls. Thefe circumflances produced horrors fit for luch gloomy deities ; a colony of Cimmerians, as well fuited to the rites as the place itfelf, cut dwellings in the bofom of the furrounding hills, and officiated as priefts of Tar¬ tarus. Superftition always delighting in dark ideas, early and eagerly feized upon this fpot, and hither fhe led her trembling votaries to celebrate her difmal or¬ gies 5 here (he evoked the manes of departed heroes— here file offered facrifices to the gods of hell, and at¬ tempted to dive into the fecrets of futurity. Poets enlarged upon the popular theme, and painted its aw¬ ful fcenery with the ftrongeft colours of their art. Ho¬ mer brings Uiyffes to Avernus, as to the mouth of the infernal abodes ; and in imitation of the Grecian bard, Virgil condufts his hero to the fame ground. Who¬ ever failed thither, firft did facrifice •, and endeavoured to propitiate the infernal powers, with the affiifance of fome prieffs who attended upon the place, and dire61ed the mylfic performance. Within, a fountain of pure water broke out juft over the fea, which was fancied to be a vein of the river Styx j near this fountain was the oracle : and the hot waters frequent in thofe parts were fuppofed to be branches of the burning Phlege- thon. The poifonous effluvia from this lake were faid to be fo ftrong, that they proved fatal to birds endea¬ vouring to fly over it. Virgil afcribes the exhalation not to the lake itfelf, but to the cavern near it, which was called Avernus or Cave of the Sybil, and through W'hich the poets feigned a defcent to hell. Hence the proper name of the lake is Lacus Averni, the “ lake near the cavern,” as it is called by fome ancient au¬ thors. The liolinefs of thefe (hades remained unimpeached for many ages : Hannibal marched his army to offer incenfe at this altar ; but it may be fufpetted he was led to this aft of devotion rather by the hopes of furpri- fing the garrifon of Puteoli, than by his piety. After a long reign of undifturbed gloom and celebrity, a hid¬ den glare of light was let in upon Avernus; the horrors were difpelled, and with them vanifhed the fanftity of the lake : the axe of Agrippa brought its foreft to the ground, difturbed its fleepy waters with fliips, and gave room for all its malignant effluvia to efeape. The viru¬ lence of thefe exhalations, as defcribed by ancient au¬ thors, has appeared fo very extraordinary, that modern writers, who know the place in a cleared ftate only, charge thefe accounts with exaggeration : but Mr Swin¬ burne thinks them entitled to more refpeft ; for even now he obferves the air is feverifti and dangerous, as the jaundiced faces of the vine-dreffers, who have luc- ceeded the Sibyls and Cimmerians in the poffeflion of the temple, moft ruefully teftify. Boccacio relates, that during his refidence at the Neapolitan court, the furface of this lake was fuddenly covered with dead fifti, black and finged, as if killed by fome fubaqueous erup¬ tion of fire. At prefent the lake abounds with tench ; the Lu- ©rine with eels. The change of fortune in thefe lakes is lingular : In the fplendid days of imperial Rome the Averrm* Lucrine rvas the chofen fpot for the brilliant parties of || pleafure of a voluptuous court : now, a (limy bed of Averrunci, rufhes covers the fcattered pools of this once beautiful fheet of water j while the once dufky Avernus is clear and ferene, offering a moft alluring furface and charm¬ ing fcene for fimilar amufements. Oppofite to the tem¬ ple is a cave ufually ftyled the Sibyl’s grotto •, but ap¬ parently more likely to have been the mouth of a com¬ munication between Cuma and Avernus, than the abode of a prophetefs *, efpecially as the Sibyl is pofitively faid by hiftorians to have dwelt in a cavern under the Cu- mean citadel. AVERRHOA. See Botany Index. AVERROES, one of the moft fubtile philofophers that ever appeared among the Arabians, flourifhed at the end of the nth and beginning of the 12th centu¬ ry. He was the fon of the high-prieft and chief judge of Corduba in Spain : he was educated in the univer- fity of Morocco •, and ftudied natural philofophy, me¬ dicine, mathematics, law, and divinity. After the death of his father, he enjoyed his polls ; but notwith- ftanding bis being exceeding rich, his liberality to men of letters in neceffity, whether they were his friends or his enemies, made him always in debt. He was after¬ wards dripped of all his pofts, and thrown into prifon, for herefy ; but the oppreffions of the judge who fuc- ceeded him, caufed him to be reftored to his former employments. He died at Morocco in the year 1206. He was exceffively fat, though he ate but once a-day. He fpent all bis nights in the ftudy of philofophy *, and when he was fatigued, amufed himfelf with reading poetry or hiftory. He was never feen to play at any game, or to partake in any diverfion. He was extremely fond of Ariftotle’s works, and wrote commentaries on them ; whence he was ftyled, the commentator, by way of eminence. He likewife wrote a work on the whole art of phyfic, and many amorous verfes ; but when he grew old, he threw thefe laft into the fire. His other poems are loft, except a fmall piece, in which he fays, “ That when he Avas young, he afted againft his rea- fon 5 but that when'he Avas in years, he followed its diftates upon which he utters this Avifli j “ Would to God I had been born old, and that in my youth I had been in a ftate of perfeftion !” As to religion, his opinions Avere, that Chriftianity is abfurd } Judaifm, the religion of children \ Mahometanifm, the religion of fwine. AVERROISTS, a feft of Peripatetic philofophers, Avho appeared in Italy fome time before the reftoration of learning, and attacked the immortality of the foul. They took their denomination from Averroes, the celebrated interpreter of Ariftotle (fee the preceding article), from whom they borroAved their diftinguifhing doftrine. The Averroifts, who held the foul was mortal, ac¬ cording to reafon or philofophy, yet pretended to fubmit to the Chriftian theology, which declares it immortal. But the diftin6tion was held fufpicious •, and this divorce of faith from reafon Avas rejefted by the doftors of that time, and condemned by the laft council of the Lateran under Leo X. AVERRUNCI (dei) j certain gods, Avhofe bufinefs it Avas, according to the Pagan theology, to avert mif- fortuneto AUG [ 267 ] AUG Avetrunci fortunes. Apollo and Hercules were of the number of || thefe gods among the Greeks $ and Catlor and Pollux AuSe' among the Romans.. ^ ^* AVERS A, a town of Italy in the kingdom of Na¬ ples, with a bifhop’s fee. It is fituated in a very fine plain, in E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 41. o. AVERSION, according to Lord Kames, is oppofed to ujfeElion, and not to dejire, as it commonly is. We have an affeftion to one perfon $ we have an averfion to another; the former difpofes us to do good to its objeff, the latter to do ill. AVERTI, in Horfemanjhip, is applied to a regular ftep or motion enjoined in the lefions. In this fenfe they fay pas averte, fometimes pas ecoute, and pas d^eco/e, which all denote the fame. The word is mere French, and fignifies advifed. AVES, one of the Carribbee iflands, 451 milesfouth of Porto Rico, with a good harbour for careening of (hips. It is fo called from the great number of birds that frequent it. There is another of the fame name lying to the northward of this, in N. Lat. 15. o. ; and a third near the eaftern coaft of Newfoundland, in N. Lat. 50. 5. ydVES, Birds, the name of Linnaeus’s fecond clafs of animals. See Ornithology. AVESBURY, Robert, an Englith hiftorian, of whom little more is known than that he was keeper of the regiftery of the court of Canterbury in the reign of Edward III. and confequently that he lived in the 14th century. He wrote, Memorabilia gejla magnifici regis Anglice domini Edwardi tertiipoji conquejium, pro- cerumque ; taBis primitus quibufdam geJUs de tempore patris fui domini Edwardi fecundi, quee in regms An¬ glic?, Scotice, et Francice, ac in Aquitania et Britannia, non humana fed Deipotentia, contigerunt, per Robertum de Avejbury. This hiftory ends with the battle of PohRiers, about the year 1356. It continued in manu- fcript till the year 1720, when it was printed by the induflrious Thomas Hearne at Oxford, from a manu- fcript belonging to Sir Thomas Seabright. It is now become very fcarce. AVEZZANO, a town of Italy in the kingdom of Naples, in the Farther Abruzzo. It is built on an al- moft imperceptible declivity, one mile from the lake of Celano, to which an avenue of poplars leads from the baronial caftle. This edifice ftands at a little di- ftance from the town, isfquare,and flanked with towers; it was erefled by Virginio Orfini, to which family this and many other great lordflu’ps belonged, before they were wreftfed from them in times of civil war, and transferred to the Colonnas. Avezzano was founded in 860, and contains 2700 inhabitants, and two religious communities within its walls, which are indeed in a ruinous condition. The houfes are in general mean ; but there are fome large buildings and opulent families of the clafs of gentlemen, not poffeffed of fees held in capite. AUGE, a territory of Normandy in France, which gives title to a vifcount. It extends from Falaife and Argenton as far as the fea, between the rivers Dives, Vie, and Tongues. The arable land is ftifF, and pro¬ duces but little good corn : but they fow fainfoin ; which fucceeds fo well that they have five good crops fucceflively ; they likewife fow flax and hemp ; and have a vaft quantity of apples, with which they make cy¬ der. Horfes are bred here in great numbers ; and the Auge inhabitants fatten the oxen which come from Poiftou It ■< and Britanny. .Augfbur^ AUGE AS, in fabulous hiftory, was king of Elis, '' and particularly famed for his liable, which contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for 30 years. Hercules was defired to clear away the filth from this liable in one day ; and Augeas promifed, if he per¬ formed it, to give him a tenth part of the cattle. This talk Hercules is faid to have executed by turning the courfe of the river Alpheus through the liable ; when Augeas refufing to Hand by his engagement, Hercules flaw him with his arrows, and gave his kingdom to Phyleus his fon, who had Ihovvn an abhorrence of his father’s infincerity. AUGMENT, in Grammar, an accident of certain tenfes of Greek verbs, being either the prefixing of a fyllable, or an increafe of the quantity of the initial vowels. AUGMENTATION, in a general fenfe, is the adt of adding or joining fomething to another with a defign to render it large. Augmentation is alfo ufed for the additament or thing added. - Augmentation was alfo the name of a court ere£l- ed 27 Hen. VIII. fo called from the augmentation of the revenues of the crown, by the fuppreflion of religi¬ ous houfes ; and the office Hill remains, wherein there are many curious records, though the court has been dif- folved long fince. Augmentation, in Heraldry, are additional char¬ ges to a coat-armour, frequently given as particular marks of honour, and generally borne either in the ef- cutcheon or a conton ; as have all the baronets of Eng¬ land, who have borne the arms of the province of Ulller in Ireland. AUGRE, or Ayvgre, an inftrumentufed by carpen¬ ters and joiners to bore large round holes ; and confin¬ ing of a wooden handle, and an iron blade terminated at bottom with a Heel bit. AUGSBURG, a city of Germany, capital of the circle of Suabia, feated near the confluence of the Ardech and Lech, in one of the molt beautiful plains that can be imagined. It is one of the large!! and Ifandfomeft cities of the empire; but the fortifications are after the old manner, and very irregular; the ftreets are broad and ftraight; the houfes moflly of timber, plaftered and whitened without, or adorned with paint¬ ings ; the reft are of freeftone ; the churches and foun¬ tains are generally ornamented with fine figures of brafs. Many of the churches are ftately, and adorned within with curious workmanffiip and paintings. That part of the city credit'd by the noble family of the Fuggers, who are lords of the adjacent country, confifts of feve- • ral ftreets crofswife, containing 106 houfes: the poor people that inhabit them are maintained by an annual penfion. Its magnificent town-houfe is little inferior to that of Amfterdam, it being a vaft fquare ftone building, with a marble portico ; at the top of the front, within the pediment, is a large fpread eagle, holding a fceptre and globe in its talons, of brafs gilt, faid to weigh 2200 weight ; the great portal is of a very beautiful reddiffi marble, over which is a balcony of the fame colour, fupported by two pillars of white marble; over the gate there are two- large griffins of L 1 2 brafs $ AUG [ 268 ] AUG Augfbnrg brafs j moft of the rooms are wainfcotted and ceiled v with very fine timber : the great hall is very magnifi¬ cent, and paved with marble ; it is 110 feet long, 58 broad, and 52 high, and its roof is fupported by eight columns of red marble : the ceiling of the upper Avail ■ is of very curious workmanlhip of polilhed alh, confid¬ ing of compartments, the fquares and pannels of which are enriched with gilded fculptures, and filled with pi£lures and other ornaments; this is likevvife fupported by eight pillars, with bafes and chapiters of brafs: the other rooms are handfomely adorned with very fine paintings. In the fquare, near the toAvn-houfe, is the fountain of Auguftus, which is a marble bafon, furrounded with iron balluftrades finely wrought : at the four corners are four brafs flatues as big as the life, two of which are wo¬ men and two men ; in the middle of the bafon is a pede- ftal, at the foot of which are four large fphinxes fquirt- ing water out of their breads ; a little above thefe are four infants holding four dolphins in their arms, which pour water out of their mouths : and over thefe infants are fedoons and pine-apples all of brafs; upon the pe- dedal, is the datue of Augudus as large as the life. The fountain mod remarkable uext to this is that of Hercules, which is a hexagon bafon with feveral brafs figures, particularly Hercules engaging the hydra. Another curiofity is the fecret gate, which wras contri¬ ved to let in perfons fafely in time of war : it has fo many engines and divifions with gates and keys, and apartments for guards at fome didance from each other, where paffengers are examined, that it is impoffible for the town to be furprifed this Avay ; the gates are bolted and unbolted, opened and fhut, by unfeen operators, infomuch that it looks like enchantment. The water- towers are alfo very curious, of which there are three feated on a branch of the river Lech, which runs through the city in fuch a torrent as to drive many mills, which work a number of pumps that raife the water in large leaden pipes to the tops of the toAvers ; one of thefe fends Avater to the public fountains, and the red to near toco houfes in the city. The Lutherans have a college here, Avhich is a vad fquare building, Avith a fine clock on the top of the front. In this there are feven different claffes, a hall for public deputations, and a theatre for dramatic repre- fentations. The cathedral is a large, gloomy, Gothic building, with two fpire deeples ; it is adorned Avith paintings upon Avhimfical fubje61s, and has a great gate all of brafs, over which are feveral feripture paffages well reprefented in baffo-relievo. The Jefuits had a fplendid college here, with a church full of gilding, painting, and carving; and a fine library. Though half the inhabitants are Lutherans, there are a great many Popifh procefiions. There are no Jews in the town, nor are they differed to lie there; but they in¬ habit a village at about a league didance, and pay fo much an hour for the liberty of trading in the day¬ time. The Benedi&ine abbey is a vad Gothic build¬ ing, the ceiling of Avhich is faid to be the highed in Germany, and overlooks all the red of the churches; it is adorned with feveral datues, and has one very grand altar. The church of St Croix is one of the hand- fomed in Augfburg for archite&ure, painting, fculpture, gilding, and a fine fpire. The inhabitants look upon Augudus Csefar as the 4 founder of the town : it is true, that that emperor fent Auglburg. a colony there ; but the town was already founded, —-y— though he gave it the name of Augujla Vinde/icorum. Augfburg, indeed, is one of the olded toAvns in Ger¬ many, and one of the mod remarkable of them, as it is there and at Nuremberg that you meet with the olded marks of German art and indudry. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the commerce of this town Avas the mod extenfive of any part of fouth Germany, and contributed much to the civilization of the country, by the Avorks of art and variety of neceffaries to the com¬ fort and convenience of life Avhich it was the means of introducing. Many things originated in this toAvn which have had a great influence on the happinefs of mankind. Not to mention the many important diets of the empire held here ; here, in 952, did a council confirm the order for the celibacy of prieds ; here, in 1530, Avas the confedion of faith of the Protedants laid before the emperor and other edates of Germany ; and here, in 1555, Avas figned the famous treaty of peace, by Avhich religious liberty Avas fecured to Ger¬ many. Though the Protedants Avere very poAverful at Augf¬ burg, they could not keep their ground : for the Ba¬ varians drove them from thence : but Gudavus Adol¬ phus redored them again in 1632; fince which time they have continued there, and fhare the government with the Catholics. In 1703, the eledlor of Bavaria took the city after a fiege of feven days, and demolifhed the fortifications : hoAvever the battle of Hochdedt redored their liberty, Avhich they yet enjoy under the govern¬ ment of their oAvn magidrates, the bifhop having no temporal dominion in the city. The chapter is com- pofed of perfons of quality, who are to bring proofs of their nobility. The canons have a right of ele£ling their oAvn bilhop, Avho is a fovereign, in the fame man¬ ner as feveral of the German bidiops. The police of the place is \'ery good: and though the town has no territory, it has no debts. Auglburg is, hoAvever, no longer Avhat it was. It no longer has a Fugger and a Welfer in it to lend the emperor millions. In this large and handfome toAvn, formerly one of the greated trading toAvns in Germany, there are no merchants at prefent to be found who have capitals of more than 20,000!. The others, mod of Avhom mud have their coaches, go creeping on Avith capitals of 3000I. or 4CO0I. and do the bufinefs of brokers and commidioners. Some houfes, however, carry on a lit¬ tle banking trade ; and the Avay through Tyrol and Graubundten occafions fome little exchange between this place and Germany. After thefe brokers and doers of bufinefs by commidion, the engravers, datu- aries, and painters, are the mod reputable of the la¬ bouring part of the city. Their produ£lions, like the toys of Nuremberg, go everyAvhere. There are al¬ ways fome people of genius amongd them ; but the fmall demand for their art affords them fo little en¬ couragement, that to prevent darving they are modly confined to the fmall religious works Avhich are done elfewhere by Capuchin monks. They furnilh all Ger¬ many Avith little pictures for prayer books, and to hang in the citizens houfes. There is an academy of arts indituted here under the proteftion of the magi¬ drates : the principal aim of Avhich is to produce good mechanics, and preferve the manufactures of the city. This Augfbarg H Augurale. U G [ 269 ] AUG 9 J juiles in circumference, neral took aufpicia. This anfwered to the Auguratorium This town, which contains, according to Mr Riefbeck, hardly 30,000 inhabitants : but Mr Nicolai makes them about ' 35»°op. .... This city has its drinking water from the river Lech, which runs at feme diflance from it^ and the aquedufts which convey the water are much to be admired. As the court of Bavaria has it in its power to cut off this indif- penfable neceffary ; by threatening the town with doing fo, it often lays it under contribution. But as it has, be- lides this, other means of keeping the high council in a ftate of dependence, to fecure itfelf from this oppref- fion, the city feeks the emperor’s proteflion, upon whom it makes itfelf as dependent on the other fide, fo as to be indeed only a ball which both courts play with. The emperor’s minifter to the circle of Suabia generally refides here, and by fo doing fecures to his court a perpetual influence. There are always Auftrian and Pruflian recruiting parties quartered here, and the partiality of the government to the former is very re¬ markable. In the war of 1756, the citizens were di¬ vided into equal parties- for the two courts. The Ca¬ tholics confidered the emperor as their god, and the Proteftants did the fame by the king of Pruffia. The flame of religion had almoft kindled a bloody civil Avar amongfl: them.—The bilhop takes his name from this town, but refides at Dillingen. He has an income of about 20,oool. per annum. As a proof of the catho- licifm of this place, the Pope throughout his Avhole progrefs met nowhere with fuch honours as he did here. This he owed to his friends the Jefuits, Avho have flill great influence. E. Long. 10. 58. N. Lat. 48. 24. AUGSBURG CenfcJJiott, denotes a celebrated confeflion of faith drawn up by Luther and MelamRbon, on be¬ half of themfelves and other ancient reformers, and prefented in 1530 to the emperor Charles V. at the diet of Augufta or Auglburg,- in the name of the evangelic body. This confeflion contains 28 chapters j of which the greateft part is employed in reprefenting, with perfpicuity and truth, the religious opinions of the Proteftants, and the reft in pointing out the errors and abufes that occafioned their feparation from the church of Rome. AUGUR, an officer among the Romans appointed to foretel future events, by the chattering, flight, and feeding of birds. There was a college or community of them, confifting originally of three members with refpeft to the three tribes, the Luceres, Ramnenfes, and Tatienfes : afterwards the number was increafed to nine, four of whom were patricians and five plebeians. They bore an augural ftafif or rvand, as the enfign of their authority ; and their dignity was fo much re- fpe&ed, that they Avere never depofed, or any fubfti- tuted in their place, though they fhould be convifled of the moft enormous crimes. See Augury. AUGURAL, fomething relating to the augurs.— The augural inftruments are reprefented on feveral an¬ cient medals. Augural Supper, that given by a prieft on his firft admiffion into the order, called alfo by Varro Adji- cia/is. AuGURAL Books, thofe Avherein the difcipline and rules of augury were laid down. AUGURALE, the place in a camp where the ge- in the city. Augurale is alfo ufed in Seneca for the enfign or badge of an augur, as the htuus. AUGURATORIUM, a building on the Palatine mount, where public auguries were taken. AUGURY, in its proper fenfe, the art of fore¬ telling future events by obfervations taken from the chattering, finging, feeding, and flight, of birds} though it is ufed by fome Avriters in a more general fignification, as comprifing all the different kinds of di¬ vination. Augury was a very ancient fuperftition. We know from Hefiod, that hulbandry Avas in part regulated by the coming or going of birds : and moft probably it had been in ufe long before his time, as aftronomy Avas then in its infancy. In procefs of time, thefe animals feem to have attained a greater and very wonderful au¬ thority, till at laft no aftair of confequence, either of private or public concern, Avas undertaken Avithout confulting them. They Avere looked upon as the in¬ terpreters of the gods j and thofe who Avere qualified to underftand their oracles were held among the chief men in the Greek and Roman ftates, and became the affeffors of kings, and even of Jupiter himfelf. Hoav- ever abfurd fuch an inftitution as a college of augurs may appear in our eyes, yet, like all other extrava¬ gant inftitutions, it had in part its origin from nature. When men confidered the wonderful migration of birds, hoAV they difappeared at once, and appeared again at ftated times, and could give no guefs Avhere they went, it was almoft natural to fuppole that they retired fomewhere out of the fphere of this earth, and perhaps approached the ethereal regions, Avhere they might converfe Avith the gods, and thence be enabled to predict events. It Avas almoft natural for a fuper- ftitious people to imagine this j at leaft to believe it, as foon as fome impoftor Avas impudent enough to affert it. Add to this, that the difpofition in fome birds to imitate the human voice, muft contribute much to the confirmation of fuch a do&rine. This inftitution of augury feems to have been much more ancient than that of arufpicy ; for Ave find many intlances of the for¬ mer in Homer, but not a fingle one of the latter, though frequent mention is made of facrifices in that author. From the Avhole of Avhat has been obferved, it feems probable that natural augury gave rife to religious au¬ gury, and this to arufpicy, as the mind of man makes a very eafy tranfition from a little truth to a great deal of error. A paffage in Ariftophanes gave the hint for thefe obfervations. In the comedy of the Birds, he makes one of them fay this : “ The greateft bleflings which can happen to you mortals, are derived from us. Firft, Ave ftiow you the feafons, viz. fpring, Avinter, au¬ tumn. The crane points out the time for foAving, Avhen (he flies with her Avarning notes into Egypt ; (lie bids the failor hang up his rudder and take his reft, and every prudent man provide himfelf Avith winter garments. Next the kite appearing, proclaims another feafon, viz. when it is time to (hear his (heep. After that the fwallow informs you Avhen it is time to put on fummer clothes. We are to you, (adds the chorus), Ammon, Dodona, Apollo : for, after confulting us, you undertake every things merchandife, purchafes, marriages, AUG [2 marriages,” &c. Now, it feems not improbable, that the fame tranfition was made in the fpeculations of men which appears in the poet’s words j and that they were eafily induced to think, that the furprifing forefight of birds, as to the time of migration, indicated fomething of a divine nature in them-j which opinion Virgil, as an Epicurean, thinks fit to enter his proteft againft, when he fays, Hand equidem credo, quia Jit divinitas illis Ingenium. But to return to Ariftophanes. The firft part of the chorus, from whence the fore-cited paffage is ta¬ ken, feems, with all its wildnefs, to contain the fabu¬ lous cant, which the augurs made ufe of in order to ac¬ count for their impudent impofitions on mankind. It fets out with cofmogony •, and fays, That in the be¬ ginning were Chaos and Night, and Erebus and Tar¬ tarus : That there was neither water, nor air, nor fky : That Night laid an egg, from whence, after a time, Love arofe : That Love, in conjunction with Erebus, produced a third kind ; and that they were the firft of the immortal race, &c. AUGUST, (augujius), in a general fenfe, fomething majeftic, venerable, or facred. The appellation was firft conferred by the Roman fenate upon OCtavius, after his being confirmed by them in the fovereign power. It was conceived as exprefling fomething divine, or elevated above the pitch of mankind, being derived from the verb aiigeo, “ I increafe,” tanquam fupra humanam fortem uuBus. See Augustus. August, in Chronology, the eighth month of our -year, containing 31 days. Auguft was dedicated to the honour of Auguftus Caefar, becaufe, in the fame month, he was created conful, thrice triumphed in .Rome, fubdued Egypt te the Roman empire, and made an end of civil wars, being before called Sexttlts, or the fixth month from March. AUGUSTA, or Austa, an ifland in the Adriatic fea on the coaft of Dalmatia, near Ragufa, fubjeCl to Venice. E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat. 42. 35. Augusta, a town of Georgia in North America. -See Georgia. Augusta Aufciorum, a town of Aquitania, fo na¬ med out of compliment to Auguftus, being originally called Climherrum, which name it afterwards refumed. In the middle age, it took the name of the people, Aufci; and is now called Audi, the capital of Gaf- cony. AUGUSTA Emerita, a town of Lufitania on the river Anas, the capital of the province •, a colony of the Emeriti, or fuch foldiers as had ferved out their legal time, were men of experience, or had received marks of favour. The colony was founded by Auguftus : and is now called Merida, a city of Spain, in Eftremadura, on the river Guadiana. See Merida. Augusta Pretoria, a town and colony of Gallia Cifalpina, and capital of the Salaffi ; feated at the foot of the Alpes Graiae on the Duria. Now Aoujle in Pied¬ mont. See Aouste. AUGUSTA Rauracorum, a town of Gallia Belgica 5 now a fmall village called Augujl, at the bend of the Rhine northward j but from the ruins, which are ftill to be feen, appears to have been a confiderable 70 ] AUG colony, at the diftance of fix miles from Bafil to the Augufta eaft. || AUGUSTA Suejfonum, a town of Gallia Belgica on Auguftin. the Axona •, fo called from Auguftus, and with great probability fuppofed to be the Noviodunum Sueffonum of Caefar. Now SoiJJbns, on the river Aifne, in the ifle of France. See Soissons. AUGUSTA Taurinorum, a town of the Taurini at the foot of the Alps, where the Duria Minor falls into the Po ; now Turin, the capital of Piedmont. AUGUSTA Treba, a town of the AEqui, near the fpring of the river Anio in Italy 5 now Trevi, in Um¬ bria, on the eaft of the Campagna di Roma. AUGUSTA Trevirorum, a town of the Treviri, a people inhabiting between the Rhine and the Meufe, but efpecially about the Mofelle ; now Triers, or Treves, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, on the Mo¬ felle. _ . ' " AUGUSTA Vendelicorum, a town of the Licates on the Licus •, called by Tacitus a noble colony of R}ue~ tia ; now7 Augsburg, capital of Suabia. Augusta Hijloria is the biftory of the Roman em¬ perors from the time of Adrian to Carinus, that is, from the year of our Lord 157 to 285, compofed by fix Latin writers, JE\. Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, JE.\. Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pol- lio, and Flavius Vopifcus. AUGUSTALES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given to the flamens or priefts appointed to facrifice to Auguftus after his deification 5 and alfo to the ludi or games celebrated in honour of the fame prince on the fourth of the ides of Oftober. AUGUSTALIA, a feftival inftituted by the Ro¬ mans in honour of Auguftus Csefar, en his return to Rome, after having fettled peace in Sicily, Greece, Sy¬ ria, Afia, and Parthia •, on which occafion they likewife built an altar to him, infcribed Fortunce reduci. AUGUSTALIS pralfectus, a title peculiar to a Roman magirtrate who governed Egypt, with a power much like that of a proconfui in other provinces. AUGUSTAN confession. See Augsburg Con- fejjion. AUGUSTIN, or Austin, St, the firft arch- biftiop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the convent of St Andrew at Rome, and educated Under St Gregory, afterwards Pope Gregory I. by whom he was despatched into Britain with 40 other monks of the fame order, about the year 596, to convert the Eng- . lifh Saxons to Chriftianity. They landed in the ifle of Thanet ; and having fent fome French interpreters to King Ethelbert with an account of their errand, the king gave them leave to convert as many of his fub- j.e6Is as they could, and afligned their place of refi- dence, at Dorovernum, fince called Canterbury; to which they were confined till the king himfelf was con¬ verted, whofe example had a powerful influence in pro¬ moting the converfion of his fubjefls j but though he was extremely pleafed at their becoming Chriftians, he never attempted to compel them. He defpatched a • prieft and a monk to Rome, to acquaint the pope with the fuccefs of his miflion, and to defire his refolution of certain queftions. Thefe men brought back with them a pall, and feveral books, veftments, utenfils, and ornaments for the churches. His holinefs, by the fame meffengers, A U G [2 Auguftin, meffengers, gave Auguftin direftions concerning the Auguftine. fettling of epifcopal fees in Britain ; and ordered him not to pull down the idol-temples, but to convert them into Chriitian churches ; only deitroying the idols, and fprinkling the place with holy water, that the natives, by frequenting the temples they had been always ac- cuftomed to, might be the lefs {hocked at their entrance into Chriftianity. Auguftin refided principally at Can¬ terbury, which thus became the metropolitan church of England ; and having eftabliftied bifhops in feveral of the cities, he died on the 26th May, 607. The Popifti writers afcribe feveral miracles to him. The obfervation of the feftival of St Auguftin was firft en¬ joined in a fynod held under Cuthbert archbifhop of Canterbury, and afterwards by the pope’s bull in the reign of King Edward III. AUGUSTINE, St, an illuftrious father of the church, was born at Thagafte, a city of Numidia, on the 13th of November 354. His father, a burgefs of that city, was called Patricius; and his mother, Monica, who being a woman of great virtue, inftrudled him in the principles of the Chriftian religion. In his early youth he was in the rank of the catechumens ; and falling dangeroufly ill, earneftly defired to be bap¬ tized •, but the violence of the diftemper ceafing, his baptifm was delayed. His father, who was not yet baptized, made him ftudy at Thagafte, Madaura, and afterwards at Carthage. Auguftine having read Ci¬ cero’s books of philofqphy, began to entertain a love for wifdom, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures ; neverlhelefs, he fuffered himfelf to be feduced by the Manicheans. At the age of 19, he returned to Thagafte, and taught grammar, and alfo frequented the bar : he afterwards taught rhetoric at Carthage with applaufe. The infolence of the fcholars at Carthage made him take a refolution to go to Rome, though againft his mother’s will. Here alfo he had many fcholars ; but difliking them, he quitted Rome, and fettled at Milan, and was chofen public profeffor of rhetoric in that city. Here he had oppor¬ tunities of hearing the fermons of St Ambrofe, which, together with the ftudy of St Paul’s epiftles, and the converfton of two of his friends, determined him to retraft his errors, and quit the fe6I of the Manicheans; this was in the 32d year of his age. In the vacation of the year 386, he retired to the houfe of a friend of his, named Verecundus, where he ferioufly applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Chriftian religion, in order to pre¬ pare himfelf for baptifm, which he received at Eafter in the year 387. Soon after this, his mother came to fee him at Milan, and invite him back to Carthage ; but at Oftia, whither he went to embark in order to his return, Ihe died. He arrived in Africa about the end of the year 388 ; and having obtained a garden-plot without the walls of the city of Hippo, he afibciated himfelf with 11 other perfons of eminent farxftity, who diftinguifhed themfelves by wearing leathern girdles, and lived here in a monaftic way for the fpace of three years, exetcifing themfelves in falling, prayer, ftudy, and meditation, day and night: from hence fprung up the Auguftine friars, or eremites of St Auguftinej being the firft order of mendicants; thofe of St Jerome, the Carmelites, and others, being but branches of this of St Auguftine. About this time, or before, Vale¬ rius biftiop of Hippo, againft his will, ordained him it 71 ] AUG prieft : neverthelefs, he continued to refide in his little Auguftin#, monaftery, with his brethren, who, renouncing all Auguftins. property, poftefl'ed their goods in common. Valerius, * who had appointed St Auguftine to preach in his place, allowed him to do it in his prefence, contrary to the cuftom of the churches in Africa. He explained the creed, in a general council of Africa, held in 393. Two years after, Valerius, fearing he might be pre¬ ferred to be biflrop of another church, appointed him his coadjutor or colleague, and caufed him to be or¬ dained biftiop of Hippo, by Megalus biftiop of Ca- lame, then primate of Numidia. St Auguftine died the 28th day of Augult, 430, aged 76 years, having had the misfortune to fee his country invaded by the Vandals, and the city where he was biftiop befieged for feven months. The works of St Auguftine make ten volumes : the beft edition of them is that of Maurin, printed at Antwerp, in 1700. They are but little read at this time, except by the clergy of the Greek church and in the Spanifli univerfities. The bookfellers of Lon¬ don receive frequent commiflions for them, and indeed for the moft of the fathers, from Ruftia, and alfo from Spain. Augustine, St, a fort of North America, on the caft coalt of Cape Florida, fituated in W. Long. 81. 10. N. Lat. 30. o. This fort was built by the. Spa¬ niards ; who were fcarce well eftablilhed there when they were attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1586, wha reduced and pillaged the fort and town adjacent. In 1665, it underwent a fimilar fate, being attacked by Captain Davis at the head of a confiderable company of bucaniers. In 1702 an attempt Avas made by Colonel More to annex St Auguftine to the Britifti do¬ minions. He invefted it with only 500 Englifti and 700 Indians ; which fmall force, however, would have been fufficient to reduce the place, had not fuccours. ar¬ rived when it was on the point of furrendering. Even then, it is thought that he might have defeated the re¬ inforcement which arrived ; but he chofe to raife the fiege, and retire rvith precipitation. In 1740, another unfuccefsful attempt Avas made on this fort by General Oglethorpe : it Avas, however, together with the Avhole country of Florida, ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris in 1763 ;. but has fince been reftored to Spain by the treaty of peace 1783. Augustine, a cape of South America. W. Long. 35. 4. S. Lat. 8. 30. AUGUSTINS, or Augustinians, an order of religious ; thus called from St Auguftine, whofe rule they obferve. The Auguftins, popularly alfo called Auftin friars, were originally hermits, Avhom Pope Alexander IV. firft congregated into one body, under their general Lanfranc, in 1256. Soon after their in- ftitution, this order Avas brought into England, where they had about tbirty-tAvo houfes at the time of their fuppreflion. The Auguftins are clothed in black, and make one of the four orders of mendicants. From thefe arofe a reform, under the denomination of bare-foot Auguflins, or Minorets, or Friars minor. There are alfo canons regular of St Auguftine, Avho are clothed in white, excepting their cope, which is black. At Paris they AvereknoAvn under the denomination of religious of Gek-EVIEVE ; that abbey was the chief o£ AUG [ 272 ] ' AVI Auguftins of the order. There are alfo nuns and canoneffes, who I) obferve the rules of St Auguftine. Auguftiis.^ Augustinians are alfo thofe divines who maintain, on the authority of St Auguftine, that GRACE is effec¬ tual from its nature, abfolutely and morally, and not re¬ latively and gradually. They are divided into rigid and relaxed • AUGUSTOBONA, a city of the Tricaffers in an¬ cient Gaul, from whom it was afterwards called Tricaf¬ fes, and Trecaffce ; and ftill farther corrupted to T/ira- cce, or Treci; whence the modern name Troyes, in Champagne, on the Seine. See Troyes. AUGUSTODUNUM, the capital of the Aidui, where there was a famous academy or fchool for the education of youth 5 now Auftun, or Autun, in the du¬ chy of Burgundy, on the Arroux. See Autun. AUGUSTOMAGUS, an ancient town of Gallia Belgica 5 now Senlis, in the Ifle of France. E. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 49. 10. AUGUSTOR1TUM, in Ancient Geography, accord¬ ing to fome authors, the capital of the Piftones, after¬ wards called PiSiavt; now Poichers. But by Anto- nine’s Itinerary from Burdigala to Argantomagus (or Argenton, as it is interpreted by many), it can be no other but the capital of the Lemovices, now Limoges, fituated between Vefunna of the Petrocorii, or Perigeux, and Argantomagus. E. Long. 1. 22. Lat. 45. 52. AUGUSTOW, a fmall but ftrong town of Poland, in the duchy and palatinate of Polakia, feated on the river Narieu. E. Long. 24. 2. N. Lat. 53* ^5* AUGUSTUS, Fort, a fmall fortrefs feated on a , nlain at the head of Lochnefs in Scotland, between the rivers Taarf and Oich ; the laft is a confiderable ftream, and has over it a ftone bridge of three arches. The fort confifts of four baftions : within is the go¬ vernor’s houfe, and barracks for 400 men *, it was ta¬ ken by the rebels in 1746, who immediately deferted it after demolilhing what they could. The name of this fort in Erfe is Kill Chumin, or the burial place »f the Cummins. It lies on the road to the Hie of Sky, which is about 52 miles off; but on the whole way there is not a place fit for the reception of man or horfe. Augustus, the appellation conferred upon CaTar 0£taviafius, the firft Roman emperor. See Octavia- nus and Rome. The obfeure name of O&avianus, Mr Gibbon ob- ferves, he derived from a mean family, in the little town of Aricia. It was ftained with the blood of the profcription ; and he was defirous, had it been poffible, to crafe all memory of his former life. The illuftrious furname of Ccefar he had affumed, as the adopted fon of the diftator } but he had too much good fenfe either to hope to be confounded, or to wifti to be compared, with that extraordinary man. It was propofed in the fenate, to dignify their minifter with a new appella¬ tion j and after a very ferious difcufllon, that of Au- gufus was chofen among feveral others, as being the moft expreflive of the chara&er of peace and fanftity, which he uniformly affetted. Augujlus was therefore a perfonal, Ge/hr a family, diftin&ion. The former Ihould naturally have expired with the prince on whom it was beftowed: and however the latter was diffufed by adop¬ tion and female alliance, Nero was the laft prince who could allege any hereditary claims to the honour of the Augu(hts Julian line. But at the time of his death, the pra&ice || of a century had infeparably connefted thofe appella- Avicenna, tions with the imperial dignity, and they have been preferved by a long fucceftion of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the fall of the re¬ public to the prefent time. A diftin&ion was, how¬ ever, foon introduced. The facred title of Augufus was always referved for the monarch j the name of Cafar was more freely communicated to his relations^ and from the reign of Hadrian at leaft, was appropriated to the fecond perfon in the ftate, who was confidered as the prefumptive heir of the empire. AVIARY, a place fet apart for feeding and propa¬ gating birds. It thould be fo large as to give the birds fome freedom of flight j and turfed, to avoid the appear¬ ance of foulnefs on the floor. AVICENNA, or Avicenes, the prince of Arabian philofophers and phyficians, was born at Aflena, a vil¬ lage in the neighbourhood of Bokhara. His father was from Balkh in Perfia, and had married at Bokhara. The firft years of Avicenna rvere devoted to the ftudy of the Koran and the belles lettres- He foon {bowed what he was likely to become afterwards and the progrefs he made was fo rapid, that when he was but ten years old, he was perfeftly intelligent in the moft hidden fenfes of the Koran. Abou-Abdoullah, a native of Napoulous in Syria* at that time profeffed philofophy at Bokhara with the greateft reputation. Avicenna ftudied under him the principles of logic 5 but foon, difgufted with the flow manner of the fchools, he fet about ftudying alone, and read all the authors that had written on philofophy, without any other help than that of their commentators. Mathematics had no fewer charms for him ; and after reading the firft fix propofitions of Euclid, he got alone to the laft, having made bimfelf perfect mafter of them, and treafured up all of them equally in his me¬ mory. Pofltffed with an extreme avidity to be acquainted with all forts of fciences, he likewife devoted himfelf to the ftudy of medicine. Perfuaded that this divine art confifts as much in pra&ice as in theory, he fought all opportunities of feeing the fic k } and afterwards confef- fed, that he had learned more from experience than from all the old books he had read. He was now in his 16th year, and already was celebrated for being the light of his age. He refolved at this age to refume his {Indies of philofophy, which medicine had made him ne- gledl: and he fpent a year and a half in this painful la¬ bour, without ever fleeping all this time a whole night together. If he felt himfelf oppreffed by fleep, or ex- haufted by ftudy, a glafs of wine refrefhed his wafted fpirits, and gave him new vigour for ftudy •, if in fpite of him his eyes for a few minutes ftuit out the light, it then happened to him to recollect and meditate upon all the things that had occupied his thoughts before fleep. At the age of 21, he conceived the bold defign of in¬ corporating, in one work, all the objedls of human knowledge ; and carried it into execution in an Ency¬ clopedic of 20 volumes, to which he gave the title of the Utility of Utilities. Several great princes had been taken dangeroufly ill, and Avicenna was the only one that could know their ailments AVI L 273 ] AVI Mtc£nna. ailments and cure them. His reputation increafed daily, -v—and all the kings of Alia defired to retain him in their families. Mahmud, the fon of Sabektekin, the firft fultan of the dynafty of the Samanides, was then the molt powerful prince of the eaft. Imagining that an im¬ plicit obedience Ihould be paid by all manner of per- fons to the injunctions of his will, he wrote a haughty letter to Mamun fultan of Kharazm, ordering him to fend Avicenna to him, who was at his court, with fe- veral other learned men. Philofophy, the friend of li¬ berty and independence, looks down with fcorn on the (hackles of compulfion and reftraint. Avicenna, ac- cuftomed to the molt flattering diftinCtions among the great, could not endure the imperious manner of Mah¬ mud’s inviting him to his court, and refufed to go there. But the fultan of Kharazm, who dreaded his refentment, obliged the philofopher to depart with others whom that prince had demanded to be fent to him. Avicenna pretended to obey $ but inftead of repair¬ ing to Gazna, he took the route of Giorgian. Mah¬ mud, who had gloried in the thoughts of keeping him at his palace, was greatly irritated at his flight. He defpatched portraits done in crayons of this philofo¬ pher to all the princes of Afia, with orders to have him conduced to Gazna, if he appeared in their courts. But Avicenna had fortunately efcaped the moft dili¬ gent fearch after him. He arrived in the capital of Giorgian, where under a difguifed name he performed many admirable cures. Cabous then reigned in that country. A nephew, whom he was extremely fond of, being fallen fick, the molt able phyficians were called in, and none of them were able to know his ailment, or give him any eafe. Avicenna was at lafl: confulted. So foon as he had felt the young prince’s pulfe, he was confident with hira- felf, that his illnefs proceeded from a violent love, which he dared not to declare. Avicenna commanded the perfon who had the care of the different apart¬ ments in the palace, to name them all in their refpeCtive order. A more lively motion in the prince’s pulfe, at hearing mentioned one of thefe apartments, betray¬ ed a part of his fecret. The keeper then had orders to name all the flaves that inhabited that apartment. At the name of one of thofe beauties, the young Ca¬ bous could not contain himfelf *, an extraordinary beat¬ ing of his pulfe completed the difcovery of what he in vain defired to keep concealed. Avicenna, now fully affured that this (lave was the caufe of the prince’s illnefs, declared, that (he alone had the power to cure him. The fultan’s confent was neceffary, and he of courfe was curious to fee his nephew’s phyfician. He had fcarce looked at him, when he knew in his features thofe of the crayoned portrait fent him by Mahmud ; but Cabous, far from forcing Avicenna to repair to Gazna, retained him for fome time with him, and heaped honours and prefents on him. This philofopher palled afterwards into the court of Nedjmeddevle, fultan of the race of the Bouides. Being appointed firfl: phyfician to that prince, he found means to gain his confidence to fo great a degree, that he raifed him to the port of grand vifir. But he did rot long enjoy that illufirious dignity. Too great an Vol. III. Part I, . attachment to pleafures, efpecially thofe of love and Avicenna, the table, made him lofe at the fame time his poll and u—y——j his mailer’s favour. From that time Avicenna felt all the rigours of adverfity, which he had brought upon himfelf by his ill condudl. He wandered about as a fugitive, and was often obliged to fhift the place of his habitation to fecure his life from danger. He died at Hamadan, aged 58 years, in the 428th year of the Hegira, and of Chrift 1036. The perfedt knowledge he had of phyfic did not fe¬ cure him from the ailments that afflidl human nature. He was attacked by feveral maladies in the courfe of his life, and particularly was very fubjedt to the co¬ lic. His exceffes in pleafures, and his infirmities, made a poet fay who wrote his epitaph, that the pro¬ found ftudy of philofophy had not taught him good morals, nor that of medicine the art of preferving his own health. No one compofed with greater facility than Avicen¬ na, writing, when he fat down to it, 50 pages gene¬ rally in a day, without fatiguing himfelf. The doc¬ tors of Schiras, having made a colledtion of objedtions againft one of his metaphyfical works, fent it to him at Ifpahan by Cafem. This learned man, not arriving till towards evening, came to Avicenna’s houfe, with whom he fat difcourfing till midnight. When Cafem had retired, he wrote an anlwer to the objedtions of the Schirazians, and finiflied it before funrife. He imme¬ diately delivered it to Cafem, telling him, that he had made all poflible defpatch in order not to detain him any longer at Ifpahan. Avicenna, after his death, enjoyed fo great a repu¬ tation, that till the 12th century he was preferred for the ftudy of philofophy and medicine to all his prede- ceffors. His works were the only writings in vogue in fchools, even in Europe. The following are the titles. 1. Of the Utility and Advantage of Science, twenty books. 2. Of Innocence and Criminality, two books. 3. Of Health and Remedies, eighteen books. 4. Ca¬ nons of Phyfic, fourteen books. 5. On Aftronomical Obfervations, one book. 6. On Mathematical Sciences. 7. Of Theorems, or Mathematical and Theological Demonftrations, one book. 8. On the Arabic Lan¬ guage, and its Properties, ten books. 9. On the Laft Judgment. 10. On the Origin of the Soul, and the Refurredlion of Bodies. 11. Of the end we flrould propofe to ourfelves in Harangues and Philo- fophical Argumentations. 12. Demonftration of the collateral Lines in the Sphere. 13. Abridgement of Euclid. 14. On Finity and Infinity. 15. On Phy- fics and Metaphyfics. 16. On Animals and Vegeta¬ bles, &c. 17. Encylopedie, 20 volumes.—Some, however, charge him with having ftolen what he pu- bliftied from a celebrated phyfician who had been his mafter. This man had acquired fo much honour and wealth, that he was folicited by many to take their fons to be his fcholars, or even his fervants j but be¬ ing refolved not to difcover the fecrets of his art, he would receive none of them. Avicenna’s mother form¬ ed the following ftratagem : (he offered him her fon as a fervant, pretending he was naturally deaf and dumb : and the youth, by his mother’s inftruftions, counter¬ feited thofe defedts fo well, that the phyfician, after making feveral trials to difcover the reality of them, took the boy into his fervice. and by degrees trufted M m him AVI [ 274 ] AVI Avicenna him fo far as to leave his writings open in his room I! when he went abroad : Avicenna took that opportu- Avignon. nj(.y. tranfcribe them, and carried the copies to his mother ; and after the death of his matter he pub- liftied them under his own name. Indeed, if we re- fleft that he lived but 58 years, that he was a wan¬ derer and a fugitive, and that he was much addidt- ed to his pleafures, we (hall have fome difficulty to conceive how he could find time to compofe fo many works. Phyfic, however, is indebted to him for the difcovery of caffia, rhubarb, mirabolans, tamarinds: and from him alfo, it is faid, came to us the art of making fugar. AVICENIA, Eastern Anacardium. See Bo- TANY Index. AVIGATO pear. See Laurus, Botany In¬ dex. AVIGLIANO, a fmall town of Piedmont in Italy. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 44. 40. AVIGNON, a city of France, in the department of Vauclufe, the capital of the county of Venaiffin, and feated on the banks of the Rhone. It was formerly an arehbifhop’s fee j and the refidence of feveral popes at this place for 70 years has rendered it confiderable. Near the Rhone there is a large rock, within the cir¬ cumference of the walls, upon which is a platform, from whence may be had a profpedt of the whole city and the places about it. This city is about three miles and two furlongs in circumference, and is in general ill built, irregular, and devoid of beauty. But it is furrounded by handfome battlemented walls and tur¬ rets, not unlike thofe of Rome j and its public edifices are large, folid, and grand as the tafte of the four¬ teenth century could make them. Several popes and anti popes, who, during their lives, (hook the Romiffi church with violence and mutual altercation, repofe quietly near each other in the various monafteries of the place. The church of the Cordeliers contains, in an obfcure corner, the almott defaced tomb of Pe¬ trarch’s Laura and her huffiand Hugh de Sade •, and nearly oppofite is the tomb of the brave Gullon, fo well known for his invincible courage as well as for his inviolable attachment to his fovereign Henry IV. Many produdlions of Rene of Anjou are to be feen in the city $ whofe inhabitants amount to about 30,000, of whom 1000 are ecclefiaftics and fome hun¬ dreds Jews. The palace of the vice-legate is compofed of feveral large fquare towers, and he gives audience in a great hall, which is full of fine paintings, as is alfo the chapel and the apartments. The arfenal is near the palace. The church of Notre Dame is ancient, but not large, and is one of the beft adorned in the city. After ha¬ ving afcended about 50 fteps, you come to a very an¬ cient portico, which fuftains a great tower *, as you en¬ ter the church on the left hand, you fee paintings which equal the fineft in Italy. The great altar is very magnificent, and is adorned with a ffirine that contains the relicks of we know not how many faints. The trea- fure of the facrifty is worthy of the curiofity of the traveller. The little palace where the archbiffiop re- fides is formed of three bodies of lodgings, accompa¬ nied with courts and fmall pavilions. It overlooks the Rhone, the city, and the fields. Thefe buildings and 3 the mint adorn a large fquare, which is the common Avlgncn. walk of the inhabitants. w-y-—j In Avignon they reckon feven gates, feven palaces, feven colleges, feven hofpitals, feven monafteries, feven nunneries, and feven popes who have lived there in 70 years. The fteeples are numerous, and the bells are never at reft j one of filver is rung only on the death of a pope. The church of the Celeftines is very magnificent, and full of fine monuments j and the reft are not without their curiofities. The univerfity has four colleges; and the place where the Jews live is a diftinft quarter, from whence the Jews, who pay tribute, dare not ftir out without yellow hats, and the women muft have fomething yellow about their heads, to diftinguifti them from the Chriftians. Their num¬ ber is very confiderable in a very confined place, where the only way of enlarging their abodes is by building their houfes higher. Their fynagogue is fo dark, that they are obliged to light lamps. However, they are forced to hear a monk preach a fermon every week. Acrofs the Rhone, here, extend the ruinous and de¬ cayed arches of that bridge againft which Madame de Grignan was fo near being loft, and of which Madame de Sevigne makes terrified mention. It was demolifh- ed in 1699 by one of the inundations common to the Rhone. When entire, it was not lefs than a quarter of a mile in length *, but being fo narrow, as not to permit two carriages to pafs in any part, it had pre- vioufly become almoft ufelefs j and motives of policy prevent the conftrudlion of a new bridge, while Avig¬ non belongs to the papal fee. The curious that travel this way go to fee the fountain of Vauclufe, where the river Sorgues, which paffes through this city, has its fource j and whither Petrarch fo often retired to indulge his grief and hopelefs love. It is fituated in a valley five miles diftant from the city. The fides of the river are fkirted by meadows of the moft lively green 5 above which rife abrupt and lofty rocks, that feem defigned to feclude it from human view. The valley becomes gradually narrower toward the extre¬ mity, and winding continually defcribes the figure of a horfe-ffioe. The view is at length terminated by an enormous mafs of rock, forming a barrier acrofs it, of a prodigious height, and abfolutely perpendicular. Through its vaft receffes run the ftreams which fupply the fountain of Vauclufe, and at its foot appears a ba- fon of water, feveral hundred feet in circumference, ftretched like an expanfe, filent and quiet. The fides are very fteep, and it is faid that in the middle no bot¬ tom can be difcovered, though attempts have been of¬ ten made for that purpofe ; a circumftance probably refulting from the violence with which the fprings bub¬ ble up, which prevents any weight from defcending be- vond a certain depth. Though the fountain is clearer in itfelf than cryftal, yet the incumbent rock cafts a continual ffiade, approaching to black, over its furface. The water efcaping from this ftate of inacftion by a narrow paffage, is immediately precipitated in a caf- cade down a rocky channel, where it foams over a number of vaft detached ftones, which intercept and impede its progrefs. They are covered with a deep green mofs of many ages, and have probably tumbled from the mountain that overhangs the torrent. . The rocks themfelves, which furround and inveft this ro¬ mantic AVI [ 275 ] A U L Avignon mantle fpot, are worn by time and the inclemency of j| the weather into a thoufand extraordinary and fantaftic Avifo. forrns5 to which imagination gives thape and figure. J"—* On one of the pointed extremities, and in a lituation which appears almoft inacceffible, are feen the remains of an ancient caftle, projefting over the water. The peafants call it II Cajfello di Petrarca ; and add, with great fimplicity, that Laura lived upon the oppofite fide of the river, under the bed of which was a iubter- ranean paffage by which the two lovers vilited each other. Nothing is, however, more certain, than that thefe are the ruins of the chateau belonging to the lords or feigneurs of Avignon j and the bifliop of Cavaillon refided in it during the frequent vifits which he ufed to make to Petrarch.—«The poet’s dwelling was much lower down, and nearer to the bank of the Sorgues, as evidently appears from his minute defeription of it, and the relation he gives of his quarrel with the Naiads of the ftream, who encroached during the win¬ ter on his little adjoining territory. No remains of it are now to be difeerned. Below the bridge there is an ifland where the Sorgues joins the Rhone, in which are feveral pleafure-houfes. E. Long. 4. 59. N. Lat. 43* 57- AviGNON-Berry, the fruit of a fpecies of lycium j growing plentifully near Avignon and in other parts of France. The berry is fomewhat lefs than a pea; its colour is green, approaching towards a yellow ; and it is of an aftringent and bitter tafte.—It is much ufed by the dyers, who ftain a yellow colour with it : and by the painters, who alfo make a fine golden yel¬ low of it. , AVILA, a city of Old Caftile, in Spain, feated on an eminence on the banks of the river Adaja, and in fight of the mountains of Pico. It is fortified both by nature and art, having a wall 9075 feet in circum¬ ference, adorned with 26 lofty towers, and 10 hand- fome gates. There are 17 principal ftreets, the houfes in which are generally good, and fome of them ftately. It hath nine fquares, 2000 houfes, nine parifhes, as many monafteries, feven nunneries, two colleges, nine hof- pitals, 18 chapels, and an allowance of 10,000 ducats yearly for the maintenance of orphans and other poor people. It has an univerfity, and a confiderable bi- fhopric ; befides a noble cathedral, which has eight dig¬ nitaries, 20 canons, and the fame number of minor canons. It ftands in the middle of a fine large plain furrounded with mountains, and covered with fruit- trees and vineyards. There is likewife a manufadlure of cloth. W. Long. 4. 13. N. Lat. 40. 35. AVIS, a fmall town of Alentejo in Portugal, feated on an eminence with a caftle near the river Avis. Hence the military order of the knights of Avis have their name. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 38. 40. Avis (Knights d'Avis), an order of knighthood in Portugal eftabliftied about the year 1162. When the city of Evora was taken from the Moors, in the reign of the firft king of Portugal, it was garrifoned by fe¬ veral perfons who aflumed the title of knights of St Mary of Evora, which was foon after changed for that of knights d’Avis, which the king gave them, and whither they removed from Evora. The badge of the order is a green crofs flory, and they obferve ,the rule of St Benedift. AVISO, a term chiefly ufed in matters of commerce to denote an advertifement, an advice, or piece of in- Avlf* telligence. II AVISON, Charles, organift of Newcaftle, and a, Auhc. difciple of Geminiani, was the author of an effay on mufical expreflion, publiflied in the year 1752> *n which are fome judicious refleftions on mufic in general, but his divifion of the modern authors into claffes is rather fanciful than juft. Throughout his book he celebrates Marcello and Geminiani ; the latter frequently in pre¬ judice to Mr Handel. In the year 1753 came out re¬ marks on Mr Avifon’s efiay on mufical expreflion, the author whereof firft points out fundry errors againft the rules of compofition in the works of Avifon. In the fame year Avifon republifhed his effay, with a reply to the author of the remarks ; and a letter, containing a number of loofe particulars relating to mufic, colledfed in a courfe of various reading, unqueftionably written by Dr Jortin. Avifon promoted and aflifted in the publication of Marcello’s mufic to the pfalms adapted to Englifh words. Of his own compofition there are extant five colleflions of concertos for violins, 44 in number 5 and two fets of fonatas for the harpfichord and two violins, a fpecies of compofition little known in England till his time. The mufic of Avifon is light and elegant, but it wants originality ; a neceffary con- fequence of his too clofe attachment to the ftyle of Geminiani, which in a few particulars only he was able to imitate. AUK, in Ornithology. See Alca, Ornithology Index. AUKLAND, Bishop’s, a town in the bifhopric of Durham in England, fituated on the river Were. It is a fan&uary for debtors ; and here the bilhop has a princely palace and a noble park. W. Long. o. 75. N. Lat. 54. 44. AULA, is ufed for a court baron by Spelman ; by fome old ecclefiaftical writers, for the nave of a church, and fometimes for a court-yard. AULA Regia or Regis, a court eftabliftied by Wil¬ liam the Conqueror in his own hall, compofed of the king’s great officers of ftate, who refided in his palace, and were ufually attendant on his perfon. This court was regulated by the article which forms the eleventh chapter of Magna Charta, and eftabliffied in Weftmin- fter-hall, where it hath ever fince continued. See King's Bench. AULCESTER, a town of Warwickffiire in Eng¬ land. W. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 52. 15. AULETES, in antiquity, denotes a flute-player. One of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, father of Cleo¬ patra, bore the furname or denomination of Auletes. AULIC, an epithet given to certain officers of the empire, who compofe a court which decides, without appeal, in all proceffes entered in it. Thus we fay, aulic council, aulic chamber, aulic counfellor. The aulic council is compofed of a prefident, who is a catholic 5 of a vice chancellor, prefented by the archbiffiop of Mentz j and of 18 counfellors, nine of whom are Proteftants and nine Catholics. They are divided into a bench of lawyers, and always follow the emperor’s court $ for which reafon they are called ju- Jlitium imperatoris, the emperor’s juftice, and aulic council. The aulic court ceafes at the death of the emperor ; whereas the imperial chamber of Spire is perpetual, reprefenting not only the deceafed emperor, Mm2 but A U N [2 but the whole Germanic body, which is reputed never to die. . . r . . Aulic, in the Sorbonne and foreign umverfities, is an aft which a young divine maintains upon being ad¬ mitted a doftor of divinity. It begins by a harangue of the chancellor, addreffed to the young dodor, after which he receives the cap, and prehdes at the auhc or difputation. . „ AULIS, in Ancient Geography, a town ot tfceotia, over again!! Chalcis of Euboea, on the Euripus, where that ftrait is narroweft j and which was fometimes joined with Chalcis together by a mole or caufeway, (Diodorus Siculus) : a craggy fituation, (Homer, Nonmus) ; and a village of the Tanagrsei, (Strabo), diilant from Chalcis three miles : A harbour famous for the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet under Agamemnon, previous to the Trojan expedition, (Livy, Virgil, Pliny). Now en¬ tirely deftroyed. AULNEGER. See Alnager. AULON, anciently a town and dock or ftation for fhips in Illyricum, on the Adriatic j now Valona, or Vo tana, a port town in the duchy of Ferrara, on one of the mouths of the Po, on the gulf of Venice. E. Long. 13. N. Lat.44. 50. # c w ' Aulon, or Aulona, anciently a town ot Jilis, in Peloponnefus, on the confines of Meffenia. Here flood a temple of iEfculapius ; hence the epithet Au/omus given that divinity, (Paufanias). AULOS, a Grecian long meafure, the fame with ftadium. . . , AULPS, a town of Provence in France, in the diocefe of Frejus, with the title of a vigurie. E. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. 43. 40. AULUS Gellius. See Gellius. AUMBRY, a country word denoting a cupboard. AUME, a Dutch meafure for Rhenifti wine, con¬ taining 40 Englifti gallons. . AUNCEL-weight, an ancient kind ot balance, now out of ufe, being prohibited by feveral ftatutes, on account of the many deceits pra&ifed by it. It con- fifted of fcales hanging on hooks, faftened at each end of a beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In many parts of England, auncel-weight fignifies meat fold by the hand, without fcales. AUNE, a long meafure ufed in France to meafure cloths, fluffs, ribbons, &c. At Rouen, it is equal to one Engliffi ell; at Calais, to 1.52; at Lyons, to 1.061 j and at Paris, to 0.95. AUNGERVYLE, Richard, commonly known by the name of Richard de Bury, was born in 1281 at St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk, and educated at the univerfity of Oxford : After which he entered into the order of Benedi61ine monks, and became tutor to Ed¬ ward prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward III. Upon the acceffion of his royal pupil to the throne, he was firft appointed cofferer, then treafurer of the ward¬ robe, archdeacon of Northampton, prebendary of Lin¬ coln, Sarum, and Litchfield, keeper of the privy feal, dean of Wells, and laft of all was promoted to the bi- ftiopric of Durham. He likewife enjoyed the offices of lord high chancellor and treafurer of England ; and difcharged two important embaflies at the court of Francef Learned himfelf, and a patron of the learn¬ ed, he maintained a correfpondence with fume of the greateft geniufes of the age, particularly with the ce* 76 ] A V O lebrated Italian poet Petrarch. He was alfo of a moft humane and benevolent temper, and performed many fignal a&s of charity. Every week he made eight quarters of wheat into bread, and gave it to the poor. , Whenever he travelled between Durham and Newcaftle, he diftributed eight pounds fterling in alms : between Durham and Stockton five pounds, between Durham and Aukland five marks, and between Durham and Middieham five pounds. He founded a public library at Oxford for the ufe of the ftudents, which he fur- nifhed with the belt colle&ion of books then in Eng¬ land ; and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly falaries. At the diffolution of religious houfes in the reign of Henry VIII. Durham college, where he fixed the library, being diffolved among _ the reft, fome of the books were removed to the public library, fome to Baliol college, and fome came into the hands of Dr George Owen, a phyfician of Godftow, who bought that college of King Edward VI. Biftiop- Aungervyle died at his manor of Aukland, April 24* *345> anc^ vvas buried in the fouth part of the crofs aifle of the cathedral church of Durham, to which he had been a benefaftor. He wrote, I. Philobiblos, contain¬ ing dire£fions for the management of his library at Ox¬ ford, and a great deal in praife of learning, in bad La¬ tin. 2. TLpiJlolce familianum i fome of which are writ¬ ten to the famous Petrarch. 3. Orationes adprincipes ; mentioned by Bale and Pitts. AUNIS, the fmalleft province in France, bounded on the north by Poiftou, on the weft by the ocean, on the eaft and fouth by Saintogne, of which it was for¬ merly a part. It is watered by the rivers Seure and Sarente, the former of which has its fource at Seure in Poiaou. The coaft of this fmall diftria has the ad¬ vantage of feveral ports, the moft remarkable of which nre Rochefort, Rochelle, Brouge, St Martin de Re, Aunger, vjle l! Avowee. Tremblade, Tonnai, and Charente. The foil of this country is dry, yet produces good corn and plenty of wine. The marfties feed a great number of cattle, and the fait marfhes yield the beft fait in Europe. AVOCADO, or Avigato, Bear. See Laurus, Botany Index. . AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the emperor ot Germany, addreffed to fome prince, in order to flop his unlawful proceedings in any caufe appealed to him. AVOIDANCE, in the canon law, is when a bene¬ fice becomes void of an incumbent; which happens ei¬ ther in fad, as by the death of the perfon ; or in law, as by ceflion, deprivation, refignation, &c; In the firft of thefe cafes, the patron muft take notice of the avoidance at his peril j but in avoidance by law, the ordinary is obliged to give notice to the patron, in or¬ der to prevent a lapfe. . , c o AVOIRDUPOIS. This is the weight for the larger and coarfer commodities, fuch. as groceries, chetfe, wool, lead, &c._ Bakers, who live not in cor¬ poration towns, are to make their bread by avoirdupois weight, thofe in corporations by troy weight. Apo¬ thecaries buy by avoirdupois weight, but fell by troy. The proportion of a pound avoirdupois to a pound troy is as 17 to 14. AVOSETTA. See Recurvirostra, Ornitho¬ logy Index. AVOWEE, one who has a right to prelent to a benefice. He is thus called in contradiftinaionjo A U R [ 277 ] A U R Avowee thofe who only have the lands to which the advowfon |1 belongs for a term of years, or by virtue of intrufion Aurelianus or diffeifin. AVOWRY, in Zau>, is where a perfon diftrained fues out a replevin j for then the diftrainer muft vow, and juftify his plea, which is called his avowry. AURA, among Physiologi/is, an airy exhalation or vapour. The word is Latin, derived from the Greek, gentle wind. AURACH, a town of Germany with a good caftle, in the fouth part of Suabia, in the duchy of Wirtemberg. It is the ufual refidence of the youngeft fons of the houfe of Wirtemberg, and is feated at the foot of a mountain on the rivulet Ermft. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 48. 25. AURAL, in Mythology, a name given by the Ro¬ mans to the nymphs of the air. They are moftly to be found in the ancient paintings of ceilings ; where they are reprefented as light and airy, generally with long robes and flying veils of fome lively colour or other, and fluttering about in the rare and pleafing element afligned to them. They are chara&erized as fportive and happy in themfelves, and wellwilhers to mankind. AURANCHES, the capital of a territory called Auranclun, about 30 miles in length, in Lower Nor¬ mandy in France, now the department of the Channel. The city is mean ; but its fituation very fine, being on an eminence near which the river See runs, about a mile and a half from the ocean. The cathedral Hands on a hill, which terminates abruptly ; the front of the church extending to the extreme verge of it, and over¬ hanging the precipice. It bears the marks of high antiquity j but the towers are decayed in many places, though its original conftru&ion has been wonderfully ftrong. Here, you are told, the Englifli Henry II. re¬ ceived abfolution from the Papal nuncio for the mur¬ der of St Thomas-a-Becket in 1172, and the Hone on which he knelt during the performance of that ceremony is fhewn to ftrangers. Its length is about 30 inches, and the breadth 12, It (lands before the north portal, and on it is engraved a chalice in commemoration of the event. The ruins of the caftle of Auranches are very extenfive $ and beneath lies a rich extent of country, abounding in grain, and covered with orchards, from the fruit of which is made the beft cyder in Normandy. W. Long. I. 20. N. Lat. 48. 51. AURANTIUM, in Botany. See Citrus, Bo¬ tany Index. AURAY, a fmall feaport town of Lower Britanny in France, fituated on the gulf called Morbihan, and in the department of the fame name. It confifts of only one handfome ftreet, and is chiefly known for its trade. W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 47. 48. AURELIA , in Natural Hi/lory, the fame with what is more ufually called chryfalis, and fometimes nymph. See Chrysalis, Entomology Index. AURELIANUS, Lucius Domitius, emperor of Rome, was one of the greateft generals of antiquity, and commanded the armies of the emperor Claudius with fuch glory, that after the death of that emperor all the legions agreed to place him on the throne : this happened in the year 270. He carried the war from the eaft to the weft, with as much facility, fays a mo¬ dern writer, as a body of troops marches from Alface into Flanders. He defeated the Goths, Sarmatians, Aurelianu , Marcomanni, the Perfians, Egyptians and Vandals j || conquered Zenobia queen of the Palmyrenians, and Te- , Aunga- . tricus general of the Gauls; both of whom were made v to grace his triumph, in the year 274. He was killed by one of his generals in Thrace in the year 275, when he wTas preparing to enter Perfia with a great army. See Rome. AURELIUS Victor. See Victor. AURENGABAD, a city in the Eaft Indies, ca¬ pital of the province of Balagate, in the dominions of the Great Mogul. It is furniftied with handlbme mofques and caravanferas. The buildings are chiefly of freeftone, and pretty high, and the ftreets planted on each fide with trees. They have large gardens well flocked with fruit trees and vines. The foil about it is alfo very fertile, and the (beep fed in its neighbourhood are remarkably large and ftrong. E. Long. 75. 30. N. Lat. 19. 10. AURENG-ZEBE, a celebrated Mogul emperor. See Hindustan. AUREOLA, in its original fignification, fignifies a jewel, which is propofed as a reward of victory in fome public difpute. Hence the Roman fchoolmen applied it to denote the reward beftowed on martyrs, virgins, and doctors, on account of their works of fu- pererogation ; and painters ufe it to fignify the crown of glory with which they adorn the heads of faints, con- felfors, &c. AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to 25 denarii. According to Ainfworth, the aureus of the higher empire weighed near five pennyweights ; and in the lower empire, little more than half that weight. We learn from Suetonius, that it was cuftomary to give aurei to the vigors in the chariot races. AUREUS mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in the north-weft of Corfica, whofe ridge runs out to the north-eaft and fouth-eaft, forming an elbow.—Another mountain of Mcefia Superior, or Servia (Peutinger), to the fouth of the Danube, with a cognominal town at its foot on the fame river. The emperor Probus planted this mountain with vines (Eutropius). AURICK, a city of Germany, in Eaft Friefland, in the circle of Weflphalia ; to which the king of Pruflia claims a right. It is fituated in a plain furround- ed with forefts full of game. E. Long. 6. jo. N. Lat. 53* 28. AURICLE, in Anatomy, that part of the ear which is prominent from the head, called by many authors auris externa. Auricles are likewife two mufcular bags fituated at the bafis of the heart, and intended as diverticula for the blood during the diaftole. AURICULA, in Botany. See Primula, Botany Index. AURIFLAMMA, in the French hiftory, properly denotes a flag or ftandard belonging to the abbey of St Dennis, fufpended over the tomb of that faint, which the religious on occafion of any war in defence of their lands or rights, took down with great ceremony, and gave it to their prote6lor or advocate, to be borne at the head of their forces. Auriflamma is alfo fometimes ufed to denote the chief flag or ftandard in any army. AURIGA, the WAGGOtfEBy in AJlronomy, a con* ftellation 1 Auriga A U R [278 ftellation of the nqrthern lietnifphere, confifting of 23 ftars, according to Tycho j 40, according to Hevelius 5 and 68, in the Britannic catalogue. AURILLAC, a town in France, in Lower Au¬ vergne, now the department of Cantal, feated on a ftnall river called Jeurdanc. I-t is one of the moft confider- able towns of the province, has fix gates, is very popu¬ lous, and yet has but one parilh. The cattle is very high, and commands the town. The abbot was lord of Aurillac, and had epifcopal jurifdiftion j and was alfo chief juftice of the town. This place is remarkable for having produced feveral great men. E. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 44. 55. AURIPIGMENTUM, Orpiment, in Natural FU¬ JI ory. See Orpiment. AURISC ALPIUM, an inftrument to clean the ears, and ferving alfo for other operations in diforders of that part. AURORA, the morning twilight, or that faint light which appears in the morning when the fun is within 18 degrees of the horizon. Aurora, the goddefs of the morning, according to the Pagan mythology. She was the daughter of Hy¬ perion and Theia, according to Hefiod *, but of Titan and Terra, according to others. It was under this name that the ancients deified the light which foreruns the rifing of the fun above our hemifphere. The poets reprefent her as rifing out of the ocean, in a chariot, with rofy fingers dropping gentle dew. Virgil defcribes her afcending in a flame-coloured chariot with four horfes. Aurora, one of the New Hebrides iflands in the South fea, in which Mr Forfter fuppofes the Peak d'Etoile mentioned by Mr Bougainville to be fituated. The ifland is inhabited ; but none of its inhabitants came off to vifit Captain Cook. The country is woody, and the vegetation feemed to be exceflively luxuriant. It is about 1 2 leagues long, but not above five miles broad in any part; lying nearly north and fouth. The middle lies in S. Lat. 15. 6. E. Long. 168. 24. Aurora Borealis, Northern Twilight, or Stream¬ ers ; a kind of meteor appearing in the northern part of the heavens moftly in the winter time, and in frofty weather. It is now fo generally known, that no defcription is requifite of the appearance which it ufually makes in this country. But it is in the arc¬ tic regions that it appears in perfettion, particularly during the folftice. In the Schetland iflands, the merry dancers, as they are there called, are the con- ftant attendants of clear evenings, and prove great re¬ liefs amidft the gloom of the long winter nights. They commonly appear at twilight near the horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow j fometimes conti¬ nuing in that ftate for feveral hours without any fen- fible motion ; after which they break out into flreams of ftronger light, fpreading into columns, and altering flowly into ten thoufand different fhapes, varying their colours from all the tints of yellow to the obfcurefi: ruffet. They often cover the whole hemifphere, and then make the mofl: brilliant appearance. Their mo¬ tions at thefe times are mofl: amazingly quick ; and they aftonith the fpeflator with the rapid change of their form. They break out in places where none were feen before, Ikimming brifkly along the heavens ; are fuddenly extinguiflied, and leave behind an uniform ] A U R dulky track. This again is brilliantly illuminated in Aurora the fame manner, and as fuddenly left a dull blank. Borealis. In certain nights they affume the appearance of vaft '——y——^ columns, on one fide of the deepeft yellow, on the other declining away till it becomes undiftinguithed from the Iky. They have generally a ftrong tremulous motion from end to end, which continues till the whole vanithes. In a word, we, who only fee the extremities of thefe northern phenomena, have but a faint idea of their fplendour and their motions. According to the ftate of the atmofphere, they differ in colour. They often put on the colour of blood, and make a mofl: dreadful appearance. The ruftic fages become prophe¬ tic, and terrify the gazing fpeftators with the dread of war, peftilence, and famine. This fuperftition was not peculiar to the northern iflands •, nor are thefe ap¬ pearances of recent date. The ancients called them Chafmata, and Trabes, and Bolides, according to their forms or colours. 1 In old times they were extremely rare, and on that This mete- account were the more taken notice of. From the daysor torrnerb of Plutarch to thofe of our fage hiftorian Sir RichardVcr^ rare’ Baker, they were fuppofed to have been portentous of great events, and timid imagination fhaped them into aerial conflifts: Fierce fiery warriors fight upon the clouds In ranks and fquadrons and right form of war. Dr Halley tells us, that when he faw a great aurora borealis in 1716, he had begun to defpair of ever fee¬ ing one at all •, none having appeared, at lead: in any confiderable degree, from the time he was born till then. Notwithftanding this long interval, however, it feems that in fome periods the aurora borealis had been feen much more frequently j and perhaps this, as well as other natural phenomena, may have fome ftated times of returning. 4 The only thing that refembles a diftindl hiftory ofHiftoryby this phenomenon, is what we have from the learnedDr Bailey. Dr Halley, Phil. Tranf. N° 347. The firft account he gives, is of the appearance of what is called by the author burning /pears, and was feen at London on Ja¬ nuary 30th 1560. This account is taken from a book entitled, A Defcription of Meteors, by IV. F. D. D. and reprinted at London in 1654. The next appearance, on the teftimony of Stow, was on Oftober 7th, 1564. In 1574 alfo, according to Camden, and Stow above- mentioned, an aurora borealis was obferved two nights fucceflively, viz. on the 14th and 15th of November, with much the fame appearances as defcribed by Dr Halley in 1716, and which we now fo frequently ob- ferve. Again, the fame was twice feen in Brabant, in the year 1575 } viz. on the 13th of February and 28th of September. Its appearances at both thefe times were defcribed by Cornelius Gemm, profeffor of medi¬ cine in the univerfity of Louvain, who compares them to fpears, fortified cities, and armies fighting in the air. After this, Michael Mceftlin, tutor to the great Kepler, affures us, that at Baknang in the county of Wurtem- berg in Germany, thefe phenomena, which he ftyles chafmata, were feen by himfelf no lefs than feven times in 1580. In 1581, they again appeared in an extra¬ ordinary manner in April and September, and in a lefs degree at fome other times of the fame year. In 1621, September 2d, this phenomenon was obferved all over France, A U R Mr For- fter’s ac¬ count of fimilar ap¬ pearances in the fouthern hemi- fphere. 4 Rifes very high. * See At- nioffchere. France, and defcribed by Gaflendus, who gave it the name of aurora borealis: yet neither this, nor any fi¬ milar appearances pofterior to 1574, are defcribed by Englifh writers till the year 1707 j which, as Dr Hal¬ ley obferves, {hows the prodigious negledl of curious matters which at that time prevailed. From 1621 to 1707, indeed, there is no mention made of an aurora borealis being feen by any body $ and confidering the number of aftronomers who during that period were in a manner continually poring on the heavens, we may very reafonably conclude that no fuch thing did make its appearance till after an interval of 86 years. In 1707, a fmall one was feen in November 5 and during that year and the next, the fame appearances were re¬ peated five times. The next on record is that men¬ tioned by Dr Halley in March 171J—16, the brilli¬ ancy of which attracted univerfal attention, and by the vulgar was confidered as marking the introdudion of a foreign race of princes. Since that time thofe meteors have been fo common, that no accounts have been kept of them. It was for a long time a matter of doubt whether this meteor made its appearance only in the northern hemifphere, or whether it was alfo to be obferved near the fouth pole. This is now afcertained by Mr For- fter j who in his late voyage round the world along with Captain Cook, affures us, that he obferved them in the high fouthern latitudes, though with phenome¬ na fomewhat different from thofe which are feen here. On Feb. 17. 1773, as they were in Lat. 58° fouth, “ A beautiful phenomenon (fays he) was obferved du¬ ring the preceding night, which appeared again this and feveral following nights. It confifted of long co¬ lumns of a clear white light, {hooting up from the ho¬ rizon to the eaftward, almoft to the zenith, and gra¬ dually fpreading on the whole fouthern part of the iky. Thefe columns were fometimes bent fidewife at their upper extremities j and though in mod refpe&s fimilar to the northern lights (aurora borealis') of our hemifphere, yet differed from them in being always of a whitifh colour, whereas ours affume various tints, efpecially thofe of a fiery and purple hue. The Iky was generally clear when they appeared, and the air {harp and cold, the thermometer {landing at the freezing- point.” Dr Halley obferved that the aurora borealis defcrib¬ ed by him arofe to a prodigious height, it being feen from the weft of Ireland to the confines of Ruffia and Poland on the eaft-, nor did he know how much farther it might have been vifible ; fo that it extended at leaft 30 degrees in longitude, and from Lat. 50° north it was feen over all the northern part of Europe ; and what was very furprifing, in all thofe places where it was vi¬ fible, the fame appearances were exhibited which Dr Halley obferved at London. He obferves, with feem- ing regret, that he could by no meaas determine its height, for want of obfervations made at different pla¬ ces j otherwife he might as eafily have calculated the height of this aurora borealis, as he did of the fiery globe in I7I9 *• To other philofophers, however, he gives the following exhortation. “ When therefore for the future any fuch thing {hall happen, all thofe that are curious in aftronomical matters are hereby admonijhed and entreated to fet their clocks to the ap¬ parent time at London, for example, by allowing fo t 279 J A U R many minutes as is the difference of meridians j and Aurora then to note, at the end of every half hour precifely, the Borealis, exaft fituation of what at that time appears remarkable in the Iky 5 and particularly the azimuths of thofe very tall pyramids fo eminent above the reft, and there¬ fore likely to be feen furtheft : to the intent that, by comparing thefe obfervations taken at the fame mo¬ ment in diftant places, the difference of their azimuths may ferve to determine how far thefe pyramids are di¬ ftant from us.” This advice of Dr Halley feems to have been totally negledled by all the philofophical peo¬ ple in this country. In other countries, however, they have been more induftrious. Father Bofcovich has determined the height of an aurora borealis, obferved on the 16th of December 1737 by the marquis of Po- leni, to have been 825 miles high j the celebrated Mr Bergman, from a mean of 30 computations, makes the average height of the aurora borealis to be 70 Swe- dilh, or upwards of 460 Englifti miles. Euler fuppofes it to be feveral thoufands of miles high j and Mai- ran alfo affigns them a very elevated region. In the 74th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions, Dr Blagden, when fpeaking of the height of fome fiery meteors, tells us, that the “ aurora borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher region above the fur- face of the earth, as may be judged from the very diftant countries to which it has been vifible at the fame time.” The height of thefe meteors, however, none of which appear to have exceeded or even ar¬ rived at the height of a hundred miles, muft appear trifling in comparifon of the vaft elevations above mentioned. But thefe enormous heights, varying fo exceedingly, ftiow that the calculators have not had proper data to proceed upon ; and indeed the immenfe extent of fpace occupied by the aurora borealis itfelf, with its conftant motion, muft make it infinitely more difficult to determine the height of it than of a fiery globe, which occupies but a fmall portion of the vifi¬ ble heavens. The moft certain method of making a comparifon betwixt the aurora borealis and the meteors already mentioned, would be, if a ball of fire lliould happen to pafs through the fame part of the heavens where an aurora borealis was ; when the comparative height of both could eafily be afcertained. One in- ftance of this only has come under our obfervation, where one of the fmall meteors, called falling Jlars, was evidently obfcured by an aurora borealis j and there¬ fore muft have been higher than the lower part of the latter at leaft. A Angularity in this meteor was, that it did not proceed in a ftraight line through the hea¬ vens, as is ufual with falling liars, but defcribed a very confiderable arch of a circle, rifing in the north-weft, and proceeding fouth ward a confiderable way in the arch of a circle, and difappearing in the north. Its edges were ill defined, and five or fix corufcations feemed to iffue from it like the rays painted as iffuing from ftars. The aurora borealis was not in motion, but had dege¬ nerated into a crepufculum in the northern part of the hemifphere. Indeed, in fome cafes, this kind of crepuf¬ culum appears fo plainly to be connedled with the clouds, that we can fcarcely avoid fuppofing it to pro¬ ceed from them. We cannot, however, argue from this to the height of the aurora borealis when it moves with great velocity, becaufe it then may, and very probably does, afcend much higher. Dr Blagden, in¬ deed, , A U R [ 280 ] A U R Aurora deed, informs us, that inftances are recorded, where the Borealis, northern lights have been feen to join, and form lu- ^ "V" 1minous balls, darting about with great velocity, and even leaving a train like the common fire-balls. It would feem, therefore, that the higheft regions of the aurora borealis are the fame with thofe in which fire- 5 balls move. Conjedtures With regard to the caufe of the aurora borealis concerning any conje(ctures have been formed. The firft which thfs meteor. naturally occurred was, that it was occafioned by the afcent of inflammable fulphureous vapours from the earth. To this fuppofition Dr Halley objefts the im- menfe extent of fuch phenomena, and that they are conftantly obferved to proceed from north to fouth, but never from fouth to north. This made him very reafonably conclude, that there was fome connexion fcetween the poles of the earth and the aurora borealis j but being unacquainted with the eleflric power, he fuppofed, that this earth was hollow, having within it a magnetical fphere, which correfponded in virtue with all the natural and artificial magnets on the furface ', and the magnetic effluvia paffing through the earth, from one pole of the central magnet to another, might fometimes become vifible in their Courfe, which he thought was from north to fouth, and thus exhibit the beautiful corufcations of the aurora borealis. Had Dr Halley, however, known that a ftroke of ele&ricity would give polarity to a needle that had it not, or reverie the poles of one that had it before, he would undoubtedly have concluded the eleftric and magnetic effluvia to be the fame, and that the aurora borealis was this fluid performing its circulation from one pole of the earth to the other. In faft, this very hypothe- fis is adopted by S. Beccaria : and by the fuppofed cir¬ culation of the eleftric fluid he accounts for the pheno¬ mena of magnetifm and the aurora borealis in a manner perfeftly fimilar to that of Dr Halley, only changing the phrafe magnetic effluvia for eleBric fflnd. The fol¬ lowing is the account given us by Dr Prieftley of Bec- caria’s fentiments on this matter. “ Since a hidden ftroke of lightning gives polarity to magnets, he conje&ures, that a regular and conftant circulation of the whole mals of the fluid from north to fouth may be the original caufe of magnetifm in gene- ral* “ That this ethereal current is infenfible to us,, is no proof of its non-exiftence, fince we ourfelves are invol¬ ved in it. He had feen birds fly fo near a thunder¬ cloud, as he was hire they would not have done had they been affetted by its atmofphere. “ This current he would not fuppofe to arife from one fource, but from feveral, in the northern hemi¬ sphere of the earth j and he thinks that the. aurora borealis may be this eleftric matter performing its circulation in fuch a ftate of the atmofphere as renders it vifible, or approaching the earth nearer than ufual. Accordingly, very vivid appearances of this kind have been obferved to occafion a fluftuation in the magnetic needle.” A direct difproof of this circulation, however, is fur- niftied by the obfervation of Mr Forfter already men¬ tioned : with which, though neither Dr Halley nor S. Beccaria could be acquainted, they might have thought -of it as a final proof either of the truth or falfehood of their hypothefis.—If the aurora borealis is no other than the ele&ric fluid performing the above-mentioned circulation, it ought to dart from the horizon towards the zenith in the northern hemifphere, and from the ze-' nith to the horizon in the fouthern one : but Mr Forfter plainly tells us, that the columns (hot up from the hori¬ zon towards the zenith as well in the fouthern hemi¬ fphere as in the northern •, fo that if the aurora borealis is to be reckoned the flalhings of eleflric matter, its courfe is plainly directed from both poles toward the equator, and not from one pole to the other. Concerning the caufe of this phenomenon, Mr Can¬ ton has the following query; “ Is not the aurora bo¬ realis the flathing of eleftrical fire from pofitive towards negative clouds at a great diftance, through the upper part of the atmofphere where the refiftance is leaft ?” But to this we muft reply in the negative ; for in this cafe it would flafti in every dire&ion according to the pofition of the clouds, as well as from north to fouth, Befides this query, he conjedlures, that when the needle is difturbed by the aurora borealis, that pheno¬ menon proceeds from the ele&ricity of the heated air j •and fuppofes the air to have the property of becoming dearie by heat, like the tourmalin. But neither does this hypothefis appear at all probable j becaufe, in fuch a cafe, the aurora borealis ought to be moft frequent in fummer when the air is moft heated, whereas it is found to be the reverfe. Laftly, with thefe eleari- cal hypothefes we {hall contraft that of Mr Mairan, who imagined this phenomenon to proceed from the atmofphere of the fun, particles of which were thrown off by its centrifugal force acquired by his rotation on his axis; and that thefe particles falling, upon the at¬ mofphere of the earth near its equatorial parts, were from thence propelled by the diurnal motion of the earth towards the polar regions, where they formed the aurora borealis. This hypothefis, befides its being a mere fuppofition unfupported by one fingle appear¬ ance in nature, is liable to the objedlion already men¬ tioned 3 for in this cafe the light ftiould dart from the equator to the poles, and not from the poles to the equator : or if we {hould fuppofe this matter to be gra¬ dually accumulated at each of the poles, we muft then make other fuppofitions equally vague and ill founded, concerning its getting back with iuch furprifing rapi¬ dity in dired oppofition to the power which once brought it thither. The firft perfon who feems to have endeavoured to find any pofitive proof of the eledtrical quality of the aurora borealis, was Dr Hamilton of Dublin. He ob- ferves, that though this phenomenon is commonly fup¬ pofed to be eledlrical, yet he had not feen any attempt to prove that it is fo 3 but the only proof he himfeli brings is an experiment of Mr Hawkfbee, by which the electric fluid is ftiown to put on appearances fome- what like the aurora borealis, when it paffes through a vacuum. He obferved, that when the air was moft perfedtly exhaufted, the ftreams of eledtric matter were then quite white 3 but when a fmall quantity of air was let in, the light affumed more of a purple colour. The flafhing of this light therefore from the denfe re¬ gions of the atmofphere into fuch as are more rare, and the tranfitions through mediums of different denfity, he reckons the caufe of the aurora borealis, and of the different colours it affumes. Dr Hamilton’s proof, then, of the eledtricity of tiro Aurora Boreali?. A U R Aurora tlie aurora borealis, confifts entirely in the refemblance Borealis, the two lights bear to one another $ and if to this we add, that during the time of an aurora borealis, the magnetic needle hath been diflurbed, ele&ric fire ob¬ tained from the atmofphere in plenty, and at fome times different kinds of rumbling and hilling founds heard, we have the fum of all the pofitive evidence in favour of the eleftric hypothefis. Was the aurora borealis the firft natural phenome¬ non the folution of which had been attempted by elec¬ tricity, no doubt the proofs juft now adduced would be very infufficient : but when it is confidered, that we have indifputable evidence of the identity of the phe¬ nomena of thunder and of ele&ricity j when we alfo confider that the higher parts of our atmofphere are continually in a ftrongly electrified ft ate j the analogy becomes fo ftrong that we can fcarce doubt of the au¬ rora borealis arxling from the fame caufe. The only difficulty is, to give a good reafon why the eleCtricity of the atmofphere fhould be conftantly found to direCt: its courfe from the poles towards the equator, and not from the equator to the poles j and this we think may be done in the following manner. See Elec- i. It is found that all eleCtric bodies, when confi- ’ derabJy heated, become conductors of eleClricity ; thus p ‘ hot air, hot glafs, melted rofin, fealing-wax, &c. are all conductors, till their heat is diffipated, and then they again become eleCirics. 2. As the converfe of every true propofition ought alfo to be true, it follows from the above one, that if eleCtrics when heated become conductors, then non- eleCtrics when fubjeCted to violent degrees of cold ought to become eleCtric. In one inftance this has been verified by experience ; water, which is a conduc¬ tor when warm or not violently cooled, is found to be¬ come eleCtric when cooled to 20° below o of Fahren¬ heit’s thermometer. With regard to metallic fubftan- ces, indeed, no experiments have as yet been made to determine whether their conducting power is affeCted by cold or not.. Very probably we might not be able to produce fuch a degree of cold as fenfibly to leflen their conducting power ; but ftill the analogy will hold ; and, as we are by no means able to produce the greateft degree of cold poffible, reafon will always fuggeft to us, that if a certain degree of cold changes one conductor into an eleCtric, a fufficient degree of it will alfo change all others into eleCtrics. 3. If cold is fufficient to change conducting fub- Itances into eleCtrics, it muft alfo increafe the eleCtric power of fuch fubftances as are already eleCtric ; that is to fay, very cold air, glafs, rofin, &c. provided they are dry, will be more eleCtric than when they are warmer. With regard to air, which is moft to our prefent purpofe, this is rendered extremely probable, by confidering that clear frofty weather is of all others the moft favourable for eleCtric experiments. They may be made indeed to equal advantage almoft in any ftate of the atmofphere, provided fufficient pains are ufed, but in dry hard frofts they will fucceed much more eafily than at any other time. Thefe three axioms being allowed, the caufe of the aurora borealis is eafily deduced from them. The air, all round the globe, at a certain height above its fur- face, is found to be exceedingly cold, and, as far as experiments have yet determined, exceedingly eleCtri- Vol. III. Part I. A U R cal alfo. The inferior parts of the atmofphere between Aurora the tropics, are violently heated during the day-time Borealis, by the reflection of the fun’s rays from the earth. " Such air will therefore be a kind of conductor, and much more readily part with its eleClricity to the clouds and vapours floating in it, than the colder air towards the north and fouth poles. Hence the prodi* gious appearances of eleCtricity in thefe regions, fhow- ing itfelf in thunder and other tempefts of the moft terrible kind. Immenfe quantities of the eleCtric fluid are thus communicated to the earth ; and the inferior warm atmofphere having once exhaufted itfelf, muft ne- ceflarily be recruited from the upper and colder re¬ gion. This becomes very probable from what the French mathematicians obferved when on the top of one of the Andes. il hey were often involved in clouds, which, finking down into the warmer air, ap¬ peared there to be highly eleCtrified, and difcharged themfelves in violent tempefts of thunder and light¬ ning : while in the mean time, on the top of the mountain, they enjoyed a calm and ferene (ky. In the temperate and frigid zones, the inferior parts of the atmofphere never being fo ftrongly heated, do not part with their eleClricity fo eafily as in the torrid zone, and confequently do not require fuch recruits from the upper regions ; but not with Handing the difference of heat obferved in different parts of the earth near the furface, it is very probable that at confiderable heights the degrees of cold are nearly equal all round it. Were there a like equality in the heat of the under part, there could never be any confiderable lofs of equili¬ brium in the eleClricity of the atmofphere : but as the hot air of the torrid zone is perpetually bringing down vaft quantities of eleCtric matter from the cold air that lies direCtly above it j and as the inferior parts of the atmofphere lying towards the north and fouth poles do not conduCl in any great degree j it thence follows, that the upper parts of the atmofphere lying over the torrid zone will continually require a fupply from the northern and fouthern regions. This eafily {hows the neceffity of an eleClric current in the upper parts of the atmofphere from each pole towards the equator : and thus we are alfo furnilhed with a reafon why the au¬ rora borealis appears more frequently in winter than in fummer ; namely, becaufe at that time the eleClric power of the inferior atmofphere is greater on account of the cold than in fummer; and confequently the abundant eleClricity of the upper regions muft go al¬ moft wholly off to the equatorial parts, it being impof- fible for it to get down to the earth : hence alfo the aurora borealis appears very frequent and bright in the frigid zones, the degree of cold in the upper and un¬ der regions of the atmofphere being much more nearly equal in thefe parts than in any other. In fome parts of Siberia particularly, this meteor appears conftantly from October to Chriftmas, and its corufcations are faid to be very terrifying. Travellers agree, that here the aurora borealis appears in greateft perfection j and it is to be remarked that Siberia is the coldeft coun¬ try on earth. In confirmation of this, it may alfo be obferved, that from the experiments hitherto made with the eleClrical kite, the air appears confiderably more eleClrical in winter than in fummer, though the clouds are known to be often moft violently electrified in the fummer time 5 a proof, that the ekaricity na * N n turally [ 281 ] A urora Borealis. A U R -[28 turally belonging to tbe air is in fummer mucli more powerfully drawn off by the clouds than in the winter, owing to the excefs of heat in fummer, as already ob- fetwed. . A confiderable difficulty, however, uill remains xrom the upright pofition which the dreams of the aurora borealis are generally fuppofed to have’; whereas, ac¬ cording to the hypothefrs above mentioned, they ought rather to run direftly from north to fouth. 'I his dif¬ ficulty occurred to Dr Halley j but he anfwers it by fuppofing his magnetic effluvia to pafs from one pole to another in arches of great circles, arifing to a vad height above the earth, and confequently darting from the places whence they arofe almod like the radii of a circle j in which cafe, being fent off in a direction near¬ ly perpendicular to the fur face of the earth, they mud neceffarily appear erea to thofe who fee them from any part of the furface, as is demondrated by mathemati¬ cians. It is alfo reafonable to think that they will take this direaion rather than any other, on account of their meeting with lefs reddance in the very high regions of the air than in fuch as are lower. But the greated difficulty dill remains : for we have fuppofed the equilibrium of the atmofphere to be bro¬ ken in the daytime, and redored only in the night } whereas, confidering the immenfe velocity with which the ele&ric duid moves, the equilibrium ought to be redored in all parts almod indantaneoudy *, yet the au¬ rora borealis never appears except in the night, al¬ though its brightnefs is fuch as mud fometimes make it vifible to us did it really exid in the daytime. In anfwer to this it mud be obferved, that though the paffage of ele&rieity through a good conduiffor is indantaneous, yet through a bad conduftor it is ob¬ ferved to take" fome time in paffing. As our atmo¬ fphere therefore, unlefs very violently heated, is but a bad conduftor of ele&ricity j though the equilibrium in it is broken, it can by no means be indantaneoudy redored. Add to this, that as it is the aftion of the fun which breaks the equilibrium, fo the fame aflion, extending over half the globe, prevents almod. any at¬ tempt to redore it till night, when fladres arife from various parts of the atmofphere, gradually extending themfelves with a variety of undulations towards the equator. . . It now remains to explain only one particularity ot the aurora borealis, namely, that its dreams do not al¬ ways move with rapidity •, fometimes appearing quite flationary for a confiderable time, and fometimes being carried in different direftions with a dow motion, lo this indeed we can give no other reply, than that weak eleiffric lights have been fometimes obferved to put on the fame appearance at the furface of the earth : and much more may we fuppofe them capable of doing fo at °reat heights above it, where the conduflors are both fewer in number and much more imperfedl. When M. de Romas was making experiments with an eleftric kite in Italy, a cylinder of blue light about four or five inches diameter was obferved furrounding the dring. This was in the day time ; but had it been night, he imagined it mud have been four or five feet in diameter ; and as the dring was 780 feet long, it would probably have feemed pyramidal, pointing up¬ wards like one of the dreams of the aurora borealis. A dill more remarkable appearance, Dr Prieftley tells 4 2 ] A U R us, was obferved by Mr Hartman. He had been ma- Aurora king eleftrical experiments for four or five hours toge- Borealis, ther in a very fmall room •, and upon going out ot it, -v—— and returning with a light in his hand, walking pret¬ ty quick, he perceived a fmall flame following him at about three feet didance. Being alarmed at this ap¬ pearance, he dopped to examine it, upon which it va- nithed. This lad indance is very remarkable, and An¬ gular in its kind ; from both, however, we are fuffici- ently warranted to conclude, that fmall portions ot our atmofphere may by various caufes be fo much eleftri- fied as to diine, and likewife be moved from one place to another without parting with the electricity they have received, for a confiderable time. The corona, or circle, which is often formed near the zenith by the aurora borealis, is eafily accounted for in the fame manner. As this corona is commonly da- tionary for fome time, we imagine it would be a very proper mark whereby to determine the didance of the meteor itfelf. If an aurora borealis, for indance, was obferved by two perfons, one at London, and the other at Edinburgh *, by noting the dars among which the corona was obferved at each place, its true altitude from the furface of the earth could eafily be determined by trigonometry. Under the article Atmosphere it was fuggeded, that no good proof had been as yet brought for the extreme rarity of the air ufually fuppofed to take place at no very great heights above the earth. The bright¬ nefs of the meteor there mentioned at 70 miles perpen¬ dicular from the furface, as alfo its figure, feemed to prove the air confiderably denfe at that didance from the earth. Though the height of the aurora borealis has never been determined, we can fcarce imagine it to be greater than that of this meteor, or indeed fo great: but although its dreams referable the paffage of elec¬ tric light through a vacuum, it cannot be trom thence inferred, that the air is at all in a date fimilar to the vacuum of an air-pump in thofe places where the auro¬ ra borealis is produced •, feeing we have indances of fi¬ milar appearances being produced in very denfe air. The plate of an eleftrophorus is often fo highly eleari- fied, as to throw out fiafiies from different parts as foon as it is lifted up, and by proper management it may be always made to emit long and broad dadies which {hall fcarcely be felt by the finger, indead of fmall, denfe, and pungent fparks 5 fo that., though long daffies may be produced in rarefied air, it by no means fol¬ lows, that the fame may not alfo be produced in denfer air. As little can we infer any thing from the. co lour 5 for we obferve the eleftric fpark fometimes white, fometimes blue, and fometimes purple, in the very fame date of the atmofphere, and from the fame fubdance. The aurora borealis is faid to be attended with a pe¬ culiar luffing noife in fome very cold climates ; Gme- lin fpeaks of it in the mod pointed terms, as frequent and very loud in the north-eadern parts of Siberia j and other travellers have related fimilar fafts. Gmelin’s account is very remarkable. “ Thefe northern lights (fays he) begin with Angle bright pillars, rifing in the north, and almod at 'the fame time in the north-ead, which gradually increafing, comprehend a large fpace of the heavens, ruffi about from place to place with in¬ credible velocity, and finally almoft cover the whole iky A U R [ 283 ] A U S ■j Aurora {ky up to the zenith. The ftreams are then feen meet- 4 Borealis. Jng together in the zenith, and produce an appearance as if a vaft tent was expanded in the heavens, glit¬ tering with gold, rubies, and fapphire. A more beau¬ tiful fpeftacle cannot be painted 5 but whoever Ihould fee fuch a northern light for the firtl time, could not behold it without terror. For however fine the illumi¬ nation may be, it is attended, as I have learned from the relation of many perfons, with fuch a hiding, cracking, and rulhing noife throughout the air, as if the largeft fireworks were playing off. To defcribe what they then hear, they make ule of the expreffion, Spolochi chodjat, that is, ‘ the raging hoft is palling.’ The hunters who purfue the white and blue foxes on the confines of the Icy fea, are often overtaken in their courfe by thefe northern lights. The dogs are then fo much frightened, that they will not move, but lie obftinately on the ground till the noife has palled. Commonly clear and calm weather follows this kind of northern lights, I have heard this account, not from one perfon only, but confirmed by the uniform teftimony of many, who have fpent part of feveral years in thefe very northern regions, and inhabited dif¬ ferent countries from the Yenefei to the Lena 5 fo that no doubt of its truth can remain. This feems indeed to be the real birthplace of the aurora borealis.'1'' The hilling or rufhing noife above defcribed, Dr Blagden is inclined to attribute tofmall itreamsof elec¬ tric matter running off to the earth from the maffes or accumulations of eledlricity by which the northern lights 6 are fuppofed to be produced. Aurora bo- We (hall conclude, this article with an account of a ceededb" PaPer Prefen5;ed to the Royal Society by Mr Winn, in fmnh-weft I772> "’herein he fays that the appearance of an au- winds. rora borealis is a certain fign of a hard gale of wind from the fouth or fouth-weft. This he never found to fail in 23 inftancesj and even thinks, that from the fplendour of the meteor, fome judgment may be form¬ ed concerning the enfuing tempeft. If the aurora is very bright, the gale will come on within twenty-four hours, but will be of no long duration; if the light is faint and dull, the gale will be lefs violent, and long¬ er in coming on, but it will alfo laft longer. His ob- fervations were made in the Englilh channel, where fuch winds are very dangerous $ and by attending to the au¬ rorae, he fays he often got eafily out of it, when others narrowly efcaped being wrecked. This is an exceeding ufeful obfervation for failors : but it cannot be expected that the winds fucceeding thefe meteors fhould in all places blow from the fouth-weft ; though no doubt a careful obfervation of what winds fucceed the aurora bo¬ realis, and other meteors, in different parts of the world, might contribute in fome meafure to lefl'en the dangers 7 of navigation. Conje&ure That the aurora borealis ought to be fucceeded by the^eifoif w"ln<^s> may be eafily deduced from the hypothefis laft mentioned. If this phenomenon is occafioned by the vaft quantity of eleftric matter conveyed to the equa¬ torial parts of the earth, it is certain that the earth cannot receive any great quantity of this matter at one place without emitting it at another. The eleflricity, therefore, which is conftantly received at the equator, muft be emitted nearer the poles, in order to perform its courfe, otherwife there could not be a conftant fup- ply of it for the common operations of nature. It is obferved, that electrified bodies are always furrounded Aurora, by a blaft of air, which is fent forth from them in all Borealis directions ; hence, if the eleCtric matter find a more 1! ready paffage through one part of the earth than ano-, Ah^' ther, a wind will be found to blow from that quarter. If therefore one of thefe places happens to be in the Atlantic ocean near the coaft of France, or in the bay of Bifcay, the eleCtric matter which has been received at the equator during an aurora borealis will be dif- charged there for fome time after, and confequently a wind will blow from that quarter, which will be from the fouth-weft to thofe ftiips which are in the Englilh channel. It cannot be imagined, however, that all the matter can be difeharged from one place 5 and therefore, according to the different fituations of thole eleClrical vents, winds may blow in different directions j and thus the fame aurora borealis may produce a fouth- weft wind in the Englifh channel, and a north-weft one in Scotland. AURUM. See Gold, Chemistry, and Minera* logy Index. This metal was introduced into medicine by the A- rabians, who efteemed it one of the greateft cordials and comforters of the nerves. From them Europe re¬ ceived it without any diminution of its character; in foreign pharmacopoeias it is ftill retained, and even mixed with the ingredients from which fimple waters are to be diftilled. But no one, it is prefumed, at this time, expeCts any lingular virtues from it, fince it cer¬ tainly is not alterable in the human body. Mr Geof- froy, though unwilling to rejeCt it from the cordial preparations, honeltly acknowledges that he has no other reafon for retaining it than complaifance to the Arabian fchools. The chemifts have endeavoured, by many elaborate proceffes, to extraft what they call a fulphur or anima of gold ; but no method is as yet known of feparating the component parts of this me¬ tal ; all the tinftures of it, and aurum potabile, which have hitherto appeared, are real folutions of it in aqua regia, diluted with fpirit of wine or other liquors, and prove injurious to the body rather than beneficial. A place, however, is now given in fome of the foreign pharmacopoeias to the aurum fulminans; and it has of late been recommended as a remedy in fome convulfive difeafes, particularly in the chorea fanfti viti. AURUM Fulminans. See Chemistry Index. Aurum Mofaicum. See Chemistry Index. AURUNCI, in Ancient Geography^ a people of La- tium, towards Campania ; the fame with the Aufones, at leaft fo intermixed as not to be eafily diftinguilhable, though Pliny feparates them. AUSA, a town of Tarraconenfis, in the middle age called Aufona ; now Vich de Ofuna, a town of Catalonia in Spain. E. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 41. 50. AUSCH. See Auch. AUSI, an ancient and very favage people of Li¬ bya. Herodotus tells us that they were unacquainted with marriage, and had all their women in common. The children were brought up by their mothers till they were able to walk : after which they were intro¬ duced to an affembly of the men, who met every three months ; and the man to whom any child firft fpoke, acknowledged himfelf its father. They celebrated annually a feaft in honour of Minerva, in which the girls divided into two companies, fought with flicks v' N n 2 and Aufi Aufonius. A U S [ 284 ] A U S and ftones, and thofe ivho died of tlieir wounds were concluded not to have been virgins. AUSIMUM, or Auximum, an ancient Roman colo¬ ny in the Picenum ; now Ofttno or Ofmo^ in the marqui- fate of Ancona in Italy. E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 43.20. AUSITiE, or 4E.SITAS, a tribe of ancient Arabs, fuppofed by Bochart to have inhabited the land of Uz mentioned in Scripture. AUSONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Aufones, a people who anciently occupied all the Low¬ er Italy, from the Promontorium Circseum down to the ilrails of Sicily (Livy), but were afterwards reduced to a much narrower compafs} namely, between the Mon¬ tes Circaei and Maffici: nor did they occupy the whole of this, but other people were intermixed. Concerning Aufona or its remains there is nothing particular re¬ corded, AUSONIA, the ancient name of Italy, from its moft ancient inhabitants the Auiones, (Virgil, Ser- vius). AUSONEUM MARE, in Ancient Geography, a part of the Ionian fea, extending fouthward from the pro¬ montory Japygium to Sicily, which it wadies on the eaft, as it docs the Bruttii and Magna Graecia on the fouth and eaft. It is feparated from the Tufcan fea by the ftrait of Medina. AUSONIUS (in Latin, Decius, or rather Decimus, Magnus Aufonius), one of the beft poets of the fourth century, was the fon of an eminent phyfician, and born at Bourdeaux. Great care was taken of his education, the whole family interefting themfelves in it, either be- caufe his genius was very promifing, or that the fcheme of his nativity, which had been caft by his grandfather on the mother’s fide, made them imagine that he would rife to great honour. He made an uncommon pro- grefs in claftical learning, and at the age of 30 was chofen to teach grammar at Bourdeaux. He was promoted feme time after to be profeflbr of rhetoric j in which office he acquired fo great a reputation, that he was fent for to court to be preceptor to Gratian the emperor Valentinian’s fon. 1 he rewards and honours conferred on him for the faithful difeharge of his of¬ fice prove the truth of Juvenal’s maxim, that when For¬ tune pleafes, die can raife a man from a rhetorician to the dignity of a conful. He was adlually appointed conful by the emperor Gratian, in the year 379> after having filled other confiderable polls $ for belides the dignity of quseftor, to which he had been nominated by Valentinian, he was made prefeft of the praetorium in Italy and Gaul after that prince’s death. His fpeech returning thanks to Gratian on his promotion to the confuldiip is highly commended. The time of his death is uncertain ; he was ftill living in 392, and lived to a great age. The emperor Theodofius had a great efteem for Aufonius, and prefled him to publidi his poems. There is a great inequality in his works ; and in his manner and his ftyle there is a harffinefs which was perhaps rather the defefl of the times he lived in than of his genius. Had he lived in Au- guftus’s reign, his verfes, according to good judges, would have equalled the moft finiffied of that age. He is generally fuppofed to have been a Chriftian : fome ingenious authors indeed think otherwife, but, according to Mr Bayle, without juft reafon. The beft edition of his poems is that of Atnfterdam in 1671. AUSPEX, a name originally given thofe who were aftervvards denominated augurs. In which fenfe the word is fuppofed to be formed from avis, “ bird,” and infpicere, “ to infpect aufpices, q. d. avifpices. Some 'will therefore have aufpices properly to denote thofe who foretold future events from the flight of birds. AUSPICIUM, Auspicy, the fame with augury. AUSTER, one of the four cardinal winds, as Ser- vius calls them, blowing from the fouth, (Pliny, Ovid, Manilius). AUSTERE, rough, aftringent. Thus an auftere tafte is fuch a one as conftringes the mouth and tongue j as that of unripe fruit, harlh wines, &c. AUSTERITY, among moral writers, implies fe- verity and rigour. Thus we fay, aujierity of manners, aufferities of the mono flic life, &c. AUSTIN, St, See St Augustin. AUSTRAL, Australis, the fame with fouthern. The word is derived from aufler, “ fouth wind.” Thus auftral figns are the fix lait figns of the zodiac ; fo called becaufe they are on the fouth fide of the equi- noftial. AUSTRALIS piscis, the Southern Fish, is a conftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, not vifible in our latitude •, whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 18, and in the Britannic catalogue 24. AUSTRIA, one of the principal provinces of the empire of Germany tow'ards the eaft j from which fi- tuation it takes its name, Oofl-rych in the German lan¬ guage fignifying the Eafl Country. It is bounded on the north by Moravia j on the eaft: by Hungary ; on the fouth by Stiria; and on the weft by Bavaria._ It is divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Auftria is fituated on the fouth, and Lower Auftria on the north fide of the Danube. Vienna the capital is in Up¬ per Auftria, which contains feveral other very confi¬ derable towns. The country is very fertile, has a great many mines, and produces vaft quantities of ful- phur. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Auftria was the frontier of the empire againft the barbarians. In 928, the emperor Henry the Fowler, perceiving that it was of great importance to fettle fome .perfon in Auftria who might oppofe thefe incurfions, invefted Leopold, furnamed the llluflrious, with that country. Otho I. erefted Auftria into a marquifate in favour of his bro¬ ther-in-law Leopold, whofe defeendant Henry II. was created duke of Auftria by the emperor Frederic Bar- barofla. His pofterity becoming extinft in 1240, the ftates of the country, in order to defend themfelves from the incurfions of the Bavarians and Hungarians, refolved to put themfelves under the proteftion of Henry marquis of Mifnia } but Othogar II. king of Bohemia, being likewife invited by a party in the duchy, took pofleflion of it, alleging not only the invitation of the ftates, but alfo the right of his wife, heirefs of Frederic the laft duke. The emperor Rodolphus I. pretending a right to this duchy, refufed to give Othogar the in- veftiture of it •, and afterwards killing him in a battle, procured the right of it to his own family. From this Rhodolphus the prefent houfe of Auftria is defeended, which 3 A U S [ 285 1 A U S Auftrla. which for feveral centuries paft has rendered itfelffo fa- —v—' mous and fo powerful, having given 14 emperors to Germany, and fix kings to Spain. In 1477, Auftria was erented into an archduchy by the emperor Frederic the Pacific for his fon Maximi¬ lian, rvith thefe privileges : That thefe fliall be judged to have obtained the invefliture of the Hates, if they do not receive it after having demanded it three times ; that if they receive it from the emperor, or the impe¬ rial ambalTadors, they are to be on horfeback, clad in a royal mantle, having in their hand a Half of command, and upon their head a ducal crown of two points, and furrounded with a crofs like that of the imperial crown. The archduke is born privy-counfellor to the emperor, and his ftates cannot be put to the ban of the empire. All attempts againft his perfon are punifhed as crimes of lefe-majelly, in the fame manner as thofe againft the king of the Romans, or eledtors. No one dared to challenge him to fingle combat. It is in his choice to affift at the affemblies, or to be abfent •, and he has the privilege of being exempt from contributions and pub- lie taxes, excepting 12 foldiers Avhich he is obliged to maintain againft the Turks for one month. He has rank immediately after the eleftors $ and exercifesju- ftice in his ftates without appeal, by virtue of a privi¬ lege granted by Charles V. His fubjefts cannot even be fummoned out of his province upon account of law- fuits, to give witnefs, or to receive the inveftiture of fiefs. Any of the lands of the empire may be alie¬ nated in his farmur, even thofe that are feudal j and he has a right to create counts, barons, gentlemen, poets, and notaries. In the fucceflion to his ftates, the right of birth takes place ; and, failing males, the females fucceed according to the lineal right, and, if no heir be found, they may difpofe of their lands as they pleafe. Upper Auftria, properly fo called, has throughout the appearance of a happy country. Here are no figns of . the ftriking contraft betwixt poverty and riches which offends fo much in Hungary. All the inhabitants, thofe of the capital only excepted, enjoy that happy mediocrity Avhich is the confequence of a gentle and wife adminiftration. The farmer has property ; and the rights of the nobility, who enjoy a kind of loAver judi¬ cial poAver, are Avell defined. The fouth and fouth-weft parts of the country are bounded by a ridge of hills, the inhabitants of which enjoy a fhare of profperity un- knoAvn to thofe of the interior parts of France. There are many villages and market toAvns, the inhabitants of which have bought themfelves off from valfalage, are noAV their own governors, and belong fome of them to the eftates of the country. The cloifters, the prelates of Avhich belong to the eftates of the country, are the richeft in Germany, after the immediate prelacies and abbacies of the empire. One of the greateft convents of Benedi&ines is Avorth upAvards of four millions of French livres, half of Avhich goes to the exchequer of the coun¬ try. LoAver Auftria yearly exports more than Iavo mil¬ lions guilders Avorth of wine to Moravia, Bohemia, Upp er Auftria, Bavaria, Saltzburg, and part of Sti- ria and’Carinthia. This wine is four, but has a great deal of ftrength, and may be carried all over the Avorld Avithout danger •, Avhen it is ten or twenty years old it is very good. This country is very well peopled, Mr Schlofler, in his Political Journal, Avhich contains an ac- Auftria. count of the population of Auftria, eftimates that of this l——y——- country at 2,100,000 men. The revenue amounts to about 14,000,000 of florins, of which the city of Vi¬ enna contributes above five, as one man in the capital earns as much as three in the country. The fouthern parts of Auttria are covered Avith hills, Avhich rife gradually from the banks of the Danube to the borders of Stiria, and are covered Avith Avoods. They lofe themfelves in the mafs of mountains Avhieh run to the fouth of Germany, and ftretch through all Stiria, Carniola, Carinthia, and Tyrol, to the Swifs Alps j and are probably, after Savoy and SAvitzerland, the high- eft part of the earth. The inhabitants of this extenfive ridge of mountains are all very much alike j they are a ftrong, large, and, the Goitres excepted, a very hand- fome people. The cbara&eriftic of the inhabitants of all this country is ftriking bigotry, united Avith ftriking fen- fuality. You need only fee what is going forAvards here to be convinced that the religion taught by the monks is as ruinous to the morals as it is repugnant to Chriftianrty. The Cicilbeos accompany the mar¬ ried Avomen from their bed to church, and lead them to the very confeflional. The bigotry of the public in the interior parts of Auftria, Avhich, from the mix¬ ture of gallantry with it, is ftill to be found even amongft people of rank, degenerates amongft the com¬ mon people into the groffeft and moft abominable buf¬ foonery. The Windes, who are mixed with the Ger¬ mans in thefe countries, diftinguilh themfelves by a fuperftitious cuftom that does little honour to the hu¬ man underftanding, and Avould be incredible if we had not the moft unequivocal proofs of the fadl before our eyes. Many years ago, they fet out in company Avith fome Hungarian enthufiafts to Cologne on the Rhine, Avhich is about 120 German miles diftant, to cut off the beard of a crucifix there. Every feven years this operation is repeated, as in this fpace of time the beard groAvs again to its former length. The rich perfons of the affociation fend the poorer ones as their depu¬ ties, and the magiftrates of Cologne receive them as ambafladors from a foreign prince. They are enter¬ tained at the expence of the ftate, and a counfellor ftiows them the moft remarkable things in the town. This farce brings in large fums of money at ftated times, and may therefore deferve political encourage¬ ment but ftill, however, it is the moft miferable and meaneft Avay of gain that can be imagined. Thefe Windes have alone the right to {have our Saviour, and the beard groAvs only for them. They firmly believe, that if they did not do this fervice to the crucifix, the earth would be fhut to them for the next feven years, and there Avould be no harvefts. For this reafon they are obliged to carry the hair home with them, as the proof of having fulfilled their commiffion, the returns of which are diftributed among the different commu¬ nities, and preferved as holy relics. The imperial court has for a long time endeavoured in vain to pre¬ vent this emigration, Avhich deprives agriculture of fo many ufeful hands. When the Windes could not go openly they Avould go clandeftinely. At length the court thought of the expedient of forbidding the regency of Cologne to let them enter the toAvn. This happened fix years ago, and the numerous embafiy was ^ A U T [ 2&6 ] A U T Auftria v.'as obliged to beg its way back again without the won¬ derful beard 5 which without doubt the Capuchins, to •whom the crucifix belonged, ufed to put together from their own. The trade which the monks carry on with holy falves, oils, &c. is ftill very confiderable ; a prohi¬ bition of the court, lately publithed, has rather leffened it, but it cannot be entirely fuppreffed till next genera¬ tion. It is now carried on fecretly, but perhaps to nearly as great an amount as formerly. AUSTROMANCY, Austromantia, properly de¬ notes foothfaying, or a vain method of predi&ing futu¬ rity, from obfervations of the winds. AUTERFOITS Acquit. AUTERY01TS Attaint. AUTERFOITS Acquit. AUTHENTIC, fomething of acknowledged and re¬ ceived authority. In law, it fignifies fomething clothed in all its formalities, and attefted by perfons to whom credit has been regularly given. Thus we fay, authen¬ tic papers, authentic inftruments. AUTHOR, properly fignifies one who created or produced any thing. Thus God, by way of emi¬ nence is called the Author of nature, the Author of the univerfc. Author, in matters of literature, a perfon who has VV ll } See the article PLEA to IndiElment. . compofed fome book or writing. AUTHORITY, in a general fenfe, fignifies a right to command, and make one’s felf obeyed. In which fenfe we fay, the royal authority, the epifcopal authori¬ ty, the authority of a father, &c. It denotes alfo the teftin.ony of an author, fome apophthegm or fentence of an eminent perfon quoted in a difcourfe by wTay of proof. Authority is reprefented, in painting, like a grave matron fitting in a chair of Rate, richly clothed in a garment embroidered with gold, holding in her right hand a fword, and in her left a fceptre. By her fide is a double trophy of books and arms. AUTOCHTHONES, an appellation afiumed by fome nations, importing that they fprung, or were pro¬ duced, from the fame foil which they ftill inhabited. In this fenfe, Autochthones amounts to the fame with Abori¬ gines. The Athenians valued themfelves on their being Autochthones,or yiiyevyj, earth born ; it be¬ ing the prevailing opinion among the ancients, that, in the beginning, the earth, by fome prolific power, pro¬ duced men, as it ftill does plants. The proper Autoch¬ thones were thofe primitive men who had no other pa¬ rent befide the earth. But the name was alfo affumed by the defeendants of thefe men, provided they never changed their ancient Rate, nor fuffered other nations to mix with them. In this fenfe it was that the Greeks, and efpecially the Athenians, pretended to be Autoch¬ thones •, and as a badge thereof, wore a golden grafshop- per woven in their hair, an infe£l fuppofed to have the fame origin. AUTOCRATOR, a perfon veiled with an abfolute independent power, by which he is rendered unaccount¬ able to any other for his actions. The power of the A- thenian generals, or commanders, was ufually limited •, fo that, at the expiration of their office, they were lia¬ ble to render an account of their adminiftration. But, on fome extraordinary occafions, they were exempted from this reftraint, and fent with a full and unconfroul- able authority : in which fenfe they were ftyled AvV§«- The fame people alfo applied the name to fome of Autocrator their ambafladors, who were veiled with a full power of (| determining matters according to their own diferetion. Automa- Tbefe were denominated n^to-p-tn; Avleicgeijogtf, and re- , ^ ’ f fembled our plenipotentiaries. AUTO DA FK, a£t of faith. See Act of Faith. AUTODIDACTUS, a perfon felf-taught, or who has had no mailer or affiftant of his Rudies befides him- felf. AUTOGRAPH, denotes a perfon’s hand-writing, or the original manufeript of any book, &c. AUTOLITHOTOMUS, he who cuts himfelf for the Hone. Of this we have a very extraordinary inftance given by Reifelins, in the Ephemerides of the Academy Naturce Curioforurn, dec. I. an. 3. obf. 192. AUTOMATE, called alfo Ihera, one of the Cy¬ clades, an iiland to the north of Crete (Pliny), faid to have emerged out of the fea, between the illands Thera and Therafia, in the fifth year of the emperor Claudius ; in extent 30 ftadia, (Orofius). AUTOMATON, from Ctvro?, ipfe, and paopcti, ex- citor}, a felf-moving machine, or one fo conttructed, by means of weights, levers, pulleys, &c. as to move for a confiderable time, as though endowed with animal life. According to this defeription, clocks, watches, and all machines of that kind, are automata. Under the article Androides we obferved that the higheft perfection to which automata could be carried was to imitate exaCtly the motions and aftions of living creatures, efpecially of mankind, which are more dif¬ ficultly imitated than thofe of other animals. Very furprifing imitations, however, have been made of other creatures. So long ago as 400 years before Chrift, Archytas of Tarentum is faid to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly ; nor will this appear at all incre¬ dible, when we confider the flute-player made by M. Vaucanfon, and the chefs-player by M. Kempel. Dr Hook is alfo faid to have made the model of a flying chariot, capable of fupporting itfelf in the air. But M. Vaucanfon above-mentioned hath diftinguiihed him¬ felf ftill more eminently. That gentleman, encou¬ raged by the favourable reception of his flute-player, made a duck, which was capable of eating, drinking, and imitating exadly the voice of a natural one. Nay, what is ftill more furprifing, the food it fwallowed was evacuated in a digefted ftate j not that it W'as really in a ftate of natural excrement, but only confidera- bly altered from what it was when fwallowed j and this digeftion was performed on the principles of folution, not of trituration. The wings, vifeera, and bones, of this artificial duck, were alfo formed fo as very ftrongly to referable thofe of a living animal. Even in the aftions of eating and drinking, this refemblance was preferved *, the artificial duck fwallowed with avidi¬ ty and vaftly quick motions of the head and throat ; and likewife muddled the water with its bill, exactly like a natural one. M. le Droz of La Chaux de Fonds in the county of Neufchattel, hath alfo executed fome very curious pieces of mechanifm, which well deferve to be ranked with thofe already mentioned. One was a clock, which was prefented to his Spanilh majefty; and had among other curiofities, a fheep, which imitated the bleating of a natural one ; and a dog watching a balket of fruit. When any one attempted to purloin the fruit, the dog gnafhed A U T r 2 Automaton gnafhed bis teeth and barked ; and if it was actually ta¬ ll ken away, he never ceafed barking till it was reftored. Autumnal. gefi(jes this, he made a variety of human figures, which l,, v t.xJjJhited motions truly furprifing ; but all inferior to P*Ir Kempell’s chefs-player, which may juftly be look¬ ed upon as the greatelt mafterpiece in mechanics that ever appeared. See Androides. AUTONOMTA, a power of living or being go¬ verned by our own laws and magiftrates. The liberty of the cities which lived under the faith and protec¬ tion of the Romans, confifted in their autonomia, i. e. they were allowed to make their own laws, and elect their owm magiftrates, by whom juflice was to be ad- miniftered, and not by Roman prefidents or judges, as was done in other places which wTere not indulged the autonomia. AUTOPYROS, from avtag, and Trvga;, wheat; in the ancient diet, an epithet given to a Ipecies of bread, wherein the whole fubftanee of the wheat was retained without retrenching any part of the bran. Galen de- feribes it otherwife, viz. as bread where only the coarfer bran was taken out.—And thus it was a medium be¬ tween the fineft bread, called Jimilageneus, and the coarleft called furfuraceus. This was alfo called avto- pyntes and fijncomijlus. A UTRE-eglise, a village of Brabant, in the Au- ftrian Netherlands; to which the left wing of the French army extended, when the confederates obtain¬ ed the victory at Ramillies, in 1706. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Eat. 50. 40. AUTRICUM, the capital of the Carnutes, a peo¬ ple of Gallia Celtica ; afterwards called Carnotcna, Carnotenus, and Civitas Carnotenum : Now Chartres, in the Orleanois on the Eure. E. Long. 1.32. N. Lat. 48.47.^ AU FUMN, the third feafon of the year, when the harveft and fruits are gathered in. Autumn is repre- fented in painting, by a man at perfect age, clothed like the vernal, and likewife girded with a ftarry girdle ; holding in one hand a pair of feales equally poifed, with a globe in each ; in the other hand a bunch of divers fruits and grapes. His age denotes the perfection of this feafon ; and the balance, that fign of the zodiac which the fun enters when our autumn begins. Autumn begins on the day when the fun’s meridian diftance from the zenith, being on the decreafe is a mean between the greateft and the lead ; which in thefe countries is fuppofed to happen when the fun en¬ ters Libra. Its end coincides with the beginning of winter. Several nations have computed the years by autumns; the Englilh Saxons, by winters. Tacitus tells us, that the ancient Germans were acquainted with all the other feafons of the year, but had no no¬ tion of autumn. Lidyat obferves of the beginning of the feveral feafons of the year, that 87 ] A U X Dat Clemens hyemem, dat Petrus ver cathedratus, JEJluat Urbanus, autumnal Bartholomceus. Autumn has always been reputed an unhealthy feafon. Tertullian calls it tentator vaietudinum ; and the fati- rift fpeaks of it in the fame light. Autumnus Libitinae quejlus acerbee. AUTUMNAL POINT, is that part of the equinox from which the fun begins to defeend towards the fouth pole. Autumnal Signs, in Ajlronomy, are the figns Autumnal Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, thtough which the fun 0 paffes during the autumn. Auxiliary*. Autumnal Equinox, that time when the fun en- v ters the autumnal point. AUTUN, an ancient city of France, in the depart¬ ment of Saone and Loire, formerly the duchy of Bur¬ gundy, the capital of the Autonois, with a bifhop’s fee. 'I he length of this city is about three quarters of a mile, and its breadth nearly equal. The river Ar- roux walhes its ancient walls, whole ruins are fo firm, and the ftones fo clofely united, tha: they fet.m almoft to be cut out of the folid rock. In this city are the ruins of three ancient temples, one of which was dedi¬ cated to Janus, and another to Diana Here are like¬ wife a theatre and a pyramid, which lall is probably a tomb ; it Rands in a place called the f.eld of urns, be- caufe feveral urns had been found there. Here are al¬ fo two antique gates of great beauty. The city lies at the foot of three great mountains, in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 45. 50. AUJ'URA, or Audura, a river of Gallia Celtica, only mentioned in the Lives of the Saints. Now the Eure, which falls into the Seine, on the left-hand or fouth fide. AUVERGNE, a late province of France, about IOO miles in length and 75 in breadth. It is bound¬ ed on the north by the Bourbonnois ; on the eafl by Torez and Velay ; on the weft, by Limofin, Quercy, . and La Marche : and on the fouth, by Rovergne and the Cevcnnes. It is divided into upper and lower: the latter, otherwife called Limagne, is one of the fineft: countries in the world. The mountains of Higher Auvergne render it lefs fruitful ; but they afford good pailure, which feeds great numbers of cattle, which are the riches of that country. Auvergne fupplies Lyons and Paris with fat cattle, makes a large quantity of cheefe, and has manufactures of feveral kinds. The capital of the whole province is Clermont. It is now divided into the departments of Cantal and Puy de Dome. AUVERNAS, a very deep-coloured heady wine, made of black raifins fo called, which come from Or¬ leans. It is not fit to drink before it is above a year old-; but if kept two or three years, it becomes ex¬ cellent. AUXERRE, an ancient town of France in the de¬ partment of Yonne, and capital of the Auxerrois, and lately a biftrop’s fee. The epifcopal palace was one of the fine ft in France, and the churches were alfo very beautiful. 'I his town is advantageoufty fituated for trade with Paris, on the river Yonne. E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 47. 54. AUXESIS, in Mythology, a goddefs worlhipped by the inhabitants of Egina, and mentioned by Herodo¬ tus and Paufanias. Auxesis, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby any thing is magnified too much. AUXILIARY, whatever is aiding or helping to another. AUXILJART Verbs, in Grammar, are fuch as help to form ©r conjugate others ; that is, are prefixed to them, to form or denote the modes or tenfes thereof; as to have and to be, in the Englilh ; etre and avoir, in the French ) ho and fono in the Italian, &c. In the Englifh language, A X A [ 288 ] A X I Auxiliary language, the auxiliary verb am (applies the want of || paffive verbs. Axayacatl. AUXO, in Mythology, the name of one of two Graces * worthipped by the Athenians. See Hegemone. . AUXONNE, a fmall fortified town in France, in the department of Cote d’Or ; feated on the river Saone, over which there is a bridge of 23 arches, to facilitate the running off of the waters after the overflowing of the river. At the end of the bridge is a caufeway 2250 paces long. E. Long'. 5. 22. N. Lat. 47. 11. AUXY ; the French give the name of auxy wool to that which is fpun in the neighbourhood of Abbeville, by thofe workmen who are called houpters. It is a very fine and beautiful wool, which is commonly ufed to make the finefl: dockings. AWARD, in Law, the judgment of an arbitrator, or of one who is not appointed by the law a judge, but chofen by the parties themfelves for terminating their difference. See Arbiter and Arbitration. AWL, among fhoemakers, an inftrument w'herewith holes are bored through the leather, to facilitate the ditching or fewing the fame. 1 he blade of the awl is ufually a little flat and bended, and the point ground to an acute angle. AWL AN, a fmall imperial town of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, feated on the river Kochen. E. Long. II. 15. N. Lat. 48. 52. AWME, or Aume, a Dutch liquid meafure con¬ taining eight deckans, or 20 verges or verteels, equal to the tierce in England, or to one fixth of a ton of France. AWN. See Arista, Botany Index. AWNING, in the fea-language, is the hanging a fail, tarpawling, or the like, over any part of the fliip, to keep off the fun, rain, or wind. AX, a carpenter’s inftrument, ferving to hew wood. The ax differs from the joiner’s hatchet, in that it is made larger and heavier, as ferving to hew large fluff 5 and its edge tapering into the middle of its blade. It is furnifbed with a long handle or helve, as being to be ufed with both hands. Battle-Ax. See CELT. AX AMENTA, in antiquity, a denomination given to the verfes or fongs of the falii, which they fung in honour of all men. The word is formed, according to fome, from axare, q. d. nominare. Others will have the carmina faliaria to have been denominated axamenta, on account of their having been written in axibus, or on wooden tables. The axamenta wrere not compofed, as fome have af- ferted, but only fung by the falii. The author of them was Numa Porapilius ; and as the dyle might not be altered, they grew in time fo obfcure, that the fain them¬ felves did not underftand them. Varro fays they were 700 years old. Quint. Infl. Or. lib. i. c. 11. Axamenta, or A ([amenta, \x\ ancient mufic, hymns or fongs performed wholly with human voices. AXAYACATL, the name of a fpecies of fly, common in Mexico, about the lake •, the eggs of which being depofited in immenfe quantities, upon the xufhes and corn-flags, form large malfes, which are ta¬ ken up by fifhermen and carried to market for fale. This caviare, called ahuauhtli, which has much the fame tafte with the caviare of fifh, ufed to be eaten by the Mexicans, and is now a common difh among the Spaniards. The Mexicans eat not only the eggs, but Axayacatl the flies themfelves, made up together into a mafs, and || prepared with ialtpetre. ( Axim- AXATI, a town of ancient Esetica, on the Bcetis j l""_v ^ now Lora, a fmall city of Andalufia, in Spain, feat¬ ed on the Guadalquiver. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37* 2°- AXBRIDGE, a town of Somerfetlhire in England, confiding of one long narrow flreet. W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat 51. 30. AXEL, a fmall fortified town in Dutch Flanders. E. Long. 40. o. N. Lat. 51. 17. AXHOLM, an ifland in the north-wed part of Lincolnfhire in England. It is formed by the rivers Trent, Idel, and Dan ; and is about ten miles long and five broad. The lower part is marfhy, but pro¬ duces an odoriferous fhrub called gall; the middle is rich and fruitful, yielding flax in great abundance, as alfo alabafler which is ufed for making lime. The principal town is called Axey, and is now very thinly inhabited, AXIACE, an ancient town of Sarmatia Europaea *, now Oczakow, the capital of Budziac Tartary. E. Long. 32. 30. N. Lat. 46. o. AXILLA, in Anatomy, the arm-pit or the cavity under the upper part of the arm. Axilla, in Botany, is the (pace comprehended be¬ tween the flems of plants and their leaves. Hence we fay thofe flowers grow in the axillae of the leaves j i. e. at the bafe of the leaves, or juft within the angle of their pedicles. AXILLARY, fomething belonging to or lying near the axilla. Thus, axillary artery is that part of the fubclavian branches of the afcending trunk of the aorta which pafleth under the arm-pits j axillary glands are fituated under the arm-pits, enveloped in fat, and lie clofe by the axillary veffels j and axillary vein is one of the fubclavians which paffes under the arm-pit, dividing itfelf into feveral branches, which are fpread over the arm. AXIM, a fmall territory on the Gold coad in A- frica. The climate here is fo exceflively moift, that it is proverbially faid to rain 11 months and 29 days of the year. This exceflive moifture renders it very un¬ healthy •, but it produces great quantities of rice, water melons, lemons, oranges, &c. Here are alfo produced vad numbers of black cattle, goats, ftieep, tame pi¬ geons, &c. The whole country is filled with beautiful and populous villages, and the intermediate lands well cultivated *, befides which the natives are very wealthy, from the conflant traffic carried on with them by the Europeans for their gold. H he capital, which is alfo called Axim, by fome Achambone, dands under the can¬ non of the Dutch fort St Antonio. Behind, it is fecu- red by a thick wood that covers the whole declivity of a neighbouring hill. Between the town and the fea runs ah even and fpacious fliore of beautiful white fand. All the houfes are feparated by groves of cocoa and other fruit trees, planted in parallel lines, each of an equal width, and forming an elegant villa. I he little river Axim croffes the town ; and the coad is defend¬ ed by a number of fmall pointed rocks which projedf from the fliore, and render all accefs to it dangerous. The capital is fituated in W. Long. 24. o N. Lat. 5. O. This canton is a kind of republic, the goverment being Axis. A X I [2 Axim being divided between the Caboceroes or chief men, i! and Manaceroes or young men. It muft be obferved, . however, that in their courts there is not even a pre¬ tence of juftice : whoever makes the moft valuable pre- fents to the judges is fure to gain the caufe, the judges themfelves alleging the gratitude due for the bribes re¬ ceived as a reafon : and if both parties happen to make prefents of nearly equal value, they abfolutely refufe to give the caufe a hearing. AXINOMANCY, Axinomantia, from curis, and pxflux, divinatio ; an ancient fpecies of di¬ vination, or a method of foretelling future events by means of an ax or hatchet.—This art was in confider- able repute among the ancients ; and was performed, according to fome, by laying an agate-flone on a red-, hot hatchet ; and alfo by fixing a hatchet on a round flake fo as to be exactly poifed j then the names of thofe that were fufpedled were repeated, and he at whofe name the hatchet moved was pronounced guilty. AXIOM, Axioma (from lam wort/nj') ; a felf-evident truth, or a propofition whofe truth every perfon perceives at firft fight. Thus, that the whole is greater than a part; that a thing cannot be and not be at the fame time j and that from nothing, nothing can arife ; are axioms. Axiom is alfo an eftablifhed principle in fome art or fcience. Thus, it is an axiom in phyfics, that nature does nothing in vain ; that effedls are proportional to their caufes, &c. So it is an axiom in geometry, that things equal to the fame thing are alfo equal to one another ; that if to equal things you add equals, the fums will be equal, &c. It is an axiom in optics, that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflec¬ tion, &c. AXIPOLIS, a town of the Triballi, in Maefia In¬ ferior ; now Axiopoli, in Bulgaria. E. Long. 34. o. N. Lat. 45. 4c. AXIS, in Geometry, the ftraight line in a plain figure, about which it revolves, to produce or generate a folid. Thus, if a femicircle be moved round its dia¬ meter at reft, it will generate a fphere, the axis of which is that diameter. Axis, in /IJlronomy, is an imaginary right line fup- pofed to pafs through the centre of the earth and the heavenly bodies, about which they perform their diur¬ nal revolutions. Axis, in Conic SeSiions, a right line dividing the fec- tion into two equal parts, and cutting all its ordinates •at right angles. Axis, in Mechanics. The axis of a balance is that line about which it moves, or rather turns about. Axis of ofcillation, is a right line parallel to the horizon, pafling through the centre about which a pendulum vibrates. Axis in Peritrochio, one oi the fix mechanical powers, confiding of a peritrochium or wheel concentric with the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable together with it about its axis. Axis, in Optics, is that particular ray of light com¬ ing from any objedl which falls perpendicularly on the eye. Axis, in ArchiteSlure. Spiral axis, is the axis of a twifted column drawn fpirally in order to trace the circumvolutions without. Axis of the Ionic capital, is Vol. III. Part I. 89 ] A X I a line palling perpendicularly through the middle of the Axis eye of a volute. {] AXIS of a Veffel, is an imaginary right line palling Aylmer. through the middle of it perpendicularly to its bafe, and equally dillant from its lides. Axis, in Botany, is a taper column placed in the centre of fome flowers or catkins, about which the other parts are difpofed. Axis, in Anatomy, the name of the fecond vertebra of the neck.; it hath a tooth which goes into the firft vertebra, and this tooth is by fome called the axis. AXMINSTER, a town of Devonlhire, fituated on the river Ax, in the great road between London and Exeter, in W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50. 40.“ It was a place of fome note in the time of the Saxons, but now contains only about 200 houfes. Here is a fmall manu¬ factory of broad and narrow cloths, and fome carpets are alfo manufactured after the Turkey manner. AXOLOTLF. See Lacer.ta. AXUMA, formerly a large city, and capital of the whole kingdom of Abyffinia in Africa, but now redu¬ ced to a miferable village fcarcely containing 100 inha ¬ bitants. E. Long. 36. 4. N. Lat. 14. 13. AXUNGIA, in a general fenfe, denotes old lard, or the drieft and hardelt of any fat in the bodies of ani¬ mals : but more properly it fignifies only bog’s lard. AXUNGIA Vitri, Sandiver, or Salt of Glafs, a kind of fait which feparates from the glafs while it is in fufion. It is of an acrimonious and biting tafte. The farriers ufe it for cleanftng the eyes of horfes. It is alfo made ufe of for cleanfing the teeth ; and it is fometimes applied to running ulcers, the herpes, or the itch, by way of deficcative. AXYRIS. See Botany Index. AY, a town of France, in Champagne, near the ri¬ ver Maine, remarkable for its excellent wines. E. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 49. 4. AYAMONTE, a fea-port town of Andalufia in Spain, with a ftrong caftle built on a rock ; feated on the mouth of the river Guadiana. It has a commo¬ dious harbour, fruitful vineyards, and excellent wine. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 37. 9. AYENIA. See Botany Index. AYLESBURY. See Ailesbury. This place gave title of earl to the noble family of Bruce, now to a branch of the Brudenals by fucceffion. AYLMER, John, biftiop of London, in the reign of Q ueen Elizabeth, was born in the year 1521, at Aylmer-hall in the parifti of Tilney, in the county of Norfolk. Whilft a boy, he was diftinguilhed for his quick parts by the marquis of Dorfet, afterwards duke of Suffolk ; who fent him to Cambridge, made him his chaplain and tutor to his children. One of thefe children w'as the unfortunate Lady Jane Gray, who foon became perfectly acquainted with the Latin and Greek languages. His firft preferment was to the archdeaconry of Stow, in the diocefe of Lincoln, which gave him a feat in the convocation held in the firft year of Queen Mary, where he refolutely oppofed the return to Popery, to which the generality of the clergy were inclined. He was foon after obliged to fly his country, and take {heller among the Proteftants in Switzerland. On the acceflion of Queen Elizabeth, he returned to England. In-1 562, he obtained the arch- O o deaconry AYR [ 290 ] AYR Aylmer, deaconry of Lincoln ; and was a member of the famous Ayr- fynod of that year, which reformed and fettled the v_doftrine and difcipline of the church of England. In the year 1576, he was confecrated bilhop of London. He died in the year 1594, aged 73 } and was buried in St Paul’s. He was a learned man, a zealous father of the church, and a bitter enemy to the Puritans. He publilhed a piece entitled, An harbrowe for faithful and trewe fubje&s againfl the late b/owne blajle concern¬ ing the government of women, &c. This was written whilft he was abroad in anfvver to Knox, who publilhed a book in Geneva under this title, The firjl blajl againfl the monflrous regiment and empire of women. He is by Strype fuppofed to have publilhed Lady Jane Gray’s letter to Harding. He alfo aflilled Fox in tranflating his Hiftory of Martyrs into Latin. AYR, a royal borough, of great antiquity, and con- iiderable extent, the county town of Ayrlhire, and the feat of a judiciary court. It was eredled into a royal borough by William the Lion, about the year iiSoj and the privileges granted by that charter are dill en¬ joyed by the town. It is pleafantly lituated on a point of land, between the indux of the rivers Doon and Ayr into the Atlantic ocean. The principal dreet is a fine ornamented, broad, fpacious way, with a row of ele¬ gant houfes on each fide. Its lhape is fomewhat of the form of a crefcent, having the tolbooth and town-hall in the centre, with a fine fpire, 135 feet high. In an¬ cient times we find Ayr to have been a town of con- fiderable trade. The merchants imported a great quan¬ tity of wine from France, and exported corn and other produce of the country. The riling trade of Glafgow proved very injurious to the trade of this town *, but of late it has much revived. The fea Ihore is fiat and drallow, and the entrance of the river Ayr, which forms the harbour, is fubjefl to the inconvenience of a bar of fand, which is often thrown quite acrofs the ri¬ ver, efpecially with a drong north-wed wind. The water never rifes above twelve feet; but from fome im¬ provements and extenfive works now carrying on on the fides of the river, it is hoped the channel will be eonfiderably deepened. There are erefted two refledl- « ing light-houfes to conduft veflels fafely into the har¬ bour. There is great plenty of falmon in the two rivers, the filhings of which rent at upwards of 200I. Befides the falmon filhery, the fand banks on the coad abound with all kinds of white filh •, and one or two companies are edablilhed here for curing them. The principal trade carried on is the exportation of coal to Ireland, in which nearly 2000 tonnage of veffels are annually employed. There is an extenfive manufac¬ ture of leather and foap. Ayr was in ancient times, however, not only didinguilhed for trade, but alfo for military drength. Here the heroic exploits of Sir William Wallace began, and here Edward I. fixed one of his mod powerful garrifons. Oliver Cromwell, too, judging it a proper place to build a fortrefs, took pof- fefiion of the old church, and converted it and the neighbouring ground into a regular citadel. On one of the mounts, within the walls of this fortrefs, dood the old cadle of Ayr, mentioned in ancient hidories, and the old church, the tower of which dill remains, noted for the meeting of the Scotidi parliament, when Robert Bruce’s title to the throne was unanimoufiy confirmed. Ayr is a very gay and fafiiionable place. Ayr, It has well-attended races, and is fometimes the feat Ayrfliiie. of the Caledonian hunt. In 1797, the population a- mounted to 4647 ; in 1801, 5560. There is a drong chalybeate fpring, which is famous in fcrophulous and fcorbutic complaints. Tradition reports an engage¬ ment to have taken place in the valley of Dalrymple, between two kings, Fergus and Coilus, in which both leaders lod their lives j the names of places in the neighbourhood feem derived from this circunsfianCe, and a cairn of dones in the midd of the valley is faid to point out the place of the engagement. Hidory has only recorded two difiinguilhed ehara&ers in literature, natives of Ayr: id, Joannes Scotus, furnamed Erigena, .celebrated for his acumen of judgment, his readinefs of wit, and fluency of elocution: and, 2d, the Chevalier Ramfay, author of Cyrus’s Travels, and other works. To thefe we may add the late Robert Burns, whofe genius, at lead, will bear a comparifon with any of the former. Ayr, Newton of While the borough of Ayr ex¬ tends along the fouth fide of the river Ayr, this fmall parifli is fituated on the north fide of the fame river. It is a burgh of confiderable domain, having in that domain baronial jurifdiftion •, governed by a magidracy elefted by freemen, but not having parliamentary re- prefentation. It is of very ancient ereftion, owing its privileges to Robert Bruce, who upon being attacked with leprofy, came to refide in this place, and was in¬ duced to edablilh a lazar-houfe, and to confer con¬ fiderable favours on the town, and on the fmall village of Priedwick, about two or three miles didant. In the Newton of Ayr are a number of very good houfes. It has a tolerable good harbour, chiefly employed in the coal trade. Lying on the banks of Ayr, and the fea coad •, the foil modly flat and fandy. Its extent is about three miles long, and one and a half broad. In 1793, the population was 1680. Ayr, a river in the parifli of Muirkirk, in Ayrfliire j which after a courfe of about eighteen miles nearly due wed falls into the fea at Ayr, where its aefluary forms a fine harbour. It is for a confiderable courfe only a fmall rivulet ; but joined by the Greenock and Garpel, tributary dreams, it becomes a large body of water. It frequently fhifts its bed, and does con¬ fiderable damage by its encroachments. Its banks are deep and very romantic, and the number of feats which ornament them prefent a fine pifturefque fce- nery. Sorn-caflle, Auchincruive, and Auchinleck, may be mentioned as the chief beauties of the fcene. The village of Catrine is fituated on its banks. It forms the boundary between the diflridls of Ayrlhire, denominated Kyle and Carriek. AYRSHIRE, a county of Scotland, which is bound¬ ed on the north by the county of Renfrew 5 on the eafl by the (hires of Lanark and Dumfries j on the fouth by Galloway 5 and on the wed by the Irifh channel, and the frith of Clyde. Its extent in length is about 65 miles, and about 36 in breadth. It is divided into three great diflrifts or flewarties, which bear thenamesof Kyle, Cunningham, and Garrick. Thefe divifions are not alto¬ gether artificial; the river Doon forming the feparation between Carrick and Kyle (or Ayrdiire Proper), and the river Irvine (at the mouth of which is a borough of the fame name) is the limit between Kyle and Cunningham. Thefe AYR [ 29 Ayrfhire. Thefe diftrifts are very different from each other in ap- 5—V—pearance. Garrick, and the interior parts of Kyle, are mountainous, and more fitted for pafture $ while the coaft of Kyle, and the greater part of Cunningham, exhibit a fine level country, interfperfed with numerous villages and towns. The fea coaft is moftly Tandy, with funk rocks, polfefling feveral good harbours. The ifland of Ailfa is in this county. From the ridge, of which the mountains of Garrick are a part, rife almoft all the rivers of the fouth of Scotland. The Tweed, the Efk, the Nith, the Annan, the Urr, &c. flow to the eaft and fouth, while the Stinchar, the Girvan, the Doon, the Ayr, and the Lugar, pouring into the Irifh channel, interfeft the county of Ayr with their copious ftreams. Befides thefe, the Irvine and other fmaller rivulets, water the more northerly parts of the county. Ayrfhire has two royal boroughs, viz. Ayr and Irvine 5 and feveral populous towns and villages, of which Kilmarnock, Beith, Saltcoats, Kilwinning, Largs, Gir¬ van, and Ballantrae, are the chief. Fitted as Ayrfhire is in every refpefl for the carrying on of trade, and the extenfion of agricultural improvements, it is only of late years that much has been done in that way. Puflefling valuable Teams of excellent coal, and enriched with the returns from its exportation, little attention was paid to the culture of the ground. The eftablifhment of the Douglas and Heron Bank, though ruinous to the pro¬ prietors, contributed greatly to promote the improve¬ ment of Ayrfhire. The abundance of wealth which it fallacioufly feemed to pour into the country, and the ready command of money it gave, fetallthe proprietors towards improving and planting their eftates, furnifhed means for railing and burning lime for manure, and above all, with the money from the bank, canals and . roads were opened through every part of the county. Upon tl^e failure of that extravagant and ill-condu£ted fpeculation, the proprietors of many eftates faw their property brought to the hammer, and the greater part of their lands purchafed by new proprietors. After the general diftrefs, confequent on fo difaftrous a fcheme, was fomewhat relieved, the improvement which the land had received during the profufion of money, ena¬ bled the proprietors to continue the improvement, and the new fettlers being moftly men of great fortune, al¬ lowed no expence to be wanting to produce the fame end : and hence the improvement of the country was rather promoted than retarded, by an event which threatened to overwhelm not only Ayrfhire, but the greater part of Scotland, in the gulf of bankruptcy. Ayrfhire, befides the inexhauftible feams of coal with which it abounds, poflefles feveral other valuable mine¬ rals ; as freeftone, limeftone, iron-ftone, feveral rich ores of lead and copper. A few curious fpecimens are alfo to be found in the hills of Garrick, of agates, por¬ phyries, and of calcareous petrifa&ions. In the parifhes of Stair and New Cumnock, galena and plumbago have been found ; and in feveral parts of the county is found that fpecies of whetftone known by the name of Ayr- Jlone. There is plenty of marl in moft of the lochs j the chief of which is Loch Doon, from which the river of that name takes its rife. There is annually a great quantity of fea-weed thrown afhore, from which many tons of kelp are made. All the rivers of Ayrfhire a- bound with falmon, and the coafts are admirably adapt¬ ed for the white fifliing. ] AYS The following is a ftatement of the population of Ayrflnre this county at two different periods. || Ayi'cue. Parijhes. Ardroflan Auchinleck Ayr . Ballantrae 5 Barr Beith Cumbraes Colmonell Coylton 10 Craigie Cumnock, New Cumnock, Old Dailly Dalmellington 15 Dairy Dairy mple Dreg horn Dundonald Dunlop 20 Fenwick Galfton Girvan Irvine Kilbirny 25 Kilbride, Weft Kilmarnock Kilmaurs Kilwinning Kirkmichael 30 Kirkofwald Largs Loudoun Mauchline Maybole 35 Monktown Muirkirk Newton on Ayr Ochiltree Riccarteun 40 St Quivox Sorn Stair Stevenftoun Stewartoun 43 Straitoun Symington Tarbolton Population in 1755- I297 887 2964 I049 858 2064 259 1814 327 55i ,497 839 739 1498 439 887 983 796 1113 1013 II93 4025 .651 885 44°3 1094 2541 710 r 168 1164 1494 1169 2058 582 745 581 1210 745 499 1494 369 1412 2819 1123 359 Total, 59,268 Population in 179c—1798 I5l8 775 4647 770 750 2872 S°9 1100 667 700 1200 1632 1607 68r 2000 380 830 I3I7 779 1281 1577 1725 4500 700 698 6776 1147 2360 956 I335 1025 2308 1800 375° 717 noo 1689 1150 1300 1450 2779 5l8 2425 3000 934 610 1200 75.544 59,268 Increafe, 16,276 AYRY, or Aery, of Hawks, a neft or company of hawks j fo called from the old French word a ire, which fignified the fame. AYSCUE, Sir George, a gallant Englifh admi¬ ral, defcended from a good family in Lincolnfliire. He obtained the honour of knighthood from King Charles I, which, however, did not withhold him from O 0 2 adhering A Z E [ 292 ] A Z O Ayfcue adhering to the parliament in the civil war: he was II by them conftituted admiral of the Irith feas, where Azem. js j.0 (]|)ne great fervice to the Proteilant intereft, and to have contributed much to the reduc¬ tion of the whole illand. In 1651 he reduced Bar- badoes and Virginia, then held for the king, to the obedience of the parliament : and foon after the re¬ iteration behaved wdth great honour in the war with the Dutch. In the famous engagement in the begin¬ ning of June 1666, when Sir George was admiral of the white fquadron, his (hip the Royal Prince ran up¬ on the Gallop-fand; where, being furrounded with ene¬ mies, his men obliged him to ftrike. He went no more to fea after this, but fpent the reft of his days in retire¬ ment. AYMOUTH. See Eymouth. AYTONI A. See Botany Index. AZAB, in the Turkilh armies, a diftin£t body of foldiery, who are great rivals of the Janizaries. AZAI, a town of Touraine in France, feated on the river Indre. E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 47. 18. AZALEA, American Upright Honeysuckle. See Botany Index. AZAMOR, a fmall fea-port town of the kingdom of Morocco in Africa. It is fituated on the river Mor- beya, in the province of Duguella, at fome confiderable diftance from its mouth. This town, though formerly very confiderable, is not proper for maritime commerce, becaufe the entrance of the river is dangerous. It was unfuccefsfully befieged by the Portuguefe in 1508 ; it was taken, however, in 1513, by the duke of Bragan- za, but abandoned about the end of the 16th century. W. Long. 7. c. N. Lat. 32. 50. AZ ARAKITES, a fed! of Mahometan Arabs. See Arabia, N° 143, etfeq. AZ ARIAH, or UzziAH, king of Judah, fucceeded his father Amaziah, 810 years before Chrift. He af- fembled an army of above 300,000 men, with which he conquered the Philiftines, and demoliflied the walls of Gath, Jabniel, and Aftidod •, built up the walls of Je- rufalem ; furniftied the city with conduits; and planted gardens and vineyards: but at laft, being elated with his profperity, and refolving to ufurp the office of high- prieft, he was ftruck with a leprofy, which obliged him to remain (hut up in his palace for the reft of his days. He died about 759 years before the Chriftian era, and was fucceeded by Jotham his fon.—There are feveral other perfons of this name mentioned in the facred Scriptures. AZAZEL. The word relates to the hiftory of the fcape-goat, under the Jewiffi religion. Some call the goat itfelf by this name, as St Jerome and Theodoret. Dr Spenfer fays, the fcape-goat was to be lent to Aza- zel; by which is meant the devil. Mr Le Clerc tranf- lates it prcecipitium, making it to be that fteep and inac- ceffible place to which the goat was fent, and where it was fuppofed to perilh. AZEKA, in Ancient Geography, a city of the Amo- rites, in the lot of Judah*, fituated between Eleuthero- polis and Ailia (Jerome) j where the five kings of the Amorites and their army were deftroyed by hailftones from heaven, (Joftiua). AZEM, Asem, Assam, or Acham, a country of Afia to the north of Ava, but which is very little known to Europeans. It is laid to be very fertile, and Z to contain mines of gold, filver, iron, and lead, all which belong to the king, who, in conlequence of enjoying the produce, requires no taxes from his peo¬ ple. They have alfo great quantities of gum lac, and coarfe filk. It is alfo thought that the inhabitants of Azem were long ago the inventors of cannon and gun-powder ; and that from them the invention paired to the inhabitants of Pegu, and from thence to the Chinefe. AZIMUTH, in AJironomy, an arch of the horizon, intercepted between the meridian of the place and the azimuth, or vertical circle paffing through the centre of the objeft, which is equal to the angle of the ze¬ nith, formed by the meridian and vertical circle: or it is found by this proportion, As the radius to the tangent of the latitude of the place, fo is the tangent of the fun’s or liar’s altitude, for inftance, to the cofine of the azimuth from the fouth, at the time of the equi¬ nox. Magnetical AZIMUTH, an arch of the horizon inter¬ cepted between the azimuth, or vertical circle, paffing through the centre of any heavenly body and the mag ¬ netical meridian. This is found by obferving the objed with an azimuth-compafs. AZIMUTH-Compafs, an inftrument for finding either the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of a heavenly ob- jed. The learned Dr Knight invented fome time finee a very accurate and ufeful fea-compafs, which is at pre- fent ufed in the navy. This inftrument, with another invented by the ingenious Mr Smeaton, anfvvers the purpofes of an azimuth amplitude compafs. See Com- Azem II A zeres. PASS. AZIMUTH Circles, called alfo azimuths, or vertical circles, are great circles of the fphere interfeding each other in the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right angles. Thefe azimuths are reprefented by the rhumbs on common fea-ebarts, and on the globe they are reprefented by the quadrant of altitude, when ferewed in the zenith. On thefe azimuths is reckoned the height of the liars and of the fun when not in the meridian. AZMER, a town of the Eaft Indies in the dominions of the Great Mogul, capital of a province of the fame name, with a very ftrong caftle. It is pretty large, and fometimes vifited by the Mogul himfelf. It is about 62 leagues diftant from Agra. The principal trade of this province is in faltpetre. AZOGA ships, are thofe Spaniffi Ihips commonly called the quickjilver [hips, from their carrying quick- filver to the Spaniffi Weft Indies, in order to extrad the filver out of the mines of Mexico and Peru. Thefe ffiips, ftridly fpeaking, are not to carry any goods un- lefs for the king of Spain’s account. AZONI, in ancient mythology, a name applied by the Greeks to fuch of the gods as w’ere deities at large, not appropriated to the worffiip of any particular town Or country, but acknowledged in general by all coun¬ tries, and worffiipped by every nation. Thefe the La¬ tins called dii communes. Of this fort were the Sun, Mars, Luna, &c. AZORES, illands in the Atlantic ocean, lying be¬ tween 25 and 33 degrees of weft longitude, and be¬ tween 36 and 40 degrees of north latitude. They belong to the Portuguefe, and are alfo called the Wejlern A 2 U A'zores Azure. Wejiern Ifies, on account of their fituation. difcovered by the Flemings in the 15th century. They are feven in number, viz. Tercera, St Michael’s, St Mary’s, Graciofa, St George’s Ifland, Pico, and Fayal. AZOTH, in Ancient Chemi/iry, the firft matter of metals, or the mercury of a metal ; more particularly that which they call the mercury of philofophers, which they pretended to draw from all forti of metallic bo¬ dies. AZOTUS, Azoth, or Ashdod, one of the five cities of the Philiftines, and a celebrated fea-port on the Mediterranean, fituated about 14 or 15 miles fouth of Ekron, between that and Afcalon. It was in this city that the idol Dagon fell down before the ark : and fo ftrong a place it was, if we may believe He¬ rodotus, that it fuftained a fiege of 29 years by Pfam- meticus king of Egypt. It was, however, taken by the Maccabees in a much fhorter time j who burnt both the city and temple, and with them about 1000 men. The town is now called by the Arabs Aafa- neyun. It is but thinly inhabited, though the fitua¬ tion is very pleafant : with regard to the houfes, thofe that were built in the time of Chriftianity, and which are now inhabited by Mahometans, ftill preferve fome claim to admiration •, but the modern buildings, though generally of ftone, have nothing in them which can attradl; the notice of a traveller. The ftreets are pret¬ ty broad, the inhabitants mollly Mahometans, with a few Chriftians of the Greek communion, who have a church under the jurifdidlion of the archbilhop of Ga¬ za. The town is about a mile and a half in circumfe¬ rence ; and has in it a mofque, a public bath, a mar¬ ket-place, and two inns. The number of the inhabi¬ tants is between two and three thoufand. The moft re¬ markable things in this place are an old ftrufture with fine marble pillars, which the inhabitants fay was the houfe that Sampfon pulled down : and to the fouth-eaft, juft out of the town, the water in which the eunuch Candace was baptized by the apoftle Philip : befides thefe two, there are feveral ancient buildings, with ca¬ pitals and pillars Handing. AZURE, in a general fenfe, the blue colour of the fky. See Sky and Blue. Azure, among painters. This word, which at pre- fent fignifies in general a fine blue colour, was formerly applied to /apis la%uli, called a’zureJione, and to the blue prepared from it. But fince a blue has been ex¬ tracted from cobalt, cuftom has applied to it the name of wzure, although it differs confiderably from the for- [ 293 ] A Z Y They were mer, and is incapable of being ufed for the fame pur- Azure- pofes, and particularly for painting in oil. The former || at prefent is called lapis lu%uli, or only lapis ; and the Azymous. blue prepared from it for painting in oil, is called ultra- v marine.—The name a%ure is generally applied to the blue glafs made from the earth of cobalt and vitrifiable matters. This glafs, which is called fmait when in mafles, is called azure only when it is reduced to a fine powder. Several kinds of azure are diftinguiftied, ac¬ cording to its degrees of beauty, by the names of fine azure, powdered azure, and azure offour fires. In ge¬ neral, the more intenfe the colour, and the finer the powder, the more beautiful and dear it is. Azure is employed to colour ft arch ; hence it has alfo been calh e&fiarch blue. It is ufed for painting with colours, and for a blue enamel. Azure, in Heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of any perfon below the rank of a baron. In the ef- cutcheon of a nobleman, it is called fapphire; and in that of a fovereign prince, Jupiter. In engraving, this colour is exprefled by lines or ftrokes drawn horizon¬ tally.—This colour may fignify Juftice, Perfeverance, and Vigilance j but according to G. Leigh, when com¬ pounded with Or ^ ' Cheerfulnefs. Arg. j ” Vigilance. Gul. ! •'g Readinefs. Ver. j ts31 Enterprife. . Pur ! ^ Goodnefs. Mournfulnefs. Sab. J The French heralds, M. Upton, and his followers, rank this colour before gules. AZYGOS, in Anatomy, a vein rifing within the thorax, on the right fide, having no fellow on the left; whence it is called azygos, or vena fine pari. AZYMITES, in church hiftory, Chriftians who adminiller the eucharift with unleavened bread. The word is formed from the Greek a, priv. and £vpy\, fer¬ ment.—This appellation is given to the Latin by the Greek ch urch, becaufe the members of the former ufe fermented bread in the celebration of the eucharift. They alfo call the Armenians and Maronites by the fame name, and for the fame reafon. AZYMOUS, fomething unfermented, or made with¬ out leaven *, as unleavened bread. Sea bifeuit is of this kind ; and therefore, according to Galen, lefs whole- fome than bread that has been fermented. "D THE fecond letter of the Englifh and moft other 9 alphabets. It is the firft confonant, and firft mute, and its pronunciation is fuppofed to refemble the bleating of a fheep •, upon which account Pierius tells us in his hieroglyphics, that the Egyptians repre- fented the found of this letter by the figure of that ani¬ mal. B is alfo one of thofe letters which the eaftern gram¬ marians call labial, becaufe the principal organs em¬ ployed in its pronunciation are the lips. It is pronoun¬ ced .i BAA [ 294 ] BAB Baal. ced by preffing the whole length of them together, and forcing them open with a ftrong breath. It has a near affinity with the other labials P and V, and is often ufed for P both by the Armenians and other orientals, as in Betrus for Petrus, apfens for abfens, &c. and by the Romans for V, as in amabit for amavit, berna for verna, &c. whence arofe that jell of Aure- lian on the emperor Bonofus, Non ut vivat natus ejl, fed ut bibat. Plutarch obferves, that the Macedonians changed

6V for TTlZgOV, &c.—The Latins faid fuppono, oppono, for fubpono, obpono ; and pronounced optinuit, though they wrote obtinuit, as Quintilian has obferved.—They alfo ufed B for F or PH: thus, in an ancient infcription mentioned by Gru- ter, Obrendario is ufed for Ofrendario. As a numeral, B was ufed by the Greeks and He¬ brews to denote 2 •, but among the Romans for 300, and with a daffi over it (thus b ) for 3000. B is alfo ufed as an abbreviation. Thus B. A. ftands for bachelor of arts •, B. L. for bachelor of laws ; and B. D. for bachelor of divinity. B. F. in the preface to the decrees or fenatus confulta of the old Romans, fignified bonum faElum. In mufic, B ftands for the tone above A j as Bb, or bB, does for B flat, or the femitone major above A. B alfo ftands for bafs $ and B. C. for bafo continuo, or thorough-bafs. BAAL, the fame as Bel, or Belus ; an idol of the Chaldeans, and Phoenicians or Canaanites. The former worfhipped Mars under this name, according * Antiquit. \.o Jofephus* •, who, fpeaking of Thurus the fucceffor lib. viii.cap. 0f Ninus, fays, “ To this Mars the Aflyrians ere&ed the firft ftatue, and worlhipped him as a god, calling him Baal.'1'1 It is probable the Phoenicians worlhipped the fun under the name of Baal ; for Jofiah, nulling to make fome amends for the wickednefs of Manafleh, in worftiipping Baal, and all the hoft of heaven, put to death the idolatrous priefs that burnt incenfe unto Baal, to the fun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the hoft of heaven, He likewife took away the Jiorfes that the kings of Judah had given to the fun, and burnt the , ^ jr jn s chariots of the fun with fire f. xxiii. 5. 11. The temples confecrated to this god, are called in the Scripture Chatnanim, which fignifies places enclofed with walls in which was kept a perpetual fire. Maund- rell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem, obferved fome traces of thefe enclofures in Syria. In moft of them were no ftatues j in a few there were fome, but of no uniform figure. The word baal (in the Punic language), fignifies lord or mafier ; and doubtlefs meant the fupreme Deity, the Lord and Mafter of the univerfe. It is often joined with the name of fome falfe god, as Baal-berith, Baal- peor, Baal %ephon, and the like. This deity pafied from the Phoenicians to the Carthaginians, who were a colony of the Phoenicians; as appears from the Cartha¬ ginian names, Hannibal, Afdrubal, &c. according to the cuftom of the eaft, where kings and great men added to their own names thofe of their gods. This falfe deity is frequently mentioned in Scripture in the plural number (Baalini) ; which may fignify, ei¬ ther that the name Baal was given to feveral different gods ; or that there were many ftatues, bearing differ- 3 ent appellations, confecrated to this idol. Arnobius Baal tells us, that Baal was of an uncertain fex; and that || his votaries, when they called upon him, invoked him, Babel, thus : Hear us, whether thou art a god or a goddefs. v f Some learned men think, that the Baal of the Phoe¬ nicians is the Saturn of the Greeks ; which is probable enough from the conformity there is between the hu¬ man facrifices offered to Saturn and thofe which the Scripture tells us were offered to Baal. Others are of opinion, that Baal was the Phoenician or Tyrian Her¬ cules, a god of great antiquity in Phoenicia. Baal-berith, the god of the Shechemites. Bo- chart conjedlures, that Berith is the fame as Beroe, the daughter of Venus and Adonis, who was given in marriage to Bacchus ; and that (he gave her name to the city of Berith in Phoenicia, and became afterwards the goddefs of it. Baal-berith, fignifies Lord of the co¬ venant, and may be taken for the god who prefide-s over alliances and oaths, in like manner as the Greeks had their Zev; and the Romans their Deus Fidi- us, or Jupiter Pifiius. The idolatrous Ifraelites, we are told, made Baal-berith their god, Judg. viii. 33. Baal-peor, Baal-phegor, or Beel-phegcr, an idol of the Moabites and Midianites. We are told, that Ifrael joined himfelf to Baal-peor; and that Solomon eredled an altar to this idol upon the mount of Olives. Baal-peor has been fuppofed to be no other than a Priapus, and that the worftiip of him confifted in the moft obfeene pradlices. Others have thought, that as Baal is a general name fignifying Lord, Peor may be the name of fome great prince deified after his death. Mede imagines, that Peor being the name of a mountain in the country of Moab, on which the tem¬ ple of Baal was built, Baal-peor may be only another name' of that deity, taken from the fituation of his temple ; in like manner as Jupiter is ftyled Olympius, becaufe he was worlhipped in a temple built on Mount Olympus, Selden, who is of this latter opinion, con- jeftures likewife, that Baal-peor is the fame with Plu¬ to ; which he grounds upon thefe words of the Pfal- mift *, They joined themfelves unto Baal-peor, and ate * Pfalm cvi» the offerings of the dead ; though by the facrifices or of¬ ferings of the dead, in this paffage, may be meant no more than facrifices or offerings made to idols, or falfe gods, who are very properly called the dead, in con- tradiftin&ion to the true God, who is ftyled in Scrip¬ ture the living God. Baal-ZEBUB, Beel-%ebub, or Belxebub; the idol, or god, of the Ekronites. In Scripture he is called the Prince of Devils. His name is rendered the Lord of flies, or the God-fiy ; which fome think was a mock appellation beftowed on him by the Jews. He had a famous temple and oracle at Ekron. Ahaziah king of Ifrael, having fallen from the terrace of his houfe ipto a lower room, and being dangeroufly hurt, fent to confult this deity, to know if he ffiould be cured of his wounds. The worftiip of this falfe god muft have prevailed in our Saviour’s time, fince the Jews accufed him of driving out devils in the name of Bel%ebub their prince. Scaliger derives the name of this deity from Baalim %ebahim, which fignifies the Lord of facri¬ fices. BABBLING, among hunters, is when the hounds are too bufy after they have found a good feent. BABEL, a city and tower undertaken to be built by BAB [ 295 ] BAB Babel, by the whole human race foon after the flood, and re- y——1 markable for the miraculous fruftration of the attempt by the confulion of languages. As to the fituation of ancient Babel, moft authors are of opinion that it was exaflly in the place where the celebrated city of Baby¬ lon afterwards flood. That it was in the fame country, appears indifputably from Scripture; but that it was exa&ly in the fame place is what cannot be proved, nor is it a matter of any confequence. Authors have been much divided about the motive by which the whole race of mankind were induced to join as one man in fuch an -undertaking. Some have imagined that it was out of fear of a fecond deluge 5 others, that they knew beforehand that they Avere to be difperfed through all the different countries of the world, and built this tower in order to defeat the defign of the Deity, becaufe having a tower of fuch vaft height as they propofed, thofe who were at a diffance could eafily find their way back again. Had either of thefe been their defign, however, it is probable they would have chofen an eminence rather than a plain for the fi¬ tuation of their tower, or indeed that they would have chofen fome high mountain, fuch as Ararat, for their mark, rather than any tower at all : for though it is faid that they defigned the top of their tower to reach to heaven, we can fcarcely fuppofe them to have been fo abfurd, as to imagine this poflible in the fenfe we underftand it ; and muff therefore rather take it in the limited fenfe in which it is often ufed by Mofes and his countrymen, where they fpeak of cities walled up to heaven. Others there are who imagine that the top of this tower was not to reach up to heaven, but to be confecrated to the heavens, i. e. to the worfiiip of the fun, moon, and flars 5 of the fire, air, &c. and other natural powers, as deities; and therefore that the true Deity interpofed in order to prevent a total and irrecoverable defe£lion. Certain it is, that the fpecies of idolatry which takes for the objects of its worfhip thofe natural agents, as it is the molt ancient, fo it is by far the moft rational, and the moft difficult to be difproved. It is much more difficult, for inftance, to prove that the fun, which by his enlivening beams gives vigour to the whole creation, is not a deity, than that a log of wood is not one : and hence if fuch a fy- ftem of religion became univerfally eftablilhed among mankind, it would be impoffible ever afterwards to eradicate it. Indeed, that the fcheme of Babel, what¬ ever it was, could have been put into execution by man, feems evident from the interpofition of the Deity on the occafion j for wTe cannot fuppofe that he would have Avorked a miracle on purpofe to defeat that which would have defeated itfelf if he had let it alone : and he ex- prefsly fays, That now nothing could be reftrained from them j which intimates very plainly, that, had this fcheme gone on, the plan which God had laid for the government of the world would have been totally fru- ftrated : and agreeable to this hypothefis Dr Tennifon fuppofes that the tower was of a pyramidal form, in imi¬ tation of the fpires of flame 5 and that it was ere&ed in honour of the fun, as being the moft probable caufe of drying up the flood. As to the materials made ufe of in the building of this tower, the Scripture informs us that they were bricks and flime or bitumen. According to an eaftern tradition, three years were taken up in making, the bricks, each of which was 13 cubits long, 10 broad, Babel and five thick. Oriental writers fay, that the city was [] 313 fathoms in length, and 151 in breadth j that the ^a^'ngton* Avails were 5533 fathoms high, and 33 in breadth j " v and that the tower itfelf Avas no lefs than 10,000 fa¬ thoms, or 12 miles high. Even St Jerome affirms from the teftimony of eye-witneffes, Avho as he fays had ex¬ amined the remains of the torver, that it Avas four miles high 5 but Ado makes the height to have been no lefs than 5000 miles. The only account of its dimenfions Avhich can be at all depended upon (fuppofing it to have been the fame Avhich afterwards flood in the midft of the city of Babylon, and round which Nebuchadnezzar built the temple of Belus), is that given under the ar¬ ticle Babylon. BABEL MandEl, the Gate of Mourning ; a famous ftrait in the Indian ocean, between the coaft of Arabia Felix in Afia, and that of Adel and Zeila in Africa, at the entrance into the Red fea. By fome it is alfo called the Jlraits of Moka. It is narrow, and difficult to fail through, on account of the fand banks. At the mouth of the ftrait is a fmall ifland called alfo Babel Mandel, Avhich is little elfe than a barren rock. E. Long. 44. 36. N. Lat. 12. 40. BABENHAUSEN, a toAvnof Germany in Suabia. E. Long. 9. 16. N. Lat. 48. 39. BABIN A, Commonwealth of, a fociety ludicrouf- ly fo called, Avhich Avas founded in Poland in the reign of Sigifmund Auguftus, in the 16th century. It took its rife from a fet of gentlemen, inhabitants of Lublin, who had agreed to meet at a place called Babina, merely for the purpofes of mirth and jollity. In time their number increafed, and they formed themfelves into a regular government, under the prefidency of a king, fenate, and chief magiftrate. The magiftrates Avere elected from fomething which appeared ridiculous in the chara&er or conduft of any of the members. For inftance, if any perfon was meddling or officious, he Avas immediately created an archbilhop; a blun¬ dering or difputatious member Avas promoted to the fpeaker’s chair ; a boafter of his OAvn courage, and vain glorious Thrafo, was honoured vvith the commif- fion of generaliffimo, which Avas prefented him with great ceremony by the fubordinate heroes. Thofe Avho declined the office for which they Avere declared qualified Avere perfecuted with hidings, and abandon¬ ed by the fociety. Thus every vice and every foible Avas attacked with ridicule j and Babina became in a fliort time the terror, the admiration, and the reform¬ er of the Poliffi nation : genius flourilhed, Avit Avas cultivated, and the abufes Avhich had crept into govern¬ ment and fociety Avere correfted by the judicious ap¬ plication of good-humoured fatire. Never did any inftitution of this nature become fo general or fo ufe- ful but at length it degenerated into a fet of buffoons, and banterers of every thing facred or profane. For feveral years it Avas patronized by the kings of Po¬ land, and Sigifmund himfelf became a member ■, the ftarofta of Babina telling him jocularly, that “ his majefty had certain qualities which entitled him to the firft dignity in the commonwealth.” Not the leaft remnant of the fociety novv remains, though it was honoured with extraordinary privileges by kings and emperors. BABINGTON, Gervase, bifliop of Worcefter, was,- BAB [ 295 ] BAB Babington was born, according to Fuller, in Nottingbamlhire j 11 but in what year is uncertain. He was fent to i ri- > Babylon. College, Cambridge, of which he was made fellow j 'v and, in 157B, was incorporated mafter of arts at Ox¬ ford. He appears, however, to have made Cambridge the place of his refidence, where he became an eminent preacher j and, being now doctor in divinity, was made domeftic chaplain to Henry earl of Pembroke. In this ftation he is fuppofed to have affifted the countefs in her tranflation of the Pfalms. In 1588 he was inliall- ed prebend of Hereford, and in 1591 confecrated bilhop of Landaff. In 1564 he was tranilated to the fee of Exeter, and thence to Worcefter in 1597. About this time, or foon after, he was made queen’s counfel for the marlhes of Wales. He was a confiderable be¬ nefactor to the library belonging to the cathedral of Worcefter, where he was buried in May 1610 with¬ out a monument. The feveral hiftorians who have mentioned this prelate agree in giving him the cha¬ racter of a learned and pious man. His writings, like thofe of moft of his cotemporaries, abound with puns and quaint expreflions. His works were printed both in folio and quarto in 1615, and again in folio in 1637, under this title : The works of the right reverend father in God Gervafe Babington, late hi [hop of Worcejler, con¬ taining comfortable notes upon the five books of Mofes, vita. Genefis, b'c. As alfo an expofition upon the Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer ; with a con¬ ference betwixt man's frailtie and faith, and three fer- tnons, iffc. BABOON, in 'Zoology. See Simia, Mammalia Index. BABYLON, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Babylonia or Chaldea, and fuppofed to have ftood in E. Long. 44. o. N. Lat. 32. o. Semiramis is faid by fome, and Belus by others, to have founded this city. But, by whomfoever it was founded, Nebuchadnezzar was the perfon who put the laft hand to it, and made it one of the wonders of the world. The moft famous works in and about it were the walls of the city, the temple of Belus, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, the hang¬ ing gardens, the banks of the river, the artificial lake, 1 and canals. City de- The city was furrounded with walls, in thicknefs 87 fcnbed. £eet} in height 3 50 feet, and in compafs 480 furlongs or 60 of our miles. Thus Herodotus, who was him- felf at Babylon j and though fome difagree with him in thefe dimenfions, yet moft writers give us the fame, or nearly the fame, as he does. Diodorus Siculus dimi- niflres the circumference of thefe walls very confidera- bly, and takes fomewhat from the height of them, as in Herodotus •, though he feems to add to their breadth, by faying, that fix chariots might drive abreaft thereon : while the former writes, that one chariot only might turn upon them ; but then he places buildings on each fide of the top of thefe walls, which, according to him, were but one ftory high *, which may pretty well recon¬ cile them together in this refpedf. It is obferved, that thofe who give the height of thefe walls but at 50 cu¬ bits, fpeak of them only as they were after the time of Darius Hyftafpis, who caufcd them to be beaten down to that level. Thefe walls formed an exaft fquare, each fide of which was 120 furlongs, or 15 miles, in length ; and were all built of large bricks cemented to¬ gether with bitumen, which in a (hort time grows harder than the very brick and ftone which it cements. The Babylon, city was encompafied, without the walls, with a vaft ditch filled with water, and lined with bricks on both fides •, and as the earth that was dug out of it ferved to make the bricks, we may judge of the depth and largenefs of the ditch from the height and thicknels of the walls. In the whole compafs of the wall there were IOO gates, that is, 25 on each of the four fides, all made of folid brafs. Between every two of thefe gates, at proper diftances, were three towers, and four more at the four corners of this great fquare, and three be¬ tween each of thefe coVners and the next gate on either fide, and each of thefe towers was ten feet higher than the walls. But this is to be' underltood only of thofe parts of the walls where towers were needful for de¬ fence. For fome parts of them being upon a morafs, and inacceflible by an enemy, there the labour and coft was fpared, which, though it muft have fpoiled the fym- melry of the whole, muft be allowed to have favoured of good economy 5 though that is what one would not have expected from a prince w-ho had been fo deter¬ mined, as Nebuchadnezzar muft have been, to make the city complete both for ftrength and beauty. The whole number, then, of thefe towers amounted to no more than 250-, whereas a much greater number would have been necefiary to have made the uniformity com¬ plete all round. From each of the 25 gates on each fide of the fquare, there was a ftraight ftreet, extending to the correfponding gate in the oppofite wall; whence the whole number of the ftreets muft have been but 50 5 but then they were each about 15 miles long, 25 °f them croffing the other 25 exa£Uy at right angles. Befides thefe whole ftreets, we muft reckon four half ftreets, which were but rows of houfes facing the four inner fides of the walls. Thefe four half ftreets were properly the four fides of the city within the walls, and were each of them 200 feet broad, the whole ftreets being about 150 of the fame. By this inter- feflion of the 50 ftreets, the city was divided into 676 fquares, eacb of four furlongs and a half on each fide, or two miles and a quarter in compafs. Round thefe fquares, on every fide towards the ftreets, ftood the houfes, all of three or four ftories in height, and beautified with all manner of ornaments •, and the ipace within each of thefe fquares was all void, and taken up by yards, or gardens, and the like, either for plea- fure or convenience. A branch of the Euphrates divided the city into two, running through the midft of it, from north to fouth ; over which, in the very middle of the city, was a bridge, a furlong in length, or rather more 5 and in¬ deed much more, if we hearken to others, who fay it was no lefs than five ftades or furlongs in length, though but 30 feet broad, a difference we (hall never be able to decide. This bridge, however, is faid to have been built with wonderful art, to fupply a defeft in the bot¬ tom of the river, which was ad fandy. At each end of this bridge were two palaces : the old palace on the eaft fide, the new one on the weft fide of the river*, the former of which took up four of the fquares above- mentioned, and the latter nine. The temple of Belus, which ftood next to the old palace, took up another of the fame fquares. The whole city ftood in a large flat or plain, in a very fat and deep foil: that part or half of it on the eaft BAB Babylon Was never fully peo- jjlled. Temple of Belus. eaft fide of the river was the old city, and the other on ' the weft was added by Nebuchadnezzar, both beino- included within the vaft fquare bounded by the walls aforefaid. The form of the whole was feemingly bor¬ rowed from Nineveh, which was alfo 480 furlongs 5 but though it was equal in dimenfions to this city, it was lefs with refpedl to its form, which was a parallelogram, whereas that of Babylon was an exaft fquare. It is fuppofed, that Nebuchadnezzar, who had deftroyed that old feat of the Aftyrian empire, propofed that this new one fhould rather exceed it ; and that it was in order to fill it with inhabitants, that he tranfported fugh numbers of the captives from other countries hither ; though that is what may be difputed, feeing he therein only followed the conftant praftice of the kings of Af- fyria, who thought this the molt certain means of enfu- ring their conquefts either to themfelves or their pofte- rity. But it plainly appears, that it was never wholly in¬ habited 5 fo that, even in the meridian of its glory, it may be compared with the flower of the field, which flourifhes to-day, and to-morrow is no more. It never had time to grow up to what Nebuchadnezzar vifibly intended to have made it ; for, Cyrus removing the feat of the empire foon after to Shuflian, Babylon fell by degrees to utter decay : yet it muft be owned, that no country u'as better able to fupport fo vaft and popu¬ lous a city, had it been completed up to its firft defign. But fo far was it from being finifhed according to its original defign, that, when Alexander came to Baby¬ lon, Q. Curtius tells us, “ No more than 90 furlongs of it wrere then built which can be no otherwife un- derftood than of fo much in length ; and, if we allow the breadth to be as much as the length (which is the utmoft that can be allowed), it will follow, that no more than 8100 fquare furlongs were then built up¬ on : but the whole fpace within the walls contained 14,400 fquare furlongs ; and therefore there muft have been 6300 fquare furlongs remaining unbuilt, which, Curtius tells us, Avere ploughed and fown. And, befides this, the houfes wrere not contiguous, but all built with a void fpace an each fide, between houfe and houfe. The next great work of Nebuchadnezzar was the temple of Belus. The wonderful tower, however, that flood in the middle of it, was not his work, but was built many ages before ; that, and the famous tower of Babel, being, as is commonly fuppofed, one and the fame ftrufture. This tower is faid to have been compofed of eight pyramidal ones raifed above one another, and by Herodotus faid to have been a furlong in height ; but as there is an ambiguity in his expref- fion, it has been difputed whether each of the towers was a furlong in height, or the whole of them taken together. On the latter fuppofition, which is the moft probable, this tower muft have exceeded the high- eft of the Egyptian pyramids by 179 feet, though it fell Ihort of its breadth at the balls by 33. The way to go up was by ftairs on the outfide round it j whence it feems moft likely, that the whole afcent was, by the benching in, drawn in a Hoping line from the bottom to the top eight times round it 5 and that this made tne appearance of eight towers, one above the other. I ill the times of Nebuchadnezzar, it is thought this tower was all the temple of Belus; but as he did by Vol. III. Part I. 1 297 ] BAB the other ancient buildings of the city, fo he did by Babylon. this, making great additions thereto, by vaft edifices y eredled round it, in a fquare of two furlongs on every fide, and juft a mile in circumference, which exceeded the fquare at the temple of Jerufalem by 1800 feet. On the outfide of thefe buildings was a wall which en- cloled the whole ; and, in conlideration of the regula¬ rity wherewith this city was to all appearance marked out, it is fuppofed, that this wall was equal to the fquare of the city wherein it flood, and fo is concluded to have been two miles and a half in circumference. In this rvall were feveral gates leading into the temple, and all of folid brafs j which it is thought may have been made out of the brazen fea, and brazen pillars, and other veflels and ornaments of the kind, which Ne¬ buchadnezzar had tranfported from .lerufalem j for in. tnis temple he is faid to have dedicated his fpoils from that of Jerufalem. In this temple were feveral images or idols of mafly Idols^of gold, and one of them, as we have feen, 40 feet in See. height ; the fame, as fuppofed, with that which Nebu¬ chadnezzar confecrated in the plains of Dura. For though this laft is faid to have been 60 cubits, or 90 feet high, thefe dimenfions appear fo incredible, that it has been attempted to reconcile them into one, by fup- pofing, that in the 90 feet the height of the pedeftal is included, and that the 40 feet are for the height of the ftatue without the pedeftal $ and being faid to have weighed 1000 talents of Babylon, it is thence comput¬ ed, that it was worth three millions and a half of our money. In a word, the whole weight of the ftatues and decorations, in Diodorus Siculus, amounting to 5000 and odd talents in gold, the whole is eftimated at above 2i,ooo,oool. of our money j and a fum about equal to the fame, in treafure, utenfils, and ornaments, not men* tinned, is allowed for. Next to this temple, on the eaft fide of the river, flood the old palace of the kings of Babylon, being four miles in circumference. Exa g$ to be fung by a chorus of virgins at feftivals. The chio- nology of Eufebius places the birth of Bacchylides in the 82d Olympiad, about 4^0 B. C. B ACCIO, or Baccius, Andrew, a celebrated phy- fician of the 16th century, born at St Elpideo. He pradlifed phyfic at Rome with great reputation, and was firft phyfician to Pope Sixtus V. The moft fcarce and valuable of his works are, 1. De Thermis. 2. De Na- turali Vinorum Hi/foria. 3. De Venenis et Antidotis. 4. De Gemmis ac Lapidibus Pretio/is. Baccio, Fra. Bartolomeo, called Bartelemi di S. Marco, a celebrated painter of hiftory and portrait, ■was born at Savignano near Florence in 1469, and was a difciple of Cofumo Rofelli ; but his principal knowledge in the art of painting was derived from Leonardo da Vinci. He underftood the true principles of defign better than moft mailers of his time, and was alfo a confiderable painter in perfpedlive ; which induced Raphael to have recourfe to him after he had quitted the fchool of Perugino ; and under his direc¬ tion likewife Raphael ftudied the art of managing and uniting colours, as well as the rules of perfpedlive. Some years after the departure of Raphael from Flo¬ rence, Baccio vifited Rome ; and by the obfervations he made on the antiques, and the works of Raphael which were then the admiration of the whole world, he was extremely improved, and manifefted his ac¬ quired abilities by a piflure of S. Sebaftian, which he finifhed at his return to Florence. It was fo well defigned, fo naturally and beautifully coloured, and had fo ftrong an expreffion of pain and agony, that it was removed from the place where it was pub¬ licly feen (in the chapel of a convent), as it had been obferved to have made too ftrong an impreftion bn the imaginations of many women who beheld it. He was very laborious, and made nature his perpetual ftu- dyr; he defigned the naked correftly ; his figures had a great deal of grace, and his colouring was admirable. He is accounted to have been the firft inventor of that machine called a layman by the artifts, and which to this day is in general ufe. Upon that he placed his dra¬ peries, to obferve with greater exaflnefs their natural and their more elegant folds. A capital picture of the afeenfion by Baccio, is in the Florentine colledlion. He died in 1517. BACHELOR, or Batchelor, a common term for a man not married, or who is yet in a ftate of celi¬ bacy.—The Roman cenfors frequently impofed fines on old bachelors. Dion Halicarnafi'eus mentions an old conftitution, by which all perfons of full age were ob¬ liged to marry. But the moft; celebrated law of this kind, was that made under Auguftus, called the Lex Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus; by which bachelors were made incapable of legacies or inheritances by will, unlefs from.their near relations. This brought many to marry, according to Plutarch’s obfervation, not fo much for the fake of raifing heirs to their own eftates, as to make themfelves capable of inheriting thofe of other men.— The rabbins maintain, that, by the laws of Mofes, every body, except fome few pa iculars, is obliged in confcience to marry at 20 years of age : this makes Bichelot*, Bachelors BAG ftiakes one of their 613 precepts fo frequent among their cafuifts, that he who dots not take the neceffary meafures to leave heirs behind him, - is not a man, but ought to be reputed a homicide.— Lycurgus was not more favourable > by his laws, bachelors are branded with infamy, excluded from all offices civil and military, and even from the ffiows and public fports. At certain feafts they Were forced to appear, to be expofed to the public derifion, and led round the market place. At one of their feafts, the women led them in this condition to the altars, where they obliged them to make- amende honourable to nature, accompanied with a number of blows and lafties with a rod at difcretion. To complete the affront, they forced them to ling certain fongs compofed in their own deri¬ fion. The Chriftian religion is more indulgent to the bachelor ft ate : the ancient church recommended it as in fome circumftances preferable to, and more perfe6l than, the matrimonial. In the canon law, we find injunftions on bachelors, when arrived at puberty, either to marry or to turn monks and profefs chaftity in earneft.—In England, there was a tax on bachelors, after 25 years of age, 12I. 1 os. for a duke, a common perfon is. by 7 Will. III. 1695. In Britain, at prefent, they are taxed by an extra-duty on their fervants. Every man .of the age of 21 years and upwards, never having been married, who ffiall keep one male fervant or more, (hall pay il. 5s. for each above or in addition to the ordi¬ nary duties leviable for Servants. Every man of the age of 21 years and upwards, never having been mar¬ ried, keeping one female fervant, ffiall pay 2s. 6d. in addition to the former 2s 6d. \ 5s. in addition for each, if he has two female fervants •, and 10s. in addition for each for three or more female fervants. Bachelor, was anciently a denomination given to thofe who had attained to knighthood, but had not a number of vaffals fufficient to have their banner carried before them in the field of battle ; or if they were not of the order of bannerets, were not of age to difplay their own banner, but obliged to march to battle under another’s banner. It was alfo a title given to young cavaliers, who haying made their firft campaign, re¬ ceived the military girdle accordingly. And it ferved to denominate him who had overcome another in a tournament the firft time he ever engaged.—The word bachelor, in a military fenfe, is derived by Cujas from bucce/arius, a kind of cavalry, anciently in great efteem. Du Cange deduces it from baccalaria, a kind of fees or farms, confifting of feveral pieces of ground, each whereof contained 12 acres, or as much as two oxen would plough j the pnffeffors of which baccalaria were called bachelors. Cafeneuve and Altaferra derive ba¬ chelor from baculus, or bacillus, “ a ftaff,” becaufe the young cavaliers exercifed themfelves in fighting with ftaves. Martinius derives it from bacca/aureus, i. e. bacca laurea donatus. in allufion to the ancient cuftom of crowning poets with laurel, baccis lauri, as was the cafe with Petrarch at Rome in 1341. Alciat and Vives are of the fame opinion : nor is this etymology -improbable. Knights-BACHELORS, the moft ancient, but the. loweft orders of knights in England ; known by the name of knights only. They are ftyled knights bachelors (according to fome) as denoting their degree, quafi has [ ] BAG Hence thofe maxims chevaliers; or, according toothers, becaufe this title Bachelors. does not defeend to their pofterity. —y-—j The cuftom of the ancient Germans was to give their young men a ftiield and a lance in the great coun¬ cil : this was equivalent to the toga virihs of the Ro¬ mans. Before this, they were not permitted to bear arms, but were accounted as part of the father’s houfe- hold •, after it, as part of the public. Hence fome de¬ rive the ufage of knighting, which has prevailed all over the weftern worldj fince its reduffion by colonies from thofe northern heroes. Knights are called in La¬ tin equites aurati; aurati, from the gilt fpurs they Wore } and equites, becaule they always ferved on horfe- back ; for it is obfervable, that almoft all nations call their knights by fome appellation derived from a horfe. They are aifo called in our law milites, becaufe they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal army, in virtue of their feudal tenures; one condition of which was, that every one who held a knight’s fee (which in Henry II.’s time amounted to 2cl. per an¬ num) was.obligcd to be knighted, and attend the king in his wars, or pay a fine for his non-compliance. I he exertion of this prerogrative, as an expedient to raife money in the reign of Charles I. gave great offence, though warranted by law and the recent example of Queen Elizabeth. At the Reftoration, it was, toge¬ ther with all other military branches of the feudal law, aboliffied ; and it now only exifts as an honorary title ; though, on account of its indiferiminate attain¬ ment, not very generally regarded. It is conferred indiferiminately upon gownfmen, burghers, and phyfi- cians, by the king’s lightly touching the perfon, who is then kneeling, on the right ffioulder with a drawn fword, and faying Rife, Sir. See the articles K.NIGHT and Nobility. Bachelors, in a univerfity fenfe, are perfons that have att-ained to the baccalaureate, or who have taken the firft degree in the liberal arts and fciences. The degree of bachelor was firft introduced in the 13th century by Pope Gregory IX. but it remains ftill unknown in Italy. At Oxford, before a perfon is en¬ titled to the degree of bachelor of arts, he muft have ftudied there four years ; three years more to become mailer of arts; and feven more to commence bachelor of divinity.—At Cambridge, to commence bachelor of arts, he muft have been admitted near four years j and above three years more before he commence mafter ; and feven more ftill to become bachelor of divinity. He may commence bachelor of law after having ftudied it fix years.—At Paris, to pafs bachelor in theology, a perfon muft have ftudied two years in philofophy and three years in theology, and held two a6!s of ex¬ amination in the Sorbonne.—Bachelors in the canon law are admitted after two years ftudy in the fame, and fuftaining an a£t according to the forms. A bachelor of phyfic muft have ftudied two years in medicine, after having been four years mafter of arts in the univerfity, and have flood an examination ; after which he is in¬ verted with the fur, in order to be licenfed.— In the univerfity of Paris, before the foundation of divinity- profefforffiips, thofe who had fiudied divinity fix years were admitted to go through their courfe, whence they were called baccalarii cur fores ; and as there were two courfes, the firft employed in explaining the Bible during BAG [ 305 ] BAG Bachelors during three fucceflive years, the fecond for explain- || ing the mafter of the fentences for one year, thofe who Back* . were in their Bible-courfe were called baccalarii Bib- ¥ iici, and thofe arrived at the fentences baccalarii fen- tentiariu And, laftly, thofe who had gone through both were denominated baccalarii formati, or formed bachelors. At prefent, formed bachelor denotes a perfon who has taken the degree regularly after the due courfe of ftudy and exercifes required by the ftatutes ; by way of oppofition to a current bachelor, who is admitted in the way of grace, or by diploma. We alfo find mention of bachelors of the church, baccalarii ecclefee. The bifhop with his canons and baccalarii, cum con/iho et confenfu omnium canonicorum fuorum et baccalariorum. Bachelors, in the livery companies of London, are thofe not yet admitted to the livery. Thefe compa¬ nies generally conlifc of a mafter, two wardens, the li¬ very, and the bachelors, who are yet but in expeftation of dignity in the company, and have their fun£Uon only in attendance on the mafter and wardens. They are alfo called yeomen. Bachelor is alfo a name given in the fix companies of merchants at Paris to the elders, and fuch as, having ferved the offices, have a right to be called by the ma¬ ilers and wardens to be prefent with them, and afiift them in fome of the funftions, particularly in what re¬ lates to the chef d'oeuvres or mafterpieces of fuch as are candidates for being admitted mafters. BACHERAC, a town of the palatinate of the Rhine, fituated on the weftern fhore of that river, in E. Long. 70, and N. Lat. 58°. It is remarkable for excellent wine, from thence called Bacherac. BACHIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, belonging to the Dutch 5 fituated under the equator, in E. Long. 1250. BACHU, a city of Shirvan in Perfia, and the beft haven in the Cafpian fea. It is defended by a double wall, as alfo by a ditch and redoubts, made by the Ruf¬ fians when they were mafters of the place. It had a fumptuous caftle, but it is reduced to a ruinous ftate by the Ruffians. Formerly many merchants refided here, and carried on a confiderable traffic in raw filk j but that commerce is now given up. All the coun¬ try round is much impregnated with fulphur, which renders the water very unpleafant. The neighbour¬ hood of this city fupplies the countries adjacent with naphtha, brimftone, and rock-falt 5 and is the only place thereabouts which produces faffron. Round Bachu are feveral very fteep craggy mountains, on which are ftrong watch-towers. E. Long. 49. 5. N. Lat. 40. o. BACK, BACK-Bone, or Spine. See Anatomy Index. Back, in the manege, and among farriers. A horfe’s back fhould be ftraight, not hollow, which is caWed. fiddle-backed: horfes of this kind are generally light, and carry their heads high, but want in ftrength and fervice. A horfe with a weak back is apt to Vol. III. Part I. ftumble. In the French riding-fchools, to mount a Eack- horfe d dos, is to mount him bare-backed, without a gammon, faddle. N BACK-Gammon, an ingenious game played with dice, upon a table, by two perfons. Manner of playing the game. The table is divided into two parts, upon which there are 24 black and white fpaces, called points. Each adverfary has 15 men, black and white, to diftinguifh them j and they are difpofed of in the following manner: Suppofing the game to be played in the right-hand table, two are placed upon the ace-point in the adverfary’s table, five upon the fix point in the oppofite table, three up¬ on the cinque point in the hithermoft table, and five on the fix point in the right-hand table. The grand objeft in this game is for each player to bring the men round into his right-hand table, by throwing with a pair of dice thofe throws that contribute towards it, and at the fame time prevent the adverfary doing the like. The firft beft throw upon the dice is efteemed aces, becaufe it flops fhe fix point in the outer table, and fecures the cinque in the thrower’s table $ whereby the adverfary’s two men upon the thrower’s ace point cannot get out with either quatre, cinque, or fix. This throw is an advantage often given to the antagonift by the fuperior player. When he carries his men home in order to lofe no point, he is to carry the moft diftant man to his adver- fary’s bar point, that being the firft ftage he is to place it on 5 the next ftage is fix points farther, viz. in the place where the adverfary’s five men are firft placed out of his tables. He muft go on in this method till all his men are brought home, except two, when by lofing a point, he may often fave the gammon, by throwing two fours or two fives. When a hit is only played for, he fhould endeavour to gain either his own or adverfary’s cinque point j and if that fails by his being hit by the adverfary, and he finds him forwarder than himfelf, in that cafe he muft throw more men into the adverfary’s tables; which is done in this manner: He muft put a man upon his cinque or bar point j and if the adverfary ne- gle&s to hit it, he may then gain a forward game in- ftead of a back game: but if the adverfary hits him, he fhould play for a back game j and then the greater number of men which are taken up makes his game the better, becaufe by thefe means he will preferve his game at home : and then he fhould endeavour to gain both his adverfary’s ace and trois points, or his ace and deuce points, and take care to keep three men upon the adverfary’s ace point, that in cafe he hits him from thence, that point may remain ftill fecure to himfelf. A back game fhould not be played for at the begin¬ ning of a fet, becaufe it would be a great difadvantage, the player running the rifk of a gammon to win a fingle hit. Rules for playing at fetting out all the throws on the dice, when the player is to play for a gajnmon or for a fngle hit (a), i. Two aces are to be played on the £) q cinque (a) The rules marked thus f are for a gammon only; thofe marked thus * are for a hit only. B A C [ 3°6 ] BAG Back- cinque point and bar point, for a gammon or for a gammon. hit. 2. Two fixes, to be played on the admfary’s """-V' bar point and on the thrower’s bar point, for a gam¬ mon or for a hit. 3* "f Two trois, to be played on the cinque point, and the other two on the trois point in his own tables, for a gammon only. 4. f Two deuces, to be played on the quatre point in his own tables, and two to be brought over from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables for a gammon only. 5. f Two fours, to be brought over from the five men placed in the adverfary’s table, and to be put upon the cinque point in his own tables for a gammon only. 6. Two fives, to be brought over from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be put on the trois point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 7. Size ace, he muft take his bar point for a gammon or for a hit. 8. Size deuce, a man to be brought from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be placed in the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 9. Six and three, a man to be brought from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he will go, for a gammon or for a hit. 10. Six and four, a man to be brought from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he will go, for a gammon or for a hit. 11. Six and five, a man to be carried from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he can go, for a gam¬ mon or for a hit. 12. Cinque and quatre, a man to be carried from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he can go, for a gammon or for a hit. I3- Cinque trois, to make the trois point in his table, for a gammon or for a hit. 14. Cinque deuce, to play two men from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 15* f Cinque ace, to bring one man from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables for the cinque, and to play one man down on the cinque point in his tnyn tables for the ace, for a gammon only. 16. Quatre trois, two men to be brought from the five placed in the adverfarv’s tables, for a gammon or for a hit. iy« Quatre deuce, to make the quatre point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 18. f Quatre ace, to play a man from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables for the quatre •, and for the ace, to play a man down upon the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon only. 19. •f Trdis deuce, two men to be brought from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon only. 20. Irbis ace, to make the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 21. f Deuce ace, to play one man from the five men placed In the adverfary’s table for the deuce 5 and for the ace to play a man down upon the cinque point in nis own tables, for a gammon only. 22. * Two trois, two of them to be played on the cinque point in his own tables, and with the other two he is to take the quatre point in the adverfary’s tables. 23. * Two deuces, two of them are to be played on the quatre point in his own tables, and with the other two he is to take the trois point in the adverfary’s tables. By playing thefe two cafes in this manner, the player avoids being fhut up in the adverfary’s tables, and has the chance of throwing out the tables to win the hit. 24. * Two fours, two of them are to take the ad¬ verfary’s cinque point in the adverfary’s tables, and for the othef two, two men are to be brought from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables. 25. * Cinque ace, the cinque fiiould be played from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and the ace from the adver¬ fary’s ace point. 26. * Quatre ace, the quatre to be played from the five men placed in the adverfary’s ace point. 27. * Deuce ace, the deuce to be played from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and the ace from the adverfary’s ace point. The three laft chances are played in this manner becaufe an ace being laid down in the adverfary’s tables, there is a probability of throwing deuce ace, trois deuce, quatre trois, or fize cinque, in two or three throws ; either of which throws fecuires a point, and gives the player the beft of the hit. Cautions, fo’c. The player muft underftand by the diredtions given to play for a gammon, that he is to make fome blots on purpofe, the odds being in his fa¬ vour that they are not hit : but if it fhould happen that any blot is hit, as in this cafe there will be three men in the adverfary’s tables, he muft then endeavour to fe- cure the adverfary’s cinque, quatre, or trois point, to prevent a gammon, and muft be very cautious of his fourth man’s not being taken up. He muft not crowd his game at any time if he can help it; that is to fay, he Humid not put many men either upon the trois or deuce points in his o\vn tables, being the fame as lofing thofe men, not having them in play. Befides, by crowding the game, and attempt¬ ing to fave a gammon, the player is often gammoned. His game being crowded in his own tables, the adver- fary has room to play as he thinks proper. The following calculations will (how the ocds of en¬ tering a fingle man upon any certain number of points ^ and accordingly the game (hould be played. It is neceffary to know that there are thirty-fix chances upon two dice, and the points that are upon thefe thirty-fix chances are as follow : Back¬ gammon. Viz. Points. 2 Aces - - 4 2 Deuces . - 8 2 Trois - - 12 2 FoUrs - - 16 2 Fives - - 20 2 Sixes - - 24 6 And 5 tudce - 22 6 And 4 twice - 20 6 And 3 twice - 18 6 And 2 twice - 16 6 And I twice - 14 5 And 4 twice - 18 5 And 3 twice - 16 5 And 2 twice - 14 5 And 1 twice - 12 4 And 3 twice - 14 4 And 2 twice - 12 4 And 1 twice - 10 3 And 2 twice - 10 3 And 1 twice - 8 2 And 1 twice - 6 Divide by 3i6)294)S and it proves, that upon an ave- 288 rage the player has a right to 8 points each throw. 6 Ths BAG Back- The chances upon two gammon. gammon are as follow : * mu 2 Sixes 2 Fives 2 Fours 2 Trois 2 Deuces f 2 Aces 6 And 5 tw 6 And 4 tw 6 And 3 tw 6 And 2 tw f 6 And i tw 5 And 4 tw 5 And 3 tw 5 And 2 tw f 5 And i tw 4 And 3 tw 4 And 2 tw f 4 And i tw 3 And 2 tw f 3 And i tw [ 3°y 1 BAC dice calculated for back- The odds of hitting with double dice are as follow : ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce ce 8 9 10 11 12 for ag. . to/ To hit upon for againft 7 is - 6 to 30 Or about 30 31 33 34 36 How to find out the odds of being hit upon a fix, by the table of thirty-fix chances. £ Sixes 5 6 11 *7 35 2 Trois 2 Deuces 6 And 5 twice 6 And 4 twice 6 And 3 twice 6 And 6 And And And 2 twice 1 twice 1 twice 2 twice 36 Which deducted from *7 36 As it may feem difficult to find out by this table of thirty-fix chances what are the odds of being hit upon a certain or flat die, let the following method be pur- fued. The player may obferve in the table that what are thus f marked are, f 2 Aces f 6 And 1 f 5 And 1 f 4 And I f 3 And 1 f 2 And 1 twice twice twice twice twice 19 5 to 2 2 I 3 2 If a player When deduced from Total, 11 •- 36 25 There remains So that it appears it is twenty-five to eleven againft hitting an ace upon a certain or flat die. The above method holds good with refpedl to any other flat die. For example what are the odds of en¬ tering a man upon 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 points ? Anfwer. To enter it upon 1 point is 2 points 3 4 5 for againft II to 25 20-l6 27 - 9 32 - 4 35 - i Or about - for ag. 4 to 9 5 4 3 1 8 1 35 1 The following table fhows the odds of hitting with any chance, in the reach of a Angle die. To hit upon 1 is - 2 3 4 5 6 - for againft II to 25 Or about - 12 *5 J5 I7 24 22 21 21 for ag. 4 to 9 2 3 1 ■ 2 ■ 5 ■ 5 ■ 7 7 9-' There remains By which it appears to be 19 to 17 againft being hit upon a fix. The odds on the hits. 2 Love is about 2 to 1 is 1 Love is - DireBions for the player to hear his men. has taken up two of the adverfary’s men, and happens to have twTo, three, or more points made in his own tables, he ftiould fpread his men, that he either may take a new point in his tables, or be ready to hit the man which the adverfary may happen to enter. If he finds upon the adverfary’s entering, that the game is upon a par, or that the advantage is on his own fide, he ftiould take the adverfary’s man up whenever he can, it being 25 to 11 that he is not hit : except when he is playing for a Angle hit only j then, if playing the throw otherwife gives him a better chance for it, he ought to do it. . being five to one againft his being hit with double dice, he fliould never be deterred from taking up any one man of the adverfary’s. If he has taken up one of the adverfary’s men, and fhould happen to have five points in his own tables, and forced to leave a blot out of his tables, he ffiould en¬ deavour to leave it upon doublets preferable to any other chance, becaufe in that cafe the odds are 3 ij to one. that he is not hit; whereas it is only 17 to one but he is hit upon any other chance. When the adverfary is very forward, a player fliould pever move a man from his own quarter, trois, or deuce points, thinking to bear that man from the point \vhere he put it, as nothing but high doublets can give him any chance for the hit. Inftead of playing an ace or a deuce from any of thofe points, he fliould play them from his own fize or higheft points, fo that throwing two fives, or two fours, his fize and cinque points being eafed, would be a confiderable advantage Q.1 2 t» Back¬ gammon. A C Back¬ gammon. BAG [ 308 ] to him j whereas had they been loaded, he mull have been obliged to play otherwife. It is the intereft of the adverfary to take up the player as foon as he enters. The blot fhould be left upon the adverfary’s lowed; point j that is to fay, upon his deuce point rather than upon his trois point*, or upon his trois point rather than his quatre point, or upon his quatre point preferable to his cinque point, for a reafon before mentioned j all the men the adver¬ fary plays upon his trois or his deuce points are deem¬ ed loft, being greatly out of play *, fo that thofe men not having it in their power to make his cinque point, and his game being crowded in one place and open in another, the adverfary muft be greatly annoyed by the player. . . If the player has two of the adverfary s men in his tables, he has a better chance for a hit than if he had more, provided his game is forwarder than that of his antagontt j for if he had three or more of the adver¬ fary’s men in his tables, he would ftand a worfe chance to be hit. . .- When a player is running to fave the gammon, it he ftiould have two men upon his ace point, and feveral men abroad, although he ftiould lofe one point or two in putting his men into his tables, it is^his intereft to leave a man upon the adverfary’s ace point, becaufe it will prevent his adverfary from bearing his men to the greateft advantage, and at the fame time the player will have a chance of the adverfary’s making a blot, which he may chance to hit. However, if a player finds upon a throw, that he has a probability of faving his gammon, he ftiould never wait for a blot, as the odds are greatly againft his hitting it, but ftiould em¬ brace that opportunity. „ „ . • • .7 How to calculate the odds of faving or winning the summon. Suppofe the adverfary has fo many men abroad as require three throws to put them into his tables, and at the fame time that the player s tables are made up, and that he has taken up one of the adver¬ fary’s men j in this cafe, it is about an equal wager that the adverfary is gammoned. For in all probability the player has bore two men before he opens his tables, and when he bears the third man, he will be obliged to open his fize or cinque point. It is then probable that the adverfary is obliged to throw twice before he enters his men in the player’s tables, twice more before he puts that man into his own tables, and three throws more to put the men which are abroad into his own tables ; in all feven throws. Now the player having 12 men to bear, he may be forced to make an ace or a deuce twice before he can bear all his men, and confequently will require feven throws in bearing them 5 to that, up¬ on the whole, is is about equal whether the adverfary is gammoned or not. Suppofe a player has three men upon* his adverlary s ace point and five points in his own tables, and that the adverfary has all his men in his tables, three upon each of his five higheft points. Has the player a probability of gammoning his adverfary or notJ Points For bearing three men from his 6th ^ ^ point is *• " ” From the jth point 33 Carried forwards From his 4th point From his 3d point From his 2d point In all 60 Bringing his three men from the adverfary’s ace point to his fize point in his own ta¬ bles, being 18 points each, and making together - - 54 There muft remain 6 It is plain from this calculation, that the player has much the beft of the probability of the gammon, ex- clufive of one or more blots which the adverfary is li¬ able to make in bearing his men, fuppofing at the fame time the throws to be upon an equality. Suppofe two blots are left, either of which cannot be hit but by double dice *, one muft be hit by throwing eight and the other by throwing nine; fo that the ad¬ verfary has only one die to hit either of them. W hat are the odds of hitting either of them ? The chances of two dice being in all - - - 3^ The chances to hit 8 or 6 and 2 twice - 2 5 and 3 twice - - - 2 2 Deuces 1 3 Fours - - - 1 The chances to hit 9 or 6 and 3 twice - 2 5 and 4 twice . - - 2 2 Trois _ - - 1 For hitting in all - - - 11 Chances for not hitting, remain - 25 So that the odds are 25 to 11 againft hitting either of thefe blots. This method may be taken to find out the odds of hitting three, four, or five blots upon double dice $ or blots made upon double and fingle dice at the fame time. After knowing how many chances there are to hit any of thofe blots, they muft be added all to¬ gether, and then fubtra&ed from the number 36, which are the chances of the two dice, and the queftion is folved. A critical cafe for a Bach-game. Suppofe the fore- game to be played by A, and that all his men are placed as ufual j B has fourteen of his men placed upon his adverfary’s ace point and one man upon his adverfary’s deuce point, and B is to throw. Who has the beft of the hit?—Anfwer: A has the beft of it, gold to filver: becaufe, if B does not throw' an ace to take his adverfary’s deuce point, which is 25 to 11 againft him, A will take up B’s men in his tables, ei¬ ther fingly or to make points j and then if B fecures either A’s deuce or trois point, A will put as many men down as poffible, in order to hit, and thereby get a back-game. It is evident that the back-game is very powerful j confequently, whoever praftifes it muft be¬ come a greater proficient at the game than he could by any other means. Another critical cafe. Suppofe A to have five men placed upon his fize point, as many upon his quatre point, and the fame number upon his deuce point, all in his own tables. At the fame time, let us fuppofe B to have three men placed upon A’s ace point, as many 33 Batk- I 2 gammon. B A/ C [ 309 ] BAG Back- many upon A’s trois point, and the fame number upon gammon. cinqUe point, in his own tables, and three men 'v placed as ufual out of his tables. Who has the beft of the hit ?—Ar.fwer: The game is equal till B has gain¬ ed his cinque and quatre points in his own tables $ which if he can effect, and by playing two men from A’s cinque point, in order to force his adverfary to blot by throwing an ace, which fliould B hit, he will have the belt of the hit. A cafe of curiofty and inf ru cl ion: in which is Ihown the probability of making the hit lafl: by one of the players for many hours, although they fhall both play as fall as ufual. Suppofe B to have bore 13 men, and that A has his fifteen men in B’s tables, viz. three men upon his fize point, as many upon his cinque point, three upon his quatre point, the fame number upon his trois point, two upon his deuce point, and one upon his ace point. A in this fituation can prolong it, as aforefaid by bringing his 15 men home, always fecu- ring fix clofe points till B has entered his two men, and brought them upon any certain point; as foon as B has gained that point, A will open an ace, deuce, or trois point, or all of them 5 which done, B bits one of them, and A taking care to have two or three men in B’s tables, is ready to hit that man $ and alfo he being certain of taking up the other man, has it in his power to prolong the hit almoft to any length, provided he takes care not to open fuch points as two fours, two fives, or two fixes, but always to open the ace, deuce, or trois points, for B to hit him. A critical game to play. Suppofe A and B place their men for a hit in the following manner : A to have three men upon the fize point in his own tables, three men out of his tables upon the ufual point, and nine men upon his adverfary’s ace, deuce, and trois points : that is, three upon each : and fuppofe B’s men to be placed in his own and his adverfary’s tables in the fame order. So fituated, the beft player ftiould win the hit. The game being fo equal, that in this cafe the dice (hould be thrown for. Now if A throws firft, he ftiould endeavour to gain his adverfary’s cinque point: this being done, he ftiould lay as many blots as poftible, to tempt B to hit'him, as it puts him backwards, and A thereby gains an advantage. A ftiould always en¬ deavour to have three men upon each of his adverfary’s ace and deuce points •, becaufe when B makes a blot, thefe points will remain fecure, and when A has bore five, fix, or more men, A yet may fecure fix clofe points out of his tables, in order to prevent B from getting his man home, at which time he ftiould calcu¬ late who has the beft of the hit. If he finds that. B is foremoft, he (hould then try to lay fuch blots as may be taken up by his adverfary, that he may have a chance of taking up another man, in cafe B ftiould happen to have a blot at home. Laws of Bach gammon. 1. If a man is taken from any point, it muft be played ; if two men are taken from it, they alfo muft be played. 2. A man is not fuppofed to be played till it is placed upon a point and quitted. 3. If a player has only fourteen men in play, there is no penalty inflifted, becaufe by his "playing with a leffer number than he is entitled to, he plays to a difadvantage for want of the deficient man to make up his tables. 4. If he bears any number of men be- 3 fore he has entered a man taken up, and which of Back- courfe he was obliged to enter, fuch men fo borne muft gammon, be entered again in the adverfary’s tables as well as the Back- man taken up. 5. If he' has miftaken his throw and played it, and his adverfary has thrown, it is not in the choice of either of the players to alter it, unlefs they both agree fo to do. BACK-Paint ng, the method of painting mezzotinto prints, parted on glafs, with oil-colours. See Mezzo¬ tinto. The art confifts chiefly in laying the print upon a piece of crown-glafs, of fuch a fize as fits the print. In order to do this, take your print, and lay it in clean water for two days and two nights, if the print be on very ftrong, clofe, and hard gummed paper : but if upon an open, foft, fpongy paper, two hours will fometimes fuffice, or more, according as the paper is. The paper or pifture having been fufficiently foaked, take it out and lay it upon two ftieets of paper, and cover it with two more} and let it lie there a little to fuck out the moifture. In the mean time take the glafs the pifture is to be put upon, and fet it near the fire to warm j take Straf- burg turpentine, warm it over the fire till it is grown fluid, then with a hog’s hair brufli fpread the turpen¬ tine very fmoothly and evenly on the glafs. When this has been done, take the mezzotino print from between the papers, and lay it upon the glafs j beginning firft at one end, rubbing it down gently as you go on, till it lie clofe, and there be no wind blad¬ ders between. Then, with your fingers, rub or roll off the paper from the backfide of the print, till it looks black, i. e. till you can fee nothing but the print, like a thin film, left upon the glafs, and fet it by to dry. When it is dry, varnifti it over with fome white tranfparent varnifti, that the print may be feen through it; and then it is fit for painting. The utmoft care will be neceffary in rubbing or roll¬ ing the paper off the print, fo as not to tear it, efpecial- ly in the light parts. You may, inftead of foaking your prints two days and two nights, roll them up and boil them for about two hours, more or lefs, according to the quantity of the paper, in water ; and that will render it as fit for rubbing, rolling, or peeling, as the other way. This being done, and your oil-colours prepared, ground very fine, and tempered up very ftiff, lay on the back fide of the tranfparent prints fuch colours as each particular part requires ; letting the mafter- lines of the print ftill guide your pencil, and fo each particular colour Avill lie fair to the eye on the other fide of the glafs, and look almoft as well as a painted piece, if it be done neatly. The ftiadows of the print are generally fufficient for the (hadow of every colour : but if you have a mind to give a ftiadow by your pencil, then let the ftiadows be laid on firft, and the other colours afterward. In laying on colours in this kind of back-painting, you need not be curious as to the laying them on fmooth. This is not at all requifite here, where the chief aim is only to have the colours appear well on the fore fide of the print; and therefore the only care to !B A C [ 3io ] B A C Back- painting Backereel. be ufed in tbis work, is to lay the colours on thick enough, that its body may flrike the colour of it plainly through the glafs. BjCK-Sta/f, a name formerly given to a fea-quadrant, invented by Captain Davis: becaufe the back of the artift is turned towards the fun at the time of obferva- tion. See Quadrant. BACK-Stmjs, of a fhip, are ropes belonging to the mainmaft and foremaft, and the mafts belonging to them ; ferving to keep them from pitching forwards or overboard. BACK-l'ack, in Scots Law : When a wadfetter, in- ftead of poffeffing the wadfet-lands, grants a tack thereof to the reverfer for payment of a certain fum in name of tack-duty", that tack is called a back-tack. BACK-Wortn. See FlLANDERS. BACKER, or Barker, Jaques, a painter ef hi- ftory, was born at Antwerp in 1530 ; and learned the principles of painting from his father, who was an ar¬ tift very knowing in his profefiion, though his works were in no great eftimatiom After the death of his father, he lived in the houfe of Jacopo Palermo, a dealer in piftures, who avaricioufly took care to keep him inceffantly employed, and font his paintings to Paris to be difpofed of, where they happened to be ex¬ ceedingly admired. The judicious were very eager to purchafe them $ and though the tranfa&or fold them at a great price, yet the poor artift was not propor- tionably rewarded, but continued in the fame obfcure and depreffed condition. His merit, indeed, was uni- verfally allowed j but bis name, and the narrownefs of his circumftances, were as univerfally unknown. He had a clean light manner of penciling, and a tint of colour that was extremely agreeable.—He died in 1560. Backer, or Barker, Jacob, painter of portrait and hiftory, was born at Harlingen in 1609, but fpent the greateft part of his life at Amfterdam ; and by all the writers on this fuhject, he is mentioned as an extra¬ ordinary painter, particularly of portraits, which he exe¬ cuted with ftrength, fpirit, and a eraceful refernblance. He was remarkable for an uncommon readinefs of hand and freedom of pencil 5 and his-incredible expedition in his manner of painting, appeared even in one portrait of a lady from Haerlem, that he painted at half length, which was begun and finilhed in one day, though he adorned the figure with rich drapery and feveral orna¬ mental jewels. Fie alfo painted hiftorical fubjedts with good fuccefs ; and in that ftyle there is a fine pidture of Cimon and Ipbigenia, which is accounted by the con- ■noiffeurs an excellent performance. In defigning aca¬ demy figures his expreffion was fo juft, and his outlines fo corredt, that he obtained the prize from all his com¬ petitors*, and his works are ftill bought up at very high prices in the Low Countries. In the colledlion of the Eledlor Palatine there is an excellent head of Brouwer, painted by this mailer 5 and in the Carmelites church at Antwerp is preferved a capital pidlure of the Laft Judge¬ ment, which is well defigned and well coloured. He died in 1651. BACKEREEL, called Bacquerelei, William, a painter of hiftory, was born at Antwerp, and was a difciple of Rubens at the fame time that Vandyck was educated in that fchool. When each of them •quitted that mafter, and commenced painter, Backe¬ reel was very little inferior to Vandyck, if not nearly Backerfeet, his equal. And this may be manifeftly fet n in the B .ckhuy. works of the former, which are in the church of the Au- fen* guftine monks at Antwerp *, where thofe two great ar- ArmmJ tills painted in competition, and both were praifed for their merit in their different ways ; but the fuperiority was never determined in favour either of the one or the other. He had likewife a good tafte for poetry *, but, by exercifing that talent too freely, in writing fatires again!! the jefuits, thefe ecclefiallies purfued him with unremitted revenge, till they compelled him to fly from Antwerp *, and by that means deprived his own country of fuch paintings as would have contributed to its perpe¬ tual honour.—Sandrart takes notice, that in his time there were {even or eight painters, who Were very emi¬ nent, of the name of Backereel, in Italy and the Low Countries, BACKF1UYSEN, Ludolph, an eminent painter, was born at Embden in 1631, and received his earlieft inftrudtion from Albert Van Everdingen ; but acquired his principal knowledge by frequenting the painting rooms of different great mafters, and obferving their various methods of touching and colouring. One of thefe mafters was Henry Dubbels, whofe underftand- ing in his art was very extenfive : and he was as re¬ markably communicative of his knowledge to others. From him Backhuyfen obtained more real benefit than from all the painters of his time, either by ftudying their works, or pe.rfonally converfing with them. His fubjefts were fea-pieces, fliips, and fea-ports. Fie had not pratlifed very long when he became the abjedl of general admiration ; fo that even his drawings were fought after, and feveral of them were bought up at 100 florins a-piece. It was obferved of him, that while he was painting, he would not fuffer even his moft intimate friends to have accefs to him, left his fancy might be difturbed, and the ideas he had formed in his mind he interrupted. He ftudied nature atten¬ tively in all her forms *, in gales, calms, ftorms, clouds, rocks, fkies, lights, and fhadows ; and he expreffed every fubjeft with fo fvveet a pencil, and fuch tranfpa- rence and luftre, as placed him above all the artifts of his time in that ftyle, except the younger Vandervelde, who is defervedly efteemed the firft in that manner of painting. It was a frequent cuftom with Backhuyfen, whenever he could procure refolute mariners, to go to fea in a ftorm, in order to ftore his mind with grand images, dire&ly copied from nature, of fuch feenes as would have filled any other head and heart with terror and difmay *, and the moment he landed he always im¬ patiently ran to his palette to fecure thofe incidents, of which the traces might by delay be obliterated.—He perfectly underftood the management of the chiaro- feuro, and by his Ikill in that part of his art, he gave uncommon force and beauty to his qbjedis. He ob¬ ferved ftri&ly the art of perfpedlive, in the diftances of his veffels, the receding of the grounds on the ihores, and the different buildings which he deferibed in the fea-ports : whether they were the refult of his own imagination, or Iketched, as he ufually did, after na¬ ture. His works may eafily be diftinguifhed by an ob- fervant eye, from the freedom and nealnefs of his touch *, from the clearnefs and natural agitatiqn or quiefcence of the water ; from a peculiar tint in his clouds and Ikies 5 and alfo from the exaft proportions of BAG BacRhuyfen of his (hips, and the gracefulnefs of their pofition. For I) the burgomafters of Amfterdam he painted a large . Eacon- picture, with a multitude of veffels, and a view of the city at a diftance, for which they gave him thirteen hundred guilders, and a confiderable prefent j which pifture they afterwards prefented to the king of France, who placed it in the Louvre. No painter was ever more honoured by the vifiits of kings and princes than Backhuyfen ; the king of Pruffia was one of the num¬ ber 5 and the czar Peter the Great took delight to fee him paint, and often endeavoured to draw after veffels which he had defigned. He was remarkably affiduous, and yet it feems aftonithing to confider the number of piftures which he finiihed, and the exquifite manner in which they are painted. He died in 1709. BACKING, in Horfemanjhip. See Horseman¬ ship. BACKING the Sails, in Navigation ; to arrange them in a fituation that will force the ihip to retreat, or move backwards. This is, however, only done in nar¬ row channels, when a fhip is carried along fidewife by the tide or current, and wants to avoid any thing that may interrupt her progrefs, as fhoals, veffels at anchor, &c. or in the line of battle, when a ftiip wants to be immediately oppoffte to another with which (he is en¬ gaged. BACKS, among dealers in leather, denote the thickeft and bell tanned hides, ufed chiefly for foies of (hoes. Backs, in Brewing and Diflilling. See Bag. BACULARIUS, in writers of the middle age, an eccleliatlical apparitor, or verger ; who carries a ffaff, bacillus, in his hand, as an enfign of his office. BACON, fwines fleffi failed, and dried in the chim¬ ney.—Old hiftorians and law-writers fpeak of the fer- vice of the bacon, a cuftom in the manor of Whichen- acre in Stafford (hi re, and priory ofDunmore in Effex ; in the former of which places, by an ancient grant of the lord, a flitch of bacon, with half a quarter of wheat, was to be given to every married couple who could fwear, that, having been married a year and a day, they would never within that time have once ex¬ changed their mate for any other perfon on earth, however richer, fairer, or the like. But they were to bring two of their neighbours to fwear with them that they believed they fwore the truth. On this the lord of another neighbouring manor, of Rudlow, was to find a horfe faddled, and a fack to carry the bounty in, with drums and trumpets, as far as a day’s journey out of the manor : all the tenants of the manor being fum- moned to attend, and pay fervice to the bacon. The bacon of Dunmore, firfl; erected under Henry III. was on much the fame footing ; only the tenor of the oath Was, that the parties had never once repented, or wifli- ed tbemfelves unmarried again. Bacon, Roger, a Francifcan friar of amazing genius and learning, was born near Ilchefter in Sorrrer- fetffiire, in the year 1214. He began his ftudies at Oxford ; but in what fehool or college is uncertain. Thence he removed to the univerfity of Paris, which, in thofe times iVas efteemed the centre of literature. Here, we are told, he made fo rapid a progrefs in the feiences, that he was effeemed the glory of that uni¬ verfity, and was much can-fled by feveral of his coun¬ trymen, particularly by Robert Grouthead, afterwards B A C biffiop of Lincoln, his Angular friend and patron. Bacon. About the year 1240, he returned to Oxford ; and —v —" J afluming the Francifcan habit, profecuted his favourite ftudy of experimental philofophy with unremitting ardour and afliduity. In this purfuit, in experiments, inffruments, and in fcarce books, he tells us, he fpent, in the fpace of 20 years, no lefs than 2000I.; which, it feems, was given him by feme of the heads of the univerfity, to enable him to profecute his. noble in¬ quiries. But fuch extraordinary talents, and affoniffung progrefs in feiences, which, in that ignorant age, were totally unknown to the reft of mankind, whiift they raifed the admiration of the more intelligent few, could not fail to excite the envy and malice of his illiterate fraternity ; who found no difficulty of poffeffing the vul¬ gar with the notion of Bacon’s dealing with the devil. Under this pretence, he was reftrained from reading ledtures; his writings were confined to his convent j and finally, in 1278, he himfelf was imprifoned in his cell. At this time he was 64 years of age. Neverthelefs, being permitted the ufe of his books, he went on in the rational purfuit of knowledge, correfled his former labours, and wrote feveral curious pieces. When he had been ten years in confinement, Jerome de Afcoli being eleRed nope, Bacon folicited his holinefs to be releafed j in which, it feems, he did not immediately fucceed. However, towards the latter end of that pope’s reign, he obtained his liberty, and fpent the remainder of his life in the college of his order, where he died in the year 1294, in the 80th year of his age, and w?as buried in the Francifcan church. Such are the few particulars which the moft diligent refearches have been able to difeover concerning this very great man ; who, like a Angle bright ftar in a dark hemi- fphere, (hone foith the glory of his country, and the pride of human nature. His works are, 1. Epi- Jlola Fratris Rogei'i Baconis de Secretis Operibus Artis ct Naiurce, et de Nulhtate Mag-ice. Paris, 1 C42, 410. Bafil, 1593, 8vo. 2. Opus Majus. Lend. 1733, folio, publiihed by Dr Jebb. 3. Thefaurus Chemicus, Francf. 1603, 1620. This was probably the editor’s title •, but it contains feveral of our author’s trea- tifes on this fubjedt. Thefe printed works of Bacon contain a confiderable number of effays, which, in the catalogue of his writings by Bale, Pits, &c. have been confidered as diftin£t books-, but there remain in differ¬ ent libraries feveral manuferipts not yet publiftied. By an attentive perufal of his works, the reader will be aftoniflred to find, that this great luminary of the 13th century was a great linguift and a (kilful grammarian, that he was well verfed in the theory and practice of perfpeftive ; that he undedtood the ufe of convex and concave gla'fles, and the art of n>aking them ; that the camera obfeura, burning-glaffes, and the power of the telefcope were known to him -, that he was well verfed in geography and aftronomy 5 that he knew the great error in the kalendar, affig-ned the caufe, and propofed the remedy ; that he underttood chronology well ) that he was an adept in chemiftry, and was really the inven¬ tor of gun-powder; that he poffefled great knowledge in the medical art-, that he -was an able mathematician, logician, metapbyfician, and theologift. Bacon, Sir Nicholas, lord keeper of the great feal in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Chifle- hurft, in Kent, in 1510, and-educated at the univerfi- *57 [ 311 1 B* A C [ 312 ] B A C )$acon. ty of Cambridge j after which he travelled into b ranee, ~—v—-- and made fome flay at Paris. On his return, he fettled in Gray’s Inn, and applied himfelf with fuch affiduity to the ftudy of the law, that he,quickly diftinguilhed himfelf fo, that on the diffolution of the monaftery of St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk, he had a grant from King Henry VIII. in the 36th year of his reign, of ieveral manors. In the 38th of the fame king, he was promoted to the office of attorney in the court of wards, which was a place both of honour and profit. In this office he was continued by King Edward VI. 5 and in 1552 he was elefted treafurer of Gray’s Inn. His great moderation and confummate prudence preferved him through the dangerous reign of Queen Mary. In the very dawn of that of Elizabeth he was knighted ; and on the 22d of December 1558, the great feal of England, being taken from Nicholas Heath archbiffiop of York, was delivered to him with the title of /on/ keeper, and he was alfo made one of the queen’s privy council. He had a confiderable ffiare in the fettling of religion : as a ftatefman, he was remarkable for a clear head and deep counfels : but his great parts and high preferment were far from raifing him in his own opinion, as appears from the modeft anfwer he gave Queen Elizabeth, when ffie told him his houfe at Red¬ grave was too little for him : “ Not fo, madam, (re¬ turned he) ; but your majefty has made me too great for my houfe.” After having had the great feal more than 20 years, this able ftatefman and faithful counfel- lor was fuddenly removed from this life, as Mr Mallet informs us, by the following accident : he was under the hands of the barber, and thinking the weather warm, had ordered a window before him to be thrown open, but fell afleep as the current of freffi air was blowing in upon him, and awakened fome time after dif- tempered all over. He was immediately removed into his bed-chamber, where he died a few days after, on the 26th of February 1578-9, equally lamented by the queen and her fubjefts. He was buried in St Paul’s, where a monument was ere&ed to him, which was de- ftroyed by the fire of London in 1666. Mr Granger obferves, that he was the firft lord keeper that ranked as lord chancellor •, and that he had much of that pe¬ netrating genius, folidity, and judgment, perfuafive elo¬ quence, and comprehenfive knowledge of law and equi¬ ty, which afterwards (hone forth with fo great a luftre in his fon, who was as much inferior to his father in point of prudence and integrity, as his father was to him in literary accompliffiments. Bacon, Francis, lord high chanceller of England under King James I. was fon of Sir Nicholas Bacon lord keeper of the great feal in the reign of Queen E- lizabeth, by Anne daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, eminent for her (kill in the Latin and Greek tongues. He was born in 1560 ; and (hewed fuch marks of ge¬ nius, that he was particularly taken notice of by Queen Elizabeth when very young. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge 5 and made fuch incredi¬ ble progrefs in his ftudies, that, before he was 16, he had not only run through the whole circle of the libe¬ ral arts as they were then taught, but began to per¬ ceive thofe imperfe&ions in the reigning philofophy, which he afterwards fo effe&ually expofed, and there- bv not only overturned that tyranny which prevented the progrefs of true knowledge, byt laid the founda¬ tion of that free and ufeful philofophy which has fince Bacon, opened a way to fo many glorious difeoveries. On his 1 ^ leaving the univerfity, his father lent him to France $ where, before he was 19 years of age, he wrote a ge¬ neral view of the ftate of Euorope : but Sir Nicholas dying, he was obliged fuddenly to return to England j when he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the common law, at Gray’s Inn. At this period the famous earl of Effex, who could diftinguiffi merit, and who paffion- ately loved it, entered into an intimate friendffiip with him •, zealoufly attempted, though without fuccefs, to procure him the office of queen’s folicitor j and, in or¬ der to comfort his friend under the difappointment, conferred on him a prefent of land to the value of i8col. Bacon, notwithftanding the friendffiip of fo great a perfon 5 notwithftanding the number and power of his oAvn relations; and, above all, notwithftand¬ ing the early prepofleffion of her majefty in his favour 5 met with many obftacles to his preferment during her reign. In particular, his enemies reprefented him as a fpeculative man, whofe head was filled with philofo- phical notions, and therefore more likely to perplex than forward public bufinefs. It was not without great difficulty that lord treafurer Burleigh obtained for him the reverfion of regifter to the ftar-chamber, worth about 1600I. a-year, which place fell to him about 20 years after. Neither did he obtain any other prefer¬ ment all this reign 5 though if obedience to a fovereign in what muft be the molt difagreeable of all offices, viz. the calling refledlions on a deceafed friend, enti¬ tled him, he might have claimed it. The people were fo clamorous even againft the queen herfelf on the death of Effex, that it was thought neceffary to vindi¬ cate the conduft of the adminiftration. This was affigned to Bacon, which brought on him univerfal \ cenfure, nay his very life was threatened. Upon the acceffion of King James, he was foon raifed to conli- derable honours ; and wrote in favour of the union of the two kingdoms of Scotland and England, which the king fo paffionately defired. In 1616, he was fworn of the privy-council. He then applied himfelf to the reducing and recompofing the laws of England. He diftinguiffied himfelf, when attorney general, by his endeavours to reftrain the cuftom of duels, then very frequent. In 1617, he was appointed lord keeper of the great feal. In 16x8, he was made lord chancel¬ lor of England, and created Lord Verulam. In the midft of thefe honours and applaufes, and multiplicity of bufinefs, he forgot not his philofophy, but in 1620 publiffied his great work entitled Novum Organum. We find by feveral letters of his, that he thought con¬ vening of parliaments was the beft expedient for the king and people. In 1621, he was advanced to the dignity of Vifcount St Albans, and appeared with the greateft . fplendour at the opening of the feffion of parliament. But he was foon after furprifed with a melancholy re- verfe of fortune. For, about the 12th of March, a committee of the houfe of commons was appointed to infpedl the abufes of the courts of juftice. The firft thing they fell upon wfas bribery and corruption, of which the lord chancellor was accufed. For that very year complaints being made to the houfe of commons of his lordffiip’s having received bribes, thofe com¬ plaints were fent up to the houfe of lords; and new ones being daily made of a like nature, things foon grew BAG’ [ 3 Bacon, grew too high to be got over. The king found k was —v impoffible to lave both his chancellor, who was open¬ ly accufed of corruption, and Buckingham his favour¬ ite, who was fecretly and therefore more dangeroully attacked as the encourager of whatever was deemed molt illegal and oppreflive : he therefore forced the former to abandon his defence, giving him pofitive ad¬ vice to fubmit himtelf to his peers, and promifing upon his princely word to fereen him in the laft determina¬ tion, or, if that could not be, to reward him after¬ wards with an ample retribution of favour. The chan¬ cellor, though he forefaw his approaching ruin if he did not plead for himfelf, refolved to obey ; and the houfe of peers, on the third of May 1621, gave judge¬ ment again ft him, “ That he fliould be fined 40,000!. and remain prifoner in the Tower during the king’s pleafure ; that he fliould for ever be incapable of any office, place, or employment, in the ftate or common¬ wealth j and that he ftiould never fit in parliament, or ' come within the verge of the court.” The fault which, next to his ingratitude to Effiex, thus tarnilhed the glory of this illuftrious man, is faid to have principally proceeded from his indulgence to his fervants, who mude a corrupt ufe of it. One day, during his trial, pa fling through a room where feveral of his domeftics v/ere fitting, upon their rifing up to falute him, he faid, “ Sit down, my mafters ; your rife hath been my fall.” Stephens, p. 54. And we are told by Rufti- wortb, in his hiftorical colle&ions, “ That he treafured up nothing for himfelf or family, but was over-indul¬ gent to his fervants, and connived at their takings, and their ways betrayed him to that error j they were profufe and expenfive, and had at their command what¬ ever he was mailer of. The gifts taken were for the moft part for interlocutory orders; his decrees were generally made with fo much equity, that though gifts rendered him fufpefted for injuftice, yet never any de¬ cree made by him was reverfed as unjuft.” It was pe¬ culiar to this great man (fay the authors of the Biogr. Brit.) to have nothing narrow and felfiffi in his compo- fition : he gave way without concern whatever he pof- feffied ; and believing other men of the fame mould, he received with as little confideration. He retired, af¬ ter a fliort imprifonment, from the engagements of an aflive life, to which he had been called much againft his genius, to the {hade of a contemplative one, which he had always loved. The king remitted his fine, and he was fummoned to parliament in the firft year of King Charles I. It appears from the works compofed du¬ ring his retirement, that his thoughts were ftill free, vigorous, and noble. The laft five years of his life he devoted wholly to his ftudies. In his recefs he com¬ pofed the greateft part of his Engliffi and Latin works. He expired on the pth of April 1626 j and was buried in St Michael’s church at St Alban’s, according to the direflion of his laft will, where a monument of white marble was erefted to him by Sir Thomas Meautys, formerly his fecretary, and afterwards clerk of the privy council under two kings. A complete edition of this great man’s works was publifhed at London in the year 1740.— Addifon has faid of him, That he had the found, diftinft, comprehenfive knowledge of Ari- ftotie, with all the beautiful light graces and embel- liftiments of Cicero. The honourable Mr Walpole calls him the Prophet of Arts which Newton was af- Vcxl. III. Part I. 13] BAG terwards to reveal; and adds, that his genius and his Bwon works will be univerfally admired as long as feience |! exifts. “ As long as ingratitude and adulation are de- Baflria. fpicable, fo long ftiall we lament the depravity of this '" v "* great man’s heart. Alas ! that he who could command immortal fame, ftiould have Hooped to the little ambi¬ tion of power.” Bacon, Sir Nathaniel, knight of the Bath, and an excellent painter, was a younger fon of the lord keep¬ er, and half brother to the great Sir Francis. He tra¬ velled into Italy, and ftudied painting there 5 but his manner and colouring approaches nearer to the flyle of the Flemifti fehool. Mr Walpole oblerves, that at Culford, where he lived, are preferved fome q£ his works j and at Gorhambury, his father’s feat, is a large picture by him in oil, of a cook maid with a dead fowl, admirably painted, with great nature, neatnefs, and luftre of colouring. In the fame houfe is a whole length of him, by himfelf, drawing on a paper, his fword and pallet hung up, and a half length of his mo¬ ther by him. BACON THORP, John, called the refolute doElor, a learned monk, was born towards the end of the 13th century at Baconthorp, a village in Norfolk. He fpent the early part of his life in the convent of Black- ney, near Walfingham in the fame county ; whence he removed to Oxford, and from thence to Paris ; where being diftinguiftied for his learning, he obtained de¬ grees in divinity and laws, and was efteemed the prin¬ cipal of the Averroifts*. In 1329 he returned to Eng- *See Aver- land, and was immediately chofen twelfth provincials^* of the Englifti Carmelites. In 1333 he was fent for to Rome ; where, we are told, he firft maintained the pope’s fovereign authority in cafes of divorce, but that he afterwards retraced his opinion. He died in Lon¬ don in the year 1346. Leland, Bale, and Pits, una- nimoufly gave him the chara&er of a monk of genius and learning. He wrote, j. Commentana feu qufliones fiper quatuor libros fententiarum ; and, 2. Compendium legis Chrifii, et quod/ibeta; both which underwent fe¬ veral editions at Paris, Milan, and Cremona. Leland, Bale, and Pits, mention a number of his works never publiftied. BACER IA , or Bactriana, now ChoraJJhn or Kho- rafan, an ancient kingdom of Alia, bounded on the Avert by Margiana, on the north by the river Oxus, on the fouth by Mount Paropifmus, and on the eaft by the Afiatic Scythia and the country of the MaftagetEe. It Avas a large, fruitful, and Avell-peopled country, containing according to Ammianus Marcellinus 1000 cities, though of thefe only a feAV are particularly mentioned by hiftorians, of which that formerly call¬ ed Maracanda, noAV Samarcand, is the moft confider- able. Of the hiftory of this country Ave know but little. Authors agree that it Avas fubdued firft by the Afly- rians, aftenvards by Cyrus, and then by Alexander the Great. Afterwards it remained fubjeft to Seleucus Nicator and his fucceflbrs till the time of Antiochus Theos ; Avhen Theodorus, from governor of that pro¬ vince, became king, and {Lengthened himfelf fo effec¬ tually in his kingdom, while Antiochus Avas engaged in a war Avith Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt, that he could never afterAvards difpoffefs him of his ac- quifitions. His pofterity continued to enjoy the king-* ft r dom BAD [31 Ba&i'ift , I! Budaaflian. dom for fome time, till they were driven out by the Scythians, who reigned in Baftria at the time of A- drian, Antoninus Pius, &c. The Scythians were in their turn driven out by the Huns or Turks, and thefe often conquered by the Saracens and Tartars ; never- thelefs they continued in poffeffion of this country in the time of Ladiflaus IV. king of Hungary. In early times the Ba6irians differed little in their manners from the Nomades ; and being near neigh¬ bours of the Scythians, who were a very warlike people, the Baftrian foldiers were reckoned the belt in the world. Their appearance was very favage ; being of an enormous ilature, having a terrible afpeft, rough beards, and long hair hanging down their Ihoulders. Some authors affert that they kept dogs on purpofe to devour fuch as arrived at extreme old age, or who were exhaufted by long ficknefs. They add, that for all their fiercenefs, the Baftrian hulbands were fuch dupes to their wives, that they durft not complain of them even for conjugal infidelity, to which it feems the latter were very much addifted. EACTROPERATA, an ancient appellation given to philofophers by way of contempt, denoting a man with a ftaff and a budget. We fuppofe it is of the fame people that Pauchafias Radbertus fpeaks under the corrupt name of Bacope- ritce or Bacchionitce, whom he defcribed as philofophers who had fo great a contempt for all earthly things, that they kept nothing but a dilh to drink out of; and that one of this order feeing a peafant fcooping up the water in his hand, threw away his cup as a fuperfluity : which is nothing but the old ftory of Diogenes the Cynic. BACCULE, in Fortification, a kind of portcullis, or gate, made like a pit-fall with a counterpoife, and fupported by two great itakes. It is ufually made be¬ fore the corpade-guard, not far from the gate of a place. BACULOMETRY, the art of meafuring accefli- ble or inacceffible heights, by the help of one or more baculi, Haves, or rods. See Geometry. BACURIUS, or Baturius, king of the Iberians, a people on the fide of the Cafpian fea. One day being a-hunting, he loft fight of his company, through a great ftorm and fudden darknefs *, upon which he vow¬ ed to the God of his Chriftian flave, that if he were de¬ livered he would worlhip him alone : the day breaking up immediately, he made good his promife, and became the apoftle of his country. BADAGSHAN, a very ancient city of Great Buk- haria, in the province of Balkh, lituated at the foot of thofe high mountains which feparate Hindoftan from Great Tartary. The city is exceedingly ftrong by its filuation •, and belongs to the khan of Proper Bukha- ria, who ufes it as a kind of flate-prifon to fecure thofe he is jealous of. The town is not large, but well built, and very populous. It ftands on the north fide of the river Amu, about loo miles from its fource, and is a great thoroughfare for the caravans travelling to Little Bukharia. The inhabitants are enriched by mines of gold, filver, and rubies, which are in the neighbour¬ hood ; and thofe who live at the foot of the mountains gather a great quantity of gold and filver duft brought down in the fpring by torrents occafioned by the melt¬ ing of the fnow on the top. 4 ] BAD BADAJOZ, a large and firong town, capital of Badajoz Eftremadura in Spain. It is feated on the river Gua- jl diana, over which there is a fine bridge built by the Baden. Romans. On this bridge the Portuguefe were defeated v~,l~ in 1661, by Don John of Auftria. The population of Badajoz is computed at near 9000 inhabitants, but a fmall number in proportion to its extent. Moft of the ftreets are extremely narrow, and the houfes fmall and crowded. W. Long. 7. 3. N. Lat. 38. 35. BADELONA, a town of Catalonia in Spain, feat¬ ed on the Mediterranean. Lord Peterborough landed here in 1704, when, with Charles then king of Spain, he laid fiege to Barcelona, from which it is ten miles diftant. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 41. 12. BADEN, the diftrhft of, in Swifferland, has three cities, Baden, Keifers Stoul, and Klingnaw, befides a town that paffes for a city, named Zur%ach. It is one of the fineft countries in Swifferland ; and is wa¬ tered with three navigable rivers, the Limmet, Rufs, and Are. The land is fertile in corn and fruit, and there are places on the fides of the Limmet which pro¬ duce wine. It maintains a communication between the cantons of Zurich and Bern, being feated between their north extremities. It extends on one fide to the Are, as far as the place where it falls into the Rhine, and on the other fide beyond the Rhine, where there are fome villages which depend thereon. Moft of the inhabitants are Papifts. By the treaty of peace at the conclufion of the war which broke out in 1712 between the Proteftant and Popiih cantons, this country was yielded to the Proteftant cantons of Zurich and Bern. Before, it was the property of the eight old cantons; however, as the canton of Claris had taken no part in this war, by the confent of both parties its right was ftill continued. Baden, the capital of the above diftrift, is an agree¬ able city, moderately large, feated on the fide of the Limmet, in a plain flanked by two high hills, between which the river runs. This city owes its rife to its baths, which Avere famous before the Chriftian era. Several monuments of antiquity have been found here from time to time, particularly in 1240. When they were opening the large fpring of the baths, they found ftatues of feveral heathen gods, made of alabafter; Roman coins, made of bronze, of Auguftus, Vefpafi- an, Decius, &c. j and feveral medals of the Roman emperors, of gold, filver, copper, and bronze. There are two churches in Baden ; one of which is collegiate, and makes a good appearance •, the other is a monafte- ry of the Capuchins, near the townhoufe. This laft building ferves not only for the affemblies of their own council, but alfo for thofe of the cantons. The diet affembles there in a handfome room made for that pur¬ pofe *, the deputies of Zurich fit at the bottom behind a table, as the moft honourable place j the ambaffa- dors of foreign powers are feated on one fide to the right, and the deputies of the other cantons are ranged on each fide the room. The bailiff of Baden refides in a caftle at the end of a handfome wooden bridge, which is covered in. Before this caftle there is a ftone pillar, erefted in honour of the emperor Trajan, who paved a road in this country 85 Italian miles in length. The inhabitants are rigid Roman catholics, and for¬ merly behaved in a moft infolent manner to the Prote- ftants, but they are now obliged by their mailers to be more BAD [3 Baden more fubtmflive. The baths which are on each fide of || the river are a quarter of a league from the city. Join- Weine'r ing to the fmaU baths there is a village, and to the - , e‘ er' , large a town which may pafs for a fecond Baden. It is feated on a hill, of which the afcent is fteep. There the baths are brought into inns and private houfes, by means of pipes, which are about 60 in all. There are alfo public baths in the middle of the town, from a fpring which rifes in the ftreet, where the poor bathe gratis, but they are expofed quite naked to all that pafs by. All the baths are hot, and one to fo great a de¬ gree as to fcald the hand j and they are impregnated with a great deal of fulphur, with fome alum and nitre. They are ufeful for drinking as well as bathing; and are faid to cure all difeafes from a cold caufe, head¬ aches, ^ vertigoes, &c. They ftrengthen the fenfes, cure difeafes of the breaft and bowels, afthmas, and ob- flru&ions. They are peculiarly excellent for women’s difeafes. E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 47. 27. _ Baden, the Margravate of, in the circle of Swa¬ bia, in Germany, is bounded by the Palatinate of the Rhine, on the north ; by the Black Foreft, on the call ; by Switzerland, on the fouth ; and by the Rhine, which divides it from Alface, on the weft : and is about C)0 miles in length, from north to fouth ; but not above 20 in breadth, where it is w’ideft. It is a very popu* lous and fruitful country, abounding in corn and wine. Venifon and wild fowl are fo plentiful, that they are the common diet of the peafants. I he rivers that wTater this territory, are the Rhine, Ens, Wirmbs, and Phints, which yield plenty of filh. I hey feed their hogs with chefnuts, which make the bacon excellent. They have free-ftone for building, and marble of all colours. I. hey have fome agate, and great quantities of hemp and flax for exportation. The chief towns are Baden, Duilaeh, Stolhafen, Raftadt, Gerfhach, Plorlheim, and Flochberg. Baden, the chief city of the above margravate, has a eaftle that ftands on the top of a hill, which is the refidence of a prince. The town is feated among hills, on rocky and uneven ground, which renders the ftreets inconvenient and crooked. It is famous for its baths, the fprings of .which are faid to be above 300. Some of them are hot, and accounted to be very good in ner¬ vous cafes. They partake of fait, alum, and fulphur. E. Long. 9. 24. N. Lat. 48. 50. Baden, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Auftria, feated on the Little Suechat, is a neat little walled town, ftanding in a plain not far from a ridge of hills which run out from the mountain Cetius. It is much frequented by the people of Vienna, and the neighbouring parts, on account of its baths. The fprings fupply two convenient baths within the town, five without the walls, and one beyond the river. They are good for diftempers of the head, the gout, dropfy, and moft chronic difeafes. E. Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 48. o. BADENOCH, the moft eafterly part of Invernefs- ftnre, in Scotland, extending about’33 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 27 from north-eaft to fouth-weft where broadeft. It has no confiderable town, and is very barren and hilly, but abounds with deer, and-other kinds of game. BADEN-WEILLER, a town of Germany, belonging 15 ] BAB to the lower margravate of Baden. E. Long. 7. 5c. Baden N. Lat. 47. 55. Weiiler BADENS, Francis, hiftorical and portrait paint- 11 er, was born at Antwerp in 1571 ; and the firft rudi- , BacGe- ments of the art were communicated to him by his fa¬ ther, who was but an ordinary artift. However, he vifited Rome, and feveral parts of Italy, and then formed a good tafte of defign, and a manner exceed- ingly pleafing. When he returned to his own country his merit procured for him great employment, and ftill greater reputation, and he was ufually diftinguilhed by the name of the Italian painter. His touch was light and fpirited, and his colouring warm ; and he had the honour of being the firft who introduced a good tafte of colouring among his countrymen. While his ac¬ knowledged merit was rewarded with every public tef- timony of efteem and applaufe, unhappily he received an account of the death of his brother, who had been aflaflinated on a journey ; and the intelligence afte&ed him fo violently, that it occafioned his own death, to the inexpreflible regret of every lover of the art, in 16o3. BADGE, in naval arohitefture, fignifies a fort of ornament placed on the outfide of fmall (hips, very near the ftern, containing either a window for the con¬ venience of the cabin, or a reprefentation of it. It is commonly decorated with marine figures, martial in* ftruments, or fuch like emblems. BADGER, in Zoology, the Englifti name of a fpecies of urfus. See Ursus. Badger, in old law-books, one that wras licenfed l» buy corn in one place and carry it to another to fell, -without incurring the puniftiment of an engrofler. BADIA, an ancient town of Bastica, on the Anas ; now fuppofed to be Badajoz on the Guadiana. BADIAGA, in the Materia Medica, the name of a fort of fpongy plant, common in the (hops in Mofcow, and fome othern northern kingdoms. The ufe of it is the taking away of livid marks from blows and bruifes, which the powder of this plant is faid to do in a night’s time. BADIANE, or Bandian, the feed of a tree which grows in China, and fmells like anife-feed. The Chi- nefe, and the Dutch in imitation of them, fometimes ufe the badiane to give their tea an aromatic tafte. BADIGEON, a mixture of plafter and free-ftone, w'ell ground together, and fifted ; ufed by ftatuaries to fill up the little holes, and repair the defedls in ftones, whereof they make their ftatues and other work. The fame term is alfo ufed by joiners for faiv-duft mixed with ftrong glue, wherewith they fill up the chaps and other defeds in wood after it is wrought. BADILE, Antonio, hiftory and portrait painter, •was born at Verona in 1480, and by great ftudy and application acquired a more extenfive knowledge of the true principles of painting than any of his prede- cefibrs. He was confefiedly a moft eminent artift ; but he derived greater honour from having two fuch difciples as Paolo Veronefe and Baptifta ZeloLti, than he did even from the excellence of his own compofi- tions. He died in 1560. His colouring was admi¬ rably good ; his carnations beautiful ; and his portraits preferved the perfed refemblance of flefti and real life : nor had he any caufe to envy the acknowledged R r 2 merit B A E [ 316 j BAG Badile merit of Titian, Giorgione, or the beft of his cdtem- I! poraries. Brftylia- , BADIS, a fortrefs of Livonia, fubjefl to Ruflia. E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat. 59 15. B ADI US, Conrad, and Stephen Robert, his brother ; French refugees •, celebrated as printers at Geneva, and Conrad as an author. The latter died in 1566. BALCKEA. See Botany Index. BiETERR./E, an ancient town of the Te&ofages in Gallia Narbanenlis ; now Be/iers, on the eaft bank of the Obris, now Orbis or Orbe, in Lower Languedoc. BALTIC A, a province of ancient Spain, fo called from the famed river Boetis, afterwards TarteJJbs, now Guada/quivei', or the great river. It was bounded on the weft by Luiitania •, on the fouth, by the Mediter¬ ranean, and Sinus Gaditanus : on the north by the Can- tabric fea, now the bay of Bifcay. On the eaft and north-eaft, its limits cannot be fo well afcertained, as they are very reafonably thought to have been in a continual ftate of ftuSuation, as each petty monarch had an opportunity of encroaching upon his neighbour. The province was divided in two by the river Baetis already mentioned. On the one fide of which, towards the Anas, were fituated the Turdetani, from whence the kingdom was called Turdetania, though more ge¬ nerally known by the name of Beeturia. On the other fide were fituated the Baftuli, Bateflani, and Conteftani, along the Mediterranean coafts. The Ba- Itulrwere fuppofed to be of Phoenician extra&ion, and dwelt along the coafts of the Mediterranean, till, driven from thence by the Moors, they fled into the moun¬ tainous parts of Galicia, which they then called from their own name Bujlulia. The Bateftani were feated higher up, on the fame coafts. The territories of both thefe made part of what has fince become the kingdom of Granada ; in which there is a ridge of very high mountains, called from the above-mentioned people, the Batejlanian mountains. Mention is alfo made of their capital Bateftana ; a place of fuch ftrength, that King Ferdinand was fix months befieging it before he could take it from the Moors. The whole province of Boetica, according to the moft probable account, contained what is now called Andalujia, part of the kingdom of Granada, and the outward boundaries of Eftremadura. BALTIS. See B^etica. BALTULO, a town of ancient Spain in the Tarra- conenfis ; now Badelona in Catalonia. BALTYLIA, anointed ftones, worlhipped by the Phcenicians, by the Greeks before the time of Cecrops, and by other barbarous nations. They were com¬ monly of a black colour, and confecrated to feme god, as Saturn, Jupiter, the Sun, &c. Some are of opinion that the true original of thefe idols is to be derived from the pillar of ftone which Jacob erebted at Bethel, and which was afterwards worlhipped by the Jews. Thefe bcetylia were much the obiebl of the veneration of the ancient heathens.. Many of their idols were no other. In reality, no fort of idol was more common in the eaftern countries, than that of oblong ftones erebted, and hence termed by the Greeks, pillars. Jn fome parts of Egypt they were planted on both fides of the highways. In the temple of Heliogaba- I lus, in Syria, there was one pretended to have fallen p^tyi;3 from heaven. There was alfo a famous black ftone in \\ , Phrygia, faid to have fallen from heaven. The Ro- Bagdad, mans lent for it and the priefts belonging to it with " much ceremony, Scipio Nafica being at the head of the embaffy. BALZA, a city of Andalufia in Spain, feated on a high hill three miles from the Guadaiquiver j it is the fee of a billiop, and has a kind of univerfity founded by John d’Avila. It was taken from the Moors about the end of the 15th century. E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 37- 45- BAFFETAS, or Bastas, a cloth made of coarfe white cotton thread, which comes from the Eaft Indies. That of Surat is the beft. B AFFIN’s bay, a gulf of North America, running north-eaft from Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland, from 6° to 8° bf north latitude. BAFFO, a confiderable town in the ifland of Cy¬ prus, with a fort built near ancb it Paphos, of which fome confiderable ruins yet rerr .m, particularly fome broken columns, which probably belonged to the tem¬ ple of Venus. E. Long. 32. 20. N. Lat. 34. 50. BAG, in commerce, a term fignifying a certain quantity of fome particular commodity : a bag of al¬ monds, for inftance, is about 300 weight ; of anife- leeds, from 300 to 400, &c. Bags, are ufed in moft countries to put feveral forts of coin, either of gold, filver, brafs or copper. Bank¬ ers, and others, who deal much in current calh, label their bags of money, by tying a ticket or note at the mouth of the bag, fignifying the coin therein contain¬ ed, the fum total, its weight, and of whom it was re¬ ceived. Tare is allowed for the bag. Bag, among farriers, is when, in order to retrieve a horfe’s loft appetite, they put in an ounce of alafce- tida, and as much powder of favin, into a bag, to be tied to the bit, keeping him bridled for two hours, fe¬ veral times a-day j as foon as the bag is taken oft" he will fall to eating. The fame bag will ferve a long time. BAGAMADER, or Bagamedri, a province of the kingdom of Abyftinia in Africa. It is faid to re¬ ceive its name from the great number of ftieep bred in it ; meder fignifying land or earth, and bag a ftieep. Its length is eftimated about 60 leagues* and its breadth 20 : but formerly it was much more extenfive j feveral of its provinces having been difmembered from it, and joined to that of Tigre. A great part of it, efpecially towards the eaft, is inhabited by wandering Gallas and Caffres. BAGAUDAL, or Bacaud^e, an ancient faftion of peafants, or malecontents, who ravaged Gaul. The Gauls being opprefled with taxes, rofe about the year of Chrift 290, under the command of Amand and Elian ; and afl'umed the name bagaudce, which, according to fome authors, fignified in the Gallic language farced rebels; according to others, tribute; according to others, robbers; which laft fignification others allow the word had, but then it was only after the time of the bagaudce, and doubtlefs took its rife from them. BAGDAD, a celebrated city of Afia in Irak Arabia, feated on the eaftern banks of the Tigris, in E. Long. 43. 40. N. Lat. 33. 15. By many authors this city is very , , ' ' I BAG [ 317 ] BAG Bagdad, very improperly called Babylon. The latter flood on —v the Euphrates at a confiderable diflance. This city, for many years the capital of the Saracen empire, was founded by the caliph A1 Manfur, the fe- cond of the houfe of A1 Abbas, after an attempt by the Rawandians to ailaflinate him, as already mentioned. ! • See Arabia, N° 184. Why the The reafons affigned by the Arabian hiftorians for city was building the city of Bagdad are, That the above-men- kuut* tinned attempt to affadinate the caliph had difgufted him at his Arabian fubjecls in general, and that the fpot where Bagdad flood was at a confiderable diflance from the city of Cufa particularly ; the inhabitants of which were remarkable for their treachery and incon- ftancy, A1 Manfur himfelf having felt feveral inifances of it. Befides, the people of Irac, who had always con¬ tinued faithful to him, reprefented, that by building his capital near the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris, it would be in a great meafure fecured from the infults and attacks of thofe who fliould have an inclination to difpute the caliphate with him ; and that by being fitu- ated as it were in the middle of the trad! comprehend¬ ing the ditlrifls of Bafrah, Cufa, Wafet, Mawfel, and Swada, at no great diflance from thefe cities, it would be plentifully fupplied with provifions by means of the 2 aforefaid rivers. Ancient Concerning the origin of the name Bagdad, there are fcribed” var"10US accounts, which, being equally uncertain and cn e ‘ trifling, merit no attention. The fir ft city that went by this name tvas fituated on the weftern bank of the Tigris 5 from whence Al Manfur despatched his fon Al Mohdi with a body of Mollem troops to the oppo- fite bank. Here the young prince took poll, and for¬ tified the place on which he had encamped with a wall, in order to cover his troops, as well as the workmen employed by his father on the other fide of the river, from the incurfions of the Perfians, who feemed to have taken umbrage at the ereflion of a new metropolis fo near the frontiers of their dominions. Hence that part of the city foon after built on the eaftern banks of the Tigris, received the name of the Camp or Fortrefs of j41 Mohdi. The caliph had a fuperb and magnificent palace both in the eaftern and weftern part of the town. The eaftern palace was furrounded on the land fide by a femicircular wall that had fix gates ; the principal of which feems to have been called the gate of prefects, whofe entrance was generally kifted by the princes and ambafladors that came to the caliph’s court. The weft¬ ern part of the city was entirely round, with the ca¬ liph’s palace in the centre, and having the great mofque annexed to it. The eaftern part confifted of an interior and exterior town, each of which was furrounded by a wall. For fome time the building of the city went but flowly on, owing to a fcarcity of materials for building; for which reafon the caliph was fometimes inclined to remove the materials of Al Madayen, the ancient metropolis of ■ the Perfian empire. But, upon trial, he found the ftones to be of fuch immenfe fize, that the removal of them to Bagdad would be attended with great difficulty and expence ; befides, he confidered that it would be a refleftion upon himfelf to have it faid that he could not finiffi his metropolis without de- ftroying fuch a pile of building, as perhaps could not be paralleled in the whole world ; for which reafims he at length gave over his defign, and eredled the city of Bagdad moft probably out of the ruins of the ancient Bagdad, cities of Seleucia and Ctefinhon, putting an end to his -y——J undertaking in the 149th year of the Hegira, or four years after the city was begun. From the building of the city of Bagdad to the death of Al Manfur nothing very remarkable happened, ex cepting fome irruptions made into the territories of the Greeks, and by the Arabs into fome of the caliph’s other territories. In the 157th year of the Hegira alfo, a grievous famine was felt in Mefopotamia, which was quickly after followed by a plague that deftroyed great numbers. This year like wife, the Chriftians, who had been all along very feverely dealt with by Al Manfur, were treated with the utmoft rigour by Mufa Ebn Mo- faab the caliph’s governor ; every one who was unable to pay the enormous tribute exafted of them being thrown into prifon without diftindftion. The next year, being the 158th of the Hegira, the i)eath 0f caliph fet out from Bagdad, in order to perform the pil- Al Manfur. grimage to Mecca : but, being taken ill on the road, he expired at Bir Maimun, whence his body was carried to Mecca; where, after a hundred graves had been dug, that his fepulchre might be concealed, he was in¬ terred, having lived according to fome 63, according to others 68 years, and reigned 22. He is laid to have been extremely covetous, and to have left in his treafury 600,000,000 dirhems, and 24,000,000 dinars. He is , reported to have paid his cook by affigning him the heads and legs of the animals dreffed in his kitchen, and to have obliged him to procure at his own expence all the fuel and veffels he had occafion for. When Al Manfur expired at Bir Maimun, he had Succeeded only his domeftics and Rabi his freedman with him.by Al The latter of thefe, for fome time, kept his death con- Mohdi. cealed, and pretended to have a conference with him, in which, as he gave out, the caliph commanded him to exa£t an oath of allegiance to Al Mohdi his fon, as his immediate fucceflbr, and to Ifa Ebn Mufa his eoufin-german, as the next apparent heir to the-crown. He then defpatched a courier to Bagdad with the news of Al Manfur’s death ; upon which Al Mohdi was unanimoufly proclaimed caliph. Ifa Ebn Mufa, how* ever, no fooner heard this news, than he began to en¬ tertain thoughts of fetting up for himfelf at Cufa, where he then refided ; and in order to facilitate the execution of his fcheme, fortified himfelf in that city. But Al Mohdi being apprifed of his defection, lent a detachment of 1000 horfe to bring him to Bag¬ dad ; which being done, Ai Mohdi not only prevail¬ ed upon him to own his allegiance to him, but alfo to give up his right to the fucceffion for 10,000 accord¬ ing to fome, or according to others for 10,000,000 dinars-. From the acceffion of Al Mohdi to the 164th year Rejjeii;on of the Hegira, the moft remarkable event was the re-0f aIMo- bellion of Al Mokanna. This impious impoftor, whofe kanua. true name was Hakem Ebn Hejham, came originally from Khorafan, and had been an under fecretary to Abu Mollem governor of that province. He after¬ wards turned fuldier, and palled thence into Mawaral- nahr, where he gave himfelf out for a prophet. The name of Al Mokanna, as alfo that of Al Borkai, that is, the veiled, he took from his cuftom of covering his face with a veil or girdle malk, to conceal his defor¬ mity ; he having loft an eye in the wars, and being olherwife 1 Bagdad. 6 JJreadful cataftrophe of him and all his fa- Aiily. Haran Al Rafchid’s fuccefs againft the ©reeks. 8 Unaccount¬ able dark- nefs. BAG [ 31 otlierwife of a defpicable appearance ; though his fol¬ lowers pretended he did this for the fame reafon that Mofes did, viz. left the fplendour of his countenance Ihould dazzle the eyes of his beholders. In fome places he made a great many profelytes, deluding the people with a number of juggling tricks which they fwallowed as miracles, and particularly by caufing the appearance of a moon to rife out of a well for many nights together ; whence he was alfo called in the Per- fian tongue, Sa%endeb mab, or the moon-maker. This wretch, not content with being reckoned a prophet, arrogated to himfelf divine honours; pretending that the Deity refided in his perfon, having proceeded to him from Abu Modem, in whom he had taken up his refidence before. At laft this impoftor raifed an open rebellion againft the caliph, and made himfelf mafter of feveral fortified places in Khorafan, fo that Al Moh- di was obliged to fend one of his generals with an army againft him. Upon the approach of the caliph’s troops, Al Mokanna retired into one of his ftrong for- treffes which he had well provided for a fiege 5 and fent his emiffaries abroad to perfuade the people that lie raifed the dead to life, and foretold future events. But being clofely befteged by the caliph’s forces, and feeing no poflibility of efcaping, he gave poifon in wine to his whole family and all that were with him, in the caftle ; when they were dead, he burnt their bodies, together with all their furniture, provifions, and cattle ; and laftly, he threw himfelf into the flames, or, as others fay, into a tub of aquafortis, or fome other preparation, which confumed every part of him except the hair. When the befiegers therefore entered the place, they found no living creature in it, except one of Al Mokanna’s concubines, who, fufpe6ting his defign, had hid herfelf, and now difcovered the whole matter. This terrible contrivance, however, failed not to produce the defired effeft. He had promifed his followers, that his foul ftiould tranfmigrate into the form of an old man riding on a grayifh-coloured beaft, and that after fo many years he would return and give them the earth for their poffeflion ; which ri¬ diculous expe£lation kept the fe and on his death the celebrated caliph Harun Al Rafchid afcended the throne. IT This was one of the beft and wifeft princes that Harun Al ever fat on the throne of Bagdad. He was alfo ex-Rafchid ca- tremely fortunate in all his undertakings, though he didllPll> not much extend his dominions by conqueft. In his time the Modem empire may be faid to have been in its moft flourifhing ftate, though by the independency of the Modems in Spain, who had formerly fet up a ca¬ liph of the houfe of Ommiyah, his territories were not quite fo extenfive as thofe of fome of his predeceffors. I2 He podeffed the provinces of Syria, Paleftine, Arabia, Extent of Perfia, Armenia, Natolia, Media or Aderbijan, Baby-hus empire, Ionia, Afiyria, Sindia, Sijiftan, Khorafan, Tabreftan, Jorjan, Zableftan or Sab/ejlan, Mawaralnahr or Great Bukharin, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, &c. fo that his empire was by far the moft powerful of any in the world, and extended farther than the Roman empire ever had done. 13 The firft inftance of Harun’s good fortune, and He finds a which was taken for a prefage of a profperous and ^ happy reign, was his finding a valuable ring which he had thrown into the Tigris to avoid being deprived of it by his brother Al Hadi. He was able to give the divers no other dire&ion than by throwing a ftone from the bridge of Bagdad, about the fame place of the river in which he had thrown the ring ; notwith- ftanding which, they found it without any great diffi¬ culty. _ _ 14 In the 186th year of the Hegira, beginning Janu-Divides the arv 10. 802, the caliph divided the government 0f emPire ?* his extenfive dominions among his three Ions, in Hie j-ons^an(j following manner : To Al Amin the eldeft, he affigned fettles the the provinces of Syria, Irak, the three Arabias, Mefo-fucceffion. potamia, Afiyria, Media, Paleftine, Egypt, and all that part of Africa extending from the confines of Egypt and ’ Ethiopia to the ftraits of Gibraltar, with the dignity of caliph ; to Al Mamun the fecond, he affigned Perfia, Kerman, the Indies, Khorafan,Tabreftan, Cableflan, and Zableftan, together with the vaft province of Mawaral¬ nahr •, and to his third fon Al Kafem, he gave Arme¬ nia, Natolia, Jorjan, Georgia, Circaffia, and all the Modem territories bordering upon the Euxine fea. As to the order of fucceffion, Al Amin was to afcend the throne immediately after his father’s deceafe ; after him, Al Mamun ; and then Al Kafem, whom he had fur- named Al Mutaman. The moft confiderable exploit performed by this caliph BAG [ 3 Bagdad, caliph were againft the Greeks, who by their perfidy provoked him to make war upon them, and whom he 's ficcef alvvays overcame. In the 187th year of the Hegira, wars0 ' lhe ealiph received a letter from the Greek emperor with the Nicephorus, foon after he had been advanced to the im- Greeks. periai dignity, commanding him to return all the money he had extorted from the emprefs Irene, though that had been fecured to him by the laft treaty concluded with that princefs, or expeif foon to fee an imperial army in the heart of his territories. This infolent letter fo exafperated Harun, that he immediately alfembled his forces and advanced to Heraclea, laying the coun¬ try through which he palled wafte with fire and fword. For fome time alfo he kept that city llraitly befiegtd ; which fo terrified the Greek emperor, that he fubmit- ted to pay an annual tribute. Upon this Harun grant¬ ed him a peace, and returned with his army. But a hard troft foon after happening in thefe parts, Nicephorus took for granted that A1 Ralhid would not pay him another vitit, and therefore broke the treaty he had concluded. Of this the caliph receiving advice, he in- ftantly put himfelf in motion ; and, notwithftanding the inclemency of the weather, forced the emperor to ac¬ cept of the terms propofed. According to a Perfian hiftorian, before the hollilities at this time commenced, Nicephorus made the caliph a prefent of feveral fine fwords, giving him thereby plainly to underltand that he was more inclinable to come to blows than to make peace with him. All thefe fwords Harun cut afunder with his famous fword Samfamah, as if they had been fo many radifhes, after v'hich fevere proof there did not appear the leal! flaw in the blade 5 a clear proof of the goodnefs of the fword, as the cutting the others with it was of the ftrength of Harun’s arm. This Iword had-fallen into Al Ralhid’s hands among the fpoils of Ebn Dakikan, one of the laft Hamyaritic princes of Yamany but is faid to have belonged ori¬ ginally to a valiant Arab named Afnru Ebn Maadi Curb, by whofe name it generally went among the Moflems. This man is faid to have performed very extraordinary feats with his fword, which induced a certain prince to borrow it from him ; but he not be¬ ing able to perform any thing remarkable with it, complained to Amru that it had not the defired effedf : upon which that brave man took the liberty to tell him, that he had not fent him his arm along with his fword. In the 188th year of the Hegira, war was renewed with the Greeks, and Nicephorus with a great army attacked the caliph’s forces with the utmoft fury. He was, however, defeated with the lofs of 40,000 men, and received three wounds in the adlion *, after which the Moflems committed terrible ravages in his territo¬ ries,and returned home laden with fpoils. The next year Harun invaded Phrygia ; defeated an imperial army fent to oppofe him j and having ravaged the country, returned without any confiderable lofs. In the 190th year of the Hegira, commencing November 27. 805, the caliph marched into the imperial territories with an army of 135,000 men, befides a great number of vo¬ lunteers and others who were not enrolled among his troops. He firft took the city of Htraclea, from whence he is faid to have carried 16,000 prifoners 5 after which he made himfelf mafter of feveral other places; and in the conclufion of the expedition, he 19 ] BAG made a defcent on the ifland of Cyprus, which he plan- Bagdad, dered in a terrible manner. This fuccefs fo intimida- —y—— ted Nicephorus, that he immediately fent the tribute due to Harun, the withholding of which had been the oaufe of the war, and concluded a peace upon the ca- liph’s own terms; one of which was, that the city of Heraclea ftiould never be rebuilt. This perhaps Ha¬ run would not have fo readily granted, had not one 16 Rafe Ebn Al Leith revolted againft him at Samarcand, Rebellion and aflembled a confiderable force to fupport him in his defection. The next year being the 191ft of the Hegira, the caliph removed the governor of Khorafan from his em¬ ployment, becaufe he had not been fufficiently attentive to the motions of the rebel Rafe Ebn Al Leith. As this governor had alfo tyrannized over his fubjefls in the moft cruel manner, his fucceffor no fooner arrived than he fent him in chains to the caliph *, but notwith- ftanding all Harun’s care, the rebels made this year a great progrefs in the conqueft of Khorafan. Next year the caliph found it neceffary to march in perlon againft the rebels, who were daily becoming more formidable. The general rendezvous of his troops was in the plains of Rakka, from whence he advanced at the head of them to Bagdad. Having at that place fupplied the troops with every thing neceffary, he con¬ tinued his march to the frontiers of Jorjan, where he wasfeized with an illnefs which grew more violent after he had entered that province. Finding himfelf there¬ fore unable to purfue his journey, he religned the com¬ mand of the army to his ion Al Mamun, retiring him- ^ felf to T us in Khorafan. We are told by Khondemir, The ca- that, before the caliph departed from Rakka, he had abpb’s desth dream, wherein he faw a hand over his head full of red b1 earth, and at the fame time heard a perfon pronouncing y thefe words, “ See the earth where Harun is to be buried.” Upon this he demanded where he was to be buried ; and was inftantly anfwered, “ At Tus.” This dream greatly difcompofing him, he communicated it to his chief phyfieian, who endeavoured to divert him, telling the caliph that the dream had been occafioned by the thoughts of his expedition againft the rebels. He therefore advifed him to purfue fome favourite di- verfion that might draw his attention another way. The caliph accordingly, by his phyfician’s advice, pre¬ pared a magnificent regale for his courtiers, which lafled feveral days. After this, he put himfelf at the head of his forces, and advanced to the confines of Jorjan, where he was attacked by the diftemper that proved fatal to him. As his diforder increafed, he found him¬ felf obliged to retire to Tus; where being arrived, he fent for his phyfician, and faid to him, “ Gabriel, do you remember my dream at Rakka ? We are now ar¬ rived at Tus, the place, according to what was pre- didted in that dream, of my interment. Send one of my eunuchs to fetch me. a handful of earth in the neigh¬ bourhood of this city.” Upon this, Mafrur, one of his favourite eunuchs, was defpatched to bring a little of the foil of the place to the caliph. He foon returned and brought a handful of red earth, which he prefented to the caliph with his arm half bare. At the fight of this Harun inftantly cried out, “ In truth this is the earth, and this the very arm, that I faw in my dream.” His fpirits immediately failing, and his malady being greatly increafed by the perturbation of mind enfuing upoa BAG [ 320 ] BAG Bagdad. )S He dies ac¬ cording to the predic¬ tion. 19 Succeeded .by his fon Al Amin. upon this fight, he died three days after, and was bu¬ ried in the fame place. According to Abul Faraj, Ba- fhir Fbn Al Leith the arch rebel’s brother was brought in chains to the caliph, who was then at the point of death. At the fight of whom Harun declared, that if he could fpeak only two words he would fay hill him; and immediately ordered him to be cut to pieces in his prefence. This being done, the caliph foon after ex¬ pired, in the year of the Hegira 193, having reigned 23 years. The diftemper that put an end to his days is faid to have been the bloody-flux. Upon the arrival of a courier from Tus, with the news of Al Ralliid’s death, his fon Al Amin was im¬ mediately proclaimed caliph ; and was no fooner feated on the throne, than he formed adefign of excluding his brother Al Mamun from the fucceffion. Accordingly he deprived him of the furniture of the imperial palace of Khorafan \ and in open violation of his father’s will, who had bellowed on Al Mamun the perpetual govern¬ ment of Khorafan, and of all the troops in that province, he ordered thefe forces to march diredlly to Bagdad. Upon the arrival of this order, Al Mamun expoftulated with the general Al Fadl Ebn Rabbi who commanded his troops, and endeavoured to prevent his marching to Bagdad •, but without effedt, for he punctually obeyed the orders fent by the caliph. Al Mamun, however, took care not to be wanting in fidelity to his brother. He obliged the people of Khorafan to take an oath of fidelity to Al Amin, and reduced fome who had actual¬ ly excited a confiderable body of the people to revolt, while the general Al Fadl having ingratiated himfelf with the caliph by his ready compliance with his orders, was chofen prime vizir, and governed with an abfplute of the new fway : Al Amin abandoning himfelf entirely to drun- c?liPh* kennefs. Al Fadl wTas a very able minifier *, though fearing Al Mamun’s refentment if ever he fliould afeend the throne, he gave Al Amin fuch advice as proved in the end the ruin of them both. He told him that his brother had gained the affedlion of the people of Khorafan by the good order and police he had eftablifhed among them •, that his unwearied application to the adminiftration of juftice had fo attradled their efteem, that the whole pro¬ vince was entirely at his devotion ; that his own condudl was by no means relilhed by his fubjedts, whofe minds were almoft totally alienated from him ; and therefore that he had but one part to adf, which was to deprive Al Mamun of the right of fucceflion that had been given him by his father, and transfer it to his own fon Mufa, though then but an infant. Agreeable to this pernicious advice, the caliph fent for his brother Al Ka- fem from Mefopotamia, and recalled Al Mamun from Khorafan, pretending he had occafion for him as an af- fiftant in his councils. By this treatment Al Mamun was fo much provoked, that he refolved to come to an open rupture with his Ids^brothtf brother, in order if poffible to fruftrate his wicked de- figns. Inftead, therefore, of going to Bagdad as he had been commanded, he cut off all communication be¬ tween his own province and that capital : pretending, that as his father Harun had afligned him the lieute¬ nancy of Khorafan, he was refponfible for all the dif- orders that might happen there during his abfence. He alfo coined money, and would not fuffer Al Amin’s name to be impreffed upon any of the dirhems, or di¬ ao Infamous behaviour 21 Al Mamun takes up nars ft ruck in that province. Not content with this, Bagdad. he prevailed upon Rafe Ebn Al Leith, who had been ' -y— for fome time in rebellion, to join him with a body of troops j whofe example was foon after followed by Harthema Ebn Aafan 5 which put him in poffeffion of all the vaft territory of Khorafan. Here he go¬ verned with an abfolute fway, officiated in the mofque as Imam, and from the pulpit conftantly harangued the people. The following year, being the 195th year of the Hegira, beginning Odfober 4. 810, the caliph Al Amin, finding that his brother fet him at defiance, de¬ clared war againft him, and fent his general Ali Ebn Ifa with an army of 60,coo men to invade Khorafan. 2„ Al Mamun, being informed that Ali was advancing Al Amin’s againft him with fuch a powerful army, put on foot forces de¬ al! the troops he could raife, and gave the command to^eate^* Thaher Ebn Hofein, one of the greateft generals of his age. Thaher being a man of undaunted refolution, chofe only 4000 men, whom he led againft Al Amin’s army. Ali, feeing fo fmall a number of troops advan- eing againft him, was tranfported with joy, and pro- mifed himfelf an eafy vidlory. Defpifing his enemies, therefore, he behaved in a fecure and carelefs manner j the confequence of which was, that his army wras en¬ tirely defeated, and himftlf killed, his head being af¬ terwards fent as a prefent to Al Mamun, who amply rewarded Thaher and Harthema for their fervices. After this vidlory, Al Mamun affirmed the title of caliph, ordered Al Amin’s name to be omitted in the public prayers, and made all necefiary preparations for carrying the war into the very heart of his brother’s dominions. For this purpofe he divided his forces into two bodies, and commanded them to march into Irak by different routes. One of them obeyed the orders of Thaher, and the other of Harthema. The firft diredled his march towards Ah was, and the other towards Hol- wan, both of them propofing to meet in the neighbour¬ hood of Bagdad, and after their junflion to befiege that cit>7’ . , 23 In the 196th year of the Hegira, Thaher Ebn Ho- Al Ma- fein made a moft rapid progrefs with the troops under i*11111’5 raP’* his command. Having advanced towards Ah was, lie there defeated a body of the caliph’s forces; and though the victory was by no means decifive, it fo in- timidaled the commander of Ahwas, that he thought fit to furrender that fortrefs to him. This opened him a way to Wafet upon the Tigris, and facilitated the conqueft of that place. After this he marched with his army to Al Madayen ; the inhabitants of which immediately opened their gates to him. The rapidity of thefe conquefts, and the infamous conduit of Al Amin, excited the people of Egypt, Syria, Hejaz, and Yaman, unanimoufly to declare for Al Mamun ; who was accordingly proclaimed caliph in all thefe pro¬ vinces. The next year, Al Mamun’s forces under- Thaher and Harthema, laid fiege to Bagdad. As the caliph Bagdad, was fiiut up in that place, and it had a numerous gar- rifdn, the befieged made a vigorous defence, and de- ftreyed a great number of their enemies. The befiegers, however, inceflantly played upon the town with their catapults and other engines, though they were in their turn not a little annoyed by the garrifon with the fame fort of military machines. The latter like w ife made continual BAG Qagdad 5S. A1 Amin murdered. 7,6 Succeeded by A1 Ma- mun. Khorafan difmein- bered from t'ne em¬ pire. jS Death of Mamun continual failles, and fought like men in defpair, though they were always at lad beaten back into the town with confiderable lofs. In fliort the fiege continued during the whole of this year, in which the greateft part of the eaftern city, called the Cam/) of Al Mokdi, was demolifhed or reduced to allies. The citizens, as well as the garrifon, were reduced to the laft extremity, by the length and violence of the fiege. In the beginning of the 198th year of the Hegira, Al Amin finding himfelf deferted by his troops, as well as by the principal men of Bagdad, who had kept a private correfpondence with Thaher, was obliged to retire to the old town on the weft bank of the Tigris. He did not, however, take this ftep, before the inhabi¬ tants of the new town had formally depofed him, and proclaimed his brother Al Mamun caliph. Thaher, receiving advice of this, caufed the old town to be im¬ mediately invefted, planted his engines againft it, and at laft ftarved it to furrender. Al Amin being thus reduced to the neceflity of putting himfelf into the hands of one of the generals, chofe to implore the pro- teflion of Harthema, whom he judged to be of a more humane difpofition than Thaher. Having obtained this, he embarked in a fmall veffel in order to arrive at that part of the camp where Harthema was polled j but Thaher being informed of his defign, which, if put in execution, he thought would eclipfe the glory he had acquired, laid an ambufti for him, which he had not the good fortune to efcape. Upon his arrival in the neighbourhood of Harthema’s tent, Thaher’s foldiers rulhed upon him, drowned all his attendants, and put himfelf in prifon. Here he was foon after maffacred by Thaher’s fervants, who carried his head in triumph to their mailer, by whofe order it was afterwards expof- ed to public view in the ftreets of Bagdad. Thaher afterwards fent to Al Mamun in Khorafan, together with the ring or feal of the caliphate, the fceptre and the imperial robe. At the fight of thefe, Al Mamun fell down on his knees, and returned thanks to God for his fuccefs ; making the courier who brought them a prefent of a million of dirhems, in value about ioo,oool. fterling. The fame day that Al Amin was aflaftinated, his brother Al Mamun was proclaimed caliph at Bagdad. He had not long been feated on the throne when he was alarmed by rebellions breaking out in different parts of the empire. Thefe, however were at laft happily ex- tinguilhed ; after which, Thaher Ebn Hofein had the government of Khorafan conferred upon him and his defcendants with almoft abfolute and unlimited power. This happened in the 205th year of the Hegira, from which time we may date the difmemberment of that province from the empire of the caliphs. During the reign of this caliph nothing remarkable happened ; only the African Moflems invaded the iiland of Sicily, where they made themfelves mailers of feveral places. He died of a furfeit in the 218th year of the Hegira, having reigned 20, and lived 48 or 49 years. On the death of Al Mamun, his brother Al Mota- fem, bv fbme of the oriental hitlorians furnamed Bi//ahy was faluted ealiph. He fucceeded by virtue of Al Mamun’s exprefs nomination of him, ts the exclufion of his own fon Al Abbas and his other brother Al Kafem, who had been appointed by Harun Al Hafchid. In Vol. UK Part I. C 321 3 BAG the beginning of his reign he was obliged to employ the whole forces of his empire againft one Babec, who had been for a confiderable time in rebellion in Perfia and Perfian Irak. Bagdad, *9 This Babec firft appeared in the War r 1 tt * 111 rr 1 tween the year or the Hegira 201, when he began to take uponnew caiiph him the title of a prophet. What his particular doc- AL Mota- trine was, is now unknown j but his religion is faid to fem an(l have differed from all others then known in Alia. He gained a great number of profelytes in Aderbijan and the Perfian Irak, where he foon grew powerful enough to wage wrar with the caliph Al Mamun, whofe troops he often beat, fo that he was now become extremely formidable. The general fent by Al Motafem to re¬ duce him was Haider Ebn Kaus, furnamed Affhin, a Turk by nation, who had been brought a flave to the caliph’s court, and having been employed in difcipli- ning the Turkifti militia there, had acquired the repu¬ tation of a great captain. By him Babec was defeated with prodigious daughter, no fewer than 60,000 men feated. being killed in the firft engagement. The next year, being the 220th of the Hegira, he received a ftill greater overthrow, lofing 100,000 men either killed or taken prifoners. By this defeat he was obliged to retire into the Gordytean mountains; where he fortified himfelf in fuch a manner, that Afftiin found it impoflible to reduce him till the year of the Hegira 222. This commander having reduced with invincible patience all Babec’s caftles one after another, the itn- poftor was obliged to Lhut himfelf up in a ftrong for- trefs called Cajhabad, which was now his laft refource. Here he defended himfelf with great bravery for feve¬ ral months j but at laft finding he ftiould be obliged to furrender, he made his efcape into a neighbouring wood, from whence he foon after came to Afftiin, upon that general’s promifing him pardon. But Afftiin no Taken pri- fooner had him in his power, than he firft caufed his foner and hands and feet, and afterwards his head, to be cut off. Put tn Babec had fupported himfelf againft the power of the deattl* caliphs for upwards of 20 years, during which time 32 he had cruelly maffacred 250,000 people ; it being his He deftroy- cuftom to fpare neither man, woman, nor child, of theedvaft Mahometans or their allies. Amongft the prifoners taken at Caftiabad there was one Nud, who had been one of Babec’s executioners, and who owned that in obedience to his mailer’s commands he had deftroyed 20,000 Moflems with his own hands; to which he add¬ ed, that vaft numbers had alfo been executed by his companions, but that of thefe he could give no preciffe account. In the 223d year of the Hegira, the Greek emperor Theophilus invaded the caliph’s territories, where he behaved with the greateft cruelty, and by dellroying Sozopetra the place of Al Motafem’s nativity, not- withftanding his earneft entreaties to the contrary, oc- cafioned the terrible deftrnftion of Amorium mentioned under that article. The reft of this caliph’s reign is re¬ markable for nothing but the execution of Afftiin, who was accufed of holding correfpondence with the caliph’s enemies. After his death a great number of idols were found in his houfe, which were immediately burned, as alfo feveral books faid to contain impious and deteftable opinions. 33 In the 227th year of the Hegira died the caliph Al Dfa‘h of Motafem, in the 48th or 49th year of his age. He(em[ 0t*“ reigned eight years eight months and eight days, was S { born BAG [32 -"Bagdad, born In the eighth month of the year, fought eight '“■"“v'—-'’ battles, had 8000 Haves, and had 8,000,000 dinars and 80,000 dirhems in his treafury at his death •, whence the oriental biftorians gave him the name of Al Motha- man, or the OEJonary. He is faid to have been fo ro- buft, that he once carried a burden of 1000 pounds weight feveral paces. As the people of Bagdad dif- turbed him with frequent revolts and commotions, he took the refolution to abandon that city, and build another for his own refidence. The new city he built ] BAG 34 He built 35 His fuc- cefifors Al Wathek and Al kel. 36 Monftrous cruelty of Al Mota- wakkel. the city of was firll called Samarra, and afterwards Sarra Manray, Sarra and flood in the Arabian Irak. He was attached to Manray. Hie opinion of the Motazalites, who maintain the cre¬ ation of the Koran ; and both he and his predeceffor cruelly perfecuted thofe who believed it to be eternal. Al Motafem was fucceeded by Al Wathek Bilah, who the following year, being the 228th of the Hegira, invaded and conquered Sicily. Nothing remarkable Motawak- Happened during the reft of his reign *, he died in the 23 2d year of the Hegira, and was fucceeded by his brother Al Motawakkel. The new caliph began his reign with an a£l of the greateft cruelty. The late caliph’s vizir having treat¬ ed Al Motawakkel ill in his brother’s lifetime, and op- pofed his election to the caliphate, was on that account now fent to prifon. Here the caliph ordered him to be kept aivake for feveral days and nights together : after this, being fuffered to fall afleep, he flept a whole day and night 5 and after he awoke was thrown into an iron furnace lined with fpikes or nails heated red hot, where he was miferably burnt to death. During this reign nothing remarkable happened, except wars with the Greeks, which were carried on with various fuccefs. In the year 859 too, being the 245th of the Hegira, violent earthquakes happened in many provin¬ ces of the Moflem dominions 5 and the fprings at Mec¬ ca failed to fuch a degree, that the celebrated well Zemzem was almoft dried up, and the water fold for 100 dirhems a bottle. In the 247th year of the Hegira, the caliph was af- faflinated at the inftance of his fon Al Montafer 5 who fucceeded him, and died in fix months after. He was fucceeded by Al Moftain, who in the year of the He¬ gira 252 was forced to abdicate the throne by his bro¬ ther Al Motazz, who afterwards caufed him to be pri¬ vately murdered. He did not long enjoy the dignity of which he had fo iniquitoufly poffefled himfelf; be¬ ing depofed by the Turkilh militia (who now began to fet up and depofe caliphs as they pleafed) in the 255th year of the Hegira. After his depofition he was fent under an efcort from Sarra Manray to Bagdad, where he died of third or hunger, after a reign of four years and about feven months. The fate of this caliph was of Al Mo. peculiarly hard : the Turkilh troops had mutinied for ‘azz, a fac. their pay \ and Al Motazz, not having money to fatisfy ceeding. their demands, applied to his mother named Kabiha for 50,000 dinars. This Ihe refufed, telling him that ftie had no money at all, although it afterwards appear¬ ed that flie was poffeffed of immenfe treafures. After his depofition, however, ftie was obliged to difcover them, and even depofite them in the hands of the new caliph Al Mokhtadi. They confifted of 1,000,000 dinars, a bulhel of emeralds, and another of pearls, and three pounds and three quarters of rubies of the colour af fire. .37 He is af- fallinated. 38 Hard fate caliph. Al Mokhtadi, the new caliph, was the fon of one of Bagdad. Al Wathek’s concubines named Korb, or Karb, whov—.-j is by fome fuppofed to have been a Chriftian. The be- 39 ginning of his reign is remarkable for the irruption °fyf^he'zen the Zenjians, a people of Nubia, Ethiopia, and thej;ans jn country of the Caffres, into Arabia, where they penetra-the reign ted into the neighbourhood of Bafra and Cufa. The°f Al chief of this gang of robbers, who, according to forae of the Arab hiftorians, differed but little from wild beafts, was All Ebn Mohammed Ebn Abdalrahman, who falfely gave himfelf out to be of the family of Ali Ebn Abu Taleb. This made fuch an impreflion upon the Shiites in thofe parts, that they flocked to him in great numbers j which enabled him to feize upon the cities of Bafra and Ramla, and even to pafs the Tigris at the head .of a formidable army. He then took the title of Prince of the Zenjians, in order to ingratiate himfelf with thofe barbarians, of whom his army was principally compofed. In the 256th year of the Heigra, Al Mokhtadi was- barbaroully murdered by the Turks who had raifed him to the throne, and was fucceeded by Al Monta- med the fon of Al Motawakkel. This year the prince of the Zenjians, Ali, or as he is alfo called A/ Habib,Habib’s made incurfions to the very gates of Bagdad, doing fuccefs. prodigious mifchief wherever he paffed. The caliph therefore fent againft him one Jolan with a confider- able army •, he was overthrown, however, with very great flaughter by the Zenjian, who made himfelf mafter of 24 of the caliph’s largeft Ihips in the bay of Bafra, put a vaft number of the inhabitants of Obol-. la to the fword, and feized up®n the town. Not con¬ tent with this, he fet fire to it, and foon reduced it to afhes, the houfes moftly confifting of the wood of a certain plane tree called by the Arabians Saj. From thence he marched to Abadan, which likewife fur- rendered to him. Here he found immenfe treafure, which enabled him to poffefs himfelf of the whole di- ftridt of Ahwaz. In Ihort, his forces being now in- creafed to 80,000 ftrong, moft of the adjacent terri¬ tories, and even the caliph’s court itfelf, were ftruck with terror. In the 257th year of the Hegira, Al Habib conti¬ nued vi&orious, defeated feveral armies fent againft him by the caliph, reduced the city of Bafra, and put 20,000 of the inhabitants to the fword. The follow- ing year, the caliph, fupported by his brother Al Mo- waffek, had formed a defign of circumfcribing the. power of the Turkifti foldiery, who had for fome time given law to the caliphs themfelves. But this year the Zenjians made fo rapid a progrefs in Perfia, Arabia, and Irak, that he was obliged to fufpend the execution of his defign, and even to employ the Turkifti troops to aflift his brother Al Mowaffek in oppofing thefe rob¬ bers. The firft of the caliph’s generals who encountered Al Habib this year, was defeated in feveral engage¬ ments, and had his army at laft entirely deftroyed. Af¬ ter this Al Mowaffek and another general nzmedi^Mof- leh, advanced againft him. In the firft engagement Mofleh being killed by an arrow, the caliph’s troops retired ; but Al Mowaffek put them afterwards in fuch a pofture of defence, that the enemy durft not renew the attack. Several other ftiarp encounters happened this year, in which neither party gained great advan¬ tage ) but, at laft, fome contagious diftempers breaking out BAG [ 323 ] BAG Bagdad, out In A1 Mowaffek’s army, he was obliged to conclude caliph, and fet up for himfelf in Egypt. Having af- Bagdad. “""V "- ' 3 truce, and retire to Wafet to refrefh his troops. fembled a conliderable force, he marched to Antioch,v—— In the 2591!) year of the Hegira, commencing Nov. 7. and befieged Sima the governor of Aleppo and all the 44 872, the war between the caliph and A1 Habib dill provinces known among the Arabs by the name of ^/.Re^eluon continued. A1 Mowaffek, upon his arrival at Bagdad, Awafem, in that city. As the befieged found that he whicYean- fent Mohammed iurnamed A/ Mowalled with a power- was refolved to carry the place by aflault, they thought not be fup- ful army to a6t againft the Zenjians ; but he could not fit, after a fhort defence, to fubmit, and to put SirnaP16^* hinder them from ravaging the province of Ahwaz,cut- into his hands. Ahmed no fooner had that officer in ting off about 50,000 of the caliph’s fubjedts, and dif- his power, than he caufed him to be beheaded; after mantling the city of Ahwaz ; and notwithftanding the which he advanced to Aleppo, the gates of which were utmoft efforts of all the caliph’s generals, no confider- immediately opened unto him. Soon after, he reduced able advantages could be gained either this or the follow- Damafcus, Hems, Hamath, Kinnifrin. and A1 Rakka 4i_ mg year. Rebellion In the 261ft year of the Hegira, beginning Odtober Ahwaz 1^‘ ^4’ Mnhamnied £[3n Wafel, who had killed the andBafra. cahph’s governor of Ears, and afterwards made himfelf mafter of that province, had feveral engagements with A1 Habib, but with what fuccefs is not known. The caliph, having been apprized of the ftate of affairs on that fide, annexed the government of Ears, Ahwaz, and Bafra, to the prefedture he had given to Mufa Ebn Baga, whom he looked upon as one of the beft gene¬ rals he had. Mufa, foon after his nomination to that poll, fent Abdalrahman Ebn Mofleh as his deputy to Ahwaz, giving him as a colleague and affiftant one Ti- fam, a lurk. Mohammed Ebn Wafel, however, refu- fing to obey the orders of Abdalrahman and Tifam, a fierce conflict enfued, in which the latter was defeated, and Abdalrahman taken prifoner. After this victory, Mohammed advanced againft Mufa Ebn Baga himfelf; but that general finding he could not take poffeflion of his new government without a vaft effufion of blood, re¬ called the deputies from their provinces, and made the beft of his way to Sarra Manray. After this, Yakub Ebn Al Leit, having taken Khorafan from the defcend- ants of Thaher, attacked and defeated Mohammed Ebn Wafel, feizing on his palace, where he found a fum of 4z money amounting to 40,000,000 dirhems. featec]5 but The next year Yakub Ebn Leit being grown for- sannot be ridable by the acquifition of Ahwaz and a confiderable reduced. portion of Ears, or at leaft the Perfian Irak, declared war againft the caliph. Againft him Al Motamed de- fpatched Al Mowaffek ; who having defeated him with prodigious daughter, plundered his camp, and purfued him into Khorafan ; where meeting with no oppofition, he entered Nifabur, and releafed Mahomet the Tha- herian, whom Yakub had detained in prifon three years. As for Yakub himfelf, he made his efcape with great difficulty, though he and his family continued fe¬ veral years in poffeffion of many of the conquefts he had made. This war with Yakub proved a feafonable di- verfion in favour of Al Habib, who this year defeated all the forces fent againft him, and ravaged the diftrift 43 of Wafet. ftiilH7>b The following year, being the 263d of the Hegira, rij1 °* beginning September 24.876, the caliph’s forces, under the command of Ahmed Ebn Lebuna, gained two con¬ fiderable advantages over Al Habib ; but being at laft drawn into an ambufcade, they were almoft totally de- ftroyed, their general himfelf making his efcape with the utmoft difficulty ; nor were the caliph’s forces able, du¬ ring the courfe of the next year, to make the leaft im- preffion upon thefe rebels. In the 265th year of the Hegira, beginning Septem- bsr 3. 878, Ahmed Ebn Tolun rebelled againft the fituated upon the eaftern bank of the Euphrates. This rebellion fo exafperated Al Motamed, that he caufed Ahmed to be publicly curfed in all the mofques belong¬ ing to Bagdad and Irak ; and Ahmed on his part or¬ dered the fame malediction to be thundered out againft the caliph in all the mofques within his jurifdiCtionl This year alfo a detachment of Al Habib’s troops pe¬ netrated into Irak, and made themfelves mafters of four of the caliph’s ffiips laden with corn ; then they advanced to Al Nomanic, laid the greateft part of it in allies, and carried off with them feveral of the inhabi¬ tants prifoners. After this they poffeffed themfelves of Jarjaraya, where they found many prifoners more, and deftroyed all the adjacent territory with fire and fword. Four^inde- This year there were four independent powers in the pendent Mollem dominions, befides the houfe of Ommiyah inPowers.in Spain, viz. the African Moflems, or Aglabites, who the'faliP|1’s had for a long time afted independently; Ahmed in Unions. '** Syria and Egypt ; Al Leit in Khorafan ; and Al Ela- bib in Arabia and Irak. In the 266th year of the Hegira, beginning Auguft 23- 879, Al Habib reduced Ramhormoz, burnt the ftately mofque there to the ground, put a vaft num¬ ber of the inhabitants to the Iword, and carried awray great numbers, as well as a vaft quantity of fpoil.— This was his laft fuccefsful campaign ; for the year fol-^i Habib’s lowing, Al Mowaffek, attended by his fon Abul Ab-bad fuccefs bas, having attacked him with a body of 10,000 horfe and death, and a few infantry, notwithftanding the vaft difparity of numbers (Al Habib’s army amounting to 100,000 men), defeated him in feveral battles, recovered moft of the towns he had taken, together with an immenfe quantity of fpoil, and releafed 5000 women that had been thrown into prifon by thefe barbarians. After thefe victories, Al Mowaffek took poll before the city of Al Mabiya’, built by Al Habib, and the place of his refidence; burnt all the (hipsin the harbour; thorough¬ ly pillaged the town ; and then entirely difmantled it. After the reduction of this place, in which he found immenfe treafures, Al IVTowaffek purfued the flying Zenjians, put feveral of their chiefs to the fword, and advanced to Al Mokhtara, a city built by Al Habib. As the. place was ftrongly fortified, and Al Habib was polled in its neighbourhood, with an army, according to Abu Jaafer Al Tabari, of 300,000 men, Al Mowaf¬ fek perceived that the reduction of it would be a mat¬ ter of fome difficulty. He therefore built a fortrefs oppofite to it, where he ereCted a mofque, and coined money. The new city, from its founder, was called by the Arabs A/ Mowaffekkia, and foon rendered confider¬ able by the fettlement of feveral wealthy merchants there. The city of Al Mokhtara being reduced to great ftraits was at laft taken by ftorm, and given up to S f 2 be BAG [324 Bagdad, be plundered by the caliph’s troops j after which A1 "v Mowaffek defeated the numerous forces of A1 Habib in fuch a manner, that they could no more be rallied du¬ ring that campaign. The following year, being the 268th of the Hegira, Al Mowaffek penetrated again into A1 Mabiya’, and demolilhed the fortifications which had been raifed fince its former reduction, though the rebels difputed every inch of ground. Next year he again attacked Al Ha¬ bib with great bravery j and would have entirely de¬ feated him, had he not been wounded in the breaft with an arrow, which obliged him to found a retreat. However, as foon as he was cured of bis wound, Al Mowaffek advanced a third time to Al Mabiya’, made himfelf mafter of that metropolis, threw down the walls that had been raifed, put many of the inhabitants to the fword, and carried a vaft number of them into captivity. The 270th year of the Hegira, commencing July II. 883, proved fatal to the rebel Al Habib, Al Mowaf¬ fek made himfelf a fourth time mailer of Al Mabiya’, burnt Al Habib’s palace, feized upon his family, and fent them to Sarra Manray. As for the ufurper him¬ felf, he had the good fortune to efcape at this time 5 but being clofely purfued by Al Mowaffek into the province of Ahwaz, where the (battered remains of his forces were entirely defeated, he at laft fell into the hands of •the vidlor, who ordered his head to be cut off, and car¬ ried through a great part of that region which he had fo long dilfurbed. By this complete vidtory Al Mowaf¬ fek obtained the title of Al Nqjir Lidmilbah, that is, the proteffor of Mahometanijm. This year alfo died Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who had feized upon Egypt and Syria, as we have already obfervedj and wasfucceeded by hisfon Khatnarawiyah. The next year, a bloody engagement happened be¬ tween the caliph’s forces commanded by Al Mowaffek’s fon, and thofe of Khamarawiyah, who had made an irruption into the caliph’s territories. The battle was fought between Al Ramla and Damafcus. In the be¬ ginning, Khamarawiyah found himfelf fo hard preffed, that his men were obliged to give way •, upon which, taking for granted that all was loft, he fled with great precipitation, even to the borders of Egypt 5 but, in the mean time, his troops being ignorant of the flight of their general, returned to the charge, and gained a complete victory. After this, Khamarawiyah, by his juft and mild adminiftration, fo gained the affedlions of his fubje&s, that the caliph found it impoflible to gain the leaft advantage over him. In the 276th year of the Hegira, he overthrew one of the caliph’s generals named Abul Saj, at Al Bathnia near the city of 13a- mafcus; after which he advanced to Al Rakka on the Euphrates, and made himfelf mafter of that place. Having annexed feveral large provinces to his former dominions, and left fome of his friends in whom he could confide to govern them, he then returned into Egypt, the principal part of his empire, which now extended from the Euphrates to the borders of Nubia and Ethiopia. The following year, being the 278th of the Hegira, was remarkable for the death of Al Mowaffek. He died of the elephantiafis or leprofy •, and while in his laft illnefs, could not help obferving, that of 100,000 men whom he commanded, there was not one fo mife- 47 Succefs of the Sultan of Egypt. 48 Al Mowaf¬ fek dies. ] BAG able as himfelf. This year is alfo remarkable for the firft Bagdad, difturbances raifed in the Modem empire by the Kar- v——' matians. The origin of this fe£l is not certainly known j but the moft common opinion is, that a poor fellow, Origin of by fome called Karniata, came from Khuzeftan to the the Karma- villages near Cufa, and there pretended great fanclitytians* and ftriftnefs of life, and that God had enjoined him to pray 50 times a-day ; pretending alfo to invite peo¬ ple to the obedience of a certain imam of the family of Mahomet-, and this way of life he continued till he had made a very great party, out of whom he chofe twelve as his apoftles to govern the reft, and to propagate his doflrines. He alfo affumed the title of prince, and obliged every one of his earlier followers to pay him a dinar a-year. But Al Haidam, the governor of that province, finding men negledled their work, and their hulbandry in particular, to fay thofe 50 prayers a-day, feized the fellow, and having put him in prifon, fwore that he Ihould die. This being overheard by a girl belonging to the governor, Ihe, out of compaflion, took the key of the dungeon at night from under her ma¬ iler’s head, releafed the man, and reftored the key to its place while her mafter flept. The next morning the governor found his prifoner gone; and the accident being publicly known, raifed great admiration \ Kar- mata’s adherents giving out that God had taken him into heaven. After this he appeared in another pro¬ vince, and declared to a great number of people he got about him, that it was not in the power of any perfon to do him hurt} notwithftanding which, his cou¬ rage failing him, he retired into Syria, and was never heard of any more. After his difappearance, the fe£l continued and increafed } his difciples pretending that their mailer had manifefted himlell to be a true pro¬ phet, and had left them a new law, wherein he had changed the ceremonies and form of prayer ufed by the Modems, &c. From this year, 278, thefe fedlaries gave almoft continual difturbance to the caliphs and their fubje£ls, committing great diforders in Chaldaea, Arabia, and Mefopotamia, and at length eftablilhed a confider- able principality. 50 In the 279th year of the Hegira died the caliph Al Sultan of Motamed } and was fucceeded by Al Motaded, fon to s Al Mowaffek. The firft year of his reign, Al Motaded nfarried^o demanded in marriage the daughter of Khamarawiyah, the caliph fultan, or caliph, of Egypt} which was agreed to by Al Motad- him with the utmoft joy, and their nuptials were fo- e^- lemnized with great pomp in the 282d year of the Hegira. He carried on a war with the Karmatians; but very unfuccefsfully, his forces being defeated with great flaughter, and his general Al Abbas taken pri¬ foner. This caliph alfo granted to Harun, fon to Khamarawiyah, the perpetual prefecture of Awafam and Kinnifrin, which he annexed to that of Egypt and Syria, upon condition that he paid him an annual tri¬ bute of 45,000 dinars. He died in the year of the Hegira 289, and was fucceeded by his fon Al Moc- tafi. 5r This caliph proved a warlike and fuccefsful prince. He gained feveral advantages over the Karmatians, hut ca. was not able to reduce them. The Turks, however, ijph Al having invaded the province of Mawaralnahr, were Modlafi. defeated with great (laughter} after which Al Moflali carried on a fuccefsful war againft the Greeks, from whom he took Seleucia. After this he invaded Syria and BAG [ 325 ] BAG Bagdad, and Egyp^ which provinces he recovered from the —-v ■— ' houfe of Ahmed Ebn Tolun. 5*. The reduftion of Egypt happened in the 2p2d year ftateoflhe t^ie ^eg*ra» after which the war was renewed with caliphs af- fuccefs againft the Greeks and Karmatians. The ca¬ ter his ]iph died in the 295th year of the Hegira, after a reign death. Gf about fix years and a half. He was the laft of the caliphs who made any figure by their warlike exploits. His fuccefibrs A1 Moktader, A1 Kaher, and A1 Radi, were fo diftrefled by the Karmatians and numberlefs ufurpers who were every day ftarting up, that by the 325th year of the Hegira they had nothing left but the city of Bagdad. In the 324th year of the Hegira, commencing November 30. 935, the caliph A1 Radi, finding himfelf diftreffed on all fides by ufurpers, and having a vizir of no capacity, inftituted a new office New office fuperior to that of vizir, which he entitled Emir Sll of Emir Al Omra, or Commandant of commandants. This great tuteTb^A] officer was trufted with the management of all military Radi. ^ affairs, and had the entire management of the finances in a much more abfolute and unlimited manner than any of the caliphs vizirs ever had. Nay, he officiated for the caliph in the great mofque at Bagdad, and had his name mentioned in the public prayers throughout the kingdom. In ffiort, the caliph wTas fo much under the power of this officer, that he could not apply a 54 Angle dinar to his own ufe without the leave of the E- Divifion of mir Al Omra. In the year 325, the Modem empire, the Moflem once fo great and powerful, was (hared among the fol- empire in low;ng ufurperSi year^o/the c*t,es °f Wafet, Bafra, and Cufa, with the reft Hegira. of the Arabian Irak, were confidered as the property of the Emir Al Omra, though they had been in the be¬ ginning of the year feized upon by a rebel called Al Baridi, who could not be driven out of them. The country of Ears, Farfeftan, Or Perfa properly fo called, was poffeffed by Amado’ddawla Ali Ebn Buiya, who refided in the city of Shiraz. Part of the tra£l denominated Al Jebal, together with Perfian Irak, which is the mountainous part of Perfia, and the country of the ancient Parthians, obeyed Ruc- no’ddawla, the brother of Amado’ddawla, who refided at Ifpahan. The other part of that country was poffeffed by Waffimakin the Devlamite. Diyar Rabia, Diyar Beer, Diyar Modar, and the city of Al Mawfel, or Moful, acknowledged for their fove- reigns a race of princes called Hamdanites. Egypt and Syria no longer obeyed the caliphs, but Mahomet Ebn Taj, who had formerly been appointed governor of thefe provinces. Africa and Spain had long been independent. Sicily and Crete were governed by princes of their own. The provinces of Khorafan and Mawaralnahr, were under the dominion of Al Nafr Ebn Ahmed, of the dynafty of the Sammarians. The provinces of Tabreftan, Jorjan or Georgia, and Mazanderan, had kings of the firft dynafty of the JDey- lamites. The province of Kerman was occupied by Abu Ali Mahomet Ebn Eylia Al Sammani, who had made him¬ felf mafter of it a (hort time before. And, Laftly, the provinces of Yamama and Bahrein, in¬ cluding the diftrift of Hajr, were in the poffeffion of Abu Thaher the Karmatian. 3t Thus the caliphs were deprived of all their domi- Bagdad, nions, and reduced to the rank of fovereign pontiffs; in —v——* which light, though they continued for fome time to be regarded by the neighbouring princes, yet their power never arrived at any height. In this low ftate the ca¬ liphs continued till the year of the Hegira 656, com-Ba(rdSa5d mencing January 8. 1258. This year was rendered taken by remarkable by the taking of Bagdad by Hulaku thethe 1'ar-‘ Mogul or Tartar ; who likewife aboliffied the caliphate,taISl putting the reigning caliph Al Moftafem Bilah to a moft cruel death. Thefe diabolical conquerors, after they had taken the city, maffacred, according to cuftom, a vaft number of the inhabitants ; and after they had plundered it, fet it on fire. The fpoil they took from thence was prodigioufly great, Bagdad being then look¬ ed upon as the firft city in the world. 5 Bagdad remained in the hands of the Tartars orHiftoryof Moguls to the year of the Hegira 795, of Chrift 1392, c*fy when it was taken by Tamerlane from Sultan Ahmed fi.nce that Ebn Weis; who being incapable of making head a-Ume‘ gainft Tamerlane’s numerous forces, found himfelf ob¬ liged to fend all his baggage over the Tigris, and abandoned his capital to the conqueror. He was, how¬ ever, hotly purfued by his enemy’s detachments to the plain of Karbella, where feveral fkirmiffies happened, and a confiderable number of men were loft on both fides. Notwithftanding this difafter, he found means to efcape the fury of his purfuers, took refuge in the territories of the Greek emperor, and afterwards re- poffeffed himfelf of the city of Bagdad. There he re¬ mained till the year of the Hegira 803, when the city wras taken a fecond time by Tamerlane ; who never- thelefs reftored it to him, and he continued fovereign of the place till driven from thence by Miram Shaw. Still, however, he found means to return ; but in the 815th year of the Hegira was finally expelled by Kara Yufef the Turcoman. The defeendants of Kara Yufef continued mafters of Bagdad till the year of the Hegi- ra 875, of Chrift 1470, when they were driven out by Ulun Caffun. The family of this prince continued till the year of the Hegira 914, of our Lord 1508, when Shah Ifhmael, furnamed Sufi or Sofi, the firft prince of the royal family reigning in Iran, or Perfia, till the dethroning of the late Shah Hofein, made himfelf maf¬ ter of it. From that time to this Bagdad has conti¬ nued to be a bone of contention between the Turks and Perfians. It was taken by Soliman furnamed the Magnificent, and retaken by Shah Abbas the Great, king of Perfia; but being at length befieged by Amruth or Morad IV. with a formidable army, it was finally ob¬ liged to furrender to him in the year 1638 ; fince which time the Perfians have never been able to make them- felves mafters of it for any length of time. The city is large and populous; and the advantage Its pfeient of the Tigris is fo confiderable, with regard to com- ftate. merce, that although the climate is exceffively hot, and in other refpe&s far from being agreeable, yet the num¬ ber of its inhabitants is computed at 300,000 ; but be¬ fore the plague broke out there, they were fuppofed to be four times that number. It is governed by a ba- ffiaw, whofe authority extends as far as Curdiftan. The revenues would be immenfe was the government mild ; but inftead thereof, oppreffion rules here with the moft defpotic fway. T-he baffiaw is continually ex¬ torting money from the poor inhabitants, and none fuffer BAG [ 326 ] " BAG 'Bagdad, fuffer more than the unfortunate Jews and Chriftians, v——many of whom are put to the moft cruel tortures in order to force their property from them. This feries of tyranny and oppreflxon has almoft entirely driven them out of the city; in confequence of which the trade mull fuffier very confiderably, they being gene¬ rally the principal merchants in the place. In the months of June, July, and Auguft, the weather is fo extremely hot, as to oblige the inhabitants to live for thefe months in fubterraneous apartments, which are arched over, to admit the free circulation of the air. The houfes are generally large, built of brick and ce¬ ment, and are arched over. Many of the windows are made of elegant Venetian glafs ; the ceilings are moft- ly ornamented with a kind of chequered work, which has generally a noble appearance; moft of the houfes have a court-yard before them, in the middle of which is a little plantation of orange trees, &c. that has a very pleafing effedt. The foil, which would produce not only every conveniency in life, but almoft: every luxury, is through the natural indolence of the Turks, and the many faults in the government of the country, in a great meafure uncultivated and negledted. The revenues are computed at 125 lacks of piaftres, or 1,562,500!. fterling : but a quarter part of this is not colledted, owing to the flothfulnefs of the Turks, who fuffer the Arabs to plunder them of the remainder. This in fome meafure accounts for the cruelties and extortions that are continually pradtifed here. As the bafhaw lives in all the fplendour of a fovereign prince, and maintains a very large army, he could not be able to defray his expences, was he not to have recourfe to oppreflion and injuftice; and he, by his extenfive power, adling almoft independent of the Porte, only acknow¬ ledges it to bring in a balance from thence yearly in his favour. The bazars or markets here are large and extenfive ; being covered over with arches built of mafonry, and divided into different ftreets, filled with {hops of all kinds of merchandife, to the number of 12,000. E- very thing a perfon can have occafion for may be had there. The number of houfes in the city is computed at near 80,000 } and each houfe and ftiop pay an an¬ nual tribute to the baftiaw, which is calculated to pro¬ duce the fum of 300,000!. fterling. Befides thefe im- menfe revenues that are collefled, the baftiaw pretends, that by repairs on the fortifications 30,000!. or 40,000!. are annually expended, when not fo many hundreds are taken out of his coffers for that purpofe. Likewife clearing the river and mending the bridge become a charge greater than their income, and probably not the value of an Englifti {hilling is expended.—To fupport the expence of the feraglio, their clothes, caparifons of their horfes, and every outward pomp, the amount is confiderable. On the north fide of the town ftands the citadel which commands the river j and confifts of curtains and baftions, on which fome very long cannon are mounted, with two mortars in each baftion, placed on no other beds than the ground, and in very bad condition. The carriages of the guns are likewife fo unwieldy, and in fuch a fhattered condition, that from their appearance they would not fupport one fir¬ ing, but would be ftiaken in pieces. Their elevations were from 30 to 40 degrees, but they had no quoins to level them. There are, Jbefides, a number of imall Bagdad, towers, and loop-holes for mufketry, placed at certain * diftances, all ivell encompaffed by a ditch of 25 feet deep, which can be filled at any time by the waters of the Tigris. The citadel is fo clofe to the houfes, that it might be eafily taken if poffeffion was once gained of the town ; but an attack made towards the land would not probably be fuccefsful, as fluices might with the greateft facility be cut into the ditch, and fo overflow the country for miles round } but it is faid an advantageous attack might be made from the water. The city, which is fortified by lofty thick walls of brick covered with earth, and ftrengthened by great towers much refembling cavalier baftions, the whole being furrounded by a deep ditch, is in the form of an irregular fquare *, but the walls in many places are bro¬ ken down, occafioned by the difputes which happened on the death of Abdulla Balhaw a few years ago, when two competitors arofe in Bagdad for the bafbawic, who fought feveral times in the town and citadel, and laid great part of it in ruins. In the interim, the go¬ vernor of Moufful and Nineveh being appointed ba¬ ftiaw by the Porte, came hither with a confiderable ar¬ my, and took poffeflion of the fovereignty, vanquifti- ing his two opponents. Oppofite to the city, on the other fide of the river, are very extenfive fuburbs, from whence (hells might be thrown into the town, which would have a dreadful effect on a place fo clofely built. There is a communication between the city and fub¬ urbs by a bridge of boats ; the only kind of bridge which that river will admit of, as it is broad and deep, and in its ordinary courfe very rapid. At certain fea- fons it fwells to a prodigious height, and overflowing the country occafions many moraffts on that fide oppo¬ fite to the city. Among thefe are feveral towns and villages, whofe inhabitants are faid to be the ancient Chaldeans: they are of a particular religion, which they pretend is that of Seth. The inhabitants of this city are compofed chiefly of Perfians, Armenians, Turks, Arabs, and Jews, which laft aft in the capa¬ city of fchroffs, or bankers, to the merchants. lh« Jews, notwithftanding the fevere treatment they meet with from the government, are induced to live here from a reverence to the prophet Ezekiel, whofe mau- foleum they pretend is a day’s journey from the city. Befides the Jews who refide here, there are many that come every year out of devotion to vifit the prophet’s tomb. There are alfo two European gentlemen, a Venetian and a Frenchman, with five Romifti priefts, who are Frenchmen and Italians. Two chapels are permitted for thofe of the Romifti and Greek perfua- fions $ at the former the five priefts officiate. In the city are feveral large beautiful mofques, but into which Chriftians are never fuffered to enter if known to be fuch, for fear it fliould defile them. The Mahometan women are very richly dreffed, wearing bracelets on their arms and jewels in their ears : the Arabian wo¬ men have the partition between their noftrils bored, wherein they wear rings. There are alfo a number of antique buildings. At the diftance of about ten miles ftand the ruins of an ancient tower called the Tower of Nimrod. Whether this tower was at firft of a fquare or round form is now difficult to determine : though the former is moft pro¬ bable, BAG [ 327 ] BAG ■Bagdad, bable, becaufe all the remaining bricks are placed captives. For arms, the foot carried a fpear, fhield, Baggage Baggage, fquare, and not in the leaft circular. The bricks are faw, ba&et, rutrum, hatchet, lorum, falx, &c. Alfo ||& ""'_v all twelve inches fquare and four and a half thick, flakes or pales, valli, for the fudden fortifying a camp j Bagneres. 1 he cement is of mud or ilime, mixed with broken fometimes feven or even twelve of thefe pales were car- v ^ reed, as we mix hair with mortar j which dime might ried by each man, though generally, as Polybius tells either have been had from one of the great rivers, or us, only three or four. On Trajan’s column we fee taken out of one of the fwamps in the plain, with foldiers reprefented Avith this fardle of corn, utenfils, which the country hereabout very much abounds. The pales, &c. gathered into a bundle and laid on their height of the ruin is 126 feet ^ the diameter of the flioulders. J. hus inured to labour, they grew flrong, largeft and middle part about 100 feet. It would ap- and able to undergo any fatigue in battle ; the great- pear to be folid to the centre j yet near the top there eft heat of which never tired them, or put them out is a regular opening of an oval form. The circumfe- of breath. In aftertimes, when difcipline grew flack, rence of that part of. the tower which remains, and is this luggage was thrown on carriages and porters ftioul- above the rubbifti, is about 300 feet; but probably ders. could the foundation be come at, it would be found of The Macedonians were not lefs inured to hardftiip far greater extent. The prefent Turks, Jews, and A- than the Romans ; when Philip firft formed an army, rabians, are fond of believing this to be the identical he forbade all ufe of carriages $ yet, with all their load’ ruin of the ancient tower of Babel, for which they af- they would march, in a fummer’s day, 20 miles in mili- flgn a variety of reafons j but all fo void of the appear- tary rank. ance of truth, that to fet about confuting them would BAGLANA, or Buglana, a province of the king- be lofing time in trifles. It appears to have been a dom of Dekkan in the Mogul’s empire. It is bounded, beacon or watch-tower, to give notice of the approach on the north and eaft by Guzzerat and Ballagat ; and of an enemy : or perhaps was ufed as an obfervatory on the fouth and weft by that part of Vifiapour called to infpeft the various motions of the heavenly bodies 5 Konhan, belonging to the Mahrattas. It ends in a which.fcience was fo much cultivated among the an- point at the fea coaft between Daman and Balfora, and cient inhabitants of this country, that even the Gre- is the leart province in the kingdom. The Portuo-uefe clans, though defirous of being efteemed the inventors territories begin in this province at the port Daman, 21 of all arts and feiences, could never deny the Babylo- leagues fouth of Surat ; and run along the coaft by Baf- nians the honour of having laid the foundation of faim, Bombay, and Chawl, to Dabul, almoft 50 leagues aftronomy. to the north of Goa. BAGGAGE, in military affairs, denotes the clothes, BAGLIVI, George, a moft illuftrious phyfician tents, utenfils of divers forts, provifions, and other ne- of Italy, was a native of Apulia, and born about the ceffaries, belonging to the army. year 1668. He ftudied at Padua, where he became Before a march, the baggage with the waggons is do&or j and then went to Rome, where he was chofen marflialled according to the rank which the feveral re- profeffor of anatomy. He was a man of moft uncom- giments bear in the army ; being fometimes ordered to mon force of underftanding, of which he gave ample follow the refpedlive columns of the army, fometimes to proofs in many curious and accurate produ&ions, philo- follow the artillery, and fometimes to form a column by fophical as well as medicinal. He died at Rome in 1706, themfelves. The general’s baggage marches firft ; and in the flower of his age, and when he was no more each waggon has a flag, fliowing the regiment to which than 38. A colleftion of his works was printed firft it belongs. in 1710, quarto; and has fince been reprinted, in the P aching up the BAGGAGE, vafa colligere, was a term fame fize, at various places. His Praxis Medic a, and among the Romans, for. preparing to go to war, or to De Fibra Matricis, are the principal pieces. Pie wrote be ready for an expedition. a Differtation upon the Anatomy, Bite, and Effefts, The Romans diftinguiflied two forts of baggage ; a of the Tarantula, which is the produ&ion of his coun- greater and lefs. The leffer was carried by the foldier try ; and gave a particular account of the earthquake at on. his back, and called farcina; confiding of the Rome and the adjacent cities in 1703. His works are things moft neceffary to life, and which he could not all in Latin. do without. Hence colligerefarcinas, packing up the BAGNAGAR, a town of Afia, in the dominions baggage, is ufed for decamping, cafra movere. The of the Great Mogul, and capital of the kingdom of greater and heavier was carried on horfes and vehicles, Golconda in the peninfula on this fide the Gano-es. and called onera. PiGwcG, oneravehicu/orum,farcins ho- The inhabitants within the town are the better fort; minutn. The baggage-horfes were denominated fagmen- the merchants and meaner people inhabiting the fub- tarn eqm. . urbs, which are three miles long. It is chiefly re- The Roman foldiers in their marches were heavy markable for a magnificent refervoir of water, fur- loaden ; infomuch, that they were called by way of rounded with a colonnade fupported by arches. It is jeft muli mariani, and arumnce. They had four forts feated on the river Newa, in E. Long. 96. o. N. Lat. °f luggage, which they never went without, viz. corn 15. 30. or buccellatum, utenfils, valli, and arms. Cicero ob- BAGNARA, a fea-port town of Italy in the king- ferves, that they ufed to carry with them above half a dom of Naples, in the farther Calabria, with the title of month’s provifions; and we have inftances in Livy, a duchy. E. Long. 16. 8. N. Lat. 38. 15. where they carried provifions for a whole month. Their BAGNAREA, a town of Italy in St Peter’s patri- utenfils comprehended thofe proper for gathering fuel, mony, and in the territory of Orvieta, with a bifhop’s drefling their meat, and even for fortification or in- fee. E. Long. 12. 10. N. Lat. 42 36. trenchment j and what is more, a chain for binding BAGNERES, a town of France in Gafcony, and. 3 ini BAG t 328 ] BAG Bagneres in the county of Bigorre, now the department of the „ II. Upp er Pyrenees, fo called from its mineral waters, Bag-P‘Pe- which are much reforted to. It is feated on the river v Adour, in E. Long. o. 12. N. Lat. 43. 3. BAGNIALACK, a large town of Turkey in Eu¬ rope, in the province of Bofnia. E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat. 44. o. BAGNIO, an Italian word fignifying a bath. We ufe it for a houfe with conveniences for bathing, cup¬ ping, fweating, and otherwife cleanfing the body ; and fometimes for worfe purpofes. In Turkey it is be¬ come a general name for the prifons where the Haves are enclofed, it being ufual in thefe prifons to have baths. BAGNOLAS, a town of Lower Languedoc, now the department of Herault in France. It has a very handfome fquare, and two fountains which rife in the middle of the town $ the waters of which, being re¬ ceived in a bafon, are conveyed by a canal out of town, and from thence to the lands about it. E. Long. 4. 43. N. Lat. 44. lo. BAGNOLIANS, or Bagnglanses, in church hiftory, a fe£t of heretics, who in reality were Mani- chees, though they fomewhat difguifed their errors. They rejefted the Old Teftament and part of the New ; held the world to be eternal: and affirmed that God did not create the foul when he infufed it into the body. BAGOI, among the ancient Perfians, were the fame with thofe called by the Latins fpadones, viz. a fpecies of eunuchs, in whom the canal of the penis was fo contorted by a tight vinculum, that they could not emit the femen. BAG-Pipe, a mufical inftrument, of the wind kind, chiefly ufed in Scotland and Ireland. The peculi¬ arity of the bag-pipe, and from which it takes its name, is, that the air which blows it is collefted in¬ to a leathern bag, from whence it is prefled out by the arm into the pipes. Thefe pipes confift of a bafs, and tenor or rather treble j and are different according to the fpecies of the pipe. The bafs part is called the drone, and the tenor or treble part the chanter. In all the fpecies, the bafs never varies from its uniform note, and therefore very defervedly gets the name of drone ; and the compafs of the chanter is likewife very limit¬ ed. There is a confiderable difference between the Highland and Lowland bag-pipe of Scotland; the former being blown with the mouth, and the latter with a fmall bellows: though this difference is not ef- fential, every fpecies of bag-pipes being capable, by a proper conftruftion of the reeds, of producing mufic either with the mouth or bellows. The following are the fpecies of bag-pipes moft commonly known in this country. 1. The Irifh Pipe. This is the fofteft, and in fome refpefts the moil melodious of any, fo that mufic- books have been publiflied with direftions how to piny on it. The chanter, like that of all the reft, has eight holes like the Englifti flute, and is played on by open¬ ing and {hutting the holes as occafion requires 5 the bafs confifts of two fliort drones and a long one. The loweft note of the chanter is I) on the German flute, being the open note on the counter-ftring of a vio¬ lin ; the fmall drone (one of them commonly being flopped up) is tuned in unifon with the note above this, and the large one to an o£lave below ; fo that a Bag-Pip* great length is required in order to produce fuch a ——y—^ low note, on which account the drone hath fometimes two or three turns. The inftrument is tuned by lengthening or fhortening the drone till it founds the note defired. 2. The Highland Bag-Pipe. This confifts of 0. chanter and two ffiort drones, which found in unifon the loweft note of the chanter except one. This is ex¬ ceedingly loud, and almoft deafening if played in a room ; and is therefore moftly ufed in the field, for marches, &c. It requires a prodigious blaft to found it j fo that thofe unaccuftomed to it cannot imagine how Highland pipers can continue to play for hours together, as they are often known to do. For the fame reafon, thofe who ufe the inftrument are obliged either to ftand on their feet or walk when they play. This inftrument hath but nine notes •, its fcale, how¬ ever, hath not yet been reduced to a regular ftandard by comparing it with that of other inftruments, fo that we can fay nothing about its compafs. Thofe who are belt acquainted with it, how’ever, affirm that it plays only the natural notes, without being capable of va¬ riation by flats or (harps. 3. The Scots Lowland Pipe. This is likewife a very loud inftrument, though lefs fo than the former. It is blown with bellows, and hath a bafs like the Irifti pipe. This fpecies is different from all the reft, as it cannot play the natural notes, but hath F and C (harp. The loweft note of a good bag-pipe of this kind is unifon with C (harp on the tenor of a violin tuned concert- pitch 5 and, as it hath but nine notes, the higheft is D in alt. From this peculiar conftruftion, the Highland and Lowland bag-pipes play two fpecies of mufic effen- tially different from one another, as each of them alfo is from every other fpecies of mufic in the world. Hence thefe two fpecies of bag-pipes deferve notice as curiofi- ties ; for the mufic which they play is accompanied with fuch peculiar ornaments, or what are intended as fuch, as neither violin, or even organ, can imitate, but in a very imperfect manner. This kind of bag-pipe was formerly very much ufed in Scotland at weddings and other feftivals 5 be¬ ing indeed extremely well calculated for playing that peculiar fpecies of Scots mufic called reels. It has been often a matter of furprife how this was pofllble, as the inftrument has only a compafs of nine or ten notes at the utmoft, and which cannot be varied as in other inftruments. In this refpe£t, however, it has a very great compafs, and will play an inconceivable variety of tunes. As its notes are naturally fo high, there is fcarce any one tune but what is naturally tranfpofed by it, fo that what would be a flat note on the key pro¬ per for the violin, may be a (harp one on the bag-pipe } and though the latter cannot play any flat note, it may neverthelefs in this manner play tunes which on other inftruments would be flat, to as great perfeftion as thefe inftruments themfelves. 4. The Small Pipe. This is remarkable for its fmall- nefs, the chanter not exceeding eight inches in length ; for which reafon, the holes are fo near each other, that it is with difficulty they can be clofed. This hath only eight notes, the lower end of the chanter being com¬ monly flopped. The reafon of this is, to prevent the flurring of all the notes, which is unavoidable in the other BAG Bsg-pipe Voyage to the He¬ brides, p. 30. BAG [ 329 ] other fpecies ; fo that in the hands of a bad player they become the moft (hocking and unintelligible inftruments imaginable : but this, by having the lower hole clofed, and alfo by the peculiar way in which the notes are ex- prefled, plays all its tunes in the way called by the Ita¬ lians Jlaccato, and cannot ilur at all. It hath no fpecies of mufic peculiar to itfelf*, and can play nothing which cannot be much better done upon other inftruments ; though it is furprifing what volubility fome performers on this inftrument will difplay, and how much they will overcome the natural difadvantages of it. Some of this fpecies, inftead of having drones like the others, have their bafs parts confiding of a winding cavity in a kind of (hort cafe, and are tuned by opening thefe to a cer¬ tain degree by means of Aiding covers 5 from which contrivance they are called Jhuttle-pipes. Befides thefe there are a variety of others, called Italian, German, Organ, &c. bag-pipes, which have nothing different in their conftruftion from thofe above defcribed, nor any good quality to recommend them. As to the origin of bag-pipe mufic, fome are of opi¬ nion that it is to be derived from the Danes; but Mr Pennant thinks differently, and gives the following rea- fons for deriving it from Italy. “ Neither of thefe inftruments (the Highland and Lowland bag-pipes above defcribed) were the inven¬ tion of the Danes, or, as is commonly fuppofed, of any of the northern nations ; for their ancient writers prove them to have been animated by the clangor tubarum. Notwithttanding they have had their foeck pipe long amongft them, as their old fongs prove, yet we cannot allow them the honour of inventing this melodious in- iftrument, but muft affert, that they borrowed it from the invaded Caledonians. We muft (till go farther, and deprive even that ancient race of the credit ; and de¬ rive its origin from the mild climate of Italy, perhaps from Greece. “ There is now in Rome a moft beautiful bas re¬ lievo, a Grecian fculpture of the higheft antiquity, of a bag-piper playing on his inftrument, exa£tly like a mo¬ dern Highlander. The Greeks had their or inftrument compofed of a pipe and blown-up (Ivin : the Romans in all probability borrowed it from them, and introduced it among their fwains, who dill ufe it under the names of pit)a and cornu-mufa. “ That mafter of mufic, Nero, ufed one ; and had not the empire been fo fuddenly deprived of that great artift, he would (as he gracioufty declared his inten¬ tion) have treated the people with a concert, and among other curious inftruments, would have introdu¬ ced the utricularius or bag-pipe. Nero peri (bed ; but the figure of the inftrument is preferved on one of his coins, but highly improved by that great mafter : it has the bag and two of the vulgar pipes ; but was blown with a bellows like an organ, and had on "one fide a row of nine unequal pipes, refembling the fyrinx of the god Pan. The bag-pipe, in the unimproved ftate, is alfo reprefented in an ancient fculpture; and appears to have had two long pipes or drones, and a fingle (hort pipe for the fingers. Tradition fays, that the kind played on by the mouth was introduced by the Danes ; as theirs was wind-mufic, we will admit that they might have made improvement, but more we can¬ not allow : they were (killed in the ufe of the trumpet; the Highlanders in the piohb, or bag-pipe. Vol. III. Part I. Ea?- prpe. Non tuba in ufu il/is, conjunEla at tibia in utrem Dat belliJignum, et martem vocat horrida in anna*.'1'1 * Melvrni The bag-pipe appears to have been an inftrument of great antiquity in Ireland, though it is uncertain whence they derived it. Mr Pennant, by means of an antique found at Richborough in Kent, has deter¬ mined that the bag-pipe was introduced at a very early period into Britain ; whence it is probable that both Irifti and Danes might borrow the inftrument from the Caledonians with whom they had fuch frequent inter- courfe. Ariftides Quintilianus informs us, that it prevailed in the Highlands in very early ages ; and in-^ deed the genius of the people feems to render the opi¬ nion highly probable. The attachment of that people to their mufic called pibrachs is almoft incredible, and on fome occafions is faid to have produced effedls little lefs marvellous than thofe afcribed to the ancient mu¬ fic. At the battle of (Quebec in 1760, while the Bri- tifti troops were retreating in great diforder, the gene¬ ral complained to a field officer in Frazer’s regiment of the bad behaviour of his corps. “ Sir (faid he with fome warmth), you did very wrong in forbidding the pipers to play this morning : nothing encourages the Highlanders fo much in the day of aftion. Nay, even now they would be of ufe.”—“ Let them blow like the devil, then (replies the general), if it will bring back the men.” The pipers were then ordered to play a favourite martial air ; and the Highlanders, the mo¬ ment they heard the mufic, returned and formed with alacrity in the rear. In the late war in India, Sir Eyre Coote, aware of the attachment of the Highlanders to their favourite inftrument, gave them 50I. to buy a pair of bag-pipes after the battle of Porto Nuovo. Formerly there was a kind of college in the ifiand of Skye, where the Highland bag-pipe was taught; the teachers making ufe of pins (tuck into the ground in¬ ftead of mufical notes. This college, however, has been for fome time entirely diffolved, and the ufe of the High¬ land pipe become much lefs general than before. Ad laft: a fociety of gentlemen, thinking it perhaps impo¬ litic to allow the ancient martial mufic of the country to decline, refolved to revive it by giving an annual prize to the beft performers on the inftrument. Thefe competitions were firft held at Falkirk, but for a good, number of years at Edinburgh ; where the only fur- viving member of the ancient college of Skye is now profejjbr of bag-pipe mufic. The Lowdand pipe, as has been already obferved, is an inftrument effentially different from the Highland pipe ; it was reformed, and the mufic improved by George Mackie, who is faid to have attended the col¬ lege of Skye feven years. He had before been the beft performer on that inftrument in that part of the country where he lived : but, while attending the col¬ lege at Skye, he adapted the graces of the Highland mufic to the Lowland pipe. Upon his return, he was heard with aftonifhment and admiration ; but unluckily, not being able to commit his improvements to writ¬ ing, and indeed the nature of the inftrument fcarcely admitting of it, the knorvledge of this kind of mufic hath continued to decay eyer fince, and will probably foon wear out altogether. What contributes much to this is, that bag-pipers, not content with the natural nine notes, which their inftrument can play eafily, T t J forcQ BAH [ 330 ] B A J Bagpipe force it to play tunes requiring higher notes, which °|| diforders the whole inftrument in fuch a manner as to Baharen. produce the molt horrid difcords $ and this praftice brings, though undefervedly, the inllrument itfelf into contempt. BAGUETTE, in ArehiteBure, afmall round mould¬ ing, lefs than an aftragal, and fo called from the refem- blance it bears to a ring. BAHAMA, or Lucaya, islands, are the eafter- moft of the Antilles, lying in the Atlantic ocean. They are fituated to the fouth of Carolina, between 22 and 27 degrees N. Lat. and 73 and 81 degrees W. Long. They extend along the coait of Florida quite down to the ifle of Cuba, and are faid to be 300 in number, fome of them only bare rocks \ but twelve of them are large, fertile, and in nothing different from the foil of Carolina : all are, however, uninhabited except Provi¬ dence, which is 200 miles eaft of the Floridas ; though fome others are larger and more fertile, on which the Euglilh have plantations. Between them and the con¬ tinent of Florida is the gulf of Bahama or Florida, through which the Spanilh galeons fail in their paffage to Europe. Thefe iflands are the firft fruits of Columbus’s dif- coveries; but they were not known to the Englifh till 1667, when Captain Seyle, being driven among them in his paffage to Carolina, gave his name to one of them 5 and being a fecond time driven upon it, gave it the name of Providence. The Englifli, obferving the advantageous fituation of thefe iflands for being a check on the French and Spaniards, attempted to fet¬ tle them in the reign of Charles II. Some unlucky accidents prevented this fettlement from being of any advantage j and the ifle of Providence became an har¬ bour for the bucaneers or pirates, who for a long time infefted the American navigation. This obliged the government in 1718 to fend out Captain Woodes Rogers with a fleet to diflodge the pirates, and for making a fettlement. This the captain effe&ed j a fort was eretted, and an independent company was Rationed in the ifland. Ever fince this laff fettlement thefe iflands have been improving, though they advance but flowly. In time of war, people gain confiderably by the prizes condemned there j and at ail times by the. wrecks, which are frequent in this labyrinth of rocks and fhelves. The Spaniards and Americans captured thefe iflands during the lafl war ; but they were retaken by a detachment from St Augufline, A- pril 7. 1783. Cotton has been introduced into the Bahamas, where it is now fuccefsfully cultivated. The quantity exported in 1792 was 5047 bales, which amounted to 1,162,822 pounds. BAHAR, or Barre, in Commerce, weights ufed in feveral places in the Eaft Indies. There are two of thefe weights; one the great ba- har, with which they weigh pepper, cloves, nutmegs, ginger, &c. and contains 550 pounds of Portugal, or about 5241b. 9 oz. avoirdupois weight. With the little bahar, they weigh quickfilver, vermilion, ivory, filk, &c. It contains about 437 lb. 9 oz. avoirdupois weight. BAHAREN, an ifland in the Perfian gulf, fituated in E. Long. 50. O. N. Lat. 26. O. This ifland is chiefly remarkable for its pearl-fifhery, and has often changed its mailers. It fell with Ormus under the dominion of the Portuguefe, was again reftored to 3 Perfia by Thamas Kouli Khan ; and after his death Bah.iren the confufion into which his empire was thrown, gave H an opportunity to an enterprifing and ambitious Arab of taking poffeflion of the ifland, where he ftill main- tains his authority. Baharen wras famous for its pearl- fiihery even at the time when pearls wei;e found at Ormus, Karek, Kaftiy, and other places in the Per¬ fian gulf: but it is now become of much greater con- fequence; all the other banks having been exhaufted, while this has fuffered no fenfible diminution. The time of fifhing begins in April, and ends in October. It is confined to a tra6l four or five leagues in breadth. The pearls taken at Baharen, though not fo white as thofe of Ceylon or Japan, are much larger than thofe of the former place, and more regularly lhaped than thofe of the latter. They have a yellowifli colour ; but have alfo this good quality, that they preferve their ' golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lofe much of their luftre by keeping, efpecially in hot countries. The annual revenue from the Baharen pearl filhery is com¬ puted at about 157,500!. The greateft part.of the pearls that are uneven are carried to Conftantinople and other ports of Turkey, where the larger go to com- pofe ornaments for head-dreffes, and the fmaller are ufed in embroideries. The perfeft pearls muft be re- ferved for Surat, whence they are diftributed through all Indoftan. B AHI, a province of Lu^on or Manilla, one of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Spaniards. It is remarkable for producing excellent betel, which the inhabitants, Spaniards as well as na¬ tives, perpetually chew from morning till night. It is alfo the place where moft of the fliips are built. But the natives fuffer much from this work ; feveral hun¬ dreds of them being conftantly employed in it, on the mountains, or at the port of Cavite. The king allows thefe labourers a piece of eight per month, with a fuf- ficient quantity of rice. The whole province contains about 6000 tributary natives. BAHIA, De Todos los Sanctos, a province of Brafil in South America, belonging to the Portuguefe, and the richeft in the whole country ; but unhappily the air and climate do not correfpond with other natu¬ ral advantages; yet fo fertile is the province in fugar and other commercial articles, that the Portuguefe flock hither not only as it is the feat of affluence, but alfo of pleafure and grandeur. The capita], called St Salvador, or Cividad de Bahia, is populous, magnifi¬ cent, and beyond comparifon the moft gay and opulent city in Brafil. It ftands on a bay in S. Lat. 12. II. is ftrong by nature, well fortified, and always defended by a numerous garrifon. It contains 12,000 or 14,000 Portuguefe, and about three times as many negroes, be- fides people of different nations who choofe to refide in that city. BAHIR, a Hebrew term fignifying famous or il- lufrious; but particularly ufed for a book of the Jews, treating of the profound myfleries of the cabbala, being the molt ancient of the Rabbinical works. BAHUS, a ftrong town of Sweden, and capital of a government of the fame name, feated on a rock in a fmall ifland, in E. Long. II. 10. N. Lat. 57. 52. BAJA, Bayjah, or Begia, a town of the king¬ dom of Tunis in Africa, fuppofed to be the ancient Vacca of Salluft, and Oppidum Voggertfe of Pliny. It was B A I Baja, Baiae. ^'win¬ ner tie's Si- 'ily. Was formerly, and ftill continues to be, a place of great trade, and the chief market of the kingdom for corn ; of * which the adjacent territories produce fuch abundance, that they can fupply more than the whole kingdom with it 5 and the Tunifians fay, that if there was in the kingdom fuch another town as this for plenty of corn, it would become as cheap as fand. Here is alfo a great annual fair, to which the molt diftant Arabian tribes refort with their families and flocks. Notwithftanding all this, however, the inhabitants are very poor, and great part of the land about the town remains uncul¬ tivated, through the cruel exa6tionsof the government, and the frequent incurfions of the Arabs, who are very powerful in thefe parts. The town ftands on the de¬ clivity of a hill on the road to Conftantina, about ten leagues from the northern coaft, and 36 fouth-weft from Tunis ; and hath the convenience of being well watered. On the higheft part is a citadel that commands the whole place, but is now of no great ftrength. The walls were raifed out of the ruins of the ancient Vacca, and have fome ancient inferiptions. Baja, a populous town of Hungary, on the Danube, in E. Long. 19. 50. N. Lat. 46. 40. BAI^E, an ancient village of Campania in Italy, between the promontory of Mifenum and Puteoli, on the Sinus Baianus •, famous for its natural hot baths, which ferved the wealthier Romans for the purpofes both of medicine and pleafure. The variety of thofe baths, the foftnefs of its climate, and the beauty of its landfcape, captivated the minds of opulent nobles, whofe paflxon for bathing knew no bounds. Abun¬ dance of linen, and difufe of ointments, render the praftice lefs neceflary in modern life : but the ancients performed no exercife, engaged in no ftudy, without previous ablutions, which at Rome required an enor¬ mous expence in aquedufts, ftoves, and attendants : a place therefore, where waters naturally heated to every degree of warmth bubble fpontaneoufly out of the ground, in the pleafantefl: of all fituations, was fuch a treafure as could not be overlooked. Baiae was this place in the higheft perfe&ion ; its eafy communication with Rome was alfo a point of great weight. Hither at firft retired for a temporary relaxation the mighty rulers of the world, to firing anew their nerves and re¬ vive their fpirits, fatigued with bloody campaigns and civil contefts. Their habitations were fmall and modeft ; but foon increafing luxury added palace to palace with fuch expedition and fumptuofity, that ground was wanting for the vaft demand : enterprifing architects, fupported by infinite wealth, carried their foundations into the fea, and drove that element back from its ancient limits: it has fince taken ample revenge, and recovered much more than it ever loft. From being a place of refort for a feafon, Baiae now grew up to a permanent city : whoever found himfelf difqualified by age, or infirmity, for fuftaining any longer an aftive part on the political theatre $ whoever, from an indo¬ lent difpofition, fought a place where the pleafures of a town were combined with the fweets of a rural life } whoever wifhed to withdraw from the dangerous neigh¬ bourhood of a court, and the baneful eye of inform¬ ers, flocked hither to enjoy life untainted with fear and trouble. Such affluence of wealthy inhabitants rendered Baiae as much a miracle of art as it was be¬ fore of nature j its fplendour may be inferred from its [ 331 1 B A J innumerable ruins, heaps of marbles, mofaics, ftucco, and other precious fragments of tafte.—-It flouriftied in full glory down to the days of Theodoric the Goth •, ^ but the deftruflion of thefe enchanted palaces follow¬ ed quickly upon the irruption of the northern conque¬ rors, who overturned the Roman fyftem, facked and burnt all before them, and deftroyed or difperfed the whole race of nobility. Lofs of fortune left the Ro¬ mans neither the means, nor indeed the thought, of fup- porting fuch expenfive eftablifhments, which can only be enjoyed in perfedlion during peace and profperity. No fooner had opulence withdrawn her hand, than the unbridled fea ruffled back upon its old domain ; moles and buttrefles were torn afunder and waflied away ; whole promontories, with the proud towers that once crowned their brows, were undermined and tumbled headlong into the deep, where, many feet below the furface, pavements of ftreets, foundations of houfes, and mafles of walls, may ftill be deferied. Internal commo¬ tions of the earth contributed alfo largely to this gene¬ ral devaftation *, mephitic vapours and ftagnated waters have converted this favourite feat of health into the den of peftilence, at leaft during the eftival heats : yet Baiai* in its ruined ftate, and ftripped of all its ornaments, ftill prefents many beautiful and ftriking fubje&s for the pencil. E. Long. 14. 45. N. Lat. 41. 6. BAJADOR, a cape on the weft coaft of Africa, fouth of the Canary iflands. W. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 27. o. BAIANUS SINUS, a bay fo called from Baicei (Suetonius) j Portus Baiarum, (Pliny) ; which was enlarged by Auguftus, by giving entrance to the fea into the Lacus Lucrinus and Averni, ordering it to be called Portus Julius apud Baias, (Suetonius), We alfo read Baianus Lacus in Tacitus, which fome inter¬ pret the Lucrinus,. The modern name is Golfo de Po%-, xuolo. From the higheft point that forms the bay, a, large caftle commands the road where foreign ftiips of war ufually ride at anchor, the harbour of Naples not being fpacious enough for the reception of a fleet 5 here they enjoy good flicker, watering, and vi&ualling j but in fummer rifle the health of their crews, on account of the unwholefomenefs of the air. BAJAZET I. fultan of the Turks, a renowned Avarrior but a tyrant, was conquered by Tamerlane, and expofed by him in an iron cage j the fate he had deftined (it is faid) for his adverfary if he had been the viflor. The iron cage, however, fo long and fo often re¬ peated as a moral leflbn, has been rejedted as a fable by modern writers, who fmile at the vulgar credulity. They appeal to the Perfian hiftory of Sherefeddir. Ali, of which a French verfion has been given, and from which Mr Gibbon has colle&ed the following more fpecious narrative of this memorable tranfaftion. “ No fooner was Timour informed that the captive Ottoman was at the door of his tent, than he gracioufly ftepped forwards to receive him, feated him by his fide, and • mingled with juft reproaches a foothing pity for his rank and misfortune. “ Alas! (faid the emperor) the decree of fate is now accompliftied by your own fault: it is the web which you have woven, the thorns of the tree which yourfelf have planted. I wifhed to fpare, and even to aflift, the champion of the Mof- lems ; you braved our threats, you defpifed our friend- T t 2 ftiip I Baias .11 Bajazet. B A J t 332 ] B A I Bajazet. fliip j you forced us to enter your kingdom with our ““"■v—invincible armies. Behold the event. Had you van¬ quished, I am not ignorant of the fate which you re- lerved for myfelf and my troops. But I difdain to retaliate : your life and honour are fecure ; and I fhall exprefs my gratitude to God by my clemency to man.” The royal captive Ihowed fome figns of repentance, accepted the humiliation of a robe of honour, and em¬ braced with tears his fon Moufa, who, at his requefl, was fought and found among the captives of the field. The Ottoman princes were lodged in a fplendid pavi¬ lion •, and the refped! of the guards could be furpaffed only by their vigilance. On the arrival of the haram from Bourfa, Timour reftored the queen Defpina and her daughter to their father and hulband ; but he pi- oufly required, that the Servian princefs, who had hi¬ therto been indulged in the profeflion of Chriftianity, fhould embrace without delay the religion of the prophet. In the feaft of victory, to which Baja¬ zet was invited, the Mogul emperor placed a crown on his head, and a fceptre in his hand, with a folemn aflurance of reftoring him with an increafe of glory to the throne of his ancedors. But the effeift of this promife was difappointed by the fultan’s untimely death : amidfl the care of the mod fkilful phyficians, he expired of an apoplexy at Akdiehr, the Antioch of Piiidia, about nine months after his defeat. The viftor dropped a tear over his grave ; his body, with royal pomp, was conveyed to the maufoleum which he had ere&ed at Bourfa j and his fon Moufa, after re- ceiving a rich prefent of gold and jewels, of horfes and arms, was inveded by a patent in red ink with the kingdom of Anatolia. “ Such is the portrait of a generous conqueror, which has been extracted from his own memorials, and dedi¬ cated to his fon and grandfon, 19 years after his de- ceafe $ and, at a time when the truth was remember¬ ed by thoufands, a manifed falfehood wmuld have im¬ plied a fatire on his real conduft. On the other hand, of the harlh and ignominious treatment of Bajazet there is alfo a variety of evidence. The Turkilh an¬ nals in particular, which have been confulted or tran- fcribed by Leunclavius, Pocock, and Cantemir, una- nimoufly deplore the captivity of the iron cage; and fome credit may be allowed to national hidorians, who- cannot digmatize the Tartar without uncovering the fhame of their king and country.” From thefe op- pofite premifes, Mr Gibbon thinks a fair and mode¬ rate conclufion may be deduced. He is fatisfied that Sherefeddin Ali has faithfully defcribed the fird oden- tatious interview, in which the conqueror, whofe fpi- rits W'ere harmonized by fuccefs, afFe£!ed the charafter of generofity. But his mind was infenfibly alienated by the unfeafonable arrogance of Bajazet; the com¬ plaints of his enemies the Anatolian princes, werejud and vehement 5 and Timour betrayed a defign of lead¬ ing his royal captive in triumph to Samarcand. An attempt to facilitate his efcape by digging a mine un¬ der the tent, provoked the Mogul emperor to impofe a harfher redraint •, and in his perpetual marches, an iron cage on a waggon might be invented, not as a wanton infult but as a rigorous precaution. Timour had read in fome fabulous hidory a fimilar treatment of one of his predeceffors, a king of Perfia ; and Baja- set was condemned to reprefent the perfon and ex- 4 plate the guilt of the Roman Csefar. But the drength Bajazet of his mind and body fainted under the trial, and his U premature death might without injudice be afcribed to ^aiL the feverity of Timour. He warred not, however, with v"" the dead ; a tear, and a fepulchre were all that he could bedow on a captive who was delivered from his power j and if Moufa, the fon of Bajazet, was permitted to reign over the ruins of Bourfa, the greated part of the province of Anatolia had been redored by the con¬ queror to their lawful fovereigns. BAIKAL, a great lake in Siberia, lying between 52 and 55 degrees of north latitude. It is reckoned to be 500 werds in length ; but only 20 or 30 broad, and in fome places not above 15. It is environed on all fides by high mountains. In one part of it, which lies near the river Bargufian, it throws up an indam- mable fulphureous liquid called maltha, which the people of the adjacent country burn in their lamps* There are likewife feveral fulphureous fprings near, this lake. Its water at a didance appears of a fea- green colour : it is fredi, and fo clear, that objedls may be feen in it feveral fathoms deep. It does not begin to freeze till near the latter end of Decem¬ ber, and thaws again about the beginning of May : from which time till September, a (hip is feldom-, known to be wrecked upon it ; but by the high winds, which then blow, many diipwrecks happen. This lake is called by the neighbouring people Swiatoie-, More, or the Holy Lake; and they imagine, that when? dorms happen on it, they will be preferved from all¬ danger, by complimenting it with the title of fea*. When it is frozen over, people travel upon it in the road to China ; but they mud b« very fliarp fhod,. otherwife they cannot dand upon the ice, which is ex¬ ceedingly fmooth. Notwithdanding that the ice on this lake is fometimes two ells thick, there, are fome open, places in it to which tempeduous winds will often drive tbofe who are eroding it $ in which cafe they are irre¬ coverably lod. The camels that pafs along have a particular kind of (hoes diarp at bottom, and the oxen have diarp irons driven through their hoofs, without which it would be impoffible for them to pafs. Here are plenty of large durgeon and pike j with many feals. of the black, but none of the fpotted, kind. It con¬ tains feveral illands ; and the borders are frequented by black fables and civet-cats. BAIL, Ballium, (from the French bai/ler, which comes of the Greek fietXXuy, and fignifies to deliver into hands), is ufed in our common law for the freeing or felting at liberty ok one arreded or imprifoned upon any aftion, either civil or criminal, on furety taken for his appearance at a day and place certain. The reafon why it is called bail, is becaufe by this means the party redrained is delivered into the hands of thofe that bind themfelves for his forthcoming, in order to a fafe keeping or prote&ion from prifon ; and the end of bail is to fatbfy the condemnation and cods, or ren¬ der the defendant to prifon. With refpefl to bail in civil cafes, it is to be ob- ferved that there is both common and fpecial bail. Common bail is an a&ion of fmall concernment, be¬ ing called common, becaufe any fureties in that cafe are taken ; whereas in caufes of great weight, as a£lions upon bonds, or fpeciality &c. where the debt amounts to lol. fpecial bail or furety mud be taken* fucb B A I Bail, fuch as fubfidy men at leaft, and they according to the —\ value. The commitment of a perfon being only for fafe cuftody, wherever bail will anfwer the fame intention, it ought to be taken, as in moft of the inferior crimes : but in felonies, and other offences of a capital nature, no bail can be a fecurity equivalent to the a£tual cuftody of the perfon. For what is there that a man may not be induced to forfeit to fave his own life ? and what fa- tisfacfion or indemnity is it to the public, to feize the effefts of them who have bailed a murderer, if the mur¬ derer himfelf be fuffered to efcape with impunity ? Up¬ on a principle fimilar to which, the Athenian magi- ftrates, when they took a folemn oath never to keep a citizen in bonds that could give three furetiesof the fame quality with himfelf, did it with an exception to fuch as had embezzled the public money, or been guilty of trea- fonable practices. Bail may be taken either in court, or, in fome par¬ ticular cafes, by the ftieriff or other magiftrate j but moftly ufed by the juftices of the peace. To refufe or delay to bail any perfon bailable, is an offence againft the liberty of the fubjedt, in any magiftrate, by the com¬ mon law j as well as by the ftatute Weftm^ I. 3 Edw. I. c. 15. and the habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II. c. 2. And, left the intention of the law Ihould be fruftrated by the juftices requiring bail to a greater amount than the nature of the cafe demands, it is exprefsly declared by ftatute 1 W. and M. ft. 2. c. 1. that exccflive bail ought not to be required 5 though what bail (hall be called exce/Jive, muft be left to the courts, on confi- dering the circumftances of the cafe, to determine. And on the other hand, if the magiftrate take infuffi- cient bail, he is liable to be fined, if the criminal doth not appear. In civil cafes, every defendant is bailable. But it is otherwife in Criminal matters. Regularly, in all offences, either againft the common law or aft of parliament, that are below felony, the offender ought to be admitted to bail unlefs it be prohibited by fome fpecial aft of par¬ liament.—By the ancient common law, before and fince the Conqueft, all felonies were bailable, till mur¬ der was excepted by ftatute : fo that perfons might be admitted to bail almoft in every cafe. But the fta¬ tute Weft. X. 3 Edvv. I. c. 15. takes away the power of bailing in treafon, and in divers inftances of felony. The ftatutes 23 Hen. VI. c. 9. and I and 2 Ph. and Mar. c. 13. gave farther regulations in this matter : and upon the whole we may colleft, that no juftices of the peace can bail. I. Upon an accufation of trea¬ fon : nor, 2. Of murder : nor, 3. In cafe of manflaugh- ter, if the prifoner be clearly the flayer, and not bare¬ ly fufpefted to be fo or if any indiftment be found againft him ; nor, 4. Such as, being committed for fe¬ lony, have broken prifon \ beeaufe it not only carries a prefumption of guilt, but is alfo fuperadding one fe¬ lony to another: 5. Perfons outlawed : 6. Such as have abjured the realm : 7. Perfons taken with the mainour, or in the faft of felony : 8. Perfons charged with ar- fon : 9. Excommunicated perfons, taking by writ de excommunicato capiendo : all which are clearly not ad- miflible to bail by the juftices. Others are of a du¬ bious nature y as, 10. Thieves openly defamed and known: 11. Perfons charged with other felonies, or B A I manifeft and enormous offences, not being of good Bail fame : and, 12. Acceffories to felony, that labour under the fame want of reputation. Thefe feem to be in the difcretion of the juftices, whether bailable or 'r~~' not. I he laft clafs are fuch as mujl be bailed upon of¬ fering fufficient furety 3 as, 13. Perfons of good fame,, charged with a bare fufpicion of manflaughter, or other infamous homicide : 14. Such perfons being charged with petit larceny or any felony, not before Specified: or, 15. With being acceffory to any felony. Laftly, it is agreed, that the court of king’s bench, (or any judge thereof in time of vacation) may bail for any crime whatfoever, be it treafon, murder, or any other offence, according to the circumftances of the cafe. And herein the wifdom of the law is very manifeft. I o allow bail to be taken commonly for fuch enormous crimes, would greatly tend to elude the public juftice : and yet there are cafes, though they rarely happen, in which it would be hard and unjuft: to confine a man in prifon, though accufed even of the greateft offence. I he law has therefore provided one court, and only one, which has a difcretionary power of bailing in any cafe: except only, even to this high jurifdiftion, and of courfe to all inferior ones, fuch per- lons as are committed by either houfe of parliament, fo long as the feffion lafts ; or fuch as are committed for contempts by any of the king’s fupcrior courts of iuf- tice. See Law. Clerk of the BAILS, is an officer belonging to the court of the king’s bench: he files the bail-pieces taken in that court, and attends for that purpofe. Bail, or Bale, in the fea-language.. The feamen call throwing the water by hand out of the (hip’s or boat’s hold, ballings. They alfo call thofe hoops that bear up the tilt of a boat, its bails. BAILIE, in Scots Law, a judge antiently appoint¬ ed by the king over fuch lands not erefted into a re-, gality as happened to fall to the crown by forfeiture or otherwife, now aboliftied. It is alfo the name of a magiftrate in royal boroughs, and of the judge appoint¬ ed by a baron over lands erefted into a barony. See Law. BAILIFF, (ballivus') from the French word bay- Ijffi is> prcefeBus provincice; and as the names, fo the office itfelf was anfwerable to that of France 3 where there are eight parliaments* which are high courts from whence there lies no appeal, and within- the precinfts of the feveral parts of that kingdom . which belong to each parliament there are feveral pro¬ vinces to which juftice is adminiftered by certain offi- cers called bailiffs’, and in England there are feveral counties in which jnftice hath been adminiftered to the inhabitants by the officer who is now called fferiff or vifcount (one of which names defcends from the Saxons the other from the Normans) 3 and though the ftieriff is not called bailiff, yet it is probable that was one of his names alfo, becaufe the county is often called bal- liva. And in the ftatute of Magna Charta, cap. 28. and 14 Ed. III.c. 9. the word bai/ff items to comprife as well ftieriffs as bailiffs of hundreds. As the realm is divided into counties, fo every county is divided in¬ to hundreds; within which in ancient times the people had juftice miniftered to them by the officers of every hundred. But now the hundred courts, except certain franchifes are fwallotved up in the county-courts; and the bailiff’s [ 333 1 B A I [ 334 ] B A I Bailiff bailiff’s name and office is grown into contempt, they || being generally officers to ferve writs, &c. within their Bailiwick, liberties. Though in other refpefts, the name is ftill v in good efteem : for the chief magiftrates in divers towns are called bailiffs or bailies ; and fometimes the perfons to whom the king’s caitles are committed are termed bailiffs, as the bailiff of Dover cajile, &c. Of the ordinary bailiffs there are feveral forts, viz. ffieriffs bailiffs, bailiffs of liberties, &c. Sheriffs bailiffs, or ffieriffs officers, are either bailiffs of hundreds, or fpecial bailiffs. Bailiffs of hundreds are officers appointed over thofe refpeftive diftri&s by the ffieriffs, to colleft fines therein 5 to fummon juries ; to attend the judges and jufticesat the affifes and quarter feffions \ and alfo to execute writs and procefs in the fe¬ veral hundreds. But as thefe are generally plain men, and not thoroughly Ikilful in this latter part of their of¬ fice, that of ferving writs and making arrefis and execu¬ tions, it is now ufual to join fpecial bailiffs with them; who are generally mean perfons employed by the ffierift's on account only of their adroitnefs and dexterity in hunting and feizing of their prey. Bailiffs of liberties are thofe bailiffs who are ap- ✓ pointed by every lord within his liberty, to execute procefs, and do fuch offices therein as the bailiff errant doth at large in the county ; but bailiffs errant or itine¬ rant, to go up and down the county to ferve procefs, are out of ufe. There are alfo bailiffs of forelts, and bailiffs of ma¬ nors, Who dire£t huffiandry, fell trees, gather rents, pay quit-rent, &c. IVater-BAILIFF, an officer appointed in all port- towns, for the fearching of ffiips, gathering the toll for anchorage, &c. and arrefting perfons for debts, &c. on the water. BAILII, David, painter of perfpe&ive views and portraits, was the fon of Peter Bailii, an artift of feme note j and was born at Leyden in 1584. From his father he learned to draw and defign ; but he was af¬ terwards placed under the care of Adrian Verburg, and continued with him for fome time *, and when he quit¬ ted that mailer, he ftudied to much greater advantage with Cornelius Vandervoort, an excellent portrait pain¬ ter, and with him he fpent about fix years. As Van¬ dervoort poffeffed many capital paintings of fome great mailers, Bailii, for his own improvement, copied them with critical care and obfervation ; and particularly co¬ pied one perfpeflive view of the infide of a church, ori¬ ginally painted by Stenwyck, which he finilhed with fuch accuracy, that even Stenwyck bimfelf could fearce- ly determine which was the original, or which the co¬ py when both were placed before him. He travelled through feveral parts of Italy to fee the works of the celebrated mailers of that country, and for a few years refided at Rome ; and abroad, as well as in his own country, the corredlnefs of his drawing, and the delicate handling of his pictures, procured him employment, admirers, and friends. In the latter part of his life he difeontinued painting, and only drew portraits on vellum with a pen, which he heightened with black lead, and gave them wonderful force and roundnefs. He died in 1638. BAILIWICK, that liberty which is exempted from the ffieriff of the county $ over which liberty the lord thereof appoints his own bailiff, with the like power within his precin£t as an under ffieriff exercifes under Bailiwick the ffieriff of the county : Or it fignifies the precindl of || a bailiff, or the place within which his jurifdidlion is Bailly terminated. 'r~" BAILLET, Adrian, a very learned French writer and critic, born in 1649 at the village of Neuville near Beauvais in Picardy. His parents were too poor to give him a proper education, which, however, he obtained by the favour of the bilhop of Beauvais, who afterwards prefented him with a fmall vicarage. In 1680 he was appointed librarian to M. de Lamoignon, advocate-ge¬ neral to the parliament of Paris ■, ot whofe library he made a copious index in 35 vols. tolio, all written with his own hand. He died in 1706, alter writing many works, the principal of which are, A Hi/iory oj Holland from 1609, ts the peace of Nimeguen in 1679? 4 vo^s* 12mo j Lives of the Saints, 3 vols. folio, which he profef- ed to have purged from fables ; Jugemens des Spavans, which he extended to 9 vols. 1 2mo -, and The Life of Des Cartes, 2 vois. 4to, which he abridged, and reduced to one vol. 12mo. BAILLEUL, a town of France, in the department of the North, formerly very ftrong, but now without any fortifications. It has been feveral times burnt by accident, and contains now only about 500 houfes. E. Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 40. 35. BA1LLY, Jean Sylvain, a celebrated philofopher and allronomer, was born at Paris on the 15th Septem¬ ber 1736. He was originally intended for the profef- fion of painting, which his family had purfued for feve¬ ral generations, and lie even had made fome progrefs in the art. But the bias of his mind leaned too much to literary purfuits, efpecially to poetry, and works of ima¬ gination, to permit him to give that application which is neceffary to fecure fuccefs and eminence in any pro- feffion. The friends of Bailly, wffio had witneffed the early dawn of his genius, faw that it was equally fitted to appear with advantage in the ftudy of polite litera¬ ture, or to fliine in the walks of fcience : and recom¬ mended the latter chiefly to his attention. His ac¬ quaintance with La Caille the celebrated geometer commenced, and this at once decided the objedl of his ftudies, which were now almoft entirely devoted to fcientific inveftigations. The firll of his labours was the calculation of the comet which appeared in the year 1759. In January 1763, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences \ and in the fame year he publiffied a redu£lion of the obfervations made by La Caille in 1760 and 1761 on the zodiacal flars •, an elaborate compilation, and of extenfive utility. His attention was afterwards directed to the confideration of the theory of Jupiter’s fatellites. La Grange, who now promifed to be the firft mathematician in Europe, was the formidable rival of Bailly in the competition for this prize queftion in 1764. The refults of his inveftiga¬ tions were colledled into a treatife, which alfo contained the hiftory of that part of aftronomy, and wTere publifli- ed in 1766. In 1771 appeared his interefting and im¬ portant memoir on the Light of the Satellites, which was marked with a degree of precifion and accuracy till that time altogether unknown in the obfervations of their eclipfes. The ftudies of Bailly were not entirely limited to the cultivation of abftraft fcience, or to profound phy- - fical B A I [ 335 ] B A I Bailly. Speculations j his genius fhone with equal luftre —Y-—-- in thofe departments of literature which require the rare talent of nice discrimination of characters, and no common power of eloquence, to reach excellence. The eloges which he compofed for Charles V, Corneille, Leibnitz, Moliere, Cook, La Caille, and Grefiet, were univerfally admired as valuable fpecimens of fine writ¬ ing, and added much to his reputation. The diftin- guithed place of fecretary of the Academy of Sciences became vacant in 1771 and Supported by the patron¬ age and influence of BuflFon, he offered himfelf a candi¬ date. But here he was unfuccefsful. Condorcet, who was then rifing into reputation, and was fqpported by the aCtive influence of D’Alembert, was preferred to the office. In the year 1775, he publiflied at Paris the firft volume of the “ Hiftory of Ancient Aftronomy.” The fecond volume of the fame work appeared in 1787. In 1779 he gave to the world his “ Hiftory of Modern Aftronomy,” from the foundation of the Alexandrian School to the prefent age. Thefe works are of inefti- mable value, diftinguiffied by animated defeription, lu¬ minous narration, and interefting detail. He alfo pu- bliffied a work entitled, “ Letters on the Origin of the Sciences, and of the People of Afia which was after¬ wards followed by another feries of “ Letters on the Atlantis of Plato, and the ancient Hiftory of Afia,” as a continuation of the fame work. Thefe volumes were addrefled to Voltaire, with whom he had com¬ menced an ingenious correfpondence and difcuffion on this curious fubjeft. The coincidence of his opinions with thofe of Buffon in points refpeCting fome of the favourite theories of the latter, brought him into an in¬ timate acquaintance and clofe friendffiip with that ce¬ lebrated naturalift, which, however, declined and was entirely diflblved, in confequence of the oppofition which Bailly made to the eleClion of the abbe Maury into the French Academy. Bailly had been chofen fecretary of this academy in 1784; and in the follow¬ ing year he was admitted into the Academy of Infcrip- tions and Belles Lettres. This was the only inftance, fince the time of Fontenelle, of the fame perfon being at once a member of all the three academies. In the year 1784 he was nominated one of the com- miffion to inveftigate the nature of the animal magne- tifm of Mefmer, which waspraftifed by Deflonpand he drew up an elegant report, which was prefented to the Academy of Sciences. This report, which was foon afterwards tranflated into Engliffi, not only marked the acutenefs and difcernment of the author, and contained the moft fatisfadlory and decilive evidence with regard to its objedf, but may be held up as an excellent model of imitation for thofe who are engaged in fimilar in- veftigations. In developing the phyfical effefls pro¬ duced by moral caufes, it is of the greateft value ; and it is particularly interefting when we confider the poli¬ tical influence which caufes of this nature have impofed on the general opinion^of fociety, and even on the def- tiny of nations. Hitherto we have contemplated Bailly in the (hades of retirement, and in the calm undifturbed retreats of philofophy, employing the energy of a vigorous and comprehenfive mind in the profound refearches of phy¬ fical truth : we are now to follow him in his political career, and behold him ftruggling Avith the adverfe in- terefts of party faflion, and contending Avith the un- Eailly. bridled fury of a laAvlefs mob, in defence of the rights-v— of a people whofe minds were not prepared to under- ftand, and Avhofe habits Avere not yet formed to enjoy, the bleflings of rational liberty. He Avas one of the firft and moft zealous promoters of the revolution in France,—a revolution Avhich not only aftoniffied and convulfed all Europe, but of which the immediate con- fequences to themfelves, and to their country, Avere nei¬ ther forefeen nor imagined by thofe Avho embarked in it, nor can its ultimate effefts even at the prefent pe¬ riod be appreciated or conjectured,—a revolution Avhich holds out an awful leflfon to the leaders of popular fac¬ tion to cutb and reprefs, rather than to excite and en¬ courage, that fpirit of tumult and diforder among a people thrown loofe from the neceflary reftraints of larv, Avhich burfts forth Avith ungovernable fury, and at laft involves all in one general ruin. In the part which he aCted in this bloody ftruggle, Bailly has had the good fortune to be well fpoken of by oppofite par¬ ties. He has not been charged Avith Avant of integrity or felfifti defigns in any part of his conduCf j but actu¬ ated by a mifguided zeal, and dazzled with the pro- fpeCt of freedom Avhich the Avarmth of imagination held out, he raffily Hepped forward in a caufe which he efpoufed with enthufiafm, and fupported Avith his utmoft exertions. But in that caufe he fell a facri- fice to the unrelenting fpirit of violence and party fac¬ tion Avhich had been roufed, and Avhich could neither be fubdued nor regulated. When the ftates-general of France were affembled in 1789, he Avas eleCted a deputy to the Tiers Etat; was afterwards chofen prefi- dent ; and when the national alfembly Avas conftituted, he continued in the chair, and Avas prefident at the time that the king’s proclamation Avas iflued ordering them to difperfe. During the ftruggle which took place betAveen the popular part of the alfemblies and the court, Bailly was among the moft forward in af- ferting thofe popular rights which were then new in France : and he dictated the famous oath to the mem¬ bers of the Tiers Etat, “ to refift tyrants and tyranny, and never to feparate till they had obtained a free con- ftitution.” On the 14th of July folloAving, the day on which the Baftile Avas ftormed and taken by the people, he was appointed, with univerfal confent, mayor of Paris. In this high office, he is allowed to have difcharged the arduous and difficult duties of it with great integrity, courage, and moderation. And while he held this confpicuous fituation, he was a powerful agent in promoting the various meafures by Avhieh the popular party prevailed over that of the court: and for this, and varievus other popular aClions, he obtained a high degree of favour among the people. But the tide of public opinion now fAvelled beyond all bounds ; no reftraint could oppofe its violent courfe. The multi¬ tude, unffiackled by the fetters of defpotifm, fond of novelty, and with enthufiaftic and unfettled notions of freedom, daily panting for change, could bear no op¬ pofition. Bailly, who perhaps now faw when it was too late the general difpofition of the people to anar¬ chy, ftill wiflied the laws to be refpeCted, and hoped by their vigorous execution to reftore and preferve tran¬ quillity. He ordered fome deputies from the military infurgents at Nancy to be arrefted, and he firmly oppo- fed the rafti proceedings of Marat and Hubert j he be¬ came B A I C 33^ ] B A I B a illy, came a member of a lefs promifcudus club than that of -Baillment. the Jacobins j and exerted himfelf ftrongly to perfuade v populace to permit the king and royal family to depart to St Cloud. By thefe meafures, which were little relifhed by a frantic and lawlefs people, he loft their confidence and favour. But what finally deftroy- *ed his popularity, was the tumultuous meeting of the -populace on the 17th of July 1791, to demand the -abolition of monarchy, when, being called by the na¬ tional affembly to difperfe the mob, who had aflaulted the foldiery, he ordered the latter to fire, by which .40 perforts were killed and above 100 wounded. Thus become obnoxious to the people whom he had faithful¬ ly ferved, it was no longer defirable for him to hold -*his charge. He therefore refigned his office at the diflblution of the conftituent affembly in the end of the year 1791. After this period he lived in retirement, having refumed his philofophical refearches. But the times of bloody profcription approached, and he muft fall a facrifice to the ferocious vengeance of the tyrant who now bore unlimited fway. He was accordingly denounced as an enemy to the republic, apprehended and thrown into prifon. He was arraigned before a -fanguinary tribunal, fummarily condemned to death as a confpirator, and was executed the day following, near the fpot where he had given the order for the mi¬ litary to fire on the people. On the day of execution, his fufferings, which he bore with the utmoft calmnefs and magnanimity, were ftudioufly protrafted. Inftead of that fympathy and compaffion which even the worft and the loweft criminal often experiences when he is about to expiate his offences with his life, he was treat¬ ed by an incenfed and barbarous populace, with the nioft ignominious indignity and cruelty. He wore the red ffiirt, or badge of confpiracy, and was placed in a cart, with his hands tied behind his back. During the whole time of his progrefs to the place of execu¬ tion, the rain poured inceffantly on his head. The jpopulace as he palled threw mud at him, and cruelly infulted him with every kind of opprobrious language. It was found neceffary to remove the guillotine from the place where it was firft erected to firmer ground. During this time ha was forced to get out of the cart, and walk round the field, to gratify more fully the im¬ placable and unrelenting malice of the mob. When he was afcending the platform, afpeflator who was near him, in a tone of infult exclaimed, “ Bailly, you tremble “ Yes (he inftantly replied), but not with fear.” Thus periffied Bailly in the 57th year of his age. In his perfon he was tall, and of a fedate but ftriking countenance. He poffeffed great firmnrfs and decifion of chatafter, but far removed from fullennefs or apa¬ thy. Few philofophers have been more diftinguiffied in fo many various departments of fcience and litera¬ ture, or have acquired fuch deferved reputation. In * his public ftations, as well as in the retirement of do- meftic life, his integrity and difintereftednefs remained pure and untainted. In the time of his magiftracy he fpent part of his fortune in relieving the wants of the poor. His wife, whom he married in 1787, furvived him. She was the widow of Raymond Gaye, who had been his intimate friend 25 years. BAILMENT, in Law} is a delivery of goods in truft, upon a contra#, expreffed or implied, that the Bailment truft ffiall be faithfully executed on the part of the || bailee. As if cloth be delivered, or (in our legal dia- Bainbridge. le#) bailed, to a taylor to make a fuit of clothes, he v has it upon an implied contra# to render it again when made, and that in a workmanly manner. If money or goods be delivered to a common carrier to convey from Oxford to London, or from Glafgow to Edin¬ burgh, &c. he is under a contra# in law to pay, er carry them to the perfon appointed. If a horfe or other goods be delivered to an innkeeper or his fer- vants, he is bound to keep them fafely and reftore them when his gueft leaves the houfe. If a man takes in a horfe, or other cattle, to graze and depafture in his grounds, which the law calls agi/iment, he takes them upon an implied contra# to return them on de¬ mand to the owner. If a pawnbroker receives plate or jewels as a pledge or fecurity for the repayment of money lent thereon at a day certain, he has them upon an exprefs contra# or condition to reftore them if the pledger performs his part by redeeming them in due time j for the due execution of which contra#, many ufeful regulations are made by ftatute 30 Geo. II. c. 24. And fo, if a landlord diftrains goods for rent, or a pa- riffi officer for taxes, thefe for a time are only a pledge in the hands of the diftrainers j and they are bound by an implied contra# in law to reftore them on payment of the debt, duty, and expences, before the time of fale } or when fold, to render back the overplus. If a friend delivers any thing to his friend to keep for him, the re¬ ceiver is bound to reftore it on demand: and it was for¬ merly held, that in the mean time he was anfwerable for any damage or lofs it might fuftain, whether by ac¬ cident or otherwife •, unlefs he exprefsly undertook to keep it only with the fame care as his own goods, and then he fliould not be anfwerable for theft or other ac¬ cidents. But now the law feems to be fettled on a much more rational footing j that fuch a general bail¬ ment will not charge the bailee with any lofs, unlefs it happens by grofs negle#, which is conftrued to be an evidence of fraud : but if the bailee undertakes fpeci- ally to keep the goods falely and fecurely, he is bound to anfwer all perils and damages that may befal them for want of the fame care with which a prudent man would keep his own. BAILO ; thus they ftyle at Conftantinople the am- baflador of the republic of Venice, who refides at the Porte. This minifter, befides the political charge, a#s there the part of a conful of Venice. BAINBRIDGE, Dr John, an eminent phyfician and aftronomer, born at Afliby de la Zouche in Lei- cefterlhire, in 1582. He taught a grammar fchooj for fome years, and pra#ifed phyfic, employing his leifure hours in aftronomy, which was his favourite ftudy : at length he removed to London, was admitted a fellow of the college of phyfician?, and rarfed his chara#er by his defcription of the comet in 1618. 1 he next year Sir Henry Savile appointed him his firft profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford ; and the mafters and fellows of Merton-college made him firft junior, and then fupe- rior, reader of Linacre’s le#ure. He died in 1643, having written many works, fome of which have never been publiffied: but the MSS. are preferved in the li¬ brary of Trinity-college, Dublin. BAIOCAO, B A I [ 337 ] B A K Baiocao BAIOCAO, a copper coin, current at Rome, and jj throughout the whole date of the church, ten of which Baiting, make a julio, and a hundred a Roman crown. y BAIRAM, or Beiram, a Turkifh word which fignihes a folemn feaft. The Mahometans have two Bairams, the Great and the Little. The Little Bairam is properly that held at the clofe of the fall: Ramazan, beginning with the firft full moon in the following month Shawal. This is called in Arabic Id al Fetx, or the Feajl of breaking the Faf ; by European writers, the Turkifh Ea/ler, becaufe it fucceeds Ramazan, which is their Lent, more ufually the Great Baira?n, becaufe obferved with great ceremony and rejoicing at Conftantinople, and through Turkey, for three days, and in Perfia for five or fix days, at lead; by the com¬ mon people, to make themfelves amends for the mor- . tification of the preceding month. The feafl: com¬ mencing with the new moon, the Mahometans are very fc'rupulous in obferving the time when the new moon commences; to which purpofe, obfervers are fent to the tops of the highefl mountains, who, the moment they fpy the appearance of a new moon, run to the city, and proclaim Muxhdaluk, “ welcome news;” as it is the fignal for beginning the feftivity.—'The Great Bairam, is properly that held by the pilgrims at Mec¬ ca, commencing on the tenth of Dhu Ihajia, when the victims are llain, and lading three days. This is called by the Arabs, Id al adhay that is, the feafl of facrifice, as being celebrated in memory of the facrifice of A- bram, whofe fon God redeemed with a great vi6tim. By European writers it is called the Leffer Bairam, as being lefs taken notice of by the generality of the people, who are not (truck with it, becaufe the cere¬ monies it is obferved withal, are performed at Mecca, the only fcene of the folemnity.—On the feaft of Bairam, after throwing little (tones, one after another, into the valley of Mina, they ufually kill one or more (heep, fome a goat, bullock, or even a camel ; and af¬ ter giving a part thereof to the poor, eat the reft with their friends. After this, they (have themfelves. The fecond is a day of reft. On the third, they fet out on their return home. BAIRUT. See Beeroot. BAIT, among filhermen, implies a fubftance proper to be faftened to a hook, in order to catch the different forts of fi(h. See Fishing. BAITING, the a£t of fmaller or weaker beads at¬ tacking and haraftlng greater and ftronger. In this fenfe we hear of the baiting of bulls or bears by maftiffs or bull-dogs with ftrort nofes, that they may take the bet¬ ter hold. Utility is pled in juftification of bull-baiting. This animal is rarely killed without being firft baited ; the chafing and exercife whereof makes his fle(h tenderer and more digeftible. In reality, it difpofes it for pu- trefadftion ; fo that, unlefs taken in time, baited flefti is foon loft. But a fpirit of barbarifm had the greateft (hare in fupporting the fport: bulls are kept on pur- pofe, and exhibited as (landing fpedfacles for the public entertainment. The poor beafts have not fair play : they are not only tied down to a (lake, with a collar about their necks and a fhort rope, which gives them not above four or five yards play ; but they are difarm- ■ed too, and the tips of their horns cut off, or covered with leather, to prevent their hurting the dogs. In Vol III. Part I. this fport, the chief aim of the dog is to catch the bull Baiting by the nofe, and hold him down ; to which end he will || even creep on his belly : the bull’s aim, on the contra- Baker, ry, is, with equal induftry, to defend his nofe ; in or- ~y—“■ der to which, he thrufts it clofe to the ground, where his horns are alfo in readinefs to tofs the dog.—Bull¬ baiting was firft introduced into England as an amufe- ment in the reign of King John, about 1209. BA.TULGS, an ancient officer in the court of the Greek emperors. There were feveral degrees of bajuli; as, the grand bajulus, who was preceptor to the em¬ peror ; and the fimple bajuli, who were fub-preceptors. The word is derived from the Latin verb bajulare, “ to carry or bear a thing on the arms or on the (boul¬ ders and the origin of the office is thus traced by antiquaries. Children, and efpecially thofe of condi¬ tion, had anciently, befide their nurfe, a woman called gerula, as appears from feveral paffages of Tertullian ; when weaned, or ready to be weaned, they had men to carry them about and take care of them, who were called gcruli and bajuli, a gerendo et bajulando. Hence it is, that governors of princes and great lords were dill denominated bajuli, and their charge or government bajulatio, even after their pupils were grown too big to be carried about. The word paffed in the fame fenfe in¬ to Greece. Bajulus is alfo ufed by Latin writers in the feveral other fenfes wherein Bailiff is ufed among us. Bajulus was alfo the name of a conventual officer in the ancient monafteries, to whom belonged the charge of gathering and diftributing the money and legacies left for maffes and obits ; whence he was alfo denomi¬ nated bajulus obituum novorum, BAKAN, a large and handfome town of Afia in the Eaft Indies, in the kingdom of Ava. E. Long. 98. o. N. Lat. 19. 33. BAKER, Sir Richard, author of the Chronicle of the Kings of England, was born at Seflingherft, in Kent, about the year 1568. After going through the ufual force of academical learning at Hart-hall, in Oxford, he travelled into foreign parts ; and upon his return home was created mafter of arts, and foon after, in 1603, received from King James I. the ho¬ nour of knighthood. In 1620, he was high (heriff of Oxfordftiire ; but engaging to pay fome of the debts of his wife’s family, he was reduced to poverty, and obliged to betake himfelf for (belter to the Fleet prifon, where he compofed feveral books; among which are, 1. Meditations and Difquifitions on the Lord’s Prayer. 2. Meditations, &c. on feveral of the Pfalms of David. 3. Meditations and Prayers upon the feven Days of the Week. 4. Cato Variegatus, or Cato’s Moral Diftichs varied, &c.—Mr Granger obferves, that his Chroni¬ cle of the Kings of England was ever more efteemed by readers of a loiver clafs than by fuch as had a cri¬ tical knowledge of hiftory. The language of it was, in his reign, called polite ; and it long maintained its reputation, efpecially among country gentlemen. The author feems to have been fometimes more ftudious to pleafe than to inform, and with that view to have fa- crificed even chronology itfelf to method. In 1658, Edward Philips, nephew to Milton, publifhed a third edition of this work, with the addition of the reign of Charles I. It has been feveral times reprinted fince, and is now carried as low as the reign of George I. U u Sir B A K [ 338 ] B A K Baker. Sir Richard alfo tranflated feveral works from the T“—French and Italian $ and died very poor in the Fleet prifon, on the 18th of February 1645. Baker, Thomas, an eminent mathematician, was born at Ilton in Sonterfetthire about the year 1625, and entered at Magdalen hall, Oxon, in 1640 \ alter which he was vicar of BilhopVNymmet, in Devonlhire, where he wrote The Geometrical Key, or the Gate of Equations unlocked-, by which he gained a confiderable reputation. A little before his death, the members of the Royal Society fent him fome mathematical queries, to which he returned fo fatisfadlory an anfwer, that they prefented him a medal with an infcription full of honour and refpeft. He died at Bithop’s Nymmet on the 5th of June 1690. Baker, Thomas, a very ingenious and learned antiquary, defcended from a family ancient and well efteemed, diftinguilhed by its loyalty and affeflion for the crown, was born at Crook in 1656. He was edu¬ cated at the free fchool at Durham, and thence remo¬ ved to St John’s college Cambridge in 1674. He pro¬ ceeded B. A. 1677 5 M. A. 1681 was ele£led fellow, March 1679-80 5 ordained deacon by Bilhop Compton of London, December 20. 1685 5 pried by Bilhop Bar- low of Lincoln, December 19. 1686. Dr Watfon, tu¬ tor of the college, who was nominated, but not yet confecrated, bifhop of St David’s, offered to take him for his chaplain, which he declined, probably on the profpedt of a like offer from Lord Crew bifhop of Dur¬ ham, which he fotin after accepted. His lordlhip collated him to the rcftory of Long-Newton in his diocefe, and the fame county, June 1687 and, as Dr Grey was informed by fome of the bilhop’s family, intended to have given him that of Sedgefield, worth 600I. or 700I. a-year, with a golden prebend, had he not incurred his difpleafure and left his family for refilling to read King James II.’s declaration for liber¬ ty of confcience. The bilhop, who difgraced him for this refufal, and was excepted out of King William’s pardon, took the oaths to that king, and kept his bi- ihopric till his death. Mr Baker religned Long New¬ ton Auguft 1. 1690, refufing to take the oaths 5 and retired to his fellowlhip at St John’s, in which he was protefled till January 20. 17x6-17, when, with one- and-twenty others, he \Vas difpofftffed of it. After the palling the Regiftering A6t 1723, he was defined to regifter his annuity of 40I. which the laff act re¬ quired before it was amended and explained. Though this annuity, left him by his father for his fortune, with 20I. per annum out of his collieries by his elder brother from the day of his death Augult 1699, for the remaining part of the leafe, which determined at Whitfuntide 1722, was now his whole fubliftence, he could not be prevailed on to fecure himfelf, againft the aft. He retained a lively refentment of his depriva¬ tions ; and wrote himfelf in all his books, as well as in thofe which he gave to the college library, focius ejeBus, and in forae ejcEhis reEior. He continued tore- iide in the college as commoner-mafter, till his .death, which happened July 2. 1740, of a paralytic ftroke, being found on the floor of his chamber. In the af¬ ternoon of June 29. being alone in his chamber, he was {truck with a flight apopleftic fit 5 which abating a little, he recovered his fenfes, and knew all about him, who were his nephew Burton, Drs Bedford and 3 Heberden. He feemed perfeftly fatbfied and refignedj Baker, and when Dr Bedford dciired him to take fome medi- ——v— cine then ordered, he declined it, faying, he would only take bis ufual fuftenance, which his bed-maker knew the times and quantities of giving: he was thank¬ ful for the affeftion and care his friends fhowed him ; but, hoping the time of his diffolution was at hand, would by no means endeavour to retard it. His dif- order increafed, and the third day from this feizure he departed. Being appointed one of the executors of his elder brother’s will, by which a large fum was be¬ queathed to pious ufes, he prevailed on the other two executors, who were his other brother Francis and the Hon. Charles Montagu, to lay out 131CI. of the mo¬ ney upon an eftate to be fettled upon St John’s college for fix exhibitioners. He likewife gave the college look for the confideration of 61. a-year (then only legal interell) for his life ; and to the library feveral choice books, both printed and MS. medals, and coins j befides what he left toil by his will) *, which were “ all fuch books, printed and MS. as he had, and were wanting there.” All that Mr Baker printed was, 1. “ Refleftions on Learning, fhowing the infufficiency thereof in its feveral particulars, in order to evince the ufefulnefs and neceflity of Revelation, Lend. 1709-10,” (which went through eight editions: and Mr Bofwel, in his “ Method of Study,” ranks it among the Eng- lifh claflics for purity of ftyle) j and, 2. “ The pre¬ face to Bilhop Filher’s Funeral Sermon for Margaret countefs of Richmond and Derby, 17085 both with¬ out his name. Dr Grey had the original MS. of both in his own hands. The latter piece is a fufficient fpe- cimen of the editor’s fkill in antiquities to make us regret that he did not live to publifli his “ Hiftory of St John’s College from the foundation of old St John’s houfe to the prefent time-, with fome occafional and inci¬ dental account of the affairs of the univerfity, and of fuch private colleges as held communication or intercourfe with the old houfe or college: collefted principally from MSS. and carried on through a fucceffion of maflers to the end of Bifiiop Gunning’s mafterihip, 1670.” The original, fit for the prefs, is among the Harleian MSS. N° 7028. His MS. colleftions relative to the hirtory and antiquities of the univerfity of Cambridge, amount¬ ing to 49 volumes in folio and three in quarto, are di¬ vided between the Britifh Mufeum and the public libra¬ ry at Cambridge 5 the former poffeffes 23 volumes, which he bequeathed to the earl of Oxford, his friend and patron 5 the latter 16 in folio and three in quarto, which he bequeathed to the univerfity. Dr Knight ftyles him “ the greateft mailer of the antiquities of :his our univerfity 5” and Hearne fays, Optandum eji utfua quoque collectanea de antiquitatibus Cantabrigien- fibus juris facial publici Cl. Bakerus, quippe qui erudi- tione fuvima jiulicioque acn et fubadto polleat. Mr Baker intended fome thing like an Atheiue Cantabrigienfes, on the plan of the A thence Oxomenfes. Baker, Henry, an ingenious and diligent natu- ralift, was born in Fleet-ffreet London, either near the end of the 17th, or very early in the beginning of the 18th, century. His father’s profeffion is not known 5 but his mother was, in her time, a midwife of great praftice. He was brought up under an emi¬ nent bookfeller, who preceded the elder Dodfley, to the bufmefs of a bookfeller 5 in which, however, he ap¬ pears- • / B A K [ 339 ] ' B A K Baker, pears not to have engaged at all after his apprentice- —-v fhip ; or, if he did, it was foon relinquilhed by him : for though it was in his power to have drawn away all his mailer’s beft cuftomers, he would not fet up againft him. Mr Baker being of a philofophical turn of mind, and having diligently attended to the methods which might be prafticable and ufeful in the cure of Hammering, and efpecially in teaching deaf and dumb perfons to fpeak, he made this the employment of his life. In the profecution of fo valuable and difficult an undertaking, he was very fuccefsful ; and feveral of his pupils, who are Hill living, bear teftimony to the ability and good effect of his inftru&ions. He mar¬ ried Sophia, youngeft daughter of the famous Daniel Defoe, who brought him two fons, both of whom he furvived. On the 29th of January 1740, Mr Baker was eleclcd a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries ; and, on the 12th of March following, the fame ho¬ nour was conferred upon him by the Royal Society. In 1744, bir Godfrey’s Copley’s gold medal was beftow- ed upon him, for having, by his niicrofcopical experi¬ ments on the cryllallizations and configuration of fa- line particles, produced the molt extraordinary difco- very during that year. Having led a very ufeful and honourable life, he died at his apartments in the Strand on the 25th of November 1774, being then above 70 years of age. His wife had been dead fome time before j and he only left one grandfon, William Baker, who was born February 17. 1763, and to whom, on his living to the age of 21, he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune, which he had acquired by hi? profeffion .01 teaching deaf and dumb perfons to fpeak. His furniture, printed books (but not MSS.), curiofities, and collections of every fort, he direCted ffiould be fold, which was accordingly done. His fine collection of native and foreign foffils, petrifaCtions, ffiells, corals, vegetables, ores, &c. with fome antiquities and other curiofities, were fold by auCtion March 13. 1775, and the nine following days. He was buried, as he defired, in an unexpenfive manner, in the churchyard of St Mary-le-ftrand ; within which church, on the fouth wall, he ordered a fmall tablet to be ereCted to his memory. “ An infeription for it (he faid) would probably be found among bis .papers; if not, he hoped fome learned friend would write one agreeable to truth.” This friendly office, however, remains as yet to be performed. Mr Baker was a conflant and ufefml at¬ tendant at the meetings of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and in both was frequently chofen one of the council. He was peculiarly attentive to all the new improvements which were made in natural fcience, and very felicitous for the profecution of them. Se¬ veral of his communications are printed in the Philo¬ fophical TranfaCtions ; and befides the papers written by himfelf, he was the means, by his extenfive corre- fpondence, of conveying to the fociety the intelli¬ gence and obfervations of other inquifitive and philo- fophical men, both at home and abroad. The Socie¬ ty for the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce, is under fingular obligations to our worthy naturalift. As he was one of the earliell: members ol it, fo he contributed in no fmall degree to its rife and eftabliffiment. At its firft inifitution he officiated for fome time gratis as feeretary. Fie was many years chairman of the cemmittee of accounts; and he took an aCtive part in the general deliberations of the fo¬ ciety. He drew up a (tort account of the original of this fociety, and of the concern he timfelf had in forming it ; which was read before the iociety of anti¬ quaries, and would be a pleafing prefent to the public. Mr Baker was a poetical writer in the early part of his life. His Invocation of Health got abroad with¬ out his knowledge; but was reprinted by himfelf in his Original Poems, ferious and humorous, Part I. 8vo. 1725. Part II. came out in 1726. Among thefe poems are fome tales as witty and as loofe as Prior’s. He was the author likewife of The Univcrfe, a poem intended to reilrain the pride of man ; which has been feveral times reprinted. His account of the water po¬ lype, which was originally publiffied in the Philofophi¬ cal Traniaefions, was afterwards enlarged into a fepa- rate treatife, and hath gone through feveral editions!, But his principal publications are, The Micr of cope made Eafy, and Employment for the Mkrofcope. The firft of thefe, which was originally publiffied in 1742 or 1743, hath gone through fix editions. The fecond edition of the other, which, to fay the leaft of it, is equally pleafing and inftruftive, appeared in 1764. Thefe treatifes, and efpecially the latter, contain the moft curious and important of the obfervations and experiments which Mr Baker either laid before the Royal Society or publiftied feparately. It has been faid of Mr Baker, that he was a philofopher in little things. If it was intended by this language to lefl'en his reputation, there is no propriety in the ftriClure. He was an intelligent, upright, and benevolent man, much refpeCled by thofe who knew him beft. His friends were the friends of fcience and virtue : and it will always be remembered by his contemporaries, that no one was more ready than himfelf to affift thofe with whom he was converfant in their various re* fearches and endeavours for the advancement of know¬ ledge and the benefit of fociety. Baker, David Erjkine, fon to the former, was a young man of genius and learning. Having been adopted by an uncle, who was a filk-throwfter in Spital* fields, he fucceeded him in the bufinefs; but wanted the prudence and attention which are neceffary to fe- cure profperity in trade. He married the daughter of Mr Clendon, a reverend empiric. Like his father, he was both a philofopher and a poet ; and wrote feveral occafional poems in the periodical cofteflions, ffime of which were much admired at the time ; but fo violent ■was liis turn for dramatic performance, that he repeat¬ edly engaged with the loweft ftrolling companies, in fpite of every effort of his father to reclaim him. The public was indebted to him for “ The Companion to the Play lioufe,” in two volumes, 1764, l2mo ; a work which, though imperfefl, had confiderable merit, and ffiowed that he poffeffed a very extenfive knowledge of our dramatic authors ; and which has fince (under the title of “ Biographia Dramatjca”) been confiderably improved by the attention of a gentleman in every re- fpeft well qualified for tjie undertaking. Baker, a perfon whofe occupation or bufinefs is to bake bread. See the articles Baking and Bread. The learned are in great doubt about the time when baking firft became a particular profeffion, and bakers were introduced. It is however generally agreed, that they had-their rife in the eaft, and paffed from Greece U u 2 to B A K [ 340 ] BA K Baker to Italy after the war with Pyrrhus, about the year of ^ J.i Rome 583. Till which time every houfewife was her in^‘ . own baker; for the word pijlor, which we find in Ro¬ man authors before that time, fignified a perlon who ground or pounded the grain in a mill or mortar to prepare it for baking, as Varro obferves. According to Athenaeus, the Cappadocians were the moll ap¬ plauded bakers, after them the Lydians, then the Phoenicians.—To the foreign bakers brought into Rome, were added a number of freedmen, who were incorporated into a body, or, as they called it, a college ; from which neither they nor their children were al¬ lowed to withdraw. They held their effects in com¬ mon, and could not difpofe of any part of them. Each bake-houfe had a patronus, who had the fuperinten- dency thereof; and thefe patroni eledled one out of their number each year, who had fuperintendence over all the reft, and the care of the college. Out of the body of the bakers every now and then one was ad¬ mitted among the fenators.—To preferve honour and honefty in the college of bakers, they were exprefsly prohibited all alliance with comedians and gladiators ; each had his (hop or bake-houfe, and they were diftri- buted into fourteen regions of the city. They were excufed from guardianftiips and other offices, which might divert them from their employment.—By our own ftatutes, bakers are declared not to be handicrafts. No man for ufing the myfteries or fciences of baking, brewing, furgery, or writing, ffiall be interpreted a handicraft. The bakers were a brotherhood in Eng¬ land before the year 1155, in the reign of King Henry II. though the white bakers were not incorporated till 1407, by King Edward III. and the brown bakers not till 1621, in King James I.’s time. Their hall is in Harp-lane, Thames-ftreet ; and their court day on the firft Monday of the month.—They make the 19th company ; and confift of a warden, 4 mafters, 30 af- fiftants, and 140 men on the livery, befides the com¬ monalty.—The French had formerly a great baker, grand panetier de France, who had the fuperinten- dency of all the bakers of Paris. But fince the begin¬ ning of this century, they have been put under the jurifdi&ion of the lieutenant-general^/;©/^. In fome provinces of France, the lord is the only baker in his feigneury; keeping a public oven, to which all the tenants are obliged to bring their bread. This right is called furnagium, or furnaticum, and makes part of the bannalite. BAKE WELL, a pretty large town of Derbyffiire in England, feated on the river Wye, on the north fide of the Peak. It has a confiderable trade in lead. W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 5 £. 15. BAKING, the art of preparing bread, or reducing meals of any kind, whether Ample or compound, into bread. See the article Bread. The various forms of baking among us may be re¬ duced into two, the one for unleavened, the other for leavened bread. For the firft, the chief is manchet- baking; and the procefs whereof is as follows : The meal, ground and boulted, is put into a trough ; and to every buftrel are poured in about three pints of warm ale, with barm and fait to feafon it. This is kneaded well together with the hands through the brake ; or, for want thereof, with the feet, through a cloth ; after which, having lain an hour to fwell, it is moulded into 3 manchets; which, fcotched in the middle, and pricked Baking, up at top, to give room to rife, are baked in the oven v— by a gentle fire.—For the fecond, fometimes called cheat-bread baking, it is thus : Some leaven (faved from a former batch) filled with fait, laid up to four, and at length diffolved in water, is ftrained through a cloth into a hole made in the middle of the heap of meal in the trough ; then it is worked with fome of the flour into a moderate confiftence : this is covered up with meal, Avhere it lies all night; and in the morning the whole heap is fiirred up, and mixed with a little warm water, barm, and fait, by which it is feafoned, foft- ened, and brought to an even leaven : it is then knead¬ ed, moulded, and baked, as before. Method of raijing a bvfbel of flour with a teafpoonful of barm ; by James Stone, of Amport, in Hampfhire. —Suppofe you -want to bake a buftiel of flour, and have but one tea-fpoonful of barm.—Put your flour into your kneading-trough or trendle ; then take about three quarters of a pint of warm water, and take the tea-fpoonful of thick fteady barm and put it into the water ; ftir it until it is thoroughly mixed with the water : then make a hole in the middle of the flour large enough to contain two gallons of water; pour in your fmall quantity ; then take a ftick about two feet long, (which you may keep for that purpofe), and ftir in fome of the flour, until it is as thick as you would make batter for a pudding ; then ftrew fome of the dry flour over it, and go about your ufual bufinefs for about an hour : then take about a quart of warm water more, and pour in ; for in one hour you will find that fmall quantity raifed fo, that it will break through the dry flour which you ffiook over it ; and when you have poured in the quart of warm water, take your ftick as before, and ftir in fome more flour, until it is as thick as before; then fhake fome more dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours more, and then you will find it rife and break through the dry flour again ; then you may add three quarts or a gallon of water more, and ftir in the flour and make it as thick as at firft, and cover it with dry flour again ; in about three or four hours more you may mix up your dough, and then cover it up warm ; and in four or five hours more you may put it into the oven, and you will have as light bread as though you had put a pint of barm. It does not take above a quarter of an hour more time than the ufual -way of baking, for there is no time loft but that of adding water three or four times. The author of this method affures us, that he con- ftantly bakes this way in the morning about fix or feven o’clock, puts the flour out, and puts this fmall quantity of barm into the before-mentioned quantity of water, in an hour’s time fome more, in two hours more a greater quantity, about noon makes up the dough, and about fix in the evening it is put into the oven, and he has always good bread, never heavy nor bitter. When you find, he fays, your body of flour fpunged large enough, before you put in the reft of your water, you ffiould, with both your hands, mix that which is fpunged and the dry flour altogether, and then add the remainder of warm water, and your dough will rife the better and eafier. The reafon he affigns why people make heavy bread is, not becaufe they have not barm enough, but be- caufe they do not know that barm is the fame to flour as B A L [ 341 ] B A L Baking as fire is 5 that, as a fpark of fire will kindle a || large body by only blowing of it up, fo rt the trade of this place are naphtha, and the fineft rock fait, of both which there are mines on the call fide of the bay. The inhabitants cultivate faftron and the cotton tree, but not to any confiderable advantage. The trade of Baku, though more valuable than that of Derbent, is ftill inconfiderable, and chiefly carried on with Sha- makee, from whence it draws raw filk and filken fluffs. A Ruffian conful is refident at this place. In 1777 Baku belonged to Melik-Mehmed, who was tributary to Feth Ali khan of Kuba : the latter poffeffed the whole province of Shirvan, and was the moft powerful prince, next to the khan of Ghilan, upon the coafl: of the Cafpian. Before we quit the province of Shirvan, it may not be improper to mention its capital, the in¬ land town of Shamakee, which is only 66 miles from Baku, and fupplies that port with raw filk and filken fluffs. It owed its former commercial importance to the filk which is cultivated in the neighbouring di- ftrift ; this rich production ftill preferves the town from ruin ; though its traffic is greatly reduced by the ex¬ orbitant exaCIions of the khan of Kuba. Formerly the Ruffians had a faCtory at this place 5 and it was alfo crowded with Turkifti and Greek merchants ; but at prefent there are only a few Armenian and Indian traders. The inhabitants manufacture filk and cotton fluffs, but far inferior to thofe made at this place in the beginning of the prefent century. The filk of this province is exported into the interior part of Perfia, Turkey, Georgia, and Ruflia. E. Long. 51. 30. N. Lat. 40. 20. BALAAM, a prophet and diviner of the city of Pethor upon the Euphrates, whofe practices with Ba- Eal lak king of the Moabites are recorded in the book of Numbers, chap. xxii. It is a queftion much debated among divines, whether Balaam was a true prophet of God, or no more than a magician or fortune-teller. The Jews indeed are generally of opinion, that he was a bufy and pretending aftrologer, who, obferving when men were under a bad afpeft of the ftars, pronounced a curfe upon them $ which fometimes coming to pafs, gained him in fome neighbouring nations a reputation in his way. Several of the ancient fathers fuppofe him to be no more than a common foothfayer, who under¬ took to tell future events, and difcover fecrets, and by no very juftifiable arts. Origen will needs have it, that he was no prophet, but only one of the devil’s forcerers, and that of him he went to inquire •, but that God was pleafed to prevent him, and put what anfwers he pleafed into his mouth. It cannot be denied, how¬ ever, that the feripture exprefsly calls him a prophet (Pet. ii. 5.) ; and therefore fome later writers have imagined that he had once been a good man and true prophet, till loving the wages of iniquity, and profti- tuting the honour of his office to covetoufnef, he apo- ftatized from God, and betaking himfelf to idolatrous pradices, fell under the delufion of the devil, of whom he learned all his magical enchantments, though at this juncture, when the prefervation of his people was concerned, it might be confiflent with God’s wifdom to appear to him, and vouchfafe his revelations. As to what paffed between him and his afs, when that ani¬ mal was miraculoufly enabled to fpeak to its mafter, commentators are divided in their opinions concerning this fad, whether it really and literally happened as Mofes relates it j or whether it be an allegory only, or the mere imagination or vifion of Balaam. This in¬ deed is fo wonderful an inftance, that feveral of the Jewifh doClors, who upon other occafions are fond enough of miracles, feem as if they would hardly be induced to affent to this. Philo, in his Life of Mofes, paffes it over in filence ; and Maimonides pretends that it happened to Balaam in a prophetic vifion only. But St Peter (2 Pet. ii. 16.) fpeaks of this fad as literal and certain, and fo all interpreters explain it. St Au- ftin, who underftands it exaCtly according to the letter, finds nothing in the whole account more furprifing than the ftupidity of Balaam, who heard his afs fpeak to him, and anfwered it as if he talked with a reafonable perfon. He is of opinion, that this diviner was accu- ftomed to prodigies like this, or that he w'as firangely blinded by his avarice not to be flopped by an event of fo extraordinary a nature. Le Clerc thinks, that Balaam might probably have imbibed the doClrine of tranfmigradon of fouls, which was certainly very com¬ mon in the eaft ; and from thence he might be the lefs affoniffied at hearing a brute fpeak. And Dr Pa¬ trick thinks that Balaam was in fuch a rage and fury at thefuppofed perverfenefsof hisbeaftcrufhing his foot, that for the prefent he could think of nothing elfe *, though the concifenefs of Mofes’s relation, who muff be pre¬ fumed to have omitted many circumdances, which if rightly known would difpel this and many more diffi¬ culties that may be imagined in this tranfaCIion, does certainly furnith us with a better and more fatisfaCIory anfwer. St Auftin is of opinion, that God had not gi¬ ven the afs a reafonable foul j but permitted it to pro.- nounce I B A L i [34 Balaam nounce certain words, in order to reprove the pro- 11 pliet’s covetoufnefs. Gregory of Nyfl’a teems to think Balagate t|iat t|ie aps not utter any wor(l articulately or di- (uintams. . p)ut paving brayed as ufual, the diviner, whofe practice it had been to draw pfefages from the tries of beads and tinging of birds, comprehended eafily the afs’s meaning by its noife 5 Mofes, defigntng to ri¬ dicule this fuperftitious art of augurs and foothfayers, as if the afs really fpoke in words articulate. We muft own, fays Caltnet, that this is a miraculous facf related by an infpired writer, whofe authority we are not allowed to call in queftion in the lead particu¬ lar : but we diould dudy fuch ways of explaining it as are mod conformable to reafon, and mod proper tofolve the difficulties of it, without attacking the truth of the Indory. Now it is very podible for God to make an afs fpeak articulately ; it is indeed miraculous, and above the ordinary faculty of this animal, but not againd the laws of nature. BALADAN, the fcripture name for a king of Ba¬ bylon (If. xxxix. 1. 2 Kings xx. 12.), called by pro¬ fane authors Be/eji/s, or Beiefis, Nabotiq/Jar or Namj- brus. Baladan at fird was no more than governor of Babylon •, but entering into a confederacy with Ar- baces governor of Media, and rebelling againd Sarda- napalus king of Affyria, thefe two generals marched againd him with an army of 400,000 men, and were beat in three different battles. But the Ba6trians de- ferting the king, and coming over to Baladan and Ar- baces, the rebels attacked the enemy in the night, and made themfelves maders of his camp. After this mif- fortune, Sardanapalus retreated to Nineveh, and left the command of his army to his brother-in-law Sala- menes. The confpirators attacked Salamenes, and de¬ feated him in tsvo great battles j after which they laid , fiege to Nineveh. Sardanapalus fudained the liege for three years ; but the Tigris, in the third year, over¬ flowing its banks, beat down 20 furlongs of the walls ; whereupon the confpirators entered the city and took pofledion of it, after Sardanapalus had burnt himfelf and all his mod valuable effeds upon a funeral pile ereft- ed for that purpofe in his palace. Baladan was ac¬ knowledged king of Babylon as Arbaces was of Media. Berodach-baladan, who fent ambadadors to Hezekiah (2 Kings xx.), vras the fon of Baladan. BALA, a town of Merionethdiire in Wales. W. Long. 3. 37. N. Lat. 52. 54. ; BALAENA, or Whale. See Cetology Index. BAL AGATE, a province of the Mogul empire, and the larged of the three that compofe the kingdom of Dekkan. It has Kandilh and Barar to the north, Tellinga to the ead, Baglana with part of Guzerat to the wed, and Vidapour to the fouth. It is a fruit¬ ful and pleafant country, abounding with cotton and fugar. Here they have fheep without horns ; but fo drong, that when bridled and faddled they will carry boys of ten years of age. Its prefent capital is Au- rengabad, but formerly was Dowlet-Abad *, and from the latter the whole province is fometimes called Dow- let-/^bad. BALAGATE Mountains, a chain of mountains which divides the coad of Malabar from that of Coromandel,^ running almod the whole length of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges. Some parts of them are covered with fine red earth, which is bldwn by the drong wed Bali1 nee. 2 ] ' B A L winds as far as the ifiand of Ceylon ; and tvhen the Balagnte rays of the fun are rede£ted from thefe mountains, Mountains they feem to be all on fire. They make furprifing al¬ terations in the feafons j for on the north fide of Cape Comorin, it is -winter in May, June, July, Augud, and September, in which months it is fummer on the fouth fide of the cape ; on one fide there are continual tempeds, thunder, and lightning, while the other enjoys a condant ferenity. When black clouds are gathered about the mountains, they are followed by fudd'en rain, which canfes the overflowing of the rivers, and chokes them up with fand, infomuch that they are unnavigable, for fome time afterwards. The buildings and clothes of tile inhabitants are fcarcely fufficient to defend them from the weather. They live upon rice, milk, roots, and herbs, with very little meat; they have like wife a fort of fmall arrack, but are never given to drunken- nefs •, nor do they import foreign vices, for they never travel abroad. BALAGNIA, a town of Mufcovy, in the province of Little Novogorod, feated on -.he Wolga. E. Long. 45. 5. N. Lat. 50. 36.. BALAGUER, a city of Catalonia in Spain, feated on the north bank of the river Segra, at the foot of a high mountain, on which there was formerly a fortrefs. E. Long. o. 48. N. Lat. 41. 38. BALAMBUAN, or Padambuan, a drong town of Afia, in the Indies, on the ead end of tire idand of Java, and capital of a territory of the fame name. E. Long. 115. 30. S. Lat. 7. 50. BALANCE, one of the fix fimple powers, in me¬ chanics, principally ufed in determining the equality or difference of weights in heavy bodies, and confequent- ly their maffes or quantities of matter. The balance is of two kinds: the ancient and the modern. The ancient or Roman, called alfo the Jla- tera Romana, or deel-yard, confids of a lever or beam, moveable on a centre, and fufpended near one of its extremities : the bodies to be weighed are applied on one fide of the centre j and their weight is fliewn by the divifion marked on the beam, where the weight, which is moveable along the lever, keeps the deel-yard in equilibria. This balance is dill frequently ufed in weighing heavy bodies. The modern balance now generally ufed confids of a lever or beam fufpended exactly in the middle, ha¬ ving feales or bafons hung to each extremity. The lever is called the jugum ox beam; and the two moieties thereof on each fide the axis, the bracliia or arms. The line on tvhich the beam turns, or which divides its brachia, is called the axis; and when eonfidered with regard to the length of the brachia, is edeemed a point only, and called the centre of the balance ; the handle whereby it is held, or by which the whoje ap¬ paratus is fufpended, is called trutina ; and the dender part perpendicular to the beam, whereby either the equilibrium or preponderancy of bodies is indicated, is called the tongue of the balance. Thus in fig. 1. Plate LXXX1V. o is the beam, divided into two equal brachia or arms by the white fpot in the centre, which is the axis or centre of the balance, and c is the tongue. The trutina, on which the axis is fufpended, is not re- prefented in this figure, in order to render the other- parts more eonfpicuous. It follows, from what has been obferved, therefore, , that BALANCE. PLATE Lxxxn : JSALISTA. Fit} . 6. Fig A. HYDROS TAJ. IC BALANCE. Fig . 4 . i'’ - A4i/r// r//F&zft2 ' B A L [ 343 I I! A L Balance, that in the Roman balance, the weight ufed for a coun- ——Y"-terpoife is the fame, but the point of application varies ; in the common balance the counterpoife is various, and the point of application the lame. The principle on which each is founded, may be very eafilv underftood from the following oblervations, and the general pro¬ perties of the lever. See Lever. The beam AB (fig. 2.), is a lever of the firft kind ; but inftead of refting on a fulcrum, is fufpended by fomething fattened to its centre of motion : confequent- ly the mechanifm of the balance depends on the fame theorems as the lever. Hence as the quantity of matter in a known weight is to its diitance from the centre of motion, fo is the di- ftance of the unknown weight to its quantity of mat¬ ter. Hence the nature and ufe of the fteel-yard is eafily known. Let AB (fig. 2.) reprefent an in- ftrument of this kind ; a, the trutina, or handle on which the beam turns *, £, a ring on which the balance may be fufpended on a nail or hook ; f, the hook on which the body to be weighed is hung *, c, a collar or guard by which the hook / is fattened to the beam ; g, a moveable collar ; /i, a fwivel 5 i, the counterpoife. From what has been faid it evidently follows, that if the body to be weighed is fattened to the hook / and the Avhole fufpended by the ring the divifion on which the counterpoife is placed to maintain an equilibrium in the balance, will Ihow the weight of the body re¬ quired ; provided the weight of the counterpoife i be known, and the large divifions, 1, 2, 3, &c. be equal to the diftance between the centre of the balance and the fcrew which fattens the guard c to the Ihorter arm of the balance. It will alfo be neceffary that the fteel- yard itfelf, with its whole apparatus, exclufive of the counterpoife, be in equilibria, when fufpended on the ring k. If the body to be weighed be heavier than the divifions on the longer arm will indicate, the balance is turned the lower fide upwards, and fufpended on the other ring b; by which means the divifions become ftiorter, becaufe the diftance between the trutina d, and the fcrew on which the guard c moves, is lefs : the di¬ vifions in the figure on this fide extending to 17, whereas they extend only to 6 on the other. It will be unneceffary perhaps to obfcrve, that the fame pre¬ caution, with regard to the centre of gravity when the balance is fufpended, is alfo neceffary when this fide of the balance is ufcd, as we before mentioned with re¬ gard to the other. We have already obferved, that in the common fcales the two brachia or arms of the balance, ef eg, 3* are eclual to each other, and confequently equal weights placed in the fcales d, d, will be in equilibria, when the balance is fufpended on its centre e, as in the figure, where the ring at the extremity of the trutina is hung on the tapering rod a b, .fixed in the foot or bafis c. 1 he Deceitful BALANCE, or that which cheats by the inequality of its brachia, is founded on the fame prin¬ ciple as the fteel-yard. Let there be, for example, a balance fo conftrutted, that both the brachia with their fcales (hall equiponderate, but that the length of the one arm Avail be to that of the other as 10 to 9. In this cafe, a weight of nine pounds put into the longed arm, will counterpoife one of ten pounds put into the ftiorter one : but the cheat is immediately difeovered by (lufting the weight from one fcale to the other ; in Balance, which cale, the balance will no longer remain in equi- — librio. Aj/ay-BALANCE, a very nice balance ufed in dociraa- ftical operations, to determine exaflly the weight qf minute bodies 5 fee fig. 4. This balance (liould be made of the beft tteel, and of the hardeft kind j becaufe that metal is not fo eafily fpoiled with ruft as iron $ and it is more apt than any other to take a perfect po- lilh, which at the fame time prevents the ruft. The ftru&ure of the affayer’s fcale is little different from that of common fcales, otherwife than by its nicety and fmallnefs. The longer the beam of it is, the more exa— inhabitants of Balbec have a very commodious manner of explaining it, by fuppofing thefe edifices to have been conlfrufted by Djenoun, or genii, who obeyed the orders of King Solomon ; adding, that the motive of fuch immenfe works was to conceal in fubterraneous caverns vaft trealures, which itill remain there. To dil'cover thefe, many have defcended into the vaults which range under the whole edifice : but the inutility of their refearches, added to the oppreflions and ex¬ tortions of the governors, who have made their fup- pofed difcoveries a pretext, have at length dilheartened them ; but they imagine the Europeans would be more fuccefsful, nor would it be poffible to perfuade them but that we are poffeired of the magic art of deftroy- ing talifmans. It is in vain to oppofe reafon to igno¬ rance and prejudice: and it would be no lefs ridicu¬ lous to attempt to prove to them that Solomon never was acquainted with the Corinthian order, which was only in ufe under the Roman emperors. But their tradition on the fubje£t of this prince may fuggeft three important obfervations. Firll, That all tradition re¬ lative to high antiquity is as falfe among the Orientals as the Europeans. With them, as with us, fa£ts which happened loo years before, when not preferved in writing, are altered, mutilated, or forgotten. To ex- pe£t information from them with relpedf to events in the time of David or Alexander, would be as abfurd as to make inquiries of the Flemifh peafants concern¬ ing Clovis or Charlemagne. Secondly, That through¬ out Syria, the Mahometans, as well as the Jews and Chrillians, attribute every great work to Solomon: not that the memory of him ftill remains by tradition in thofe countries, but from certain paffages in the Old Tertament; which, with the gofpel, is the fource of almoft all their tradition, as thefe are the only hiftori- cal books read or known j but as their expounders are very ignorant, their applications of what they are told are generally very remote from truth. By an errror of this kind they pretend Balbec is the houfe of the forejl of Lebanon built by Solomon : nor do they approach nearer probability, when they attribute to that king the Well of Tyre and the buildings of Palmyra. Thirdly, That the belief in hidden treafures has been confirmed by difcoveries which have been really made from time to time. It is not many years fince a fmall coffer was found at Hebron full of gold and filver medals, with an ancient Arabic book on medicine. In the country of the Drufes an individual difcovered likewife, fome time fince, a jar with gold coin in the form of a cre- fcent •, but as the chiefs and governors claim a right to thefe difcoveries, and ruin thofe who have made them, under pretext of obliging them to make refloration, thofe who find any thing endeavour carefully to con¬ ceal it ; they fecretly melt the antique coins, nay fre¬ quently bury them again in the fame place where they found them, from the fame fears which caufed their firft concealment, and which prove the fame tyranny for¬ merly exilfed in thefe countries. When we confider the extraordinary magnificence of the temple of Balbec, we cannot but be aftonifhed at the filence of the Greek and Roman authors. Mr Wood, who has carefully examined all the ancient wri¬ ters, has found no mention of it except in a fragment of John of Antioch, who attributes the conftruftion 15 A L of this edifice to Antoninus Pius. The infcriptions Balbcc which remain corroborate this opinion, which perfe&- |j ly accounts for the conltant ufe of the Corinthian or- Balboa. der, fince that order was not in general ufe before the v '' thiid age of Rome ; but we ought by no means to al¬ lege as an additional -proof the bird fculptured over the gate ; for ii his crooked beak, large claws, and the eaduceus he bears, give him the appearance of an eagle, the tuft of feathers on his head, like that of certain pigeons, proves that he is not the Roman eagle : befides that the fame bird is found in the temple of Palmyra; and is therefore evidently an Oriental eagle, coniecrated to the fun, who was the divinity adoi'ed in both thefe temples. His worfhip exifted at Balbec in the moft remote antiquity. His ftatue, which refem- bled that of Ofiris, had been tranfported thither from the Heliopolis of Egypt, and the ceremonies with which he was worfliipped there have been deferibed by Macrobius, in his curious work entitled Saturnalia. Mr Wood fuppofes with reafon, that the name of Bal¬ bec, which in Syriac fignifies City of Bal, or of the fun, originated in this Worfhip. The Greeks, by nam¬ ing it Heliopolis, have in this inftance only given a li¬ teral tranflation of the oriental word : a pra&ice to which they have not always adhered. We are igno¬ rant of the Rate of this city in remote antiquity; but it is to be prefumed, that its fituation on the road from Tyre to Palmyra, gave it fome part of the com¬ merce of thefe opulent capitals. Under the Romans, in the time of Auguftus, it is mentioned as a garrifon town : and there is ftill remaining, on the wall of the fouthern gate, on the right, as we enter, an infeription which proves the truth of this, the words KENTURIA. prima, in Greek charafters, being very legible. One hundred and forty years after, Antoninus built there the prefent temple, inftead of the ancient one, which Was doubtlefs falling into ruins : but Chriftianity hav¬ ing gained the afcendency under Conftantine, the mo¬ dern temple was negle ele¬ gantly defigned, fo full of lile, and fo round, that it ieems to ftand forth from the lurface. i he landfcapes and back grounds of the pictures cornpofed by Van Balen were generally painted by the Velvet Breughel. Balen, John Van, painter of hiftory, landfcapes, and boys, was born at Antwerp in 1611 •, and derived his knowledge of the art, and his fine tafle of draw¬ ing and defign, from his father Hendrick Van Balen ; but as foon as he had made a competent progrefs, he travelled to Rome, and lived for feveral years in that and other cities of Italy. There he acquired a good gufto of defign, though he was fometimes incorredt ; and his particular merit was fhotvn in his naked figures of boys, cupids, nymphs bathing or hunting, of which fubjefts he painted a confiderable number •, and he pro¬ cured both praife and riches by his landfcapes and hil- tories. His pi&ures were well handled, his trees touch¬ ed with fpirit, and his herbage and verdure looked na¬ tural and lively. The carnations of his figures were clear and frelh \ his colouring in general was tranfpa- rent \ and the airs of his heads were in the manner of Albano. BALES, Peter, a famous mrtfler in the art of pen- manfhip, or fair writing; and one of the firft inventors of fhort-hand writing. He was born in *547, and is ftyled by Anthony Wood “ a moft dexterous perfon in his profeflion, to the great wonder of fcholars and others $ who adds, that “ he fpent feveral years in fciences among Oxonians, particularly as it feems in Gloucefter-hall : but that ftudy, which he ufed for a di- verfion only, proved at length an employment of pro¬ fit.” He is recorded for his {kill in micrography, or mi¬ niature-writing, in Holiingfhed’s Chronicle, anno 15751 and Mr Evelyn alfo has celebrated his wonderful {kill in this delicate operation of the hand. “ Hadrian Ju¬ nius, fpeaking as a miracle of fotnebody, who wrote the Apoftles Creed, and the beginning of St John’s Gof- pel, within the compafs of a farthing : what would he have faid,” fays Mr Evelyn, “ of our famous Peter Bales j who, in the year 1575, wrote the Lord’s Pray¬ er, the Creed, Decalogue, with two (liort prayers in Latin, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of the Lord, and reign of the Queen, to whom he pre- fented it at Hampton Court, all of it written within the circle of a Jingle penny, inchaced in a ring and borders of gold ; and covered with a cryftal Jo ac¬ curately wrought, as to be very plainly legible, to the great admiration of her Majefty, the whole Privy-Coun¬ cil, and feveral ambaJTadors then at Court?'’ Pie was farther very dexterous in imitating hand-writing, and about 1586, was employed by Secretary Wallingham in certain political manoeuvres. We find him at the head of a fchool, near the Old Bailey, London, in 1590 •, in which year he publilhed his “Writing SchoolrnaJler, in three parts : the firJl teaching fwift writing; the fecond, true writing •, the third, fair writing.” In 1 $95* h® had a great trial of Jkill in the Black-friars with one Daniel Johnfon, for a golden pen of 20I. value, and won it 5 and a cotemporary author farther relates, that he had alfo the arms of Calligra¬ phy given him, which are Azure, a Pen, Or, as a prize, at a trial of Jkill in this art among the beft penmen in London. In 1597, he republiJlied his “ Writing Schoolmafter which was in fuch high reputation, that no lefs than eighteen copies of commendatory verfes compoJ’ed by learned and ingenious men of that ii time, were printed before it. Wood Jays, that he was Baley. etiP'aeed in Effex’s treafons in 1600; but Wood was miilaken : he was only engaged, and very innocently fo, in ferving the treacherous purpofes of one of that earl’s mercenary dependants. We know little more, of this curious perfon, but that he J'eems to have died about the year 1610. BALESTRA, Antonio, an excellent hiftorical painter, was born at Verona in 1666. At the age of 21 he went to Venice, where he entered himfelf in the fchool of Antonio Bellucci, and continued for three years under his direction ; but from thence he vifited Bologna and Rome, and at the latter became the diJ- ciple of Carlo Maratti. Under the tuition of fo emi¬ nent a genius, he made a very great proficiency, and exerted himfelf for fome hours of each day in defign- ing after the antiques, after Raphael, Correggio, Han¬ nibal Carracci, and other admired painters *, by which conduct: he fo effedtually confirmed his tafte and free¬ dom of hand, that he obtained the prize of merit in the Academy of St Luke, in the year 1694, when he was only 28 years of age. From that time his reputa- tation was eitabliJhed, and he received fufiicient en¬ couragement •, being engaged to work for moft of the churches, and in the palaces of the nobility ; and his paintings were admired in every part of Europe. His ftyle is fweet and agreeable, not unlike that of Marat¬ ti $ and the judicious obferve in the works of Baleftra, a certain mixture of the feveral manners of Raphael, Correggio, and Carracci. He died in 1740. In the church of Santa Maria Mater Domini at Venice, there is one of the moft capital performances of Baleftra, re- prefenting the nativity of our Saviour. It is defigned in a grand ftyle, the compofition is excellent, and has a great deal of grace. The heads are peculiarly fine 5 and the whole has a noble effeft, with remarkable har¬ mony. In a chapel belonging to the church of S. Geminiano, in the fame city, there is a ciead Chrift in the arms of the Virgin, painted by this mafter in a grand tafte ; and although the compofition confifts but of a few' figures, they are finely defigned •, and in every part of it there is fufficient merit to claim and juftify applaufe. B ALEY, Walter, the fon of Henry Baley of Warn well in DorfetJhire, was born at Potlham in the fame county, and educated at Winchefter fchool. From thence he was fent to Oxford ; and, after two years pro¬ bation, was admitted perpetual fellow of New College in the year 15 JO. Having taken his degrees in arts, he praftifed phyfic, and in 1558 was prodor of the univerfity. About this time he obtained a prebend of Wells, which he refigned in 1579. In the year 1561 he was appointed queen’s profeJTdr of phyfic, in *563 proceeded do&or in that faculty, and afterwards became one of her majefty’s phyficians in ordinary. Hs was thought Jkilful in his profeffion, and had con¬ fiderable practice. He died in ijq2? aged 635 and was buried in the inner chapel of New College. His works are, 1. A difeourfe of three kinds of paper in com- mon life, 1588, 8uo. 2. Brief treatife of the preferva- tion of the eyefght; firft printed in the reign of Eli¬ zabeth, in i2mo; afterwards at Oxford in 1616 and 1654, 8vo. 3. Directions for health natural and ar- J B A L l , ' Balcy tijicial; with medicines for all difeafes of the eyes, 1626, |) 410. 4. Explicatio Galeni de potu convalefcentium et fe- Ealk num, &c. manufcript, formerly in Lord Aylelbury’s li- 1 brary. BALI, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, form¬ ing the north fide of the ftraits of Java, through which the Eaft India (hips fometimes return from China to Europe : but the paffage is commonly difficult on ac¬ count of contrary winds. The iftand is extremely po¬ pulous, and abounds in rice and other productions pecu¬ liar to that climate. The inhabitants are Pagans, and very warlike. E. Long. 115. 30. S. Lat. 9. o. BALIOL, or Balliol, Sir John de, founder of Baliol-college in Oxford, was the fon of Hugh Baliol, of Bernard’s caftle, in the diocefe of Durham 5 and was a perfon very eminent for his power and riches. During the contefts and wars between King Henry III. and his barons, he firmly adhered to the king. In 1 263, he began the foundation and endowment of Baliol col¬ lege, which was afterwards perfected by his widow. He died in the year 1269. Baliol, Balliol, or Boilliol, John, the com¬ petitor with Robert Bruce for the crown of Scotland, was the great grandfon of David earl of Huntington, third fon of King David I. See Scotland. BALISORE, a fea-port town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, to the north-weft of the bay of Bengal. It is about four miles from the fea by land, but 20 by the river; feated in a very fruitful foil, producing rice, wheat, aromatic feeds, tobacco, &c. The inhabitants make feveral torts of fluffs of cotton, filk, and a kind of grafs. The Engliffi, French, and Dutch, have factories here ; but they are now of no great account. E. Long. 85. 20. N. Lat. 21. 30. BALISTES. See Ichthyology Index. BA Li VO amovendo, in Law, was a rvrit for re¬ moving, a bailiff from his office, for want of having fuf- ficient land in his bailiwick to anfvver the king and his people, according to the ftatute of Weftminfter, 2 reo-. Orig. 78. & \ BALK, among builders, is fometimes ufed for the fumraer beam of a houfe ; fometimes for the poles and rafters, which fupport the roofs of barns, &c. ; and fometimes for the beams ufed in making fea-holds. Balk, or Balkh, a province of Great Bukharia in Afia, about 360 miles long and 250 broad, fituated to the fouth of the province of Samarkand, and to the eaft-of Bukharia Proper. It is the leaf! of the three provinces that make up what is called Great Bukharia ; but being extremely fertile and well cultivated, the prince draws a great revenue from it. The country particularly abounds with filk, of which the inhabitants make pretty manufaftures. The Uzbecks fubjefl to the khan of Balkh are the moft civilized of all the Tar¬ tars inhabiting Great Bukharia, owing probably to their commerce with the Perfiansi they are likewife, more induftrious, and more honeit, than the reft ; but in other refpebls have the fame cuftoms with the reft of the Tartars. The province is fubdivided into feve¬ ral counties ; the moft remarkable of which are Khot- lan or Kalian, Tokhareftan, and Badagfhan. Its chief cities are Balk, Jariyab, Talkhan, Badagffian, and Andtrab. Balk, the capital of the above-mentioned province, fituated on the frontiers of Perfia, in E. J^ong. 65. 20. 51 ] BA L N. Lat. 37. o. It is probably the ancient Ba&ra, ea- Baft; pital of the kingdom of Baftria ; and is faid by the |1 Perfians to have been founded by Kay-umaraz the firft king of Perlia, becaufe he met his brother upon the fpot where it flood, after he had been loft for a long time •, balkhiden, or balghiden, in the Perfic lan¬ guage, fignifying to receive and embrace a friend. The firft kings of Perfia wTho refided in the province of Media or Aderbijan, confidered this city as one of their principal frontiers on the fide of Scythia. In the 27th year of the Hegira, of Chrift 647, Balk was reduced by the Arabs, under the command of Abdal¬ lah Ebn Amer. It continued fubje61 to Arab princes till the year of the Hegira 432, of Chrift 1041 5 when it was reduced by Togrol Beg, the Tangrolipix of the Greeks, and prince of the Seljukian dynafty. It was taken by Jenghis Khan, A. D. 1221, who with his ufual and unparalleled cruelty caufed all the inhabi¬ tants to be brought without the walls, and mafl'acred without mercy. In 1369, Sultan Hofein, the laft of the race of Jenghiz Khan, was driven from Balk by Tamerlane, whofe fucceffors were driven out by the Uzbecks in the 15th century. It was- afterwards re¬ deemed by Shah Ifmael Sufi ; but finally wrefted out of his hands by the Uzbeck Tartars, between whom and the Perfians it is the occafion of almoft continual wars. It was not long fince the refidence of a khan of Tartars. It is the moft confiderable city poffeffed in thefe parts by the Mahometan Tartars, is large, well built, and populous, the houfes confifting for the moft part of ftone or brick. The fortifications conffft of bulwarks of earth, fenced without with a ftrong wall high enough to cover the foldiers employed in defence of thofe fortifications. As this place is the refort of all the bufinefs tranfafled between the Indies and Great Bukharia, trade flourifties extremely at Balk •, efpecially as it has a fine river paffing through its fuburbs, which is of vaft ferxuce to the town. This river falls into the Amu, in N. Lat. 38. 30. upon the. confines of Great Bukharia and Kowarazm. The khan’s palace, or caftle, is a large edifice built after the oriental manner ; and confifts almoft efitirely of marble, of which there are fine quarries in the neigh¬ bourhood. The khan of Balk, however, was obliged in 1739 to fubmit to the Perfians under Khouli Kan ; but fince that time has moft probably regained his in¬ dependency. BALKERS, in the fiflrerv, perfons placed on rocks and eminences at fea to fpy the herring droves, and give notice to the filhermen, by waving boughs, what way they go, and where they may be found, BALI.., in a general fenfe, a fpherical and round body, whether naturally fo, or formed into that figure by art. Ball, in the military art, comprehends all forts of bullets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the piftol. Can¬ non-balls are of iron*, mufket-balls, piftol-balls, &c. are of lead. The experiment has been tried of iron balls for piftols and fufees *, but they are juftly reje&ed, not only on account of their lightnefs, which prevents them from flying ftraightj but becaufe they are apt to furrow the barrel of the piftol, &c. BALL of a Pendulum, the weight at the bottom. In ffiorter pendulums this b called the bob. Ball, in Pyrotechnics, is alfo a compofition of va¬ rious B A L ' [ 3 Calls, fious corxibuflible ingredients, ferving to burn, fmoke, give light, &c. In this fenfe we read of fire-balls, 'light-balls, fmoke-balls, ftink-balls, Iky-balls, water- balls, land-balls. Ball, among the Cornifh miners, fignifies a tin- mine. Ball, among printers, a kind of wooden tunnel fluffed with wool, contained in a leather cover, which is nailed to the wood, with which the ink is applied on the forms to be wrought off. See Printing. Horfe-BALLS, among farriers. Horfes have a very- nice tafte 5 it is therefore proper to give the more dif- agreeable drugs in the form of balls, and to make drenches of the more palatable. Balls Ihould be of an oval (hape, not exceeding the fize of a pullet’s egg^ and fhould be dipped in fvveet oil to make them flip down the eafier. Some horfes have a ftrait gullet, which makes them very averfe to a ball being thruft down their throats j fuch horfes had better have drenches given them, or their medicines may be mix¬ ed with bran, or in their maflies. See Farriery, pqflim. BALL-Vein, in Mineralogy, a name given by the miners of Suffex to a fort of iron ore common there, and wrought to confiderable advantage. It yields not any great quantity of metal, but what it has runs freely in the fire ; it is ufually found in loofe maffes, not in the form of a ftratum, and is often covered with one or more crufts. It generally contains fome fparkling particles ; and is ufually of a circular form in the per- feil maffes, thickeft in the middle, and gradually thin¬ ner as it approaches the fides. The ores of Suffex in general are poor, but they require very little trouble in the working j fo that a confiderable profit is made an¬ nually from them. BALL and Socket, an inftrument made of brafs, with a perpetual fcrew, fo as to move horizontally, vertically, and obliquely ; and is generally ufed for the managing of furveving or aftronomical inftruments. BuffBALL, the Englilh name of the lycoperdon. See Lycoperdon, Botany Index. Martial BALLS, in Pharmacy, are a mixture of fil¬ ings of iron and cream of tartar, formed into a folid confiftence and form of a ball, which is ufed to im¬ pregnate water or other liquids with iron diffolved by the tartareous acid. To make thefe balls, one part of filings of iron and two parts powdered cream of tartar are mixed well together, and put into an earthen or iron veffel with fome water. This mixture is to be flir¬ ted from time to time, till it becomes almoft dry ; and then it is to receive more water, and to be ftirred as before. This treatment is to be continued till it ac¬ quires, when nearly dry, fomewhat of the confiftence and tenacity of foftened rofin. Then it is to be rolled up in the form of a ball, which is generally kept tied up in rag ; and when intended to be ufed, it is to be infufed in water, till it gives fome colour to that liquid. The infufion of martial balls is tonic, vulne¬ rary, difcutient, and aperitive ; and is employed both internally and externally. Iron being foluble in all acids, is attacked in this preparation by the tartareous acid, which reduces it to a kind of neutral fait not cry- ftallizable. This fait would remain liquid, and would form a foluble martial tartar, called tartarifed tinBure of Mars. If proper proportions of filings of iron and 52 ] B A L cream of tartar be ufed, and treated lofig enough for an entire and complete combination, nothing would be obtained but a liquor or magma, which could not be preferved in a folid form, but would be continual¬ ly mcift. Therefore, in the martial ball there is a good deal of the cream of tartar and filings of iron not combined together, by which its folidity is pre¬ ferved. Mercurial BALLS, in Pharmacy, are an amalgam of mercury and tin, fufficiently folid to be moulded, and to preferve a given form. The method of making them is by adding mercury to melted tin, and pouring the fluid mafs into a round hollow mould. Thefe balls are employed to purify water, in which they are boiled ; for which purpofe travellers often carry fome along with them. Nothing, however, can be more pernicious than fuch a pra£tice, ftiould the water contain any nitrous acid, which it very often does. BALLS of Silk-worms and Spiders, are little cafes or cones of filk, wherein thofe infefts depofite their eggs. Spiders are extremely tender of their balls, which they carry about with them, adhering to the papillae about their anus. Grew mentions balls or bags of a fpecies of filk-worms in Virginia as big as hens eggs, and con¬ taining each four aurelias. Zoologifts fpeak of a fort of balls of hair covered over with a fmooth fhining coat or ftiell, found in the ftomachs of oxen, cows, calves, horfes, Iheep, and goats. See the article Bezoar. BALLS of Fire, in Meteorology. See Fire, Balls . . Balls, in Ele&ricity, are two pieces of cork, or pith of elder, nicely turned in a lathe to the fize of a fmall pea, and fufpended by fine linen threads •, intended as eleftrometers, and of excellent ufe to difeover fmall de¬ grees of electricity, to obferve the changes of it from po- fitive to negative, and vice verfa ; and to eftimate the force of a (hock before the difeharge, fo that the opera¬ tor (hould always be able to tell very nearly before the difeharge, by knowing how high he has charged his jars, what the explofion will be. Fire-BALLS, are bags of canvas filled with gun¬ powder, fulphur, faltpetre, pitch, &c. to be thrown by the foldiers, or out of mortars, in order to fire the houfes incommoding trenches, advanced pofts, or the like.— The Greeks had divers kinds of fire-balls, or hrtot ; one kind called, more particularly, rxvletXix, or a-xvlct^t?, made of wood, fometimes a foot or even a cubit long ; their heads being armed with fpikes of iron, beneath which were hemp, pitch, and other combuftibles, which being fet on fire, they were caft among the enemy. The preparations of fire-balls, among the moderns, confift of feveral operations, viz. making the bag, preparing the compofition, tying, and, laftly, dipping the ball. I. The bags for this purpofe are either oval or round. 2. The compofition wherewith fire-balls are filled is various : To ten pounds of meal-gunpowder add two of faltpetre, one of fulphur, and one of colophony ; or to fix pounds of gunpowder, add four of faltpetre, four of fulphur, one of powdered glafs, half a pound of antimony, as much camphor, an ounce of fal-ammoniac, and four of common fait, all pulverifed. Sometimes they even fill fire-balls with hand grenades. 3. For tying the fire¬ balls, they prepare two iron rings, -one fitted round the aperture? B A L [ 353 1 B A L Balls, aperture, -where the ball is to be lighted, the other —v—~ near its bafe. A cord is tied to thefe rings in fuch a manner, as that the feveral turns reprefent femicircles of the fphere cutting the globe through the poles : over the cords, extended according to the length of the ball, others are tied, cutting the former at right angles, and parallel to each other, making a knot at each interfec- tion : laflly, after putting in a leaden bullet, the reft of the fpace is filled with tow or paper. 4. Thus com¬ pleted, the fire-ball remains to be dipped in a compofi- tion of melted pitch four pounds, colophony two, and linfeed oil or oil of turpentine two •, after dipping, they cover it round with tow, and dip again, till it be brought to the juft diameter required. Light-BALLS, are fuch as diflfufe an intenfe light around 5 or they are balls which, being caft out ox the hand or mortar, burn for fome time, and illuminate the adjacent parts. 1. Luminous or light-balls for the hand are made of ground powder, faltpetre, brimftone, camphor, and borax, all fprinkled with oil, and moulded into a mafs with fuet ; and this is wrap¬ ped up in tow, with a ilieet of ftrong paper over it. To fire it, they make a hole into it with a bodkin, in¬ to which they put fome priming, that will burn flow. Its ufe is to be caft into any works they would difcover in the night-time. 2. For the larger light-balls, or thofe to be thrown to a greater diftance, they melt equal quantities of fulphur, turpentine, and pitch j and therein dip an earthen or ftone ball, of a diameter much lefs than that of the mortar out of which the fire¬ ball is to be caft : then rolling it in gunpowder, and covering it round with gauze, they dip it again, and repeat the reft till it come to fit the cavity of the mortar: laftly, they fprinkle it around with gun¬ powder. This, being once kindled, will ftrongly il¬ luminate all around the place where it is thrown, and give opportunity to examine the ftate and condition thereof. Smoke or Dark-BALLS, thofe which fill the air with fmoke, and thus darken a place to prevent difcoveries. To prepare a darkening ball, make an oval or fpheri- cal bag ; melt rofin over the coals, and add an equal part of faltpetre not purified, alfo of fulphur, and a fifth part of charcoal. The whole being well incorpo¬ rated, put in tow firft Aired, and fill the bags with this compofition, and dip it after the fame manner as a fire-ball. Stink-BALLS, thofe which yield a great flench where fired to annoy the enemy. Their preparation is thus : Melt ten pounds of pitch, fix of rofin, twenty of falt¬ petre, eight of gunpowder, and four of colophony j to thefe add two of charcoal, fix of horfe-hoofs cut fmall, three of afafoetida, one of ftinking-faracen, and any other offenfive ingredients. The reft as in the former. Sky-BALLS, thofe caft on high out of mortars, and which, when arrived at their height, burfting like roc¬ kets, afford a fpe£tacle of decoration. Sky-balls are made of a wooden (hell, filled with various compofitions, particularly that of the ftars of rockets. Thefe are fometimes intermixed with crackers and other combufti- bles, making rains of fire, &c. Water BALLS, thofe which fwim and burn a confi- derable time in the water, and at length burft therein. Thefe are made in a wooden (hell, the cavity of which Vol. III. Part I. is filled with refined faltpetre, fulphur, faw-duft boiled Bails in water of falpetre, and dried $ to which fometimes ii other ingredients are added, as iron filings, Greek Ballafr. pitch, amber duft, powdered glafs, and camphor. The 'r°“” ingredients are to be ground, mixed up, and moiftened with linfeed oil, nut oil, olive oil, hempfted oil, or pe¬ trol. At the bottom is placed an iron coffin, filled with whole gunpowder, that the ball may at laft burft with a greater noife : and, laftly, the ball is by the ad¬ dition of lead or otherwife, made of the fame fpecific gravity with water. Land-BALLS are thofe which, being thrown out of a mortar, fall to the ground, burn, and burft there. The ingredients are much the fame as in the water-balls, on¬ ly the fpecific gravity is not attended to. BALLAD, a kind of fong, adapted to the capacity of the lower clafs of people ; who, being mightily taken with this fpecies of poetry, are thereby not a little in¬ fluenced in the conduct of their lives. Hence we find, that feditious and defigning men never fail to fpread bal¬ lads among the people, with a view to gain them over to their fide. BALLAGHAN, a town of Ireland, in the county of Sligo, and province of Connaught. W. Long. 9. 50. N. Lat. 53. 48. BALLAN, a town of France, in the diocefe of Mons, feated on the river Orne. E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 48. 10. BALLAST, any heavy matter, as ftone, gravel, iron, &c. thrown into the hold of a (hip, in order to make her fink a proper depth in the water, that (he may be capable of carrying a fufficient quantity of fail without overfetting. T. here is often great difference in the proportion of ballaft required to prepare (hips of equal burden for a voyage j the quantity being always more or lefs accord¬ ing to the (harpnefs or flatnefs of the (hip’s bottom, which feamen call the floor. The knowledge of ballafting a (hip with propriety, is certainly an article that deferves the attention of the (kilful mariner : for though it is known, that (hips in general will not carry a fufficient quantity of fail till they are laden fo deep that the furfaceof the water will nearly glance on the extreme breadth amidfhips, yet there is more than this general knowledge required j fince, if (he has a great weight of heavy ballaft, as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, it will place the centre of gravity too low in the hold ; and although this will en¬ able her to carry a great fail, (he will neverthelefs fail very heavily, and run the ri(k of being difmafted by her violent rolling. To ballaft a (hip, therefore, is the art of difpofing thofe materials fo that (lie may be duly poifed, and maintain a proper equilibrium on the water, fo as nei¬ ther to be too Jlijf nor too crank, qualities equally per¬ nicious : as in the firft, although the (hip may be fitted to carry a great fail, yet her velocity will not be pro- portionably increafed ; whilft her marts are more endan¬ gered by her fudden jerks and exceflive labouring: and in the laft, (he will be incapable of carrying fail, with¬ out the rilk of overfetting. Stiffnefs, in ballafting, is occafioned by difpofing a great quantity of heavy ballaft, as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, which naturally places the centre of gravity very near the keel j and that being the centre about Y y which Balla-ft I! Balleiden. B A L [354 which llie vibrations are made, the lower it is placed, the more violent will be the motion of rolling. Cranknefs, on the other hand, is occafioned by having too little ballad, or by difpofing the fliip’s lading fo as to raife the centre of gravity too high, which alfo endangers the maft in carrying fail when it blows hard : for when the mads lofe their perpendicular height, they drain on the Ihrouds in the nature of a lever, which increafes as the fine of their obliquity 5 and a diip that lofes her roads is in great danger of being lod. The whole art of ballading, therefore, confids in placing the centre of gravity to correfpond with the trim and diape of the veffel, fo as neither to be too high nor too low, neither too far forwards nor too far aft ; and to lade the fhip fo deep, that the furface of the w'ater may nearly rife to the extreme breadth, amidfhips $ and thus five will be enabled to carry a good fail, incline but little, and ply well to the windward. Ships are laid to be in ballojl when they have no other loading. Maders of vedels are obliged to declare the quantity of ballad they bear, and to unload it at certain places. They are prohibited unloading their ballad in havens, roads, &c. the neglect of which has ruined many excellent ports.—Ships and veffels taking in ballad in the river Thames are to pay fo much a ton to Trinity-houfe, Deptford } who fiiall employ ballad- men, and regulate them j and their lighters to be mark¬ ed, &c. on pain of 10I. BALLATOONS, large heavy luggage-boats ufed for carrying wood by the river from Adracan and the Cafpian fea to MofcoW. Thefe will carry from 100 to 200 tons, and have from 100 to 120 men employed to row and tow them along. BALLENDEN, Sir John, a Scottifh poet, in the reign of James V. of Scotland, was defcended from an ancient family in that kingdom. His father, Mr Thomas Ballenden of Auchinoul, was dire&or to the chancery in the year 1540, and clerk regider in 1541. Where our poet was educated, we are not informed ; but from one of his poems we learn, that in his youth he had fome employment at the court of King James V. and that he was in great favour with that prince. Ha¬ ving taken orders, and being created doftor of divinity at the Sorbonne, he was made canon of Rofs, and arch¬ deacon of Moray. He likewife obtained the place of clerk-regider, but was afterwards deprived of that em¬ ployment by the faftions of the times ; however, in the fucceeding reign of Mary, he recovered that office, and was one of the lords of feffion. Being a zealous Papid, he, in conjunftion with Dr Laing, was extremely affiduous in retarding the progrefs of the reformation j till at lad, finding the oppofition too powerful, he quit¬ ted Scotland, and went to Rome, where he died in the year 1550. He is generally edeemed one of the bed Scottith poets of that age. Hi« works are, 1. The HJiory and Chronicles of Scotland of Heel or Boris (Boe¬ thius), tranflated by Mr John Ballenden, Edinb. 1 S36. This is not a mere tranflation, Ballenden having cor¬ rected feveral midakes of his author, and made large additions. It is in folio, and black letter. 2. Cofmo- graphy to the Hijlory of Scotland, with a poetical poem. 3. A Defcription of Albany. 4. Tranflation of Boethiusrs Defcription of Scotland. 5. Epifles to King James V. Bale fays he had feen thefe letter?. 6. Several poems 4 ] B A L in Carmichael’s colledlion of Scottifh poems $ hefides Ballendea many others in manufeript, in private libraries in Scot- [j land. 7. Virtue and Vyce, a poem addreffed to King James V. —y——j BALLET, Balet, or Baeletto, a kind of drama¬ tic poem, reprefenting fome fabulous adtion or fubjedt divided into feveral entries j wherein feveral perfons ap¬ pear, and recite things under the name of fome deity, or other illudrious charafter. Ballet is more particularly ufed for a kind of comic dance, confiding of a feries of feveral airs of different kinds of movements, which together reprefent fome fub- jedt or adlion. They are performed chiefly by mafks reprefenting fylvans, tritons, nymphs, fhepherds, and the like ; and confid of three parts, the entry, figure, and the retreat. The word is of Greek origin, formed {rom /ZxXtew, jacere, to cad, throw, or tofs $ whence alfo in writers of the middle age, we find ba/lationes for faltationes, dancings j and ballare for fait are, to dance. BALLIAGE, or Bailiage, in Commerce, a fmall duty paid to the city of London by aliens, and even de¬ nizens, for certain commodities exported by them. B ALLICONNEL, a town of Ireland in the county of Cavan, and province of Ulfler. W. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 54. 6. B ALLISH ANNON, a large town of Ireland in the county of Donegal, or Tyrconnel, with a good haven. W. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 54. 25. BALL1STA, a machine ufed by the ancients for fhooting darts •, it refembled in fome meafure our crofs- bow. The word is Latin, fignifying a crofs-bow; and is derived from the Greek fiuXhta, to fhoot, or throw. Yegetius informs us, that the ballida difeharged darts with fuch rapidity and violence that nothing could refill their force : and Athenaeus adds, that Agiilratus made one of little more than two feet in length, which fhot darts 500 paces. In Plate LXXXIV. is reprefented the ballifia ufed in fieges, according to the chevalier Folard : 2, 2, the bale of the balliiia •, 3, 4, upright beams ■, 5, 6, tranfverfe beams j 7, 7, the two capitals in the upper tranfverfe beam, (the lower tranfverfe beam has alfo two fimilar capitals, which cannot be feen in this tranfverfe figure) ; 9, 9, two polls or fupports for {Lengthening the tranf¬ verfe beams ; 10,10, two fkains of cords faftened to the capitals; II, 11, two arms inferted between the two Hands, or parts of the fkains; 12. a cord faftened to the two arms; 13, darts which are fhot by the bal- lifta ; 14, 14, curves in the upright beams, and in the concavity of which cufhions are faftened, in order fo break the force of the arms, which ftrike againft them with great force when the dart is difeharged; 16, the arbor of the machine, in which a groove or canal per- fe£lly ftraight is formed, and in which the darts are placed in order to their being fhot by the ballifta ; l 7, the nut of the trigger; 18, the roll or windlafs, about which the cord is wound ; 19, a hook, by which the cord is drawn towards the centre, and the ballifta cock¬ ed ; 20, a flage or table on which the arbor is in part fuflained. BALLISTEUM, or Ballistr^EA, in antiquity, a military fong or dance ufed on occafions of victory. Vopifcus has preferved the balifeum fung in honour of Aurelian, who, in the Sarmatian war, was faid to have Balloon. B A L [ 35 Ballifteum have killed 48 of the enemy in one day with his own hand. Mille, mille, mille, mille, mille, millc decol/a- ^ virnus : llnus homo mille, mille, mille, mille decollavit; “ mille, mille, mille vivat, qui mille, mille occidit. Tan- tum vini habet nemo, quantum fudit fanguinis. The fame writer fubjoins another popular f«ng of the, fame kind : Mille Francos, mille Sarmatas, femel occidimus ; mille, mille, mille, mille, mille, P erf as, queer imus. It took the denomination ballifeum from the Greek (ZxXXa, jacio, or ja&o, to caft or tofs, on account of the mo¬ tions ufed in this dance, which was attended with great elevations and fwingings of the hands. The baUiflea were a kind of popular ballads, compofed by poets of the lower clafs, without much regard to the laws of metre. BALLISTIC pendulum, an ingenious machine invented by Benjamin Robbins for afeertaining the velo¬ city of military projectiles, and confequently the force of fired gunpowder. It confifts of a large block of wood, annexed to the end of a llrong iron fiem, having a crofs fteel axis at the other end, placed horizontally, about which the whole vibrates together like the pen¬ dulum of a clock. The machine being at reft, a piece of ordnance is pointed ftraight towards the wooden block, or ball of this pendulum, and then difeharged : the confequence is this ; the ball difeharged from the gun ftrikes and enters the block, and caufes the pen¬ dulum to vibrate more or lefs according to the velocity of the projectile, or the force of the blow 5 and by ob- ferving the extent of the vibration, the force of that blow becomes known, or the greateft velocity with which the block is moved out of its place, and confe¬ quently the velocity of the projectile itfelf which ftruek the blow and urged the pendulum. Hu!toil's Mathe- mat. Did. BALLOON, or Ballon, in a general fenfe, fig- nifes any fpherical hollow body, of whatever matter it be compofed, or for whatever purpofes it be defigned. Ihus, with chemifts, balloon denotes a round ftrort- necked veflel, ufed to receive what is diftilled by means of fire •, in architecture, a round globe on the top of a pillar •, and among engineers, a kind of bomb made of pafteboard, and played off, in fire-works, either in the air or on the water, in imitation of a real bomb. Air-Balloon. See Aerostation. Balloon alfo denotes a kind of game fometbing re- fembling tennis. 1 he balloon is played in the open field, with a great round ball of double leather blown up with wind, and thus driven to and fro with the ftrenglh of a man’s arm, fortified with a brace of wood. Balloon, or Balloen, is more particularly ufed among voyagers for the ftate-barges of Siam. The balloons are a kind of brigantine, managed with oars, of very odd figures, as ferpents, fea-horfes, &c. but by their fharpnefs and number of oars, of incredible fwiftnefs. The balloons are faid to be made of a fingle piece of timber, of uncommon length ; they are raifed high, and much decorated with carving at bead and ftern : fome are gilt over, and carry 1 20 or even 150 rowers on each fide. I he oars are either plated over with filver, or gilt, or radiated with gold ; and the dome or canopy in the middle, where the company is placed, is ornamented with feme rich ftuff, and furniftied with a balluftrade of ivory, or other coftly matter, en¬ riched with gilding. The edges of the balloon juft touch 5 ] B A L the water, but the extremities rife with a fwcep to a great height. Some are adorned with a variety of fi¬ gures, made of pieces of mother-of-pearl inlaid : the richer fort, inftead of a dome, carry a kind of fteeple in the middle; fo that, confidering the fiendernefs of the veffel, which is ufually xooor 1 20 feet long, and fcarce fix broad, the height of the two ends, and of the rteeple with the load of decorations, it is a kind of miracle they are not overfet. Balloon, in the French paper trade, is a term for a quantity of paper, containing 24 reams. Balloon, Ballon, or Ballot, in the French glafs- trade, fignifies a certain quantity of glafs-plates, fmaller or greater according to their quality. The ballon of white glafs contains 2j bundles, of fix plates per bun¬ dle •, but the ballon of coloured glafs is only of 124- bundles, and of three plates to a bundle. BALLOT A, White Horehound. See Botany Index. B ALLOTADE, in the manege, the leap of a horfe between two pillars, or upon a ftraight line, made with juftnefs of time, with the aid of the hand and the calves of the legs : and in fuch a manner, that when his fore-feet are in the air, he (hows nothing but the ftioes of his hinder feet without yerkirig out. BALLOTING, a method of voting at ele£Hons, &c. by means of little balls ufually of different colours, by the French called ballots ; which are put into a box privately. BALLS, or Ballets, in Heraldry, a frequent bear¬ ing in coats of arms, ufually denominated, according to their colour, bezantes, plates, hurts, &:c. BALLUSTER, a fmall kind of pillar ufed for bal- luftrades. BALLUSTRADE, a feries or row of ballufters, joined by a rail ; ferving as well for a reft to the elbows as for a fence or endofure to balconies, altars, ftaircafes, &c. See Architecture, N° 74. BALM. See .Melissa, Botany Index. Balm, or Balsam. See Balsam. Balm of Gilead. See Amyris, Botany Index. BALNAVES, Henry, a Scottifti Proteftant divine, born in the (hire of Fife, in the reign of James V. and educated at the univerfity of St Andrew’s. He went afterwards to France in order tofinifh his ftudiesj and returning to Scotland, was admitted into the fa¬ mily of the earl of Arran, who at that time governed the kingdom : but in the year 1542 the earl difmiffed him for having embraced the Proteftant religion. In 1564> he joined, fays Mackenzie, the murderers of Cardinal Beaton ; for which he was declared a traitor, and excommunicated. Whilft that party were be- fieged in the caftle of St Andrew’s, they fent Balnaves to England, who returned with a confiderable fupply of provifions and money ; but being at laft obliged to furrender to the French, he was fent with the reft of the garrifon to France. He returned to Scotland, about the year 1559 j anc^ having joined the Congre¬ gation, he was appointed one of the commiffioners to treat with the duke of Norfolk on the part of Queen Elizabeth. In _l563 he was made one of the lord-, of feflion, and appointed by the general affemblv, with other learned men, to revife the book of Diicipline. Knox, his cotemporary, and fellow-labourer, gives him the charafler of a very learned and pious divine. He Y y 2 died Balloon li Balnaves. B A L Balnaves died at Edinburgh in the year 1579* wrote> II 1. A Treatife concerning Jullification. Edinb. 1550* Baltimora, gvo> 2. A Catechifm, or Confeflion of Faith. Edinb. 1584? 8vo- EALNEARII SERVI, in antiquity, fervants or at¬ tendants belonging to the baths. Some were appointed to heat them, called fornicatores ; others were denomi¬ nated capfarii, who kept the clothes of thofe that went into them j others alliptce, whofe care it was to pull off the hair 5 others unBuarii, who anointed and per¬ fumed the body. BALNEARIUS fur, in antiquity, a kind of thief ■who pradlifed Healing the clothes of perfons in the baths •, fometimes alfo called fur balnearum. The crime of thofe thieves was a kind of facrilege j for the hot baths were facred : hence they were more feverely punilhed than common thieves who dole out of private houfes. The latter were acquitted with paying double the value of the thing dolen j whereas the former were punidied with death. BALNEUM, a term ufed by chemids to fignify a veffel filled with fome matter, as fand, w7ater, or the like, in which another is placed that requires a more gentle heat than the naked fire. BALSA, an ancient town of Lufitania, in the Ager Cunaeus; now Tavira, capital of Algarva. BALSAM, or Native Balsam, an oily, refinous, liquid fubdance, fiowing either fpontaneoufly, or by means of incifion, from certain plants. There are a great variety of balfams, generally denominated from the fubdances from which they are obtained ; and which are explained under their names as they occur. BALSAMICS. B.alfamica is a Latin word which fignifies tnitigating. The term ba/famic is a very lax one j it includes medicines of very different qualities, as emollients, detergents, redoratives, &c. but in me- Motherly’sdicines of all thefe kinds there feems to be this requi- Med. LiEl. pite t]iemj vqz> be foft, yielding, and ad- hefive, alfo that by their fmallnefs they have a ready difpofition to motion. Medicines of this tribe are generally required for complaints whofe feat is in the vifcera; and as they cannot be conveyed there but by the common road of the circulation, it follows, that no great effefts can be expefted from them but by their long continuation. Hoffman calls by the name of bal- famics thofe medicines which are hot and acrid, alfo the natural balfams, gums, &c. by which the vital heat is increafed. BALSORA. See Bassora. BALTAGI, among the Turks, porters, and hewers of wood, in the court of the grand fignior; who alfo mount on horfeback when the emperor rides out. Part of them alfo, who, for that purpofe, mud be cadrated, keep watch at the gates of the fird and fecond courts of the feraglio. The fird are called capigi, and their commander capigi pufcha. BALTIC sea, a great gulf furroundedby Sweden, Ruffia, Courland, Pruffia, Pomerania, and Denmark. The king of Denmark levies a tax at Elfineur on every diip that enters the Baltic fea. It is remarkable that this fea neither ebbs nor dows, and there is always a current fets through the Sound into the ocean. It is ge¬ nerally frozen over three or four months in the year. Yellow amber is found in plenty on this coad. BALTIMORA. See Botany Index, B A L BALTIMORE, a town of Ireland in the county Baltimore of Cork, a province of Munfier, with the title of a SI barony. It is feated on a headland which runs into Balyur. the fea, five miles north-ead of Cape Clear. W. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat. 51. 15. Baltimore, a county and town of Maryland in A- merica. BALTIMORE-Bird. See Oriolus, Ornithology Index. BALTZAR, Thomas, a native of Lubec, was an eminent mufical compofer, and edeemed the fined per¬ former on the violin of his time. He came into Eng¬ land in the year 1658, and lived about two years in the houfe of Sir Anthony Cope of Hanwel in Oxford- diire. He was the great competitor of Davis Mell^ who, though a clockmaker by trade, was, till Baltzar came hither, allowed to be the fined performer on the violin in England j and after his arrival he divided with him the public applaufe, it being agreed that Mell ex¬ celled in the finenefs of his tone and the fweetnefs of his manner, and Baltzar in the power of execution and command of the indrument. Moreover, it is faid of the latter, that he fird taught the Englifh the pra£tice of drifting, and the ufe of the upper part of the finger¬ board. Baltzar was given to intemperance, and is faid to have diortened his days by excedive drinking : he was buried in Wedminder-abbey on the 27th day of. July 1663. BALUCLAVO, or Jambol, a fea-port town of the Crimea on the Black fea, where they build drips for the grand fignior. E. Long. 35. 15. N. Lat. 44. 50. BALUZE, Stephen, a French writer, born in 1651, and fome time librarian to M. Colbert. In 1693. he obtained a penfion, with the pod of dire&or of the Royal College, for writing the lives of the popes of Avignon 5 both which advantages he foon lod in the dufluation of court parties. M. Baluze is much more noted for colle&ing ancient MSS. and illudrating them by notes, than famed for his own compofitions. BALYUR, or Baliur, a fea port of Africa in the kingdom of Dancali, about 14 hours journey wed from Babel-Mandel. It is remarkable only for being the landing place of the Abyffrnian patriarch Alphonfus Mendez, with his Jefuits and Portuguefe, on April 3d 1724. The king, who had received orders from the Abyffmian emperor to give them a proper reception, defpatched his fon to meet them and conduct them to him. The royal palace they found to confid of about half a dozen of tents, and a fcore of huts, fenced about with a thorn hedge, and diaded by fome wild kinds of trees. Near the palace was a river, which was then quite dried up, and no water to be found but what was digged for in the channel. The hall of audience was only a large tent about a mulket-fhot from the red. At the upper end was a kind of throne made of dones and clay, covered with a carpet, and tw'o velvet cu- diions. At the other end was his majedy’s horfe, with the faddle and other accoutrements hanging on one fide it being the cudom of this country for the mader and horfe to lie together, whether king or fubjeft. A- round the hall were about 50 young men fitting crofs- legged ; and when the Portuguefe ambaffadors were admitted, they were made to fit down in the fame po- dure. Soon after came the king preceded by fome of his domedics, one having an earthen pitcher full of hydromelj r 356 i BaJyur II Bamba. BAM f 357 J hydromel, another a cup made of porcelain, a third copper carrying a cocoa-fhell full of tobacco, and a fourth bringing a filver tobacco-pipe with fome fire. Next to ' them was the king, dreffed in a light filk fluff, having on his head a turban, from the rims of which hung a parcel of rings nicely wrought, which dangled before his face. He had in his hand a fhort kind of javelin, and was followed by all the chief officers of his court and houfehold. The refpedf paid him at his coming in was by ftanding on their feet, and fquatting down again twice, after which they went forward to kifs his hand. BALZAC, John Lewis Guez de, born at An- gouleme in 1595. Voltaire allows him the merit of having given numbers and harmony to the French profe, but cenfures his ftyle as fomewhat bombaftic. The critics of his own time gave him no little difquiet 5 and he gave them no little advantage over him by his fal- lies of vanity, and fome particular propofitions which were a little dangerous. M. Balzac, getting rid of thefe difputes by his moderation, fettled at his country- feat ; refined his ftyle and genius j and got by his let¬ ters and other writings which he publiffied from time to time, the reputation of being the firft writer in France. He w'as at length drawn from his retirement by the hopes of making his fortune under Cardinal Richlieu, who had formerly courted his friendftup : but in a few years he retired again, difgufted with the fla- viffi dependence of a court life. All he obtained from the court was a penfion of 2000 livres, with the titles of counfellor of ftate and hiftoriographer of France. He died in 1654 i and was buried in the hofpital of Notre Dame des Anges, to which he bequeathed 12,000 livres. He left an eftate of 100 franks per annum, for a gold medal to be beftowed every two years for the beft difcourfe on fome moral fubjed. Befides his letters he wrote a w'ork called Oeuvres Diverfes, i. e. on various fubjecls; The Prince ; The Chriftian Socrates, &c. and many other pieces ; all of which have been publiffied in two vols folio. BAMBA, a province of the kingdom of Congo in Africa.—It is fituated between the rivers of Ambrifi and Lofe j the laft of which parts it from Pemba on the eaft, as the Ambrifi does from the province of Sog- no on the north. Along the fea-coaft it extends itfelf northward to the river Lelunda ; and on the fouth to that of Danda, which parts it from the kingdom of Angola. The governors of this province bear the title of dukes, and are always fome of the princes of the royal family. I hey are as defpotic and arbitrary as if they were really kings, notwithftanding the care and pains their monarchs have taken to keep them within due bounds. The foil of this province is very fertile j and would produce all the neceflaries of life in great plenty, were the inhabitants but induftrious in its cul¬ tivation. The fea-coafts produce a vaft quantity of fait, which could be purified with little trouble, and would yield an extraordinary revenue if the duties were duly paid : but thefe the governors find means to fink moftly into their own coffers.—Here is alfo the fiffiery of the zimbis, or little fea-fnail, whofe ffiell is the cur¬ rent coin not only in this and the neighbouring king¬ doms, but alfo in the moft diftant parts of Africa. Here are alfo faid to' be mines of gold, filver, quicklilver, BAM tin, and iron ; but none except the iron mines Bamba are allowed to be worked. || BAMBERG, a large handfome town of FranconiaBamboccio. in Germany, and capital of a bifliopric of the fame v' " name. It was formerly imperial, but is now fubjedt to the biffiop. The country about it produces plenty of corn, fruits, and liquorice. It has an univerfity, founded in 1585 ; and is fituated at the confluence of the rivers Main and Reidnitz. E. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 50. 10. Bamberg, a town of Bohemia, fituated at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. 16. 50. N. Lat. 49. 53. BAMBOCCIO, a celebrated painter of converfa- tions, landfcapes, cattle, &c. was born at Laeren near Narden in 1613. His name was Peter Van Laer j but in Italy they gave him the name of Bamboccio, on account of the uncommon fhape of his body, the lower part being one-third longer than the upper, and his neck fo ffiort that it was buried between his ffioulders. He had, however, an ample amends for the unfeemlinefs of his limbs, in the fuperior beauties of his mind: he was endowed with an extenfive genius j and, indeed, had an univerfal tafte for every part of painting. He refided at Rome for fixteen years fuc- ceffively ; every day ftudying to improve himfelf by thofe beautiful models which were continually open to his obfervation, and by the lovely fcenery in the envi¬ rons of that city. He was held in the higheft efteem by all ranks of men, as well as by thofe of his own profeffion j not only on account of his extraordinary abilities, but alfo for the amiable qualities of his mind. He ftudied nature inceffantly ; obferving with a cu¬ rious exa&nefs every effedl of light on different obje&s,. at different hours of the day ; and whatfoever incident afforded pleafure to his imagination, his memory for ever perfeflly retained. His ftyle of painting is fweet and true j and his touch delicate, with great tranfparen- cy of colouring. His figures are always of a fmall fize, well proportioned, and corredlly defigned ; and al¬ though his fubjedts are taken but from the lower kind of nature, fuch as plunderings, playing at bowls, inns, farriers {hops, cattle, or converfations j yet whatever he painted wras fo excellently defigned, fo happily exe¬ cuted, and fo highly finiffied, that his manner was adopted by many of the Italian painters of his time. His works are ftill univerfally admired, and he is juft- ly ranked among the firft clafs of the eminent mailers. His hand was as quick as his imagination, fo that he rarely made {ketches or defigns for any of his works j he only marked the fubjedl with a crayon on the can¬ vas, and finiffied it without more delay. His memory was amazing : for whatever objedls he faw, if he con- fidered them with any intention to infert them in his compofitions, the idea of them was fo ftrongly impref- ed on his mind, that he could reprefent them with as much truth as if they were placed before his eyes. Sandrart obferves, that although painters who are ac- cuftomed to a fmall fize are frequently inaccurate in the difpofition of the different parts of their fubjeft, feeming content if the whole appears natural; yet Bam¬ boccio was as minutely exadl in having his figures, trees, grounds, and diftances, determined with the ut- moft precifion and perfpedlive truth, as the beft maf- ters ufually are in pidlures of the largeft fize 5 which. BAM [ 353 ] BA M Eamboccio Is one circumftance that caufes the eye to be fo agree- II ably deluded by the paintings of Bamboccio. In the borcm'h *a^er Part ^is was feverely tormented with t ^ 0 *. an afthmatic complaint, which he endured with much impatience ; and it is reported, that as the diforder feemed to him unfupportable, he threw himfelf into a canal to (horten his mifery, and was drowned. His death happened in 1673. BAMBOE, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of arundo. See Arundo, Botany Index. BAMBOE-Habit; a Chinefe contrivance by which a perfon who cannot fwim may eafily keep himfelf above water. The following account of it is from a letter to the author of the Seaman's Prefervative. “ In the year 1730, I was pafienger in a (hip from Batavia to China, burden about 400 tons, called the Pridae, Erancifco Xavier commander, freighted by Englifh, Chinefe, and Portuguefe. Near the coaft of China we met one of thofe ft or ms called a tuftoon (tau-fong'), or a great wind, which carried away all our marts, bowfprit, and rudder 5 and in our hold we had fix feet of water, expelling every moment the fhip would founder.—We confequently were confulting our prefer- vation : the Englifh and Portuguefe flood in their fhirts only, ready to be thrown off; but the Chinefe mer¬ chants came upon deck, not in a cork-jacket, but I will call it a bamboe habit, which had lain ready in their cherts againft fuch dangers ; and it was thus con- Itrufted ; four bamboes, two before and two behind their bodies, were placed horizontally, and projedted about 28 inches. Thefe were croffed on each fide by two others, and the whole properly fecured, leaving a fpace for their body *, fo that they had only to put it over their heads, and tie the fame fecurely, which was done in two minutes, and we were fatisfied they could not poflibly fink.” The drape is here fubjoined. BAMBOROUGH, an inconfiderable village in Northumberland, on the fea coaft, 14 miles north of Alnwick, was once a royal borough, and font two members to parliament: it even gave name to a large tra52i Increafe, 1966 Bamff, the capital of the (hire of that name in Scotland, is pleafantly fituated on the fide of a hill, at the mouth of the river Devron. It has feveral ftreels, of which that with the town-houfe in it, adorned with a new fpire, is very handfome. This place was eredl- ed into a borough by virtue of a charter from Robert II. dated Oftober 7. 1372, endowing it vyith the fame privileges, and putting it on the fame footing, with the burgh of Aberdeen ; but tradition fays it was founded in the reign of Malcolm Canmore. . It gives title of baron to a branch of the Ogilvie family. The harbour is very bad, as the entrance of the mouth of the Devron is very uncertain, being often flopped by the fliifting of the fands, which are continually changing in great ftorms the pier is therefore placed on the outfide. Much falmon is exported from hence. About Froop- head fome kelp is made ; and the adventurers pay the lord of the manor 50I. per annum for the liberty of col- lefting the materials. Near the town is a moft magni¬ ficent feat lately built by the earl of Fife. It lies in a beautiful plain waflied by the Devron, the lofty banks of which, clothed with wood ©n the oppofite fide, afford a delightful contrail to the foft vale beneath. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 57. 40. . BAM1ER, the name of a plant common m Egypt. It produces a pyramidal hulk, with feveral^ compart¬ ments, of the colour of a lemon, and filled wdth mulky feeds. This hulk dreffed with meat is a wholefome food, and has a very agreeable flavour. The Egyp¬ tians make great ufe of it in their ragouts. BAMIYAN, a city of Afia, fituated in the pro¬ vince of Zableftan, 10 days journey from Balkh, and eight from Gazna. It is remarkable only for its dreadful cataftrophe when taken by Jenghiz Khan in 1221. At that time the city belonged to Sultan Jalal- lodin, the laft of the famous Mahmud Gazni’s race. Jenghiz Khan was at that time about to attack Gazna, that prince’s capital ; but was flopped by the garrifon of Bamiyan, which he had hoped would give him no trouble. In this, however, he was difappointed. The people had for a long time expected an attack •, and had therefore ruined the country for five or fix leagues round, while the peafants had carried away the ftones, and every thing that could be of ufe to the befiegers, Accordingly, BAN [ 361 ] BAN Bamiyan Accordingly, Jenghiz Khan having ere£led wooden H towers, and planted his engines upon them,'-was in a Panc' Ihort time obliged to give over his attacks till millllones and other materials could be brought from a great di- ftance. The walls of the city were very ilrong, fo that the engines of the Moguls made but little impreffion ; and the garrifon making frequent and furious fallies, cut off whole fquadrons of their enemies, and frequent¬ ly overthrew their towers and engines. This exceed¬ ingly chagrined Jenghiz Khan ; who one day returning from a fruitlefs attack, and hearing of the defeat of one of his generals by Jalallodin, fwore to be revenged on Bamiyan. This fury coft the life of one of his grandchildren; who expofing himfelf too much, to pleafe his grandfather, was llain with an arrow.—At lalt, however, by the numberlefs multitude of the Mo¬ guls, who continued the attacks without intermiflion, the city was taken, after its walls had been ruined in many places, and the braveft foldiers and officers of the garrifon (lain in its defence. The mother of the young prince who had been killed entering with the troops, and more deferving the name of a fiend than a woman, caufed the throats of all the inhabitants to be cut, with¬ out excepting one. She even gave orders to rip up the bellies of all the women with child, that not an infant might be left alive. In ffiort, to gratify the rage of this inhuman monfter, the buildings were all levelled with the ground $ the cattle, and every living creature, deftroyed ; infomuch that the hardened Moguls them- felves gave this place the name of Maubalig, which in their language fignifies the unfortunate city. A ftrong calfle has fince been built out of its ruins. BAMOI'H BAAL, in Ancient Geograph?/, one of the towns of the tribe of Reuben, which feems alfo to have had a temple of Baal on an eminence $ lying eaff wards, and not far from the. river Arnon, and the territory of Moab. Jerome calls it Bumoth, a city of the Amorites, beyond Jordan, in the poffeffion of the fons of Reuben. Whether the fame with that men¬ tioned Numb. xxi. is doubtful, from the difagreement of interpreters *, and yet we may admit it to be the place of encampment of the Ifraelites, and of Balaam’s firft ftation, or where he had the firft view of the rear of the people. BAMPTON, a town of Devonffiire, fituated in a bottom furrounded with high hills. W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 51. 5. BAN, or Bans. See Bann. Ban, in commerce, a fort of fine fmooth muflin, which the Engliffi import from the Eaft Indies. The piece is almoft a yard broad, and runs about 20 yards and a half. BANANA tree, a fpecies of the mufa or plantain. See Musa, Botany Index. B ANARES, or Benares, a handfome town of Afia, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, greatly celebrat¬ ed for its famftity, and being the univerfity of the In¬ dian Bramins. It is feated on the north fide of the river Ganges, in E. Long. 82. 30. N. Lat. 26. 20. See Observatory. BANBURY, a town of Oxfordffiire in England, fituated on the river Charwell, in W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 52. o. It fends one member to parliament. BANC, or Bench, in Law, denotes a tribunal, or Yol. III. Part I. judgment-feat $ hence king's banc is the fame with the i;anC court of king's bench, and common banc with that of |j common pleas. Bancock. BANCI jus, or the privilege of having a bench, v “ was anciently only allowed to the king’s judges, qui fummam adminijlrant jujlitiam. Inferior courts, as courts-baron, hundred courts, &c. were not allowed that prerogative ; and even at this day the hundred- court at Freibridge in Norfolk is held under an oak at Gey-wood j and that of Woolfry in Hereford (hire, under an oak near Afliton in that county, called Hundred oak, BANC A, an ifland of Afia in the Eaft Indies, be¬ tween Sumatra and Borneo j from the firft of which it is leparated only by a narrow channel. This ifiand is famous on account of its tin mines. The prince of the ifiand, who is alfo poffeffor of the territory of Palam- bang on the river of the fame name in Sumatra, where he has his conftant refidence, had a contra# with the Hutch, by whole troops his authority and independence are preferved, for the tin which he compels his fub- jefts to deliver to him at a low price. Their profit, it is faid, was not lefs than x 50,000!. annually. In con- fequence of the perfedion which the miners had arrived at in the redudion of the ore, the tin of this ifland was preferred to the tin from Europe at the Canton market. E. Long. 105. 10. N. Lat. 13. 25. BANCALIS, a fea-port town on the eaft coaft of the ifiand of Sumatra, where the Dutch have a fettle- ment. E. Long. 99. 7. N. Lat. 1. 5. B ANCK, Peter Vander, an engraver of confider- able repute, was born at Paris, and received his in- ftrudions in the art from the celebrated Francois de Poiliy. He came over into England with Gafcar the painter, about the year 1674; and married the fifter of a gentleman of eftate in Hertfordlhire, named Fo- refter. He was a laborious artift : but the pay he re¬ ceived for his plates being by no means adequate to the time he beftovved upon them, he was reduced to want; and, retiring from bufinefs, fought an afylum in the houfe of his brother-in-law. He died at Brad- field, and was buried in the church there, in 16745 leaving his widow in poffeffion of the chief part of his plates, which Ihe difpofed of to Brown, a printfeller, to great advantage, and left an eafy fortune.—His chief employment was engraving of portraits 5 and, ac¬ cording to Virtue’s account of this artift publiffied by the Hon. Mr Walpole, he was the firft in England who engraved them on fo large a feale. But even their no¬ velty, it feems, added to their merit, could not fufficient- ly recommend them to fupport the artift. Like many of Poilly’s difciples, his great merit, according to Mr Strutt, confiltsin the laboured neatnefs and management of the mechanical part of the art. Freedom, harmony, and chaftenefs of outline, are by no means the cha- raderiftic of his prints. However, though they cannot rank with the fuperior produdions of Edelink or Nan- tueil, &c. they have their fhare of merit 5 and doubt- lefs will be always efteemed in England, as preferving the beft refemblanoe of many eminent perfons who were living at that time. BANCO, an Italian word which fignifies bank. It is commonly ufed to fignify the bank of Venice. BANCOCK, a town of the kingdom of Siam in Z z Afia, BAN [ 362 ] BAN Bancock Afia, with a fort, which was once in the poffeflion of II the French, but they were driven from it in 1688. E. Bandage. Long. 101. 5. N. Lat. 13. 25. » J BAND, in a general i'enfe, fome fmall narrow li¬ gament, wherewith any thing is bound, tied, or fa¬ stened. Band, in ArchiteBure, a general name’for any flat low member, or moulding, that is broad but not very deep. BANB of Soldiers, in military affairs, thofe who fight under the fame flag or enfign. Band of Penf oners, a company of 120 gentlemen, who receive a yearly allowance of 100I. for attending on his majefty on folemn occafions. Band is alfo the denomination of a military order in Spain, inftituted by Alphonfus XI. king of Caftile, for the younger fons of the nobility j who, before their ad- miflion, muft ferve 10 years at leaf!, either in the army or at courtand are bound to take up arms for the ca¬ tholic faith againft the infidels. Band, in Surgery, See Bandage. BANDA ISLANDS, the general name of five iflands in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Dutch. Two of them are uncultivated, and almoft entirely uninhabited •, the other three claim the diitindlion of being the only iflands in the world that produce the nutmeg. If we except this valuable fpice, the iflands of Banda, like all the Moluccas, are barren to a dreadful degree. What they produce in fuperfluities they want in necef- faries. The land will not bring forth any kind of corn ; and the pith of the fago ferves the natives of the coun¬ try inftead of bread. As this food is not fufficient for the Europeans who fettle in the Moluccas, they are allowed to fetch provi- fions from Java, Macaffar, or the extremely fertile ifland of Bali. The company itfelf carries fome merchandife to Banda. This is the only fettlement in the Eaft Indies that can be confidered as an European colony ; becaufe it is the only one where the Europeans are proprietors of lands. The company finding that the inhabitants of Banda were favage, cruel, and treacherous, becaufe they were impatient under their yoke, refolved to ex¬ terminate them. Their poffeffions were divided among the white people, who got flaves from fome of the neigh¬ bouring iflands to cultivate the lands. Thefe white people are for the moft part Creoles, or malecontents who have quitted the fervice of the country. In the fmall ifland of Rofinging, there are likewife feveral ban¬ ditti, whom the laws have branded with difgrace ; and young men of abandoned principles, whofe families wanted to get rid of them t fo that Banda is called 'he ijland of correction. I he climate is fo unhealthy, that thefe unhappy men live but a fhort time. It is on ac¬ count of the lofs of fo great a number of hands, that attempts have been made to transfer the culture of the nutmeg to Amboyna •, and the company were likewife probably influenced by two other ftrong motives of in- tereft, as their trade would be carried on with lefs ex¬ pence and greater fafety. But the experiments that have been made have proved unfuccefsful, and matters remain in their former ftate. BANDAGE, in Surgery, a fillet, roller, or fwath, ufed in drefling and binding up wounds, reftraining a dangerous hemorrhagies, and in joining fra&ured and Bandage diflocated bones. |! BANDALEER, or Bandeleer, in military af- Banditti, fairs, a large leathern belt, thrown over the right ' fhoulder, and hanging under the left arm •, worn by the ancient mufqueteers, both for the fuflaining of their fire-arms, and for the carriage of their mulket charges, which being put up in little wooden cafes, coated with leather, were hung, to the number of twelve, to each bandaleer. BANDELET, or Bandlet, in Architecture, any little band, or flat moulding, as that which crowns the Doric architrave. BANDER CONGO, a fmall fea-port town in Afia, feated on the Perfian gulf. E. Long. 54. 10. N. Lat. 19. o. BANDERET, a general, or one of the comman¬ ders in chief of the forces.—This appellation is given to the principal commanders of the troops of the canton of Bern in Switzerland, where there are four banderets, who command all the forces of that canton. BANDEROLE, a little flag, in form of a guidon, extended more in length than in breadth, ufed to be hung out on the mafts of veffels, &c. BANDITTI, from the Italian bandito; perfons profcribed or, as we call it, outlawed : fometimes denominated banniti or forts banniti. It is alfo a denomination given to highwaymen or robbers who infeft the roads in troops, efpecially in Italy, France, and Sicily. Mr Brydone, in his Tour through Sicily, informs us, that in the eaftern part, called Val Demoni, from the devils that are fuppofed to inhabit Mount ALtna, it has ever been found altogether imprafticable to extirpate the banditti ; there being numberlefs ca¬ verns and fubterraneous paffages round that mountain, where no troops could poflibly purfue them : befides, they are known to be perfectly determined and refo- lute, never failing to take a dreadful revenge on all who have offended them. Hence the prince of Villa Franca has embraced it, not only as the fafeft, but likewife as the wifeft and moft political fcheme, to be¬ come their declared patron and protestor : and fuch of them as think proper to leave the mountains and forefts, though perhaps only for a time, are fure to meet with good encouragement and a certain protection in his fer¬ vice, where they enjoy the moft unbounded confidence, which, in no inftance, they have ever yet been found to make an improper or a difhonoft ufe of. They are clothed in the prince’s livery, yellow and green, with filver lace *, and wear likewife a badge of their honour¬ able order, which entitles them to univerfal fear and refpeCt from the people. In fome circumftances, thefe banditti are the moft refpeCtable people of the ifland, and have by much the higheft and moft romantic notions of what they call their point of honour. However criminal they may be with regard to fociety in general 5 yet, with refpeft to one another, and to every perfon to whom they have once profeffed it, they have ever maintained the moft unlhaken fidelity. The magiftrates have of¬ ten been obliged to proteft them, and pay them court, as they are known to be perfectly determined and defperate, and fo extremely vindictive, that they will certainly put any perfon to death that has ever BAN [ 363 ] BAN Banditti given them juft caufe of provocation. On the other || hand, it never was known that any perfon who had put Bangor, kimfelf under their protection, and fhowed that he had confidence in them, had caufe to repent of it, or was injured by any of them in the moft minute trifle ; but, on the contrary, they will proteCt him from impofitions of every kind, and fcorn to go halves with the landlord, like moft other conductors and travelling fervants, and will defend him with their lives if there is occafion. Thofe of their number who have thus enlifted themfelves in the fervice of fociety, are known and refpeCted by the other banditti all over the ifland $ and the perfons of thofe they accompany are ever held facred. For thefe rea- fons, molt travellers choofe to hire a couple of them from town to town : and may thus travel over the whole ifland in fafety. BANDORA, the capital of the ifland of Salfet, on the weft coaft of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges. It is feparated from the ifland of Bombay by a narrow channel, and fubjeCt to the Portuguefe. E. Long. 72. 30. N. Lat. 19. o. BANDORE, the name of a mufical inftrument with Itrings, refembling a lute, and faid to be invented in the fourth year of Queen Elizabeth, by John Rofe, a citizen of London. BANDY-LEGS, from the French bander, ‘ to bend,’ a diftortion of the legs, when they turn either inward or outward on either fide ; arifing from fome defeCt in the birth, or imprudence in the nurfe, endeavour¬ ing to make a child Hand or walk before his legs were ftrong enough to fuftain the weight of his body. See Valgus. .BANE (from the Saxon banu, a murderer), figni- fies deftruCtion or overthrow. Thus, “ I will be the bane of fuch a man,” is a common faying. So, when a perfon receives a mortal injury by any thing, we fay, “ it was his bane and he who is the caufe of ano¬ ther man’s death, is faid to be le bane, i. e. a malefac¬ tor. BANFF. See Bamff. BANGHIR, a town of Ireland, in King’s county in the province of Leinfter, feated on the river Shannon. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 53. 10. BANGLE ears, an imperfeCtion in a horfe, reme¬ died in the following manner. Place his ears in fuch a manner as you would have them Hand 5 bind them with two little boards fo faft that they cannot ftir, and then clip away all the empty wrinkled fkin clofe by the head. BANGIUS, Thomas, a Danifh divine, and an ele¬ gant Latin writer on the origin of languages and a va¬ riety of other fubjeCb. He died in 1661. BANGOR, an epifcopal city of Caernarvonftiire in North Wales. In ancient times it was fo confiderable, that it was called Bangor the Great, and defended by a ftrong caftle ; but it is now a very mean place; the principal buildings being the cathedral, the bifliop’s palace, and free fchool. The fee is of very great antiquity, and its founder unknown. The church is dedicated to St Daniel, who wTas biftiop here about the year 516‘, but for near 500 years afterwards, there is no certainty of the names of his fucceffors. Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral church j but Biihop Dean repaired it again. This fee met a ftill more cruel ravager than Owen Glendowerj in the per* fon of Biihop Bulkeley ; wno not only alienated many of the lands belonging to it, but even fold the bells of the church. This diocefe contains the whole of Caer- *■ narvonfture except three parifties, the (hire of Anglefey, and part of the {hires of Denbigh, Merioneth, and Montgomery j in which are 107 pariflies, whereof 36 are impropriated. It has three archdeaconries, viz. Bangor, Anglefey, and Merioneth 5 of which the two firft are commonly annexed to the bilhopric for its bet¬ ter fupport. This fee is valued in the king’s books at 131I. 16s. 4d. and is computed to be worth annually 1200I. The tenths of the clergy are 151I. 14s. lo the cathedral there belong a biihop, a dean, an archdeacon, a trealurer, and two prebendaries, endow¬ ed ; a precentor, a chancellor, and three canons, not endowed j three vicars choral, an organift, lay-clerks, chorifters, and two officers. W. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 53- 20. Bangor, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down and province of Ulfter. It is feated on the fouth fliore of the bay of Garrick Fergus, oppofite to the town of that name \ and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. 6. N. Lat. 54. 42. BANGUE, a fpecies of opiate, in great ufe through¬ out the eaft, for drowning cares and infpiring joy.-— This by the Perfians is called beng; by the Arabs, effrar, corruptly afferal, and ajfarth; by the Turks, bengitie, and vulgarly called majlack; by the Euro¬ pean naturalifts, bangue or bang.—It is the leaf of a kind of wild hemp, growing in the countries of the Levant; it differs little, either as to leaf or feed, from our hemp, except in fize. Some have miftaken it for a fpecies of althaea. There are divers manners of preparing it, in different countries. Olearius defcribes the method ufed in Per- fia. Mr Sale tells us, that, among the Arabs, the leaf is made into pills, or conferves. But the moft diftindt account is that given by Alexander Maurocordato, counfellor and phyfician of the Ottoman Porte, in a letter to Wedelius. According to this author, bangue is made of the leaves of wild hemp, dried in the lhade, then ground to powder j put into a pot wherein butter has been kept *, fet in an oven till it begin to torrify : then taken out, and pulverized again j thus to be ufed occafionally, as much at a time as will lie on the point of a knife. Such is the Turkilh bangue.—The effefls of this drug are, To confound the underftanding j fet the imagination loofe •, induce a kind of folly and forget- fulnefs, wherein all cares are loft, and joy and gaiety take place thereof. Bangue, in reality, is a fucceda- neum to wine, and obtains in thofe countries where Ma- hometanifm is eftablilhed j which prohibiting the ufe of that liquor abfolutely, the poor Muffulmans are forced to have recourfe to fuccedanea, to roufe their fpirits. The principal are opium and this bangue. As to the opinion among Europeans, that the Turks prepare themfelves for battle by a dofe of bangue, which roufes their courage, and drives them, with eagernefs, to cer¬ tain death ; Dr Maurocordato affures us, that it is a po¬ pular error: the Turks think they are then going affu- redly to receive the crown of martyrdom ; and would not, for any confideration, lofe the merit of it, which they would do, by eating the bangue, as being held un¬ lawful by their apoftle, among other things which in¬ toxicate. Bangor, Bangue. t Z z a BANIALUCHj BAN Bamalucii BANIALUCH, or Bagnaluch, a city of Euro- il peari Turkey, the capital of Bofnia, upon the frontiers , Banian*. Qf Dalmatia, near the river Setina. E. Long. 18. 20. v^~ N. Lat. 44. 20. BANIAN-tree. See Fic:us, Botany Index. BANIANS, a religious fe£t in the empire of the Mogul, who believe a metempfychofis; and will there¬ fore eat no living creature, nor kill even noxious ani¬ mals, but endeavour to releafe them when in the hands of others.—The name of Banian is ufed with fome diverfity, which has occafioned much confufion, and many miftakes. Sometimes it is taken in a lefs proper fenfe, and extended to all the idolaters of India, as contradiltinguithed from the Mahometans : in which fenfe, Banians includes the Bramins and other calls. Banians, in a more proper fenfe, is reilrained to a pe¬ culiar call, or tribe of Indians, whofe office or pro- feffion is trade and merchandife : in which fenfe, Ba¬ nians (land contradillinguiffied from Bramins, Cutlery, and Wyfe, the three other calls into which the Indians are divided. The four calls are abfolutely feparate as to occupation, relation, marriage, &c. though all of the fame religion j which is more properly denominated the religion of the Bramins, who make the eccleliallieal tribe, than of the Banians, who make the mercantile. The proper Banians are called, in the Shajier, or book of their law, by the name of Shuddei'y ; under which are comprehended all who live after the manner of merchants, or that deal and tranfaft for others, as bro¬ kers ; exclulive of the mechanics, or artificers, who make another call, called Wi/fe. Thefe Banians have no peculiar fe6l or religion, unlefs it be, that two of the eight general precepts given by their legiilator Brama to the Indian nation, are, on account of the profeffion of the Banians, fuppofed more immediately to relate to them, viz. thofe which enjoin veracity in their word and dealings, and avoiding all pradtices of circumvention in buying and felling. Some of the Banians, quitting their profeffion, and retiring from the world, commence religious, aflume a peculiar habit, and devote themfelves more immediately to God, under the denomination of Vertea. Thefe, though they do not hereby change their cad, are commonly reckoned as bramins of a more devout kind •, much as monks in the Romiffi church, though frequently not in orders, are reputed as a more facred order than the regular clergy. The name Banian imports as much, in the Bramin lan¬ guage (wherein their law is written), as a people in¬ nocent and harmlefs; void of all guile ; fo gentle, that they cannot endure to fee either a fly or a worm injured •, and who, when ftruck, will patiently bear it, without refilling or returning the blow.—Their mien * Difcov. and appearance is defcribed by Lord *, in terms a little Relig. Ba- precife, but very lignificant: “ A people prefented man. themfelves to my eyes clothed in linen garments, fome- what low defcending ; of a gelture and garb, as I may fay, maidenly, and well nigh effeminate ; of a counte¬ nance lhy and fomewhat eltranged.” Gemelli Careri divides the Banians into 22 tribes, all dillindt, and not allowed to marry with each other. Lord affures us they are divided into 82 calls or tribes, correfpondent to the calls or divifions of the Bramins or priells, un¬ der whofe difcipline they are as to religious matters ; though the generality of the Banians choofe to be un- BA N der the direcTon of the two Bramin tribes, the Vifal- Pan;aiTS nagranaugers and Vulnagranau 1 he Banians are the great fadlor®, by whom moll Bannter. of the trade of India is managed ; in this refpeft, —”V comparable to the Jews and Armenians, and not be¬ hind either, in point of Ikill and experience, in what¬ ever relates to commerce. Nothing is bought but by their mediation. They feem to claim a kind of jus divinum to the adminiilration of the traffic of the na¬ tion, grounded on their facred books, as the Bramins do that of religion. They are difperfed, for this purpofe, through all parts of Alia, and abound in Perlia, particularly at Ifpahan and Gombroon, where many of them are extremely rich, yet not above act¬ ing as brokers, where a penny is to be got. The chief agents of the Englilh, Dutch, and French Eall India Companies, are of this nation : they are faithful, and are generally trailed with the calh of thofe companies in their keeping. They a£l alfo as bankers, and can give bills of exchange for mod cities in the End In¬ dies. Their form of contra£l in buying and felling is remarkable \ being done without words, in the pro- founded filence, only by touching each other’s fingers : the buyer loofing his pamerin or girdle, fpreads it on his knee, and both he and the feller having their hands underneath, by the intercourfe of the fingers, mark the price of pounds, Ihillings, &c. demanded, of¬ fered, and at length agreed on. When the feller takes the buyer’s whole hand, it denotes a thoufand *, and, as many times as he fqueezes it, as many thoufand pagods, or rupees, according to the fpecies in quedion, are de¬ manded ; when he only takes the five fingers, it de¬ notes five hundred ; and when only one, one hundred : taking only half a finger, to the fecond joint, denotes fifty ; the fmall end of the finger, to the fird ioint, dands for ten. BANIE, Anthony, licentiate in laws, member of the academy of infcriptions and belles lettres, and e-ccle- liadic of the diocefe of Clermont in Auvergne $ died in November 1741, aged 69. He is principally celebra¬ ted for his tranflation of the Metamorphofes of Ovid, with hidorical remarks and explanations ; which was publidied in 1732, at Amderdam, in folio, finely orna¬ mented w'ith copperplates, by Picart; and reprinted at Paris 1738, in two vols 410 : and for his Mythology, or Fables of the Ancient, explained by hidory 5 a work full of the moll important information, which was tranf- lated into Engliffi, and printed at London in 1741, in 4 vols 8vo. BANISHMENT, exile, among us is of two kinds: the one voluntary, and upon oath ; the other by com- pulfion, for fome offence or crime. The former, proper¬ ly called abjuration, is now ceafed j the latter is chiefly enjoined by judgment of parliament. Yet outlawing and tranfpertation may alfo be confidered as fpecies of exile. BANISTER, John, a phyfician and furgeon in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was educated at Oxford, where, fays Anthony Wood, he dudied logicals for a time ; but afterwards applied bimfelf folely to phyfic and forgery. In 1573 he took the degree of bachelor of phyfic } and, obtaining a licenfe from the univer- fity to pradlife, fettled at Nottingham, where he lived many years in great repute, and wrote feveral medical treatifes. r 364 i 1 '■i airs s liter. *—~ BAN [3 Banifter trealiie?. His works were collected and publifhed in il 1633, 4to. , BANISTERIA. See Botany Index. J'"_v BANK, in Commerce, a common repofitory, where many perfons agree to keep their money, to be al¬ ways ready at their call or direction : or, certain fo- cieties or communities, who take the charge of other people’s- money, either to improve it, or to keep it fe- cure. The fird inftitution of banks was in Italy, where the Lombard Jews kept benches in the market-places for the exchange of money and bills ; and banco being the Italian name for bench, banks took their title from • this word. I. Compa- Banks are of two principal kinds. I. One fort is ny-banks. either public, confiding of a company of moneyed men, who being duly edablidied, and incorporated by the laws of their country, agree to depofite a considerable fund, or joint dock, to be employed for the ufe of the fociety, as in lending money upon good fecurity, buying and felling bullion, difcounting- bills of exchange, &c.: or private, i. e. fet up by private perfons, or partner- drips, who deal in the fame way as the former upon their own fingle dock and credit. Bank of The greated bank of circulation in Europe is the England; Bank of England. The company was incorporated by blifhment Parbament in the fifth and fixth years of King William regulations, and Q.ueen Mary, by the name of The Governors and importance, Cbwyw/zy o/* the Bank of England: in confideration of S10, the loan of i,2oo,oool. granted to the government; for rvliich the fubfcribers received almod 8 per cent. By this charter, the company are not to borrow under their common feal, unlefs by aft of parliament y they are not to trade, or fuffer any perfon in trud for them to trade, in any goods or merchandife ; but they may deal in bills of exchange, in buying or felling bullion, and foreign gold and filver coin, &c. By an aft of parliament paffed in the 8th and 9th years of William III. they were empowered to enlarge their capital dock to 2,201,171!. IOS. It was then alfo enafted, that bank-dock diould be a perfonal, and not a real edate j that no contraft either in word or writ¬ ing for buying or felling bank-dock, diould be good in law, unlefs regidered in the books of the bank within 7 days, and the dock transferred in 14 days 5 and that it diall be felony, without benefit of clergy, to counter¬ feit the common feal of the bank, or any fealed bank- bill, or any bank-note, or to alter or erafe fuch bills or notes. By another aft palled in the 7th of Queen Anne, the company were empowered to augment their capital to 4,402,343!. and they then advanced 400,000!. * more to the government ; and in 1714, they advanced another loan of 1,500,000!. In the third’ year of the reign of King George I. the intered of their capital dock was reduced to 5 per cent, when the bank agreed to deliver up as many ex¬ chequer bills as amounted to 2,000,000!. and to ac¬ cept an annuity of ioo,oool. and it was declared law¬ ful for the bank to call from their members, in propor¬ tion to their intereds in the capital dock, fuch fums of money as in a general court fhould be found neceflary. If any member Ihould negleft to pay his (hare of the moneys fo called for, at the time appointed by notice in the London Gazette, and fixed upon the Royal Ex¬ change, it diould be lawful for the bank, not only to 65 ] BAN dop the dividend of fuch member, and to apply it to. Bank, wards payment of the money in quedion, but alf0 to dop the transfers of the diare of fuch defaulter, anj to charge him with an intered of 5 per cent, per annumj for the money fo omitted to be paid 5 and if the prin_ cipa! and intered Ihould be three months unpaid, the bank ihould then have power to fell fo much of the dock belonging to the defaulter as ivould fatisfy the fame. After this, the bank reduced the intered of the 2,ooo,oool. lent to the government, from 5 to 4 per cent, and purchafed feveral other annuities, which were afterwards redeemed by the government, and the na¬ tional debt due to the bank reduced to I,6oo,oool. But in 1742, the company engaged to fupply the go¬ vernment with i,6oo,QOoL at 3 per cent, which is now called the 3 per cent, annuities 5 fo that the govern¬ ment was now indebted to the company 3,200,000!. the one half carrying 4, and the other 3 per cent. In the year 1746, the company agreed that the fum of 986,800!. due to them in the exchequer bills unfa- tisfied, on the duties for licenfes to fell fpirituous li¬ quors by retail, diould be cancelled, and in lieu thereof to accept of an annuity of 39,442k the intered of that fum at 4 per cent. The company alfo agreed to advance the further fum of 1,000,000k into the exche¬ quer, upon the credit of the duties arifing by the malt and land tax at 4 per cent, for exchequer bills to be iffued for that purpofe ; in confideration of which, the company were enabled to augment their capital with 986,800!. the intered of which, as well as that of the other annuities, was reduced to 3^ per cent, till the 27th of December 1757, and from that time to carry only 3 per cent. And in order to enable them to circulate the faid exchequer bills, they edabliihed what is now called bank circulation. The nature of which may be under- dood from what follows. The company of the bank are obliged to keep cafli fufficient not only to anfwer the common, but alfo any extraordinary demand that may be made upon them ; and whatever money they have by them, over and a- bove the fum fuppofed neceffary for thefe purpofes, they employ in what may be called the trade of the company; that is to fay, in difcounting bills of exchange, in buy¬ ing of gold and filver, and in government fecurities, &c. But when the bank entered into the above-men¬ tioned contraft, as they did not keep unemployed a larger fum of money than what they deemed neceflary to anfwer their ordinary and extraordinary demands, they could not conveniently take out of their current cafli fo large a fum as a million, with which they were obliged to furnifli the government, without either lef- fening that fum they employed in difcounting, buying gold and filver, Sec. (which would have been very dif- advantageous to them), or inventing fome method that fhould anfwer all the purpofes of keeping the million in cafli. The method which they chofe, and which fully anfwers their end, was as follows : They opened a fubfeription, which they renew an¬ nually, for a million of money ; wherein the fubfcribers advance 10 per cent, and enter into a contraft to pay the remainder, or any part thereof, whenever the bank fliall call upon them, under penalty of forfeiting the 10 per cent, fo advanced: in confideration of which, the bank pays the fubfcribers 4 per cent, intereft for the. BAN [366 Bank, the money paid in, and % per cent, for the whole fum V" they agree to furnilh j and in cafe a call (hall be made upon them for the whole, or any part thereof, the bank further agrees to pay them at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum for fuch fum till they repay it, which they are under an obligation to do at the end of the year. By this means the bank obtains all the purpofes of Iceeping a million of money by them ; and though the fubfcribers, if no call is made upon them (which is in general the cafe), receive 6{ per cent, for the money they advance, yet the company gains the fum of 23,500!. per annum by the contrail} as will appear by the following account: The bank receives from the government for the advance of a million L. 30,000 The bank pays the fubfcribers who advance I00,000l. and engage to pay (when called for) 900,000!. more - - 6,500 1 BAN The clear gain to the bank therefore is 23,500 This is the Hate of the cafe, provided the company fhould make no call on the fubfcribers ; which they will be very unwilling to do, becaufe it would not on¬ ly leffen their profit, but affeil the public credit in ge¬ neral. Bank-ftock may not improperly be called a trading Jlock, fince with this they deal very largely in foreign gold and filver, in difcounting bills of exchange, &c. Befides which, they are allowed by the government very confiderable fums annually for the management of the annuities paid at their office. All w hich advan¬ tages render a ffiare in their flock very valuable } though it is not equal in value to the Eaft India flock. The company make dividends of the profits half year¬ ly, of which notice is publicly given *, when thofe who have occafion for their money may readily receive it; but private perfons, if they judge convenient, are per¬ mitted to continue their funds, and to have their inte- reft added to the principal. This company is under the dire&ion of a governor, deputy-governor, and 24 diredlors, who are annually eledled by the general court, in the fame manner as in the Eaft India Company. Thirteen, or more, com- pofe a court of direftors for managing the affairs of the company. The officers of this company are very nu¬ merous. The liability of the bank of England is equal to that of the Britiffi government. All that it has advanced to the public mud be loft before its creditors can fu- ftain any lofs. No other banking company in England can be eftablilhed by a£l of parliament, or can confift of more than fix members. It a£ts, not only as an or¬ dinary bank, but (as we have already feen) as a great engine of ftate •, receiving and paying the greater part of the annuities which are due to the creditors of the public } circulating exchequer bills •, and advancing to government the annual amount of the land and malt taxes, which are frequently not paid up till fome years thereafter. It likewife has, upon feveral different oc- cafions, fupported the credit of the principal houfes, not only in England, but of Hamburgh and Holland. Upon one occafion it is faid to have advanced for this purpofe, in one week, about 1,600,cool, a great part -of it in bullion. In Scotland there are two public banks, both at E- Bank., dinburgh. The one, called The Bank of Scotland, was ' v eftabliffied by aft of parliament in 1695 } the other, ^cot5h called The Royal Bunk, by royal charter in 1727. ^ a?^u" Within thefe 30 years there have alfo been erefled private. private banking companies in almoft every confiderable town, and even in fome villages. Hence the bufinefs of the country is almoft entirely carried on by paper- currency, i. e. by the notes of thofe different banking companies } with which purchafes and payments of all kinds are commonly made. Silver very feldom appears, except in the change of a tw^enty-ftfilling bank-note, and gold Hill feldomer. But though the condufl of all thofe different companies has not been unexceptionable, and has accordingly required an aft of parliament to regulate it; the country, notwithftanding, has evident¬ ly derived great benefit from their trade. It has been afferted, that the trade of the city of Glafgow doubled in about 15 years after the firft ereflion of the banks there •, and that the trade of Scotland has more than quadrupled fince the firft ereflion of the two public banks at Edinburgh. Whether the trade, either of Scotland in general, or of the city of Glafgow in par¬ ticular, has really increafed in fo great a proportion, during fo fhort a period, we do not pretend to know. If either of them has increafed in this proportion, it feems to be an effefl too great to be accounted for by the foie operation of this caufe. That the trade and induftry of Scotland, however, have increafed very con- fiderably during this period, and that the banks have contributed a good deal to this increafe, cannot be doubted. The value of the filver money which circulated in Smith's Scotland before the Union in 1707, and which immz-Wealth of diatly after it was brought into the bank of Scotland in order to be recoined, amounted to 411,117!. I os. pd. cj)api ^ fterling. No account has been got of the gold coin : but it appears from the ancient accounts of the mint of Scotland, that the value of the gold annually coined fomewhat exceeded that of the filver. There were a good many people too upon this occafion, who, from a diffidence of repayment, did not bring their filver into the bank of Scotland ; and there was, befides, fome Englifti coin, which was not called in. The whole va¬ lue of the gold and filver, therefore, which circulated in Scotland before the Union, cannot be eftimated at lefs than a million fterling. It feems to have confti- tuted almoft the whole circulation of that country *, for though the circulation of the bank of Scotland, which had then no rival was confiderable, it feems to have made but a very fmall part of the whole. In the prefent times, the whole circulation of Scotland cannot be eftimated at lefs than two millions, of which that part which confifts of gold and filver moft probably does not amount to half a million. But though the cir¬ culating gold and filver of Scotland have fuffered fo great a diminution during this period, its real riches and profperity do not appear to have fuffered any. Its agriculture, manufaftures, and trade, on the contrary, the annual produce of its land and labour, have evi¬ dently been augmented. It is chiefly by difcounting bills of exchange, that j};fcoant. is, by advancing money upon them before they are ing of due, that the greater part of banks and bankers iffue bills, their promiffory notes, They dedutt always upon what¬ ever Cafh-ac- counts. BAN [367 Bank, ever fum they advance, the legal intereft till the bill —\r—' lhall become due. The payment of the bill, when it becomes due, replaces to the bank the value of what had been advanced, together with a clear profit of the intereft. The banker, who advances to the merchant whofe bill he difcounts not gold and filver, but his own promiffory notes, has the advantage of being able to difcount to a greater amount, by the whole value of his promiffbry notes, which he finds by experience are commonly in circulation. He is thereby enabled to make his clear gain of intereft on fo much larger a fum. The commerce of Scotland, which at prefent is not very great, was ftill more inconfiderable when the two firft banking companies were eftabliftied; and thofe companies would have had but little trade, had they confined their bufinefs to the difcounting of bills of ex¬ change. They invented, therefore, another method of iffuing their promiffory notes, by granting what they called cafh accounts; that is, by giving credit to the extent of a certain fum (2000I. or 3000I. for example), to any individual who could procure two perfons of un¬ doubted credit and good landed eftate to become furety for him, that whatever money ftiould be advanced to him within the fum for which the credit had been given ftiould be repaid upon demand, together with the legal intereft. Credits of this kind are commonly granted by banks and bankers in all different parts of the world. But the eafy terms on which the Scots banking com¬ panies accept of repayment are peculiar to them, and have perhaps been the principal caufe, both of the great trade of thofe companies and of the benefit which the country has received from it. Whoever has a credit of this kind with one of thofe companies, and borrows 1000I. upon it, for example, may repay this fum piecemeal, by 20I. and 30I. at a time, the company difcounting a proportionable part of the intereft of the great fum from the day on which each of thofe fmall fums is paid in, till the whole be in this manner repaid. All merchants, therefore, and almoft all men of bufinefs, find it convenient to keep to the fuch cafti-accounts with them; and are thereby inte- kanks, and rafted to promote the trade of thofe companies, by rea¬ dily receiving their notes in all payments, and by en¬ couraging all thofe with whom they have any influ¬ ence to do the fame. The banks, when their cufto- mers apply to them for money, generally advance it to them in their own promiffory notes. Thefe the mer¬ chants pay away to the manufacturers for goods, the manufacturers to the farmers for materials and provi- fions, the farmers to their landlords for rent, the land¬ lords repay them to the merchants for the convenien¬ ces and luxuries with which they fupply them, and the merchants again return them to the banks in order to balance their cafh-accounts, or to replace what they mav have borrowed of them ; and thus almoft the whole money-bufinefs of the country is tranfaCled by means of them. Hence the great trade of thofe com¬ panies. By means of thofe cafti-accounts, every merchant can, without imprudence, carry on a greater trade to the than he othervvife could do. If there are two mer- sountry. chants, one in London and the other in Edinburgh, who employ equal ftocks in the fame branch of trade, ] BAN Advan¬ tages from thefe the Edinburgh merchant can, without imprudence, Bank, carry on a greater trade, and give employment to a u*—y— greater number of people, than the London merchant. The London merchant muft always keep by him a con- fiderable fum of money, either in his own coffers, or in thofe of his banker (who gives him no intereft for it), in order to anfwer the demands continually coming upon him for payment of the goods which he purchafes upon credit. Let the ordinary amount of this fum be fuppofed 50°h J- he value of the goods in his ware- houfe muft always be lefs by 500I. than it would have been, had he not been obliged to keep fuch a fum un¬ employed. Let us fuppofe that he generally difpofes of his whole ftock upon hand, or of goods to the va¬ lue of his whole ftock upon hand, once in the year. By being obliged to keep fuch a great fum unemploy¬ ed, he muft fell in a year 500I. worth lefs goods than he might otherwife have done. His annual profits muft be lefs by all that he could have made by the fale of 500I. worth more goods; and the number of people employed in preparing his goods for the market, muft be lefs by all thofe that 500I. more ftock could have employed. The merchant in Edinburgh, on the other hand, keeps no money unemployed for anfwering fuch occafional demands. When they a&ually come upon him, he latisfies them from his cafh-account with the bank, and gradually replaces the fum borrowed with the money or paper which comes in from the occafion¬ al fales of his goods. With the fame ftock, there¬ fore, he can, without imprudence, have at all times in his warehoufe a larger quantity of goods than the London merchant ; and can thereby both make a greater profit himfelf, and give conftant employment to a greater number of induitrious people who pre¬ pare thofe goods for the market. Hence the great benefit which the country has derived from this trade. I he late multiplication of banking companies in both parts of the united kingdom, an event by which many people have been much alarmed, inftead of di- minifhing, increafes the fecurity of the public. It obliges all of them to be more circumfpect in their con- duff, and, by not extending their currency beyond its due proportion to their cafti, to guard themfelves a- gainft thofe malicious runs which the rivalfliip of fo many competitors is always ready to bring upon them. It reftrains the circulation of each particular company within a narrower circle, and reduces their circulating notes to a fmaller number. By dividing the whole cir¬ culation into a greater number of parts, the failure of any one company, an accident which, in the courfe of things, muft fometimes happen, becomes of lefs confe- quence to the public. This free competition too obliges all bankers to be more liberal in their dealings with their cuftomers, left their rivals fhould carry them away. In general, if any branch of trade, or any divifion of labour, be advantageous to the public, the freer and more ge¬ neral the competition, it will always be the more fo. See further, the article PAPE.ll Money. '■> The other kind of banks confift of fuch as are in-jj £3^ ftituted wholly on the public account, and are called of depofik Banks of Depofit; the nature of which not being gene¬ rally underftood, the following particular explanation may not be unacceptable. The currency of a great ftate, fuch as Britain, ge¬ nerally BAN Bank, nerally confifts almoft entirely of its own coin. Should '-“T'v ' this currency, therefore, be at any time worn, dipt, or SmltVs otherwife degraded below its ftandard value, the date Nations a reformation of its coin can effedually re-eftabli(li Book IV. its currency. But the currency of a fmall date, fuch chap. iii. -as Genoa or Hamburgh, can feldom confid altogether in its own coin, but mud be made up, in a great mea- fure, of the coins of all the neighbouring dates with which its inhabitants have a continual intercoigfe. Such a date, therefore, by reforming its coin, will c always be able to reform its currency. If foreign bills of exchange are paid in this currency, the uncertain value of any fum, of what is in its own nature fo un¬ certain, mud render the exchange always very much againd fuch a date, its currency being, in all foreign dates, neceflarily valued below even what it is worth. In order to remedy the inconvenience to which this difadvantageous exchange mud have fubje&ed their merchants, fuch fmall dates, when they began to at¬ tend to the intered of trade, have frequently enafted, that foreign bills of exchange of a certain value (hould be paid, not in common currency, but by an order up¬ on, or by a transfer in, the books of a certain bank, edablidicd upon the credit and under the proteftion of the date *, this bank being always obliged to pay, in good and true money, exa£Hy according to the dand- ard of the date. The banks of Venice, Genoa, Am- derdam, Hamburgh, and Nuremberg, feem to have been all originally edablidred with this view, though fome of them may have afterwards been made fubfer- vient to other purpofes. The money of fuch banks, being better than the common currency of the coun¬ try, neceflarily bore an agio, which was greater or fmaller, according as the currency was fuppofed to be more or lefs degraded below the dandard of the date. The agio of the bank of Hamburgh, for example, which is faid to be commonly about 14 per cent, is the fuppofed difference between the good dandard mo¬ ney of the date, and the dipt, worn, and diminiflred currency poured into it from all the neighbouring dates. Before 1609, the great quantity of dipt and worn foreign coin, which the extenfive trade of Amderdam brought from all parts of Europe, reduced the value of its currency about 9 per cent, below that of good mo¬ ney frdh from the mint. Such money no fooner ap¬ peared, than it was melted down or carried away, as it always is in fueh circumdances. The merchants, with plenty of currency, could not always find a fuffi- cient quantity of good money to pay their bills of ex¬ change ; and the value of thofe bills, in fpite of feve- ral regulations which were made to prevent it, became Bink of a 8real: uncertain. In order to remedy Amfter thefe inconveniences, a bank was edablidied in 1609 dam, one under the guarantee of the city. The bank received of the moft both foreign coin, and the light and worn coin of the famous; country, at its real and intrinfic value in the good tion' re^a- ftandard money of the country, deducing only fo much latio’n, Uti- as was neceflfary for defraying the expence of coinage, lity, &c. and other neceflary expence of management. For the value which remained after this fmall dedu£tion was made, it gave a credit in its books. This credit was called bunk money ; which, as it reprefented money ex- a£tly according to the ftandard of the mint, was always of the fame real value, and intrinfically worth more BAN than current money. It was at the fame time enaclcd, Bank, that all bills drawn upon or negotiated at Amfterdam "—~v~" of the value of 600 guilders and upwards (hould be paid in bank-money, which at once took away all uncer¬ tainty in the value of thofe bills. Every merchant, in confequence of this regulation, was obliged to keep an account with the bank in order to pay his foreign bills of exchange, which necefiarily occafioned a certain de¬ mand for bank-money. Bank-money, over and above both its intrinfic fu- periority to currency, and the additional value which this demand necefi'arily gives it, has likewife fome other advantages. It is fecure from fire, robbery, and other accidents; the city of Amfterdam is bound for it ; it can be paid away by a Ample transfer, without the trouble of counting, or the rilk of tranfporting it from one place to another. In confequence of thofe different advantages, it feems from the beginning to have born an agio \ and it is generally believed that all the money originally depofited in the bank was al¬ lowed to remain there, nobody caring to demand pay¬ ment of a debt which he could fell for a premium in the market. Befides, this money could not be brought from thofe coffers, as it will appear by and by, without pre- vioufty paying for the keeping. Thofe depofits of coin, or which the bank was bound to reftore in coin, conftituted the original capital of the bank, or the whole value of what was reprefented by what is called bank-money. At prefent they are fup¬ pofed to conftitute but a very fmall part of it. In or¬ der to facilitate the trade in bullion, the bank has been for thefe many years in the practice of giving credit in its books upon depofits of gold and filver bul¬ lion. This credit is generally about 5 per cent, below the mint price of fuch bullion. The bank grants at the fame time what is called a rccipice or receipt, en¬ titling the perfon who makes the depofit, or the bear¬ er, to take out the bullion again at any time within fix months, upon re-transferring to the bank a quan¬ tity of bank-money equal to that for which credit had been given in its books when the depofit was made, and upon paying \ per cent, for the keeping if the depofit was in filver, and \ per cent, if it was in gold ; but at the fame time declaring, that in default of fuch pay¬ ment, and upon the expiration of this term, the depo¬ fit Ihould belong to the bank at the price at which it had been received, or for which credit had been given in the transfer books. What is thus paid for the keep¬ ing of the depofit may be confidered as a fort of ware- houfe-rent; and why this warehoufe-rent {hould be fo much dearer for gold than for filver, feveral different reafons have been afligned. The finenefs of gold, it has been faid, is more difficult to be afcertained than that of filver. Frauds are more eafily pra&ifed, and occafion a greater lofs in the more precious metal. Silver, befides, being the ftandard metal, the ftate, it has been faid, wilhes to encourage more the making of depofits of filver than thofe of gold. Depofits of bullion are moft commonly made when the price is fomewhat lower than ordinary j and they are taken out again when it happens to rife. In Hol¬ land the market price of bullion is generally above the mint price, for the fame reafon that it was fo in Eng¬ land before the late reformation of the gold coin. The difference is faid to be commonly from about fix to fixteea [ 368 ] / BAN [ 369 ] BAN Bank, fixteen (livers upon the mark, or eight ounces of filver —v~' of eleven parts fine and one part alloy. The bank- price, or the credit which the bank gives for depofits of fuch lilver (when made in foreign coin, of which the finenefs is well known and afcertained, fuch as Mexico dollars), is 22 gilders the mark j the mint-price is about 23 gilders; and the market-price is from 23 gilders fix ftivers to 23 gilders 16 divers, or from 2 to 3 per cent, above the mint-price. The proportion between the bank-price, the mint-price, and the market-price, of gold bullion, are nearly the fame. A perfon can gene¬ rally fell his receipt for the difference between the mint- price of bullion and the market-price. A receipt for bullion is almoft always worth fomething ; and it very feldom happens therefore that anybody fuffers his re¬ ceipt to.expire, or allows his bullion to fall to the bank at the price at which it had been received, either by not taking it out before the end of the fix months, or by neglefling to pay the £ or.-J per cent, in order to obtain a new receipt for another fix months. This, however, though it feldom happens, is faid to happen fometimes, and more frequently with regard to gold than with regard to filver, on account of the higher warehoufe-rent which is paid for the keeping of the more precious metal. The perfon who by making a depofit of bullion ob¬ tains both a bank-credit and a receipt, pays his bills of exchange as they become due with his bank-credit ; and either fells or keeps his receipt, according as he judges that the price of bullion is likely to rife or to fall. The receipt and the bank-credit feldom keep long together, and there is no occafion that they (hould. The perfon who has a receipt, and who wants to take out bullion, finds always plenty of bank-credits, or bank-money, to buy at the ordinary price ; and the perfon who has bank-money, and wants to take out bullion, finds re¬ ceipts always in equal abundance. The owners of bank-credits and the holders of re¬ ceipts conftitute two different forts of creditors againff the bank. The holder of a receipt cannot draw out the bullion for which it is granted, without re-afligning to the bank a fum of bank-money equal to the price at which the bullion had been received. If he has no bank-money of bis own, he muft purchafe it of thofe who have it. The owner of bank-money cannot draw out bullion without producing to the bank receipts for the quantity which he wants. If he has none of his own, he muft buy them of thofe who have them. The holder of a receipt, when he purchafes bank-money, purchafes the power of taking out a quantity of bul¬ lion, of which the mint-price is 5 per cent, above the bank-price. The agio of 5 per cent, therefore, which he commonly pays for it, is paid not for an imagina¬ ry, but for a real value. The owner of bank-money, when he purchafes a receipt, purchafes the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which the market- price is commonly from 2 to 3 per cent, above the mint- price. The price which he pays for it, therefore, is paid likewife for a real value. The price of the re¬ ceipt, and the price of the bank-money, compound or make up between them the full value or price of the bullion. Upon depofits of the coin current in the country, the bank grants receipts likewife as well as bank-credits ; but thofe receipts are frequently of no value, and will Vol. III. Part I. bring no price in the market. Upon ducatoons, for Bank, example, which in the currency pafs for three gilders three (livers each, the bank gives a credit of three gil¬ ders only, or 5 per cent, below their current value. It grants a receipt likewife entitling the bearer to take out the number of ducatoons depofited at any time within fix months, upon paying per cent, for the keeping. This receipt will frequently bring no price in the market. Three gilders bank-money generally fell in the market for three gilders three (livers, the full value of the ducatoons if they were taken out of the bank ; and before they can be taken out, ^ per cent, mud be paid for the keeping, which would be mere lofs to the holder of the receipt. If the agio of the bank, however, (hould at any time fall to 3 per cent, fuch receipts might bring fome price in the market, and might fell for per cent. But the agio of the bank being now generally about 5 per cent, fuch receipts are frequently allowed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall to the bank. The 5 per cent, which the bank gains, when depofits either of coin or bul¬ lion are allowed to fall to it, may be confidered as the warehoufe rent for the perpetual keeping of fuch de¬ pofits. The fum of bank-money for which the receipts are expired muft be very confiderable. It mud compre¬ hend the whole original capital of the bank, which, it is generally fuppofed, has been allowed to remain there from the time it was firll depofited, nobody caring either to renew his receipt or to take out his depofit, as, for the reafons already aftigned, neither the one nor the other could be done without lofs. But whatever may be the amount of this fum, the propor¬ tion which it bears to the whole mafs of bank-money is fuppofed to be very fmall. The bank of Amfterdam has for thefe many years pad been the great warehoufe of Europe for bullion, for which the receipts are very feldom allowed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall to the bank. The far greater part of the bank-money, or of the credits upon the books of the bank, is fup¬ pofed to have been created, for thefe many years pad, by fuch depofits which the dealers in bullion are con¬ tinually both making and withdrawing. No demand can be made upon the bank but by means of a recipice or receipt. The fmaller mafs of bank- money, for which the receipts are expired, is mixed and confounded with the much greater mafs for which they are dill in force ; fo that, though there may be a confiderable fum of bank-money for which there are no receipts, there is no fpecific fum or portion of it which may not at any time be demanded by one. The bank cannot be debtor to two perfons for the fame thing; and the owner of bank-money who has no receipt cannot demand payment of the bank till he buys one. In ordinary and quiet times, he can find no difficulty in getting one to buy at the market- price, which generally correfponds with the price at which he can fell the coin or bullion it entitles him to take out of the bank. It might be otherwife during a public calamity ; an invafion, for example, fuch as that of the French in 1672. The owners of bank-money being then all eager to draw it out of the bank, in order to have it in their own keeping, the demand for receipts might raife their price to an exorbitant height. The holders of therri 3 A roight BAN [ 370 ] BAN Bank might form extravagant expe&ations, and inftead of —/—— 2 or 3 per cent, demand half the bank-money for which credit had been given upon the depofits that the re¬ ceipts had refpe£Hvely been granted for. The enemy, informed of the conftitution of the bank, might even buy them up in order to prevent the carrying away of the treafure. In fuch emergencies, the bank, it is fup- pofed, would break through its ordinary rule of making payment only to the holders of receipts. The holders of receipts, who had no bank-money, muft have recei¬ ved within 2 or 3 per cent, of the value of the depofit for which their refpedive receipts had been granted. The bank, therefore, it is faid, would in this cafe make no fcruple in paying, either with money or bullion, the full value of what the owners of bank-money who could get no receipts were credited for in its books*, paying at the fame time 2 or 3 per cent, to fuch holder of re¬ ceipts as had no bank-money, that being the whole value which in this Hate of things could juflly be fup- pofed due to them. Even in ordinary and quiet times it is the intereft of the holders of receipts to deprefs the agio, in order ei¬ ther to buy bank-money (and confequently the bullion which their receipts would then enable them to take out of the bank) fo much cheaper, or to fell their re¬ ceipts to thofe who have bank-money, and who want to take out bullion, fo much dearer ; the price of a re¬ ceipt being generally equal to the difference between the market-price of bank-money and that of the coin or bullion for which the receipt had been granted. It is the intereft of the owners of bank-money, on the contrary, to raife the agio, in order either to fell their bank-money fo much dearer, or to buy a receipt fo much cheaper. To prevent the ftoek-jobbing tricks which thofe oppofite interefts might fometlmes occa- fion, the bank has of late years come to a refolution to fell at all times bank-money for currency, at 5 per cent, agio, and to buy it again at 4 per cent. agio. In con- ftquence of this refolution, the agio can never either rife above 5 or fink below 4 per cent, and the propor¬ tion between the market-price of the bank and that of current money is kept at all times very near to the pro¬ portion between their intrinfic values. Before this re¬ folution was taken, the market-price of money ufed fometimes to rife fo'high as 9 per cent, agio, and fome- times to fink fo low as par, according as oppofite in¬ terefts happened to influence the market. The bank of Amfterdam profeffes to lend out no part of what is depofited with it, but, for every gilder for which it gives credit in its books, to keep in its repo- fitories the value of a gilder either in money or bullion. That it keeps in its repofitories all the money or bullion for which there are receipts in force, for which it is at all times liable to be called upon, and which, in reality, is continually going from it and returning to it again, cannot well be doubted. But whether it does fo like- wife with regard to that part of its capital for which the receipts are long ago expired, for which in ordi¬ nary and quiet times it cannot be called upon, and which in reality is very likely to remain with it for ever, or as long as the States of the United Provinces fubfift, may appear perhaps more uncertain. At Am¬ fterdam, however, no part of faith is better eftablilhed, than that for every gilder circulated as bank-money, there is a correfpondent gilder in gold and filver to be found in the treafure of the bank. The city is gua- Bank, rantee that it fhould be fo. The bank is under the di- —-v— re£tion of the four reigning burgomafters, who are changed every year. Each new fet of burgomafters vi- fits the treafure, compares it with the books, receives it upon oath, and delivers it over, with the fame awlul folemnity, to the fet which fucceeds it j and in that fo- ber and religious country oaths are not yet difregarded. A rotation of this kind feems alone a fufficient feeurity againft any praflices which cannot be avowed. Amidft all the revolutions which faction has ever occafioned in the government of Amfterdam, the prevailing party has at no time accufed their predeceffors of infidelity in the adminiftration of the bank. No accufation could have affe&ed more deeply the reputation and fortune of the difgraced party j and if fuch an accufation could have been fupported, we may be affured that it would have been brought. In 1672, when the French king was at Utrecht, the bank of Amfterdam paid fo readi¬ ly as left no doubt of the fidelity with which it had obferved its engagements. Some of the pieces which were then brought from its repofitories appeared to have been fcorched with the fire which happened in the town-houfe foon after the bank was eftablifti- ed. Thofe pieces, therefore, muft have lain there from that time. What may be the amount of the treafure in the bank is a queftion which has long employed the fpecu- lations of the curious. Nothing but conjefture can be offered concerning it. It is generally reckoned, that there are about 2000 people who keep accounts with the bank; and allowing them to have, one with another, the value of 1500I. lying upon their refpeflive ac¬ counts (a very large allowance), the whole quantity of bank-money, and confequently of treafure in the bank, will amount to 3,000,000!. or, at 11 gilders the pound fterling, 33,000,000 of gilders; a great fum, and fuf¬ ficient t® carry, on a very extenfive circulation, but vaftly below the extravagant ideas which fome people have formed of this treafure. The city of Amfterdam derives a confiderable revenue from the bank. Befides what may be called the ware- houfe-rent above-mentioned, each perfon, upon firft opening an account with the bank, pays a fee of 10 gil¬ ders ; and for every new account, 3 gilders 3 ftivers; for every transfer, 2 ftivers ; and if the transfer is for lefs than 300 gilders, 6 ftivers ; in order to difcourage the multiplicity of fmall tranfaftions. The perfon who negletts to balance his accounts twice in the year for¬ feits 2 > gilders. The perfon who orders a transfer for more than is upon his accounts, is obliged to pay 3 per cent, for the fum overdrawn, and his order is fet afide into the bargain, The bank is fuppofed, too, to make a confiderable profit by the fale of the foreign coin or bullion which fometimes falls to it by the expiring of receipts, and which is always kept till it can be fold with advantage. It makes a profit likewife by felling bank-money at 5 per cent, agio, and buying it in at 4. Thefe different emoluments amount to a good deal more than what is neceffary for paying the falaries of officers, and defraying the expence of management. What is paid for the keeping of bullion upon receipts, is alone fuppofed to amount to a neat annual revenue of be¬ tween 150,000 and 200,000 gilders. Public utility, however3 and not revenytej. was the original cbjeft of BAN Sank tills inftitution. Its objeft was to relieve the Merchants || from the inconvenience of a difadvantageous exchange. Bankrupt, revenue which has arifen from it was unforefeen, and may be confidered as accidental. Bank, in fea affairs, denotes an elevation of the ground or bottom of the fea, fo as fometimes to fur- mount the furface of the water, or at leaft to leave the water fo (hallow as ufually not to allow a veffel to re¬ main afloat over it.—In this fenfe, bank amounts to much the fame as flat, (hoal, &c. There are banks of fand, and others of (tone, called alfo Jhelves, or rocks. In the North fea they alfo fpeak of banks of ice, which are large pieces of that matter floating. BANKER, a perfon who traffics and negociates in money ; who receives and remits money from place to place by commiffion from correfpondents, or by means of bills or letters of exchange, &c. The ancient bankers were called argentarii, and num¬ mular u ; by the Greeks, x.oWvfii falfe notion of humanity, feems to be fertile of perjury, injuftice, and abfurdity. The laws of England, more wifely, have fleered in the middle between both extremes : providing at once again ft the inhumanity of the creditor, who is not fuf- fered to confine an honeft bankrupt after his effe&s are delivered up •, and at the fame time taking care that all his juft debts {hall be paid, fo far as the effefts will extend. But ftill they are cautious of encouraging prodigality and extravagance by this indulgence to debtors ; and therefore they allow the benefit of the laws of bankruptcy to none but a&ual traders j fince that fet of men are, generally fpeaking, the only per- ions liable to accidental Ioffes, and to an inability of paying their debts, without any fault of their own. If perfons in other fituations of life run in debt without the power of payment, they muft take the confequence of their own indifcretion, even though they meet with fudden accidents that may reduce their fortunes: for the law holds it to be an unjuftifiable pra6Hce, for any perfon but a trader to encumber himfelf rvith debts of any confiderable value. If a gentleman, or one in a liberal profeffion, at the time of contracting his debts, has a fufficient fund to pay them, the delay of pay¬ ment is a fpecies of dfthonefty, and a temporary injuf¬ tice to his creditor : and if, at fuch a time, he has not fufticient fund, the diftionerty and injuftice is the great¬ er. He cannot therefore murmur, if he fuffers the pu- nifirment which he has voluntarily drawn upon himfelf. But in mercantile tranfaClions the cafe is far otherwife. Trade cannot be carried on without mutual credit on both iides ; the contracting of debts is therefore here . not only juftifiable but neceffary. And if, by acci¬ dental calamities, as by the lofs of a ihip in a tempeft, the failure of brother-traders, or by the non-payment of perfons out of trade, a merchant or trader becomes incapable of difcharging his own debts, it is his mif- fortune and not his fault. To the misfortunes therefore of debtors, the law has given a compaffionate remedy, but denied it to their faults : fince, at the fame time that it provides for the fecurity of commerce, by en- afting that every confiderable trader may be declared a bankrupt, for the benefit of his creditors as well as himfelf, it has alfo, to difcourage extravagance, decla¬ red that no one (hall be capable of being made a bank¬ rupt, but only a trader ; nor capable of receiving the full benefit of the ftatutes, but only an induftrious tra¬ der. In the interpretation of the feveral ftatutes made '■* 34 Hen’ concerning Englifh bankrupts*, it hath been held, 4- bUying only, or felling only, will not qualify a CU. Jac.i- man to be a bankrupt j but it muft be both buying c. 19. and felling, and alfo getting a livelihood by it : as, by 5 Geo. II. exercifing the calling of a merchant, a grocer, a mef- ^ 3°* cer, or, in one general word, a chapman, who is one that buys and fells any thing. But no handicraft oc¬ cupation (where nothing is bought or fold, and there¬ fore an extenfive credit, for the flock in trade, is not neceffary to be had) will make a man a regular bank¬ rupt : as that of a hufbandman, a gardener, and the like, who are paid for their wrork and labour. Alfo an innkeeper cannot, as fuch, be a bankrupt: for his gain or livelihood does not arife from buying and fell¬ ing in the way of merchandife, but greatly from the B A N ufe of his rooms and furniture, his attendance, and the Bankrupt, like ; and though he may buy corn and victuals, to J fell again at a profit, yet that no more makes him a trader, than a fchoolmafter or other perfon is, that keeps a boarding-houfe, and makes confiderable gains by buying and felling what he fpends in the houfe, and fuch a one is clearly not within the ftatutes. But where perfons buy goods, and make them up into faleable commodities, as ftioemakers, fmiths, and the like j here, though part of the gain is by bodily la¬ bour, and not by buying and felling, yet they are W'ith- in the ftatutes of .bankrupts.: for the labour is only in melioration of the commodity, and rendering it more fit for fale. 2. To learn what the a61s of bankruptcy are which render a man a bankrupt, we muft confult the feveral ftatutes, and the refolutions formed by the courts there¬ on. Among thefe may therefore be reckoned, 1. De¬ parting from the realm, whereby a man withdraws him¬ felf from the jurifdidlion and coercion of the law, with an intent to defraud his creditors. 2. Departing from his own houfe, with an intent to fecrete himfelf and avoid his creditors. 3. Keeping in his own houfe, privately (except for juft and neceffary caufe), fo as not to be feen or fpoken with by his creditors j which is likewife conftrued to be an intention to defraud his creditors, by avoiding the procefs of the law. 4. Pro¬ curing or fuffering himfelf willingly to be arfefted, or outlawed, or imprifoned, without juft and lawful caufe ; which is likewife deemed an attempt to defraud his creditors. 5. Procuring his money, goods, chattels, and effeds, to be attached or fequeftrated by any legal procefs ; which is another plain and dired endeavour to difappoint his creditors of their fecurity. 6. Making any fraudulent conveyance to a friend, or fecret truftee, of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels : which is an ad of the fame fufpicious nature with the laft. 7. Procuring any protedion, not being himfelf privile¬ ged by parliament, in order to fcreen his perfon from arrefts j which alfo is an endeavour to elude the juftice of the law. 8. Endeavouring, or defiring, by any petition to the king, or bill exhibited in any of the king’s courts againft any creditors, to compel them to take lefs than their juft debts 5 or to procraftinate the time of payment, originally contraded for 5 which are an acknowledgment of either his poverty or his knavery. 9. Lying in prifon for two months, or more, upon arreft or other detention for debt, without finding bail, in order to obtain liberty. For the inability to procure bail argues a ftrong deficiency in his credit, owing either to his fufpeded poverty, or ill charader '7 and his negled to do it, if able, can arife only from a fraudulent intention 5 in either of which cafes, it is high time for his creditors to look to themfelves, and compel a diftribution of. his effeds. 10. Efcaping from prifon after an arreft for a juft debt of look or upwards : for no man would break prifon, that was able and defirous to procure bail which brings it within the reafon of the laft cafe. 11. Negleding to make fatisfadion for any juft debt to the amount of xcol. within two months after fervice of legal procefs, for fuch debt, upon any trader having privilege of par¬ liament. Thefe are the feveral ads of bankruptcy exprefsly defined by the ftalutes relating to this article $ which being L 372 1 BAN [ 373 ] BAN Bankrupt, being fo numerous, and the whole law of bankrupts Banks, being an innovation on the common law, our courts of juft ice have been tender of extending or multiplying afts of bankruptcy by any conftruftion or implication. And therefore Sir John Holt held, that a man’s re¬ moving his goods privately to prevent their being fei- zed in execution, was no aft of bankruptcy. For the ftatutes mention only fraudulent gifts to third perfons, and procuring them to be feized by fham procefs, in order to defraud creditors ; but this, though a pal¬ pable fraud, yet, falling within neither of thofe cafes, cannot be adjudged an aft of bankruptcy. So alfo it has been determined exprefsly, that a banker’s flopping or refufing payment is no aft of bankruptcy : for it is not within the defcription of any of the ftatutes j and there may be good reafons for his fo doing, as fufpicion of forgery, and the like : and if, in confequence of fuch refufal, he is arrefted, and puts in bail, flill it is no aft of bankruptcy j but if he goes to prifon, and lies there two months, then, and not before, is he become a bankrupt. As to the confequences refulting from the unhappy fituation of a bankrupt, fee the article COMMISSION of Bankruptcy. BANKS, John, a dramatic writer, was bred to the law, and belonged to the fociety of Gray’s Inn j but this profeffion not fuiting his natural diipofition, he quitted it for the fervice of the mufes. Here, how¬ ever, he found his rewards by no means adequate to his deferts. His emoluments at the bed: were preca¬ rious, and the various fucceffes of his pieces too feel¬ ingly convinced him of the error in his choice. This, how'ever, did not prevent him from purfuing with cheerfulnefs the path he had taken ; his third: of fame, and warmth of poetic enthufiafm, alleviating to his imagination many difagreeable circumdances into which indigence, the too frequent attendant on poetical pur- fuits, frequently threw him. His turn was entirely to tragedy ; his merit in which is of a peculiar kind. For at the fame time that his language mud: be confef- fed to be extremely unpoetical, and his numbers un¬ couth and unharmonious •, nay, even his charafters ve¬ ry far from being ftrongly marked or didinguidred, and his epifodes extremely irregular : yet it is impof- fible to avoid being deeply affefted at the reprefenta- tion, and even at the reading, of his tragic pieces. This is owing in the general to a happy choice of his fubjefts ; which are all borrowed from hidory, either real or romantic •, and indeed the mod of them from circumdances in the annals of our own country, which, not only from their being familiar to our continual re- colleftion, but even from their having fome degree of relation to ourfelves, we are apt to receive with a kind of partial prepoffedion, and a pre-determination to be pleafed. He has condantly chofen as the bads of his plays fuch tales as were in themfelves and their well- known catadrophes molt truly adapted to the purpofes of the drama. He has indeed but little varied from the driftnefs of hidorical fafts ; but he feems to have made it his condant rule to keep the feene perpetually alive, and never differ his charafters to droop. His verfe is not poetry, but profe run mad. Yet will the falfe gem fometimes approach fo near in glitter to the true one, at lead in the eyes of all but real connoiffeurs (and how fmall a part of an audience are to be ranked in this clafs it will need no ghod to inform us), that Banks bombad will frequently pads for the true fublime ; and || where it is rendered the vehicle of incidents in them- Bann. felves affefting, and in which the heart is apt to inte- 'r“ red itfelf, it will perhaps be found to have a dronger power on the human paffions than even that property to which it is in reality no more than a bare fucceda- neum. And from thefe principles it is that we mud account for Mr Banks’s writings having in the gene¬ ral dratvn more tears from, and excited more terror in, even judicious audiences, than thofe of much more cor- reft and more truly poetical authors. The tragedies he has left behind him are, i. Albion Queens. 2. Cyrus the Great. 3. Dedruftion of Troy. 4. Innocent U- furper. 5. Ifland Queens. This is only the Albion Queens altered. 6. Rival Kings. 7. Virtue Betray¬ ed. 8. Unhappy Favourite. The Albion Queens was rejefted by the managers in 16845 but was afted by Queen Anne’s command in 1706, with great applaufe, and has been feveral times revived. The Unhappy Favourite continued till very lately a dock tragedy at the theatres 5 but gives way at prefent to the later tragedies from the fame dory, by Jones and Brooke.— Neither the time of the birth, nor that of the death, of this author, are afeertained. His remains, how¬ ever, lie interred in the church of St James’s, Wed- minder. BANKS’S ISLAND, a fmall idand in the South fea, difeovered by Captain Cook in 1770, in S. Lat. 53. 32. W. Long. 186. 30. It is of a circular figure, and about 24 leagues in compafs: it is fufficiently high to be feen at the diltance of 12 or 15 leagues 5 and the land has a broken irregular furface, with the appear¬ ance of barrennefs rather than fertility. It is, however, inhabited 5 as fome draggling favages were obferved upon it. BANKSIA. See Botany Index. BANN, or Ban (from the Brit, ban, i. e. clamour), is a proclamation or public notice4 any public fum- mons or edift, whereby a thing is commanded or for¬ bidden. It is a word ordinary among the feudiils; and there is both banns and banum, which fignifv two feveral things.—The word banns is particularly ufed in England in publifhing matrimonial contrafts ; which is done in the church before marriage, to the end that if any perfons can fpeak againd the intention of the parties, either in refpeft of kindred, precontraft, or for other jud caufe, they may take their exception in time before the marriage is confummated 5 and in the canon law, Bannoe funt proclamationes fponfi et fponfec in ecclefisfierifolitce. But there may be a faculty or licenfe for the marriage, and then this ceremony is omitted : and miniders are not to celebrate matrimony between any perfons without a licenfe, except the banns have been fird publidied three feveral times, upon pain of fufpenfion, &c. Can. 62. The ufe of matrimonial banns is faid to have been fird introduced in the Gallican church, though fome- thing like it obtained even in the primitive times 5 and it is this that Tertullian is fuppofed to mean by trinun- dina promu/gatio. The council of Lateran fird ex¬ tended, and made the ufage general. By the ordi¬ nance of Blois, no perfon could validlv contraft mar¬ riage, xvithout a preceding proclamation of three banns j nor could any perfon whatever be difpenfed with, ex¬ cept BAN l 374 1 BAN ■Barm, crpt for the two laft. But the French themfelves have Banner, abated much of this feverity ; and only minors are now ^ ’ under an abfolute neceffity of fubmitting to the forma¬ lity of banns. For majors, or thofe of age, after pub¬ lication of the firft banns, the two latter are eafily bought off. Bank is alfo ufed to denote profcription or banilh- ment for a crime proved *, becaufe anciently publiflied by found of trumpet 5 or, as Voffius thinks, becaufe thofe who did not appear at the above-mentioned fum- mons, were punifhed by profcription. Hence to put a prince under the hann of the empire, is to declare him diverted of all his dignities. The fentence only denotes an interdift of all intercourfe, and offices of humanity, with the offender ; the form of which feems taken from that of the Romans, who banirtied perfons by forbidding them the ufe of fire and water. Sometimes alfo cities are put under the imperial bann j that is, ftripped of their rights and privileges. Bann alfo denotes a pecuniary rnulft, or penalty, laid on a delinquent for offending againft a bann. Bann, or Bannus, a title anciently given to the governor ©r viceroy of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Scla- vonia. Epifcopal BANN (Bannus Epfcopalisf a mulct paid to the biffiop by thofe guilty of facrilege and other crimes. Bann is alfo ufed for a folemn anathema, or ex- .communication attended with curfes, &c. In this fenfe we read of papal banns, &c. Bann, in military affairs, a proclamation made in the -army by beat of drum, found of trumpet, &c. requiring the ftrift obfervance of difcipline, either for the declar¬ ing a new officer, or punifhing an offender. BANNER denotes either a fquare flag, or the prin¬ cipal ftandard belonging to a prince. We find a multiplicity of opinions concerning the .etymology of the word banner ; fome deriving it from the Latin bandum, “ a band or flag others from the word bann, “ to fummons the vaffals to appear in arms f others again from the German ban, “ a field or tene¬ ment,” becaufe landed men alone were allowed a ban¬ ner : and, finally, there are fome who think it is a cor¬ ruption of panniere, from pannus, “ cloth,” becaufe banners were originally made of cloth. The BANNER of France, was the largeft and richeft of all the flags borne by the ancient kings in their great military expeditions. St Martin’s cap was in ufe 600 years as the banner of France •, it was made of taffety, painted with the image of that faint, and laid one or two days on his tomb to prepare it for ufe. About the year 1100 came in a more pompous apparatus. The banner royal was faftened to the top of a mart, or fome tall tree, planted on a fcaffold j borne on a car¬ riage drawn by oxen, covered with velvet houfings, de¬ corated with devices or cyphers of the prince reigning. At the foot of the tree was a prieft, who faid mafs early every morning. Ten knights mounted guard on the fcaffold night and day, and as many trumpets at the foot of the tree never ceafed flourilhing, to animate the troops. This cumberfome machine, the model of which was brought from Italy, continued in ufe about 130 years. Its port was in the centre of the army. And here .it was that the chief feats were performed, to car¬ ry off and defend the royal banner j for there was no 4 viflory without it, nor was any army reputed vanquiffi- Banner, ed till they had loft their banner. Bannerc-ts. BANNERETS, an ancient order of knights, or ‘-’"‘"■v'--' feudal lords ; who, poffefiing feveral large fees, led their vaffals to battle under their own flag or banner, when fummoned thereto by the king. The word feems formed from banner, “ a fquare flag,” or from band, which anciently denoted a flag.—Bannerets are alfo called in ancient writers milites vexilliferi, and vexil/arii bannerarii, bannarii, banderifii, is'e. Anciently there were two kinds of knights, great and little ; the firft whereof were called bannerets, the fecond bachelors; the firft compofed the upper, the fecond the middle, nobility. The banneret was a dignity allowed to march un¬ der his own flag, whereas the bachelarius eques follow¬ ed that of another. To be qualified for a banneret, one muft be a gentleman of family, and muft have a power to raife a certain number of armed men, with eftate enough to fubfift at leaft 28 or 30 men. This muft. have been very confiderable in thofe days ; be¬ caufe each man, befides his fervant, had two horfemen to wait on him armed, the one with a crofs-bow, the other with a bow and hatchet. As he was not allow¬ ed to be a baron who had not above 13 knights fees, fo he was not admitted to be a banneret if he had lefs than 10. Banneret, according to Spelman, was a middle or¬ der between a baron and a iimple knight ; called fome- times alfo vexillarius minor, to diftinguifh him from the greater, that is, from the baron, to whom alone pro¬ perly belonged jus vexilh, or privilege of the fquare flag. Hence the banneret was alfo called bannerettus^ quafi baro minor ; a word frequently ufed by Englifk writers in the fame fenfe as banneret was by the French, though neither of them occur before the time of Ed¬ ward II. Some will have bannerets to have originally been perfons wrho had fome portion of a barony afligned them ; and enjoyed it under the title of baro proximus, and that with the fame prerogatives as the baron him- felf. Some, again, find the origin of bannerets in France, others in Brittany, others in England. Thefe laft attribute the inftitution of bannerets to Conan, lieutenant of Maximus, who commanded the Roman legions in England under the empire of Gratian in 383. This general, fay they, revolting, divided England into 40 cantons, and in thefe cantons diftributed 40 knights; to whom he gave a power of affembling, on occafion, under their feveral banners, as many of the effe&ive men as were found in their refpeftive diftridls : whence they are called bannerets. However this be, it appears from Froiffart, &c. that anciently fuch of the military men as w'ere rich enough to raife and fubfift a company of armed men, and had a right to do fo, were called bannerets. Not, however, that thefe qualifications ren¬ dered them knights, but only bannerets ; the appellation of knight being only added thereto, becaufe they were Ample knights before. Bannerets were fecond to none but knights of the Garter. They were reputed the next degree below the nobility; and were allowed to bear arms with fup- porters, which none elfe may under the degree of a baron. In France, it is faid, the dignity was heredi¬ tary } but in England it died with the perfon that gained 2d Banneret II Banquet¬ ing. BAN [ gained it. The order dwindled on the inftitution of baronets by King James I. and at length became ex- tm6t. The laft perfon created banneret was Sir John , Smith, made fo after Edgehill fight, for refcuing the ftandard of King Charles I. The form of the banneret’s creation was this. On a day of battle, the candidate prefented his flag to the king or general; who, cutting off the train or fldrt thereof, and making it a fquare, returned it again, the proper banner of bannerets $ who are hence fometimes called knights of the fquare flag. There feem to have been bannerets created either in a different manner, or by others than the fovereign ; fince King James, in the patents of baronets, gives them precedence to all knights bannerets, except fuch as are created by the king him- felf in the field •, which implies, either that there are forae of this order created out of the field, or by infe¬ rior perfons. Banneret is alfo the name of an officer or magi- flrate of Rome towards the clofe of the 14th century. —The people of that city, and throughout the terri¬ tory of the church, during the difputes of the anti¬ popes, had formed a kind of republican government $ where the whole power was lodged in the hands of a magiftrate called and twelve heads of quarters called bannerets, by reafon of the banners which each raifed in his diftrift. BANNOCK, a kind of oat-cake, baked in the em¬ bers, or on a ftone placed before the fire. It is com¬ mon in the northern parts of this kingdom. B ANNUM, in Law, fignifies the utmofl: bounds of a manor or torvn. BANQUET, a feaft or entertainment where people regale themfelves with pleafant foods or fruits. Banquet, in the manege, that fmall part of the branch of a bridle that is under the eye ; which being rounded like a fmall rod, gathers and joins the extre¬ mities of the bit to the branch, in fuch a manner that the banquet is not feen, but covered by the cope, or that part of the bit that is next the branch. BANQUET-Line, an imaginary line drawn, in making a bit, along the banquet, and prolonged up or down, to ad juft the defigned force or weaknefs of the branch, in order to make it ftiff or eafy. Banquet, or Banquette, in Fortification, a little foot-bank, or elevation of earth, forming a path which runs along the infide of a parapet, upon which the mufketeers get up, in order to difcover the counter- fcarp, or to fire on the enemy, in the moat or in the covert-way. BANQUETING room or house. See Saloon. The ancient Romans fupped in the atrium, or vefti- bule, of their houfes ; but, in after times, magnificent faloons, or banqueting-rooms, were built, for the more commodious and fplendid entertainment of their guefts. Lucullus had feveral of thefe, each diftinguifhed by the name of fome god ; and there was a particular rate of expence appropriated to each. Plutarch relates with what magnificence he entertained Cicero and Pompey, who went with a defign to furprife him, by only telling a flave who waited, that the cloth fhould be laid in the Apollo. The emperor Claudius, among others, had a fplendid banqueting-room named Mercury. But every thing of this kind was outdone by the luftre of that celebrated banqueting-houfe of Nero, called donuts aU' Bantam- work. 375 ] ban rea ; which, by the circular motion of its partitions £anquet;ag. and ceilings, imitated the revolution of the heavens, and reprefented the different feafons of the year, which changed at every fervice, and Ihowered down flowers, effences, and perfumes, on the guefts. BANSTICKLE. See Gasterosteus, Ichthyo¬ logy Index. BANTAM, a town of the ifland of Java, in the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 105. 16. S. Lat, 6. 20. It is the capital of a kingdom of the fame name, with a harbour and caftle ; but the harbour is now fo choked up that it is inacceffible to veffels of any great burden. It is divided into two towns fepa- rated by a river, and one of them inhabited by Chinefe. Bantam once enjoyed a flourifhing trade. It was a great mart for pepper and other fpices j but this trade, as well as the power of its fovereign, has fallen to decay. For its hiftory, &c. fee Java. Bantam work, a kind of painted or carved work- refembling that of Japan, only more gaudy. There are two forts of Bantam, as well as of Japan work. As, in the latter, fome are flat, lying even with the black, and others high and emboffed ; fo, in Bantam-work, fome are flat and others in-cut, or carved into the wood, as we find in many large fcreens : with this difterence, that the Japan artiils work chiefly in gold and other metals ; and thofe of Bantam gene¬ rally in colours, with a fmall fprinkling of gold here and there : for the flat Bantam-work is done in co¬ lours, mixed with gum-water, proper for the thing de¬ figned to be imitated. For the carved, or in-cut kind, the method of performing it is thus defcribed by an in¬ genious artift : Firft, the wood is to be primed with whiting and fize, fo often till the primer lie near a quarter of an inch thick j then it is to be W'ater-plain- ed, i. e. rubbed with a fine wet cloth, and fome time after, rubbed very fmooth, the blacks laid on, varnilhed up with a good body, and polilhed well, though with, a gentle hand. This done, the defign is to be traced out with vermilion and gum-water, exactly in the manner wherein it is intended to be cut ; the figures, trees, building, &c. in their due proportion : then tha graver is applied, with other tools, of proper (hapes, differing according to the workman’s fancy : with thefe he cuts deep or (hallow, as is found convenient, but never deeper than the whiting lies, the w'ood being never to feel the edge of the inftrument. Lines, or parts of the black, are ftill to be left for the draperies, and other outlines, and for the diftinftiou of one thing from another ; the rule being to cut where the white is, and leave the black untouched. The carving being finithed, then take to the pencil, with which the colours are laid into the cut-work : after this, the gold is to be laid in thofe places which tlie defign requires ; for which purpofe a ftrong thick gum-arabic water is taken and laid with a pencil on the work ; and, while this remains wet, leaf gold is cut with a (harp fmooth- edged knife, in little pieces, ftiaped to the bignefs and figure of the places where they are to be laid. Thefe being taken up u’ith a little cotton, they daub them with the fame clofe to the gum-w'ater, which affords a rich luftre. The work thus finiftied, they clear up the black with oil, taking care not to touch the colours. The European workmen ordinarily ufe brafs duft, which is lefs bright and beautiful, BANTRY, l5 feated on N. Lat Baptifni. 51- Various names given to baptifm. A P t 376 ] BAP in the county of for the more facred fun&ions of their religion, by a fo- lemn ablution; that by this affinity of facred rites, - they might draw the Gentiles to embrace their religion, and that the profelytes (in gaining of whom they were extremely diligent) might the more eatily comply with the tranfition from Gentilifm to Judaifm. In confirma¬ tion of this opinion, he obferves, firft, that there is no divine precept for the baptifm of profelytes, God having enjoined only the rite of circumcifion for the admiflion of ftrangers into the Jewifh religion. Se¬ condly, that, among foreign nations, the Egyptians, Per- fians, Greeks, Jfomans, and others, it was cuitomary that thofe who were to be initiated into their myfteries, or fa¬ cred rites, fhould be firfl; purified by dipping their whole body in wTater. That learned writer adds, as a farther confirmation of his opinion, that the cup. of blefiing likewife, added to the pafchal fupper, fecms plainly to have been derived from a pagan original: for the Greeks, at their feafts, had one cup, called srerr/gie? ecyu&ti ^etif-ioyog, the cup of the good dccmon or god, which they drank at the conclufion of their entertainment, when the table was removed. Since then, a rite of Gentile origin was added to one of the Jewifb facra- ments, viz. the paffover, there can be no abfurdity in fuppofing, that baptifm, which was added to the other facrament, namely cireumcifion, might be derived from the fame fource. In the laft place, he obferves, that Chrift, in the inflitution of his facraments, paid a pe¬ culiar regard to thofe rites which were borrowed from the Gentiles: for rejedling circumcifion and the pafchal fupper, \}e adopted into his religion baptifm and the facred cup ; thus preparing the way for the converfion and the reception of the Gentiles into his church. The defign of the Jewifh baptifra, if baptifm be praftifed by them, is fuppofed to be, to import a rege¬ neration, whereby the profelyte is rendered a new man, and of a Have becomes free. The effett of it is, to cancel all former relations; fo that thofe who were before akin to the perfon, after the ceremony ceafed to be fo. It is to this ceremony Chrift is fuppofed to have alluded, in his expreffion to Nicodemus, that it was neceflary that he fhould be born again, in order to be¬ come his difciple.—The neceflity of baptifm to falva- tion is grounded on thofe two fayings of our Saviour ; He that lelieveih, and is baptized, Jhall be faved ; and Except a man be born of water at0 of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.' The ancients did not ge- Opinions Ban try BANTRY, a town of Ireland, 11 Cork, and province of Munfter. It Baptifm. bay of the fame name, in W. Long. 9. ^ 30. BAOBAB, the name given by Profper Alpinus to the African calabafti-tree, fince called Adansonia. See Botany Index. BAPTISM, in matters of religion, the ceremony of wafhing ; or a facrament, by which a perfon is ini¬ tiated into the Chriftian church.—The word is formed from the Greek of (iotyfio), to dip or wajh. Bap¬ tifm is known, in eeelefiaftieal writers, by divers other names and titles. Sometimes it is called palingenefa, or laver of regeneration ; fometimes falus, or life and falvation ; fometimes a-tp^xyig, Jignaculum Domini, and Bingham s Pgnaculum fdci, or the feal of faith ; fometimes abfo- 0' lS-^lC'eJ jntely mvfermm, and facramentum ; fometimes the fa¬ crament of faith ; fometimes viaticum, from its being adminiftered to departing perfons ; fometimes facerdo- tium laid, or the lag p'riejlhood, becaufe allowed, in cafes of neceffity, to be conferred by laymen: fometimes it is called the great circumcifion, becaufe it was imagined to fucceed in the room of circumcifion, and to be a feal of the Chriftian covenant, as that was the feal of the cove¬ nant made with Abraham: fo,in regard that baptifm had Chrift for its author, and not man, it was anciently known by the name of and ■g)xg)ie effects }efs f-0 enumerate.—The Remonftrants and Socinians of baptifm. rec5uce bapt.ifm to a mere fign of divine grace. The Romanifts, on the contrary, exalt its power 5 hold¬ ing, that all fin is entirely taken away by it 5 that it abfolutely confers the grace of juftification, and con- fequently grace ex opere operato. Some alfo (peak of an indelible character impreffed on the foul by it, call¬ ed char after dominicus, and charafter regius: but this is held, by others, a mere ritual charafter, conferred be effaced by mortal fins, it is by baptifm the foul thofe who die without it will not rife again. It muft be added, he reftrains this effeft to epifcopal baptifm alone. From the effects ordinarily aferibed to bap- [ 379 1 BAP chimera ; for that the fpi- in regeneration, mav eafily Dodwell maintained, that is made immortal: fo that tifm, even by ancient writers, it Ihould feem, that the Baptifm. ceremony is as much of heathen as Jewilh origin ;' ■■■■" v——^ fince Chriftians do not reftrain the ufe of it, like the Jews, to the admifiion of new members into the church, but hold, with the heathens, a virtue in it for remit¬ ting and wafhing away fins. The Bramins are ftill faid to baptize with this latter view, at certain fea- fons, in the river Ganges ; to the waters whereof they have annexed a cleanfing or fanflifying quality ; and hence it is that they flock from all parts, even of Tar¬ tary, driven by the expeffation of their being eafed of their load of fins. But, in this point, many Chri¬ ftians feem to have gone beyond the folly of the hea¬ thens. It was only the fmaller fins of infirmity which thefe latter held to be expiable by waftiing \ for crimes of a blacker dye, they allowed no water could efface them, no purgation could difeharge them. The Chri¬ ftian doftrine of a total remiflion of fins by baplifm could not fail, therefore, to fcandalize many among the heathens, and furnilhed Julian an occafion of fati- rifing Chriftianity itfelf: “ Whoever (fays he) is guiltv of rapes, murders, facrilege, or any abominable crime, let him be walhed with water, and he will become pure and holy.” In the ancient church, baptifm was frequently con¬ ferred on Jews by violence : but the church itfelf never feems to have allowed of force on this cccafion. By a canon of the fourth council of Toledo, it is exprefs- ly forbid to baptize any againft their wills. That which looks moft like force in this cafe, allowed by law, were two orders of Juftinian 5 one of which ap¬ points the heathens, and the other Samaritans, to be baptized, with their wives and children and fervants, under pain of confifcation. By the ancient laws, bap¬ tifm was not to be conferred on image-makers, ftage- players, gladiators, aurigec or public drivers, magi¬ cians, or even (trolling beggars, till they quitted fuch profeflions. Slaves were not allowed the privilege of baptifra without the teftimony and confent of their Bingham- mafters ; excepting the (laves of Jews, Heathens, and heretics; who were not only admitted to baptifm, but, in confequenee thereof, had their freedom. Voflius j'1 has a learned and elaborate work De Baptifmo, wherein he accurately difeuffes all the queftions concerning bap¬ tifm according to the do61rine of the ancients. BAPTISM by Fire, fpoken of by St John the Baptift, has occafioned much conjedlure. The generality of the fathers held, that believers, before they enter paradife, are to pafs through a certain fire, which is to purify them from all pollutions remaining on them unexpia¬ ted. Others, with St Bafil, underftand it of the fire of hell; others, of that of tribulation and temptation. Others, with St Chryfoftom, will have it denote an abundance of graces. Others fuppofe it to mean the defeent of the Holy Ghoft on the apoftles, in form of fiery tongues. Laftly, others maintain, that the word fire here is an interpolation ; and that we are only to read the text, He that Jhall come after me will baptise you with the Holy Ghof. In reality, it is not found in divers manufeript copies of St Matthew. The ancient Selucians and Hermians, underftand- ing the paffage literally, maintained, that material fire was neceffjry in the adminifiration of baptifm. But we do not find how or to what part of the body they applied it, or whether they were fatisfied with obliging 3 B 2 the BAP Baptifm. the perfon baptized to pafs through the fire. b-—nus rebaptized all who had received water-baptifm, and conferred on them the baptifm of fire. Bis docnit tingi, traduBoque cor pore Jlamma. Tertull. Carm. contr. Marc. 1. I. Heracleon, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus, fays, that feme applied a red-hot iron to the ears of the perfon baptized, as if to imprefs fome mark upon him. BAPTISM of the Dead, a cuftom which anciently pre¬ vailed among fome people in Africa, of giving baptifm to the dead. The third council of Carthage fpeak of it as a thing that ignorant Chriftians were fond of. Gregory Nazianzen alfo takes notice of the fame fuper- flitious opinion prevailing among fome who delayed to be baptized. In his addrefs to this kind of men, he alks, whether they flayed to be baptized after death ? Philaflrius alfo notes it as the general error of the Montanifts or Cataphrygians, that they baptized men after death. The praflice feems to be grounded on a vain opinion, that, when men had neglefted to receive baptifm in their life-time, fome compenfation might be made for this default by receiving it after death. BAPTISM of the Dead was alfo a fort of vicarious baptifm, formerly in ufe, when a perfon dying without baptifm, another was baptized in his (lead. St Chryfoftom tells us, this was praftifed among the Marcionites with a great deal of ridiculous ceremony j which he thus deferibes : After any catechumen was dead, they hid a living man under the bed of the de- ceafed 5 then coming to the dead man, they afked him whether he would receive baptifm ; and he making no anfwer, the other anfwered for him, and faid, he would' be baptized in his Head : and fo they baptized the li¬ ving for the dead. Epiphanius affures us, the like was alfo pra&ifed among the Corinthians. This practice they pretended to found on the Apoftle’s authority *, alleging that text of St Paul for it, If the dead rife not at all, what [hall they do who are baptised for the dead ? A text which -has given occafion to a great variety of different fyllems and explications. Voffius enumerates no lefsthan nine different opinions among learned divines concerning the fenfe of the phrafe, being baptised for the dead. St Ambrofe and Walafred Strabo feem clearly of opinion, that the apoftle had refpeft to fuch a cuftom then in being j and feveral moderns have given into the fame opinion, as Baronius, Jof. Scaliger, Jullellus, and Grotius. Several among the Roman Catholics, as Bellarmin, Salmeron, Menochius, and a number of fchoolmen, underftand it of the baptifm of tears, and penance, and prayers, which the living undergo for the dead ; and thus allege it as a proof of the belief of purgatory in St Paul’s days. Hypothetical BAPTISM, that formerly adminiftered in certain doubtful cafes, with this formula : If thou art baptised, I do not rebapti%e ; if thou art not, I baptise thee in the name of the Father, &c. This fort of bap¬ tifm, enjoined by fome ancient conftitutions of the Eng- lilh church, is now fallen into difufe. Solemn BAPTISM, that conferred at ftated feafons ; fuch, in the ancient church, were the Pafchal baptifm., 3 - [ 380 ] BAP Valenti- and that at Whitfuntide. This is fometimes alfo called general baptifm. Lay BAPTISM, we find to have been permitted by both the Common-prayer Books of King Edward and that of Queen Elizabeth, when an infant is in imme¬ diate danger of death, and a lawful minifter cannot be had. This was founded upon the miftaken notion of the impoftibility of falvation without the facrament of baptifm : but afterwards, when they came to have clearer notions of the facraments, it was unanimoufly refolved in a convocation, held in the year 1575, that even private baptifrn, in a cafe, of neceffity, was only to be adminiftered by a lawful minifter. Baptism is alfo applied, abufively, to certain cere¬ monies ufed in giving names to things inanimate. The ancients knew nothing of the cuftom of giving baptifm to inanimate things, as bells, ftiips, and the like, by a fuperftitiousconfecration of them. The fir ft notice wre have of this is in the Capitulars of Charles the Great, where it is only mentioned to be cenfured : but, afterwards, it crept into the Roman offices by de¬ grees. Baronius carries its antiquity no higher than the year 968, when the greateft bell of the church of La teran was chriftened by Pope John III. At laft it grewr to that fuperftitious height, as to be thought pro¬ per to be complained of in the Centum Gravamina of the German nation, drawn up in the public diet of the empire held at Nuremberg an/zo where (after having deferibed the ceremony of baptizing a bell, with godfathers, who make refponfes as in baptifm, and give it a name, and clothe it with a new garment as Chriftians were ufed to be clothed, and all this to make it capable of driving away tempefts and devils) they conclude againft it, as not only a fuperftitious practice, but con¬ trary to the Chriftian religion, and a mere feduftion of the fimple people. Baptism, in the fea language, a ceremony in long, voyages on board merchant (hips, pradlifed both on perfons and veffels who pafs the tropic or line for the firft time. The baptizing the veffels is fimple, and, confifts only in walking them throughout with fea-wa- ter ; that of the paffertgers is more myfterious. The oldeft of the crew, that has pall the tropic or line, comes with his face blacked, a grotefque cap on his head, and fome fea-book in his hand, followed by the. reft of the feamen dreffed like himfelf, each having fome kitchen utenfil in his hand, with drums beating j he places himfelf on a feat on the deck, at the foot of the mainmaft. At the tribunal of this mock magi- ftrate, each paffenger, not yet initiated, fvvears he will take care the fame ceremony be obferved, whenever he is in the like circumftances : Then, by giving a little money by way of gratification, he is difeharged with a little fprinkling of water 5 otherwife he is heartily drenched with ftreams of water poured upon him ; and the Ihip boys are enclofed in a cage, and ducked at dif- cretion.—The feamen, on the baptizing a Ihip, pretend to a right of cutting off the beak-head unlefs redeemed by the captain. BAPTISMAL, fomething belonging to baptifm 5 thus we fay baptifmal vow, prefents, &c. BAPTISMAL Vow or Covenant, a profeffion of obedi¬ ence to the laws of Chrift, which perfons in the an¬ cient church made before baptifm. It was an indif- penfabls Baptlfn* II Baptiluial. BAP [ 38i ] BAP Baptifmal penfable part of the obligation on catechumens before 1 H they were admitted to the ceremony of regeneration. Bapufts. jt was made by turning to the eaft j for what myftical reafons, is not well agreed on. BAPTISMAL Prefents are in ufe in Germany, made by the fponfors to the infant, confifting of money, plate, or even fometimes fiefs of lands j which by the laws of the country are to be kept for the child till of age, the parents having only the truft, not the right, of difpofing of them. An anonymous author has publilhed a difcourfe exprefs on this occafion, entitled, De pecunia lujlrica. BAPTIST, John Monnoyer, a painter of flowers and fruit, was born at Lifle in 1635, and educated at Antwerp, where he perfefted himlelf in the knowledge of his art, and in his firft years was intended for a painter of hiftory: but having foon obferved that his genius more ftrongly inclined him to the painting of flowers, he applied his talents to thofe fubje&s, and in that ftyle became one of the greatefi: mafters. His piftures are not fo exquifitely finilhed as thofe of Van Huyfum, but his compofition and colouring are in a bolder ftyle. His flowers have generally a remarkable freedom and loofenefs, as well in the difpofition as in the penciling ", together with a tone of colouring that is lively, admirable, and nature itfelf. Ihe difpofition of his objefts is furprifingly elegant and beautiful j and in that refpedl his compofitions are eafily known, and as eafily diftinguilhed from the performances of others. He died in 1699.—He left a fon, Anthony, who paint¬ ed flowers in the fame ftyle and manner, and had great merit. BAPTISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, (from 1 baptixe) ; a denomination of Chriftians, diftinguiflied from other Chriftians by their particular opinions re- fpecting the mode and the fubjefts of baptifm. Inftead of adminiftering the ordinance by fprinkling or pouring water, they maintain that it ought to be adminiftered only by immerfion. Such, they infill, is the meaning of the word ; fo that a command to baptize is a command to immerfe. Thus it was un- derftood by thofe who firft adminiftered it. John the Baptift, and the apoftles of Chrift, adminiftered it in Jordan and other rivers and places where there was much water. Both the adminiftrators and the iubjefts are defcribed as going down into, and coming up again out of, the water 5 and the baptized are faid to be bu¬ ried in baptifm, and to be raifed again : which lan¬ guage could not, they fay, be properly adopted on fuppofition of the ordinance being adminiftered in any other manner than by immerfion. Ihus alfo, they af¬ firm, it was in general adminiftered in the primitive church. Thus it is now adminiftered in the Ruffian and Greek church : and thus it is, at this day, diredled to be adminiftered in the church of England, to all who are thought capable of fubmitting to it in thss manner. With regard to the fubjedls of baptilm, the Baptifts fay, that this ordinance ought not to be admi¬ niftered to children or infants at all, nor to grown up perfons in general 5 but to adults only of a certain cha- rafter and defcription. Our Saviour’s commilfion to his apoftles, by which Chriftian baptifm was inftitu- ted, is to go and teach all nations, baptizing them : that is, fay they, not to baptize all they meet with j but firft to inftruft them—to teach all nations, or to gaptifts, preach the gofpel to every creature—and whoever re- ’ ' ceives it, him to baptize in the name of the lather, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft. To fuch perfons, and to fuch only, baptifm appears to have been adminiftered by the apoftles, and the immediate dif- ciples of Chrift. They are defcribed as repenting of their fins, as believing in Chrift, and as having gladly received the word. Without thefe qualifications, Pe¬ ter acquaints thofe who were converted by his fermon, that he could not have admitted them to baptifm. Philip holds the fame language in his difcourfe with the eunuch j and Paul treats Lydia, the jailor, and others, in the fame manner. Without thefe qualifica- tionsr Chriftians in general think it wrong to admit perfons to the Lord’s fupper j and, for the fame rea¬ fons, without thefe qualifications, at leaft a profeflion of them, the Baptifts think it wrong to admit any to baptifm. Wherefore they withhold it, not only from the impenitently vicious and profane, and from infidels who have no faith j but alfo from infants and children, who have no knowledge, and are incapable of every ac¬ tion civil and religious. They further infill, that all politive inftitutions depend entirely upon the will and declaration of the inftitutor j and therefore, that reafon- ing by analogy from abrogated Jewilh rites is to be re- jetled, and the exprefs commands of Chrift refpe&ing the mode and fubjefts of baptifm ought to be our only rule. The Baptifts in England form one of the denomina¬ tions of Proteftant diffenters. They feparate from the eftablilhment for the fame reafons as their brethren oi the other denominations do •, and from additional mo¬ tives derived from their particular tenets refpefting baptifm. The conftitution of their churches, and their modes of worlhip, are congregational or independent: in the exercife of which they are prote&ed, in com¬ mon with other diflenters, by the a£l of toleration. Before this a£l, they were liable to pains and penalties as nonconformifts, and often for their peculiar fenti- ments as Baptifts. A proclamation was iffued out againft them, and fome of them were burnt in Smith- field in 1538. They bore a confiderable {hare in the perfecutions of the laft and of the preceding centuries ; and, as it fhould feem, in thofe of fome centuries be¬ fore •, for there were feveral among the Lollards and the followers of Wickliff, who difapproved of infant- baptifm. There were many of this perfuafion among the Proteftants and reformers abroad. In Holland, Germany, and the North, they went by the names of Anabaptists, and Mennonites ; and, in Piedmont and the fouth, they were found among the Albigenses and Waldekses. See the hiftories of the Reformation, and the above articles in this l)i6lionary. The Baptijis fubfift under two denominations, viz. the Particular or Calvinillical, and the General or Armi- nian. The former is by far the moll numerous. Some of both denominations allow of mixed cotmnunion, viz. of perfons who have been fprinkled in their infancy, and therefore unbaptized in the view of the Baptifts j others difallow it-, and fome of them obferve thefeventh day of the week as the Sabbath, apprehending the law that enjoined it not to have been repealed by Chrift or his apoftles. But a difference of opinion refpedling thefe and > BAR [ 382 ] BAR Baptift and other matters, is not peculiar to the Baptifts : it is (1 common to all Chriftians, and to all bodies of men who think and judge for themfelves. BAPTISTERY, in ecclefiaftical writers, a place in which the ceremony of baptifm is performed. In the ancient church it was one of the exedne or buildings diftintl from the church itfelf: and confided of a porch or anti-room where the perfons to be bap¬ tized made their confeffion of faith, and an inner room where the ceremony of baptifm was performed. Thus it continued till the fixth century, when the baptifte- ries began to be taken into the church-porch, and af¬ terwards into the church itfelf. The ancient baptifteries were commonly called (pon- photi/leria, q. d. places of illumination $ an ap¬ pellation fometimes given to baptifm. Or they might have the name for another reafon, becaufe they were the places of an illumination, or inftru&ion, preceding baptifm : for here the catechumens feem to have been trained up, and inftrudled in the firft rudiments of the Chriftian faith. Thofe baptifteries were anciently very capacious ; becaufe, as Dr Cave obferves, the ftated times of bap¬ tifm returning but feldom, there were ufually great multitudes to be baptized at the fame time : and then the manner of baptizing, by immerfion, or dipping under water, made it neceflary to have a large font likewife. In Venantius Fortunatus, it is called aula baptifmatis, the large hall of baptifm j which was in¬ deed fo capacious, that we fometimes read of councils meeting and fitting therein. This hall, or chapel, was always kept fhut during Lent, and the door fealed up with the bilhop’s feal, not to be opened till Maunday- Thurfday. The baptiftery was always reputed a facred place. In the Roman order, we find the ceremonies ufed in the confecration of the baptifteries: they were to be built of a round figure, and diftinguifhed with the image of St John the Baptift ; over the bafon or font was a figure of a dove in gold or filver, to reprefent the Holy Ghoft. The name bapti/lery is fometimes alfo given to a kind of chapel in a large church, which ferved for the fame office. It is an obfervation of fome learned men, that anciently there was but one baptiftery in a city, and that at the bithop’s church *, and that afterwards they were fet up in parifti churches, with the fpecial allowance however of the biftiop. BAR, in a general fenfe, denotes a flender piece of wood or iron, for keeping things clofe together. Bar, in courts of juftice, an enclofure made with a ftrong partition of timber, where the counfel are placed to plead caufes. It is alfo applied to the benches where the lawyers or advocates are feated, becaufe an¬ ciently there was a bar to feparate the pleaders from the attorneys and others. Hence our lawyers who are called to the bar, or licenfed to plead, are termed bar- rijlers, an appellation equivalent to licentiate in other countries. Bar, or ZJrtrr, (Latin barra, and in French barrey, in a legal fenfe, is a plea or peremptory exception of a defendant, fufficient to deftroy the plaintiff’s a6tion. And it is divided into bar to common intendment, and bar fpecial ; bar temporary, and perpetual. Bar to a -common intendment is an ordinary or general bar, which ufually difableth the declaration of the plaintiff j bar Bar. fpecial is that which is more than ordinary, and falls out v—v” upon fome fpecial circmnftance of the fact as to the cafe in hand. Bar temporary is fuch a bar as is good for the prefent, but may afterwards fail; and bar perpetual is that which overthrows the adtion of the plaintiff for ever. Bar, in Heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fefs, but much left. See Heraldry. Bar, in the manege, the higheft part of that place of a horfe’s mouth fituated between the grinders and tufties, fo that the part of the mouth which lies under and at the fide of the bars retains the name of the gum. A horfe with fenfible bars has a fine light mouth, with an even and firm appui. See Appui. To BAR a Vein, in Farriery, is an operation per¬ formed upon the veins of the legs of a horfe and other parts, with intent to flop the malignant humours. It is done by opening the Ikin above it, difengaging it, and tying it both above and below, and ftriking between the two ligatures. Bar, in Mujic, a ftroke drawn perpendicularly a- crofs the lines of a piece of mufic, including between each two a certain quantity or meafure of time, which is various as the time of the mufic is either triple or common. In common time, between each two bars is included the meafure of four crotchets j in triple, three. The principal ufe of bars is to regulate the beating of time in a concert. The ufe of bars is not to be traced higher than the time when the Englith tranflation of Adrian le Roy’s bowk on the Tab'ature was publiftied, viz. the year 1574 > and it was fome time after that before the ufe of bars became general. To come nearer to the point, Barnard’s cathedral mu¬ fic, printed in 1641, is without bars j but bars are to be found throughout in the Ayres and Dialogues of Henry Lawes publiftied in 1653 ; ^rGm whence it may be conjectured that we owe to Lawes this improve¬ ment. Bar, in Hydrography, denotes a bank of fand, or other matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a manner choked up. The term bar is alfo ufed for a ftrong beam where¬ with the entrance of a harbour is fecured : this is more, commonly called boom. Bar of a tavern or coffeehoufe, the place where the waiters attend to anfwer the calls of the cultomers. Bar, among printers, denotes a piece of iron with a wooden handle, whereby the ferew of the prefs is turn¬ ed in printing. See Printing. Bars of Iron, are made of the metal of the fows and pigs as they come from the furnace. Thefe pafs through two forges, called the finery and the chaufery ; where, undergoing five feveral heats, they are formed into bars. Bar, a very ftrong city of Podolia in Poland, upon the river Kiow. E. Long. 28. 30. N. Lat. 50. 6. Bar, formerly a duchy of France, now the depart¬ ment of Meufe, is bounded on the eaft by Lovrain, on the north by Luxembourg, on the weft by Cham¬ pagne, on the fouth by part of the fame country, and by Franche Compte. It is crofted by the river Meufe from north to fouth, and watered by feveral other rivers, which render it very fertile. It was divided into four balliages, viz. Baffilyni, Bar, St Michael, BAR [ 383 ] BAR •gar and Clermont. The chief towns are Bar-le-duc, Cler- II mont, St Michael, Longuey, Pont a MoufTon, and Bara- Stenay. In 1736, it was given to Stanillaus then king L ^ • ' of Poland. BAR-Ie-duc, the capital of the late duchy of Bar, in the department of Meufe, is feated on the declivity of a hill. It is divided into the higher and lower town : the lower is watered by- the rivulet Orney, which a- bounds with excellent trouts. The wines are excellent, and not inferior to thofe of Champagne. E. Long. 5.30. N. Lat. 48. 35. BAB-/e-Mont, a town of the French Netherlands, in Hainault, lituated on the river Sombre. E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 30. 10. Bar fur /lube, an ancient town of France, in the de¬ partment of Aube, feated at the foot of a mountain. It is much celebrated for excellent wines. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 48. 14. Bar fur Seine, a town of France, in the duchy of Burgundy, now in the department of Aube, feated be¬ tween a mountain which covers it on the weft, and the river Seine which runs on the eaft. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 48. 5. BAR-Mnfer, among miners, the perfon who keeps the gauge, or difh, for meafuring the ore. BARA, in Ancient Geography, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic, oppofite to Brundufium: the Pharos of Mela. Alfo a frith or arm of the fea of Britannia Secunda (Ptolemy) ; fuppofed to be the Murray frith. Bara, one of the Hebrides or Weftern iflands of Scotland. It is a fmall rock, only a quarter of a mile in circumference, being part of a chain called the Long If and, the whole clufter appearing at low water as one ifland. Bara is altogether barren ; but abounds with great numbers of fea-fowl, fuch as folan geefe, guilla- motes, puffins, &c. Bara, the name of a feftival celebrated with much magnificence at Meffina, and reprefenting the aflump- tion of the Virgin. The bara, though ufed as the ge¬ neral denomination of this feftival, fignifies more parti¬ cularly a vaft machine 50 feet high, at the top of which a young girl of 14, reprefenting the Virgin, ftands up¬ on the hand of an image of Jefus Chrift. Houel's Dtf- Round him turn vertically, in a circle, 12 little chil- fcriptive dren which reprefent the feraphims •, below them, in throfh Si anot^er c*rc^e» which turns horizontally, are 12 more tilfr&c. Z"reprefenting the cherubims : below thefe a fun turns vertically, with a child at the extremity of each of the four principal radii of his circle, who afcend and de- fcend with his rotation, yet ftill ftand upright. Be¬ low the fun is the loweft circle, about feven feet from the ground, in which 12 boys turn horizontally with¬ out interruotion •, thefe are intended for the twelve apoftles, who are fuppofed to furround the tomb of the Virgin at the moment when ffie afeends into hea¬ ven. This complication of fuperftitioos whirligigs may have already nearly turned the ftomachs of fome of our readers, or at leaft rendered them fqueamifli. But think of the poor little cherubims, feraphims, and apo¬ ftles, who are twirled about in this proceffion ! for, fays Mr Houel, “ fome of them fall afleep, many of them vomit, and feveral do ftill worfe : but thefe unfeemly effufions are no drawback upon the edification of the people •, and nothing is more common than to fee fa¬ thers and mothers foliciting with ardour for their boys and girls the pious diftimftion of puking at the bara. Bara This machine is not drawn by afies or mules, but by a (f multitude of robuft monks. Barat*ei BARABINZIANS, a tribe of Tartars, living on ” both fides of the river Irtis. They feem to derive their name from the Barabaian defert, whofe lakes fuppiy them abundantly rvith fiffi, on which and their cattle they chiefly fubfift. They have plenty of game and wild-fowl of every kind, particularly ducks and puf¬ fins. Moft of them are heathens, but Maliometanifm daily gains ground among them. Some of them pay tribute to the emprefs of Ruflia, and others to the Khan Taiffia. BAR AGO A, a town in the north-eaft part of the ifland of Cuba. W. Long. 76. 10. N. Lat. 21. 5. BARALIPTON, among logicians, a term denoting the firft indire£l mode of the firft figure of fyllogifm. A fyllogifm in baralipton, is when the two firft propofitions are general, and the third particular, the middle term being the fubjeft in the firft propofition and the predi¬ cate in the fecond. The following is of this kind. Ba. Every evil ought to be feared ; ra. Every violent paffion is an evil ; LIP. Therefore fomething that ought to be feared is a violent paffion. BARALLOTS, in Church Hifory, a ferve, with full purpofe to renew the attack with the utmoft vigour •, but by his own indifcretion loft a fair opportunity of defeating the Romans. For no fooner did they perceive Gilimer haftening after them at the head of a frefh army, than they betook themfelves to flight j and the greateft part were difperfed ift fuch a manner, that, had the king followed them clofe, they muft have been totally cut oft'. Inftead of this, how¬ ever, ftumbling unfortunately on the body of one of his flain brothers, the fight of it made him lofe all thoughts about the enemy *, and inftead of purfuing them, he fpent part of his time in idle lamentations, and part in burying the corpfe with fuitable pomp and dignity. By this means Belifarius had an opportunity of rallying his men ; which he did fo effeflually, that, coming un¬ expectedly upon Gilimer, he eafily obtained a new and complete victory over him. , I?, This defeat was followed by the lofs of Carthage, tj e. * which the barbarians had been at no pains to put into ’ a pofture of defence. After which Gilimer, having in vain endeavoured to obtain afliftance from the Moors and Goths, was obliged to recal his brother Tzafon from Sardinia. The meeting between the two brothers was very mournful ; but they foon came to a refolution of making one defperate attempt to regain the loft king¬ dom, or at leaft recover their captives out of the hands of the enemy. The confequence of his refolution was another engagement, in which Tzafon was killed with 800 of his choiceft men, while the Romans loft no more than 50 ; after which Belifarius moving fudden- ly forward at the head of all his army, fell upon the camp of the Vandals. This Gilimer was no fooner ap- prifed of, than, without flaying to give any more orders to the reft of his army, he fled towards Numidia in the utmoft confternation. His flight was not immediately known among his troops ; but when it was, fuch an univerfal confufion enfued, that they abandoned their camp to the Romans, who had now nothing to do but 20 plunder it •, and not content with this, they maffacred and puts aq tj men foun£i in Jr carrying away the women cap- an end to . i j o j the Vanda-^ives’ r r lie monar- Thus a total end was put to the power of the Van- dais in Barbary, and the Romans once more became B A K mafters of this country. The Vandal inhabitants were Barbary. permitted to remain as they were, on condition ol ex- '1 “”“v changing the herefy of Arius for the orthodox faith. As for Gilimer, he fled with the utmoft expedition to Medamus, a town fituated on the top of the Panpuan mountain, and almoft inaceeflible by reafon of its height and ruggednefs. The fiege of this place was committed to Pharas, an officer of great experience, who having fliut up all avenues to the town, the un- 2I happy Gilimer was reduced to the greateft ftraits for Gilimer’s want of provifions. Pharas being foon apprifed of the extreme th- diftrefs he was in, wrote him a moft friendly and pa- re s* thetic letter, earneftly exhorting him to put an end to the diftrefs of himfelf and his friends by a furrender. This Gilimer declined •, but at the fame time concluded his anfwer with a moft fubmiflive requeft, that Pharas would fo far pity his great diftrefs as to fehd him a loaf of bread, a fponge, and a lute. This ftrange requeft greatly furprifed Pharas ; but at laft it was explained by the meflenger, who told him that the king had not tailed any baked bread fince his arrival on that moun¬ tain, and earneftly longed to eat a morfel of it before he died : the fponge he wanted to allay a tumour that was fallen on one of his eyes j and the lute, on which he had learned to play, was to aflift him in fetting fome elegiac verfes he had compofed on the fubjeft of his misfortunes to a fuitable tune. At this mournful re¬ port Pharas could not refrain from tears, and imme¬ diately despatched the meflenger with the things he wanted. Gilimer had fpent near three winter months on the fummit of this inhofpitable mountain, his mifery har¬ dening him Hill more againft the thoughts of lurren- dering, when a melancholy feene in his own family at once reconciled him to it. This was a bloody ftruggle between two boys, one of them his filler’s fon, about a flat bit of dough, laid on the coals ; which the one feized upon, burning hot as it was, and clapped it in¬ to his mouth ; but the other by dint of blows forced it out, and ate it from him. This quarrel, which might have ended fatally had not Gilimer interpofed, made fo deep an impreflion upon him, that he immediately def- patched a meffenger to Pharas, acquainting him that he w;as willing to furrender himfelf and all his effedls upon the conditions he had offered, as foon as he was aflured that they were embraced by Belifarius. Pharas loft no time to get them ratified and fent back to him ; after which he was conducted to Belifarius, who gave him a very kind reception. Gilimer was afterwards brought before Juftinian in gold chains, whom he befought in 22 the moft fubmiflive manner to fpare his life. This was Kindly readily granted by the emperor; who alfo allowed himtreate.d a handfome yearly penfion to live upon as a private gen-~1uft^nian- tleman. But his mind and heart were too much unfet¬ tled and broken to enjoy the fweets of a private ftate j fo that Gilimer, opprefled with grief, died in the year 534, the firft of his captivity, and five years after he had been raifed to the throne. Barbary being thus again reduced under the power of the Romans, its hiftory falls to be taken notice of 23 under that of Rome. In the caliphate of Omar, this j^^ued b country was reduced by the Saracens, as we have al-the Sara- ready related under the article Arabia. It continued cens. fubjeft to the caliphs of Arabia and Bagdad till the reign of Harvm A1 Rafchid, who having appointed I- hrahim [ 389 1 BAR Barbary. Principal city of the Aglabites founded. ^ . 2S Driven out by A1 Moh- di the firft Fatemite caliph. 2 1 BAR Barbary. liged him to fly to Kairwan with the fliattered remains of his army, where he remained without making any'—■“v,-J further attempt on Egypt. _ Al Mohdi reigned 24 years 5 and was fucceeded by his fon Abul Kafem above mentioned, who then took the furname sll K.ayem Mo/idu During his reign we read of nothing remarkable, except the revolt of one Yezid Ebn Condat, a man of mean extraction, but who, having been raifed to the dignity of chancellor, found means to raife fuch a ftrong party, that the caliph Rebelfio* was obliged to fliut himfelf up in the cattle of Mohedia. of Yezid. \ ezid, being then at the head of a powerful army, fooq reduced the capital of Kairwan, the cities of Al Kakkada and Tunis, and feveral other fortreffes. He was no lefs fuccefsful in defeating a confiderable num¬ ber of troops which Al Kayem had raifed and fent againft him 5 after which he clofely befieged the caliph himfelf in the cattle where he had {hut himfelf up* The tiege continued feven months ; during which time the place was reduced to fuch ftraits, that the caliph muft either have furrendered it or been ftarved, when death put an end to his anxiety in the i2th year of his reign, and the 334th of the Hegira. Al Kayem was fucceeded by his fon Iflimael, whoAl Manfur immediately took upon himfelf the title of J/Afow/wncaliph. This caliph thought proper to conceal the death of his father till he had made the preparations neeeffary for reducing the rebels. In this he was fo fuccefsful that he obliged Yezid to raife the fiegeof Mohedia the fame year 5 and in the following gave him two great over¬ throws, obliging him to (hut himfelf up in the fortrefs of Kothama, or Cutama, where he befieged him in his turn. Yezid defended the place a long time with de- fperate bravery *, but finding the garrifon at laft obliged to capitulate, he made ftiitt to efcape privately. Al Manfur immediately defpatched a body of forces in pur- fuit of him ; who overtook, and brought him back in fetters j but not till after a vigorous defence, in which Yezid received feveral dangerous wounds, of which he died in prifon. After his death, Al Manfur caufed hisD^j^p body to be flayed, and his tkin fluffed and expofed to Yezid. public view. Of Al Manfur’s exploits in Sicily an ac¬ count is given under that article. Nothing farther re¬ markable happened in his African dominions ; and he died after a reign of feven years and 16 days, in the 341ft of the Hegira. Al Manfur was fucceeded by his fon Abu Zammin Al Moez Moad, who affumed the furname of Al Moe* Ledinil-^*^™^^ lah. He proved a very warlike prince, and maintainedcallph* a bloody conteft. with Abdalrahman, caliph of Anda- lufia ; for a particular account of which fee the article Spain. In the 347th year of the Hegira, beginning March 25th, 958, Al Moez fent a powerful army to the Aveftern extremity of Africa, under the command of Abul Hafan Jawhar, one of his flaves, whom he had advanced to the dignity of vizir. Jawhar -firft ad¬ vanced to a dty called fahart, which he befieged for fome time ineffeaually. From thence he marched to Fez, and made proper difpofitions for attacking that city. But finding that Ahmed Ebn Beer, the emir of the place, was refolved to defend it to the laft, he thought pioper to abandon the enterprife. However, having traverfed all the traa between that capital and the Atlantic ocean, he again fat down before Fez, and took it by ftorm the following year. But 34 of govern ment to that coun try. BAR' [ Barbary, But the greatest achievement performed by this Barbatelli. caliph was his conqueft of Egypt, and the removal of the caliphate to that country. This conquert, though long projected, he did not attempt till the year of the Hegira 358. Having then made all neceffary prepa¬ rations for it, he committed the care of that expedition to a faithful and experienced general called Giafar, or Jaafar ; but in the mean time, this enterprife did not divert A1 Moez from the care of his other conquefts, particularly t.hofe of Sicily and Sardinia : to the lait of which he failed in the year of the Hegira 361, con¬ tinuing a whole year in it, and leaving the care of his African dominions to an experienced officer named Tufef Ben Zeiru He failed thence the following year for Tripoli in Barbary, where he had not ftaid long before he received the agreeable news that his general had made himfelf mailer of Alexandria. He loft no time, but immediately embarked for it, leaving the government of his old African dominions in the hands of his trufty fervant Yufef above-mentioned, and arriv¬ ing fafely at that port was received with all the de- and trans- monftrations of joy. Here he began to lay the founda- fers the leat (.jons 0f his new Egyptian dynafty, which was to put a final end to the old one of Kairwan after it had con¬ tinued about 65 years. A1 Moez prelerved all his old dominions of Kair¬ wan or Africa Proper. But the ambition or avarice of the governors whom he appointed fuffered them to run quickly to a lhameful decay ; particularly the new and opulent metropolis of Mohedia, on which immenfe fums had been lavilhed, as well as labour and care, fo as to render it not only one of the rieheft and ftate- lieft, but one of the ftrongeft, cities in the world : fo that we may truly fay, the wealth and fplendour of this once famed, though ffiort-lived ftate, took their final leave of it with the departure of the caliph Al Moez, feeing the whole maritime tradl from the Egyptian confines to the ftraits of Gibraltar hath fince become the neft of the moft odious piratical crew that can be imagined. Under the article Algiers we have given a ftiort account of the ere&ion of a new kingdom in Barbary by Texefien j which, however, is there no farther con¬ tinued than is necefi'ary for the proper underftanding the hiftory of that country. A general hiftory might here be given of the whole country of Barbary j but as that would neceffarily occafion repetitions under the articles Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, &c. we muft refer to thofe articles for the hiftorical part, as well as for an account of the climate, inhabitants, &c. BARBATELLI, Bernardino, otherwife called Pochetti, a painter of hiftory, fruit, animals, and flowers, was born at Florence in 1542. He was the difciple of Ridolfo Ghirlandaio at Florence 5 from whofe fchool he went to Rome, and ftudied there with fuch uncom¬ mon afliduity, that he was frequently fo abftra&ed, and fo abfolutely engroffed by the objefts of his con¬ templations, as to forget the neceffary refreffiments of deep and food. He was excellent for painting every fpecies of animals, fruit, or flowers ; and in thofe fubjefls not only imitated, but equalled nature. His touch was free, light and delicate, and the colouring of his objefts inexpreffibly true; and, befide his me¬ rit in this moft ufual ftyle of painting, the hiitori- «al fubje&s which he defigned from facred or profane 391 ] BAR authors were much efteemed and admired, in 1612. BARBE, or Barb. See Barb. Barbe in the military art. To fire in barbe, means to fire the cannon over the parapet, inftead of firing through the embrafures j in which cafe the parapet muft not be above three feet and a half high. Barbe, or Barde, is an old word, denoting the armour of the horfes of the ancient knights and foldiers, who were accoutred at all points. It is faid to have been an armour of iron and leather, wherewith the neck, breaft, and {boulders of the horfe were covered. Barbe, 6/, a town of Bifcay in Mexico, near which are rich filver mines. W. Long. 109. 55. N. Lat. 26. o. BARBED, in a general fenfe, bearded like a fifti- hook fet with barbs ; alfo fhaved or trimmed. BARBED and Crejled, in Heraldry, an appellation given to the combs and gills of a cock, when parti¬ cularized for being of a different tindlure from the body. A barbed crofs, is a crofs the extremities whereof are like the barbed irons ufed for ftriking fifti. BARBEL, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus. BARBELICOTvE, an ancient fed of Gnoftics, fpoken of by Theodoret. Their doctrines were ab- furd, and their ceremonies too abominable to be re¬ peated. BARBER, one who makes a trade of (having or trimming the beards of other men for money. An¬ ciently a lute or viol, or fome fuch mufical inllrument, was part of the furniture of a barber’s ihop, which was ufed then to be frequented by perfons above the ordi¬ nary level of the people, who reforted to the barber ei¬ ther for the cure of wounds, or to undergo fome chL rurgical operation, or, as it was then called, to be trimmed, a word that fignified either {having or cutting and curlihg the hair •, thefe, together with letting blood, were the ancient occupations of the barber-fur- geon. As to the other important branch of furgery, the fetting of fraftured limbs, that was pra&iftd by another clafs of men caWeA bone-fetters, of whom there are hardly any now remaining. The mufical inftru- ments in his (hop were for the entertainment of wait¬ ing cuftomers ; and anfwered the end of a newfpaper, with which at this day thofe who wait for their turn at the barber’s amufe themfelves. For the origin of the barber’s pole, fee the article Appellation. BARBERINI, Francis, one oi the molt excellent poets of his age, was born at Barberino, in Tulcany, in the year I 264. As his mother was of Florence, he fettled in that city4 where his profeffion of the law, but efpecially the beauty of his poetry, raifed him a very confiderable character. The greateft part of his works are loft j but that which is entitled the Precepts of Loves which is a moral poem calculated to inftruft thofe in their duty who have a regard for glory, virtue, and eternity, has had a better fate. It was publHhed at Rome, adorned with beautiful figures, in 1640, by Frederic Ubaldini : he prefixed the author’s life} and as there are in the poem many words which are grown obfolete, he added a gloffary to explain them, which illuftrates the fenfe by the authority of cotemporary poets. BARBERINO, a town of Tufcany in Italy, fi- tuated • He died Earbe' Barberino. BAR [39 Barberino tuated at the foot of the Apennine mountains, in E. || Long. 12. 25. N. Lat. 43. 40. JBarbieri. BARBERRY. See BerBERIS, BOTANY Index. ' BARBESUL, in Ancient Geography,* town and ri¬ ver of Baetica, and a colony in the refort of the Conventus Gaditanus in Spain : now Morbella in Gra¬ nada. BARBET, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by M. Reaumur, and other of the French writers, to a peculiar fpecies of the worms which feed on the puce- rons or aphides. See Aphis, Entomology Index. BARBETS, the name of the inhabitants of feveral valleys in Piedmont, particularly thofe of Lucern, An- grona, Perufa, and St Martin. BARBEYRAC, John, was born at Befiers in Lower Languedoc in 1674. He was made profeffor of law and hiftory at Laufanne in 1710 j which he en¬ joyed for feven years, and during that time was three times reflor : in 1717, he was profeffor of public and private law at Groningen. He tranllated into French the two celebrated works of Puffendorff, his Law of Nature and Nations, and his Duties of a Man and a Citizen ; to both which he wrote excellent notes, and to the former an introductory preface. He tranflated alfo Grotius’s treatife De Jure Belli ac Pads, with large and excellent notes j and feveral of Tillotfon’s fermons. He wrote a work entitled Traite de Jeu, 2 vols. 8vo. BARBEZIEUH, a town of Saintonge in France, with the title of a marquifate. It hath a manufactory of linen cloth ; and lies in W. Long. o. 5* N. Lat. 45. 23- BARBICAN, or Barbacan. See Barbacan. BARBIERI, Giovanni Francesco, otherwife called Guercino da Cento, an eminent hiftorical painter, was born at Cento, a village not far from Bologna, in 1590. At firft he was the difciple of Benedetto Gen- nari j but he afterwards Itudied for fome time in the fchool of the Caracci, though he did not adopt the manner of that famous academy. He feemed to pre¬ fer the ftyle of Caravaggio to that of Guido or Alba- no, imagining it impoflible to imitate nature truly, without the afliftance of ftrong lights and ftrong fha- dows j and from that principle, his light ivas admitted into his painting room from above. In effeft, by the oppofition of his ftrong lights and ftiadows, he gave fuch force to his pictures, that few, except thofe of Caravaggio, can ftand near them, and not feem feeble in their effeCt : however, that manner is cenfured as not being like nature, becaufe it makes objeCts appear as if they were feen by candle-light, or by the bright- nefs of a fun-beam, which alone can juftify the deep- nefs of his fhadowing. The principal attention of Guer¬ cino feems to have been fixed on arriving at perfec¬ tion in colouring •, he faw the aftonifhing effeCts pro¬ duced by the colouring of the celebrated Venetian matters •, and obferved, that notwithftanding any im¬ perfections in regard to grace, correCtnefs, or elegance, the works of thefe mafters were the objeCts of univerfal admiration. From which obfervation, he feems to have devoted his whole ftudy to excel in colouring; as if he were convinced, that few are qualified to difcern the elevation of thought, which conftitutes the excel¬ lence of a compofition ; few may be touched with the grandeur or beauty of the defign, or perhaps have a ca- s ] BA R pacity to examine even the correCtnefs of any part of a Barbieri painting*, and yet every eye, and even every imperfeCt || judge of a picture, may be fenfibly affeCted by the Barouda. force and beauty of the colouring. His tafte of defign 'r™~' was natural, eafy, and often grand, but without any extraordinary lhare of elevation, correCtnefs, or ele¬ gance. The airs of his heads often want dignity, and his local colours want truth. However, there is great union and harmony in his colours, although his carna¬ tions are not very frefh ; and in all his works there is a powerful and expreflive imitation of life, which will for ever render them eftimable. Towards the decline of his life, he obferved that the clearer and brighter ftyle of Guido and Albano had attraCled the admira¬ tion of all Europe ; and therefore he altered his man¬ ner, even againft his own judgment. But he apologized for that condud, by declaring, that in his former time he painted for fame, and to pleafe the judicious ; and he now painted to pleafe the ignorant, and enrich him- felf. He died in 1666.—The rnoft capital performance of Guercino, is the hiftory of S. Petronilla, which is confidered as one of the ornaments of St Peter’s at Rome. Barbieri, Paolo Antonio, da Cento, painter of ftill life and animals, was the brother of Guercino, and born at Cento in 1596. He chofe for his fubjeCls fruit, flowers, infeCts, and animals 5 which he painted after nature with a lively tint of colour, great tender- nefs of pencil, and a ftrong character of truth and life. He died in 1640. BARB1TOS, or Barbiton, an ancient inftrument of mufic, mounted with three, others fay feven, firings; much ufed by Sappho and Alcaeus, whence it is alfo denominated Lejboum. BABBLES, or Barbs, in Farriery, the knots or fuperfluous flelh that grow up in the channels of a horfe’s mouth; that is, in the intervals that feparate the bars, and lie under the tongue. Thefe, which are alfo called barbes, obtain in black cattle as well as horfes, and obftruCl their eating. For the cure, they call the beaft, take out his tongue, and clip off the barbies with a pair of fciffars, or cut them with a fliarp knife; others choofe to burn them off with a hot iron. BARBOUR, John, archdeacon of Aberdeen, was efteemed an excellent poet in the reign of David I. He wrote the hiftory of Robert the Bruce, in a heroic poem, which is ftill extant, and which contains many faCls and anecdotes omitted by other hiftorians. The lateft edition of this book is that of Glafgow, 8vo, printed in the year 1672. It is entitled, “ The aCts and life of the moft victorious conqueror Robert Bruce king of Scotland ; wherein alfo are contained the mar¬ tial deeds of the valiant princes Edward Bruce, Sir James Dow^glafs, Earl Thomas Randel, Walter Sterv- ard, and fundry others.” In one paffage, he calls it a romance; but that word was then of good reputation: every body knows that the ‘ Romant of romants’ has been innocently applied to true hiftory, as well as the * Ballad of ballads’ to a facred fong. BARBUDA, one of the Britifh Caribbee iflands, about 20 miles long and 1 2 broad. It is low land, but fruitful and prettv populous. The inhabitants employ themfelves in hufbandry, and find always a ready mar¬ ket for their corn and cattle in the fugar iflands. Bar¬ buda is the property of the Codrington family, who have B A R [ 393 ] BAR Barbuda, have great numbers of negroes here as well as in Bar- Barca. badoes. It lies in W. Long. 6l. 3. N. Lat. 18. 5. —“-V—' BARCA, a large country of Africa, lying on the coafl of the Mediterranean lea, between the kingdoms of Egypt and Tripoli, extending itfelf in length from call to well from the 39th to the 46th degree of eaft longitude, and in breadth from north to fouth about 30 leagues, as is generally fuppofed. It is for the molt part, especially in the middle, a dry fandy defert: on which account the Arabs call it Sahart, or Ceyart Barba, that is, the defert or road of whirlwinds or hurricanes. It labours almoft everywhere under a great fcarcity of water ; and except in the neighbour¬ hood of towns and villages, where the ground produces fome fmall quantities of grain, fuch as millet and fome maize, the reft is in a manner quite barren and uncul¬ tivated, or, to fpeak more properly, uncultivable : and even of that fmall quantity which thofe few fpots pro¬ duce, the poor inhabitants are obliged to exchange fome part with their indigent neighbours, for dates, Iheep, and camels, which they ftand in greater need of than they, by reafon of their great fcarcity of grafs and other proper food ; for wTant of which, thofe that are brought to them feldom thrive or live long. In this country flood the famed temple of Jupiter Ammon j and notwithftanding the pleafantnefs of the fpot where it ftood, this part of the country is faid to have been the moft dangerous of any, being furrounded with fuch quick and burning fands as are very detrimental to tra¬ vellers ; not only as they fink under their feet, but be¬ ing light, and heated by the rays of the fun, are eafily raifed by every breath of wind j which, if it chance to be in their faces, almoft burns their eyes out, and_ftifles them for want of breath j or, if vehement, often over¬ whelms whole caravans. Againft this temple Cambyfes king of Perfia defpatched an army of 50,000 men. They fet out from Thebes in Upper Egypt, and under the conduft of proper guides reached the city of Oafis feven days journey from that place : but what was their fate afterwards is uncertain j for they never returned either to Egypt or to their own country. The Ara- monians informed Herodotus, that, after the army had entered the fandy defert which lies beyond Oalis, a violent wind began to blow from the fouth at the time of their dinner, and raifed the fand to fuch a de¬ gree, that the whole army was overwhelmed and buried alive. Concerning the government or commerce of this country we know nothing certain. Moft probably the maritime towns are under the protedfion of the Porte : but whether under the balhaw of Egypt or Tripoli, or whether they have formed themfelves into independent ftates like thofe of Algiers and Tunis, we cannot fay 5 only we are told that the inhabitants of the maritime towns are more civilized than thofe that dwell in the inland parts. The firft profefs Mahometanifm, and have imbibed fome notions of humanity and juftice ; whilft the latter, who have neither religion nor any lign of worftiip among them, are altogether favage and brutifti. They are a fort of Arabs, and like them live entirely upon theft and plunder. By them this tradl, which before was a continued defert, was firft inhabited. At their firft coming in, they fettled themfelves in one cf the beft places of the country ; but as they multi¬ plied, and had frequent wars with one another, the Vol. Ill, Part I. ftrongeft drove the weakeft out of the beft fpots, and Barca fent them to wander in the defert parts, where they live 1! in the moft miferable manner, their country hardly af- L‘arcti!on‘1- fording one fingle neceflary of life. Hence it is that they are faid to be the uglieft of all the Arabs : their bodies having fcarcely any thing but fkin and bone, their faces meagre, with fierce ravenous looks ; their garb, which is commonly what they take from the paf- fengers who go through thefe parts, tattered with long wearing $ while the pooreft of them have fcarce a rag to cover their nakednefs. They are moft expert and refolute robbers, that being their chief employment and livelihood 5 but the travellers in thefe parts are fo few, that the Barcans are often neceflitated to make diftant excurfions into Numidia, Libya, and other fouthern countries. Thofe that fall into their hands are made to drink plenty of warm milk : then they hang them up by the feet, and (hake them, in order to make them vomit up any money they think they have fwallowed 5 after which, they ftrip them of all their clothes, even to the laft rag : but with all this inhu¬ manity, they commonly fpare their life, which is more than the other African robbers do. Yet notwithftand¬ ing every artifice they can ufe, the Barcans are fo poor, that they commonly let, pledge, or even fell, their chil¬ dren to the Sicilians and others from whom they have their corn, efpecially before they fet out on any long excurfion. BARCALON, an appellation given to the prime minifter of the king of Siam. The barcalon has in his department every thing relating to commerce, both at home and abroad. He is like wife fuperintendant of the king’s magazines. BARCELONA, a handfome, rich, and ftrong city of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, of which it is the capital. This city was originally founded by Ha- milcar Barcas, and from him called Barcino. It was reduced by the Romans, and continued fubjeft to them till the kingdom of Spain was overrun by the Goths and Vandals, and afterwards by the Saracens or Moors. In the beginning of the 9th century, Barcelona was in the hands of the Moors, and under the government of one Tjade. This governor having more than once abu- fed the clemency of Charlemagne, at laft irritated Lewis king of Aquitain, and fon to Charles, to fuch a degree, that he gave orders to his generals to inveft the city, and not to rife from before it till they had put Zade into his hands. The Moor made a moft obftinate re¬ finance, fo that the fiege lafted many months : at laft, finding it impoflible to preferve the city much longer, and being deftitute of all hopes of relief, he determined, or rather was compelled by the inhabitants, to go to the Chriftian camp and implore the emperor’s mercy ; but here he was no fooner arrived than he was arrefted and fent prifoner to Charlemagne, who condemned him to perpetual banilhment. The people gaining nothing by this expedient, continued to hold out for fix weeks longer, when the king of Aquitain himfelf took the command of the fiege. To him they made a propofal, that if he would allow them to march out and go where they pleafed, they would furrender the place. Lewis having agreed to this, made his public entry in¬ to Barcelona, where he formed a defign of extending his father’s dominions as far as the Ebro 5 but being recalled before he could put his defign in execution, 3D he Barcelona. BAR [ 394 ] BAR he appointed one Ber& count of Barcelona. T he city continued fubjeft to him and his fucceffors, ivho Hill enjoyed the title of counts of Barcelona, from the year 802 to 1131 5 during which time we find nothing re¬ markable, except that the city was once taken by the Moors, but foon after retaken by the afliltance of Lewis IV. king of France. In 1131 it was united to the crown of Arragon by the marriage of Don Ray¬ mond V. count of Barcelona with the daughter of Don Ramiro the monk, king of Arragon. In 1465 the Catalonians revolted againft Ddn Juan II. king of Ar¬ ragon, out of hatred to his queen Donna .Tuanna *, the confequence of which was, that Barcelona was befieged by that monarch in 147 Various efforts were made bv Lewis XL of France and the duke of Lorrain in order to raife the fiege, but without effe£L Things at length were brought to the utmoft extremity, when the king offered to pardon them all, without the fmall- eft punifhment either in perfon or property, provided they would fubmit : but thefe terms they rejefted, chiefly through the influence of the count de Pailhars, who had been pardoned the year before. The army, on the other hand, was very earneft on being led on to the affault, in hopes of plunder. The king, however, wrote a letter to the citizens, dated the 6th of 06to- ber, in terms as affe&ionate as if he had been writing to his children, bewailing the miferies they had brought on themfelves, and concluding with a proteftation that they, and not he, muff be anfwerable for the confe- quences. Upon this, at the perfuafion of a pried who had a reputation for fan&ity, they fent deputies to the king, and made a capitulation on the 17th of the fame month. In this the king acknowledged they had taken up arms on jufl motives j and forgave every body except Pailhars, who was, however, differed to efcape. On the 22d of Odtober the king made his entry into the city, and confirmed all their ancient privileges. In 1697, Barcelona was taken by the Freftch, after a bloody fiege of 52 days ; and the lofs of this city had a confiderable effe£t in difpofing the Spaniards to agree to the treaty of Ryfwick. In Oueen Anne’s time it was taken by the allies under the earl of Peterborough j but being afterwards fliamefully denied aflidance by the Englifli minidry, was obliged to fubmit to Philip II. by whom the whole province Was depriyed of its an¬ cient privileges ; for a particular account of which, fee the article Spain. Barcelona is fituated by the fea-fide, of a form be¬ tween a fquare and an oval. It is furrounded With a good brick wall, round which is another, with 14 ba- ftions, horn-works, ramparts, and ditches ; the ram¬ parts are high, broad, and fpacious, infomuch that 100 coaches may be feen every evening driving thereon for pleafure. The city is divided into two parts, the Old and the New, which are feparated from each other by a wall and a large ditch 5 the dreets are handfome, well paved with large dones, wide, and very clean. It is the refidence of a viceroy, is a biihop’s fee, has a fine univerfity, a mint, a good port, and is adorned with handfome buildings. Here is a court of inquifi- tion, which the inhabitants look upon as an advantage. The remarkable buildings are the cathedral, which is large, handfome, and adorned with two high towers, the church of the Virgin Mary, the palace of the bifliop, that of the inquifition, and feveral religious houfes : '2 add to thefe the palace of the viceroy •, the arlenal, Barcelona which contains arms for 1000 tnen •, the exchange, || where the merchants meet ; the terfana, where they i Sarclay» build the galleys ; and the palace where the nobility of the country meet, called La Cafa de la Deputation. This lad is built with fine large freedone, and adorn¬ ed with columns of marble : there is in it a large hall, with a gilt ceiling and a handfome portico, wherein perfons may either walk or fit; the hall is adorned with the portraits of all the counts of Barcelona. There are feveral fine fquares, particularly that of St Michael, into which all the great dreets run. The port is wide, fpacious, deep, and fafe j defended on the one fide by a great mole, and on the other Ihelter- ed from the wed wind by two mountains that advance into the fea, and form a kind of promontory : the mole is 750 paces long, with a quay, at the end of which is a light-houfe and a fmall fort. One of the moun¬ tains, called Mount Joy, is very high, and rifes in the middle of the plain near the city : it is covered with gardens, vineyards, groves of trees, and has a drong fort for the defence of the city. This mountain, being a rock, yields an inexhauftible quarry of fine hard free- done. Barcelona is a place of great trade, on account of the conveniency of its harbour; and it has a manu¬ facture of knives greatly edeemed in Spain, as alfo of blankets. Here are alfo feveral glafs houfes. The in¬ habitants are diligent, and equally fit for labour and trade ; they are alfo very civil to drangers. The wo¬ men are well fliaped, and as handfome as any in Spain j they are brilk and lively in their converfation, and more free and unredrained in their behaviour than in other parts of Spain. E. Long. 2. 5* N* Lat. 41. 26. BARCELONETTA, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps, formerly in the go¬ vernment of Dauphiny, and capital of the valley of its own name. It belonged to the duke of Savoy, and was ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht in 1712. E. Long. 6. 40. N. Lat. 44. 26. B ARCELOR, a town of Afia, in the Ead Indies, on the coad of Malabar. It is a Dutch faCtory, where they carry on a eonfiderable trade in pepper. E. Long. 74. 15. N. Lat. 13. 45. BARCELOS, a town of Portugal, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Cavado, over which there is a handfome bridge. W. Long. 7. 0» N. Lat. 41. 20. BARCINO, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Tarraconenfis in Spain, and capital of the Laletani. Now Barcelona. See that article. BARCLAY, Alexander, a learned monk in the reign of Henry VIII. Where he was born, though of no great importance, was neverthelefs^a matter of virulent contention among his former biographers. Bale, who was'his cotemporary, is of opinion he was born in Somerfetlhire. There is indeed a village of his name, and a numerous family, in that county. Pits thinks he was born in Devondrire. Mackenzie is po- fitive he was a Scotchman ; but without proof, unlefs we admit as fuch his name Alexander. He was, how¬ ever, educated in Oriel-college, Oxford. After leaving the univerfity he went abroad, and continued fome time in France, Italy, and Germany, where he ac¬ quired a competent knowledge of the languages of thofe countries, as appears from feveral tranflations of books, which BAR. [ 395 ] BAR Barclay, which he afterwards publiihed. On his return to Eng- «—•V”—"' land, he was made chaplain to his patron the bifhop of Tyne, who likewife appointed him a prieft of St Mary, at the college of Ottery in Devonihire, found¬ ed by Grandifon bifhop of Exeter. After the death of his patron, he became a Benedictine monk of Ely. On the diffolution of that monaftery, he firlt obtained the vicarage of St Matthew at Wokey in Somerfet- fhire j and, in 1549, being then do£tor of divinity, was prefented to the vicarage of Much Badew in Ef- fex. In 1552, he was appointed reftor of Allhallows, Lombard-ttreet, which he lived to enjoy but a very fliort time. He died at Croydon in Surry in June 1552. He is generally allowed to have improved the Englifti language, and to have been one of the politeft writers of his time. He compofed feveral original works; but was chiefly remarkable for his tranflations from the Latin, Italian, French, and German langua¬ ges. His verfion from Salluft of the war of Jugurtha is accurate, and not without elegance. His lives of feve¬ ral faints, in heroic verfe, are ftill unpublilhed. His Stultifera navis, or The Jhip of foois, is the moft Angu¬ lar of his performances. It was printed by Richard Pynfon at London, 1509, in folio ; and contains a va¬ riety of wooden plates, which are worthy the infpedlion of the curious. Barclay, William, a learned civilian, was born in Aberdeenlhire in the year 1541. He fpent the early part of his life, and much of his fortune, at the court of Mary queen of Scots, from whole favour he had reafon to to expeft preferment. In 1573 he went over to France, and at Bourges commenced ftudent of civil law under the famous Cujacius. He continued fome years in that feminary, where he took a doftor’s degree ; and was foon after appointed profeffor of civil law in the univerflty of Pont-a-Mouffon, then Aril founded by the duke of Lorrain. That prince after¬ wards made him counfellor of {late and mailer of re- quefts. Barclay, in the year 1581, married Ann de Mallaville, a French lady, by whom he had a fon, who became a celebrated author, and of whom the reader will And an account in the next article. This youth the Jefuits would gladly have received into their fo- ciety. His father refufed his confent, and for that ' reafon thefe difciples of Jefus foon contrived to ruin him with the duke his patron. Barclay now embark¬ ed for Britain, where King James I. offered him a con- Aderable preferment, provided he would become a member of the church of England : but not choofing to comply, he returned to France in 1604 ; and, foon after his arrival, was appointed profeffor of civil law in the univerfity of Angers, where he died the year following, and was buried in the Francifcan church. He was efteemed a learned civilian ; and wrote elabo¬ rately in defence of the divine right of kings, in an- fvver to Buchanan and others. The titles of his works are, I. De regno et regali potejlate, &c. 2. Commen- tarius in tit. pandeSlarum de rebus creditis, et de jureju- rarido. 3. De potefute papce, &c. 4. Primitia in vi- tam Agricolce. Barclay, John, fon of the former, was, as we have above mentioned, fo great a favourite of the Je¬ fuits, that they ufed all their efforts to engage him in their fociety. His father would not confent, and car¬ ried his fon with him into England, who was already an author, for he had publiflied “ A Commentary up- Barclay, on the Thebais of Statius,” and a Latin poem on the coronation of King James, and the Aril part of Eu- phortnio, 1603. He returned to France with his fa¬ ther ; and after his father’s death went to Paris, and foon after came back to London: he was there in 1606. He publilhed “ The Hiftory of the Gunpow¬ der Plot,” a pamphlet of Ax leaves, printed at Am- fterdam. He publithed at London in 1610 “ An A- pology for the Euphormio,” and his father’s treatife De potejlate papce. And at Paris, 1612, he publiftied a book entitled Piet as, in anfwer to Cardinal Bellar- min, who had written againit William Barclay’s book concerning the power of the Pope. Two years after he publilhed Icon Animorum. He >vas invited to Rome by Pope Paul V. and received a great deal of civility from Cardinal Bellarmin, though he had writ¬ ten againll him. He died at Rome in 1621, while his Argenis was printing at Paris. This celebrated work has Ance gone through a great number of edi¬ tions, and has been tranllated into moft languages. M. de Peirefc, who had the care of the Arft edition, caufed the effigies of the author to be placed before the book ; and the following diftich, written by Grotius, wras put under it . Gente Caledonius, Gal/us natalibus, hie ejl, Romam Romano qui docet ore loqui. Barclay, Robert, one of the moft eminent among the Quakers, the fon of Colonel David Barclay, de- feended of the ancient family of Barclays, was born at Edinburgh in 1648. He was educated under an uncle at Paris, where the Papifts ufed all their efforts to draw him over to their religion. He joined the Quakers in 1669, and diftinguilhed himfelf by his zeal and abili¬ ties in defence of their dodlrines. In 1676 he pub- lilhed in Latin at Amfterdam his “ Apology for the Quakers which is the moft celebrated of his works, and efteemed the ilandard of the doctrine of the Qua¬ kers. The Thefes Theologies, which were the foun¬ dation of this work, and addreffed to the clergy of what fort foever, were pubjiffied before the writing of the Apology, and printed in Latin, French, High- Dutch, Low-Dutch, and Englilh. The dedication of his Apology to King Charles II. is very remarkable for the uncommon franknefs and flmplicity with which it is written. Ampngft many other extraordinary paf- fages, we meet with the followipg : “ There is no king in the world who can fo experimentally tpftify of God’s providence and goodnefs ; neither is there any who rules fo many free people, fo m^ny true Chriftians ; which thing renders thy government more honourable, thyfelf more eonflderable, than the acceffion of many nations filled with flayilh and fuperftitious fouls. Thou haft tailed of profperity and adverfity ; thou knoweft what it is to be baniffied thy native country, to be over-ruled as well as to rule and fit upon the throne; and being oppreffed, thou haft reafon to know how hateful the oppreffor is both to God and man : if, after all thofe warnings and advertifements, thou doll not turn unto the Lord, with all thy heart, but forget him who remembered thee in thy diftrels, and give thyfelf up to follow lull and vanity, furely great will be thy condemnation.”—He travelled with the famous Mr William Penn through the greateft part of England, | D 2 Hollandj BAH [ 396 ] BAR Barclay Holland, and Germany, and was everywhere received 11 with the higheft refpeft j for though both_ his conver- Bard. patjon an^ behaviour were fuitable to his principles, yet ^ there was fuch livelinefs and fpirit in his difcourfe, and fuch ferenity and cheerfulnefs in his deportment, as ren¬ dered him extremely agreeable to all forts of people. When he returned to his native country, he fpent the remainder of his life in a quiet and retired manner. He died at his own houfe at Ury on the 3d of Oaober 1690, in the 42d year of his age. BARCOCHEBAS, or rather Barcochab, a Jew- irti impoftor, whofe real name was Akiba ; but he took that of Barcochab, which fignifies the Son of a Star ; in allufion to the prophecy of Balaam, “ There (hall a ftar arife out of Jacob.” He proclaimed himfelf the Mefliah*, and talking of nothing but wars, vi&ories, and triumphs, made his countrymen rife againft the Ro¬ mans, by which means he was the author of innumerable diforders ; he ravaged many places, took a great num¬ ber of fortrefles, and maffacred an infinite multitude of people, particularly the Chriftians. The emperor fent troops to Rufus, governor of Judea, to fupprefs the fedi- tion. Rufus in obedience, exercifed a thoufand cruel¬ ties, but could not finifh his attempt. The emperor was therefore obliged to fend Julius Severus, the greateft ge¬ neral of that time ; who attained his end without a di- red: battle: he fell on them feparately ; cut off their provifions; and at laft the whole conteft was reduced to the fiege of Bitter, in the 18th year of Hadrian. The impoftor perilhed there. This war coft the Romans a great deal of blood. BARD, a word denoting one who was a poet by his genius and profeflion; and “ who fung of the bat¬ tles of heroes, or the heaving breafts of love.” Offtan's Poems, 1. 37. Kaunes's The curiofity of man is great with refped to the Sketches, tranfa&ions of his own fpecies ; and when fuch tranf- fiedAi a&ions are defcribed in verfe, accompanied with mu- * ' ' fie, the performance is enchanting. An ear, a voice, fkill in inftrumental mufic, and, above all, a poetical genius, are requifite to excel in that complicated art. As fuch talents are rare, the few that poffeffed them were highly efteemed ; and hence the profeflion of a bard, which, befides natural talents, required more cul¬ ture and exercife than any other known art. Bards were capital perfons at every feftival and at every fo- lemnity. Their fongs, which, by recording the a- chievements of kings and heroes, animated every hearer, muft have been the entertainment of every warlike nation. We have Hefiod’s authority, that in his time bards were as common as potters or joiners, and as liable to envy. Demodocus is mentioned by Homer as a celebrated bard •, and Phemius, another bard, is intro¬ duced by him deprecating the wrath of Ulyfles in the following words : “ O King ! to mercy be thy foul inclin’d, “ And fpare the poet’s ever-gentle kind : “ A deed like this thy future fame would wrong, “ For dear to gods and men is facred fong. “ Self-taught I fing •, by heav’n, and heav’n alone, “ The genuine feeds of poefy are fown ; 44 And (what the gods beftow) the lofty lay, 14 To gods alone, and godlike worth, we pay. 3 “ Save then the poet, and thyfelf reward ; Bard. “ ’Tis thine to merit, mine is to record.” u— Odyjfey, viii. Gicero reports, that at Roman feftivals, anciently, the virtues and exploits of their great men were fung. The fame cuftom prevailed in Peru and Mexico, as we learn from Garcilaffo and other authors. We have for our authority Father Gobien, that even the inhabitants of the Marian illands have bards, who are greatly admired, becaufe in their fongs are celebrated the feats of their anceftors. But in no part of the world did the profeflion of bard appear with fuch luftre as in Gaul, in Britain, and in Ireland. Wherever the Celtae or Gauls are men¬ tioned by ancient writers, we feldom fail to hear of their druids and their bards 5 the inftitution of which two orders, was the capital diftinflion of their manners , and policy. The druids wrere their philofophers ica&fertation, priefts ; the bards, their poets and recorders of heroic fubjomed aflions : and both thefe orders of men feem to have * fubfifted among them, as chief members of the ftate, vol>ij/ from time immemorial. The Celt* poffeffed, from p.306. verv remote ages, a formed fyftem of difeipline and manners, which appears to have had a deep and lafting influence. Ammianus Marcellinus * gives them this * Lib. xv. exprefs teftimony, that there flouriftxed among them Ci 9. the ftudy of the moft laudable arts j introduced by the bards, whofe office it was to fing in heroic verfe the gallant aflions of illuftrious men ; and by the druids, who lived together in colleges or focieties, after the Pythagorean manner, and philofophizing upon the higheft fubjefts, afferted the immortality of the hu¬ man foul. Though Julius Caefar, in his account of Gaul, does not exprefsly mention the bards \ yet it is plain, that, under the title of Druids, he comprehends that whole college or order ; of which the bards, who, it is probable, were the difciples of the druids, un- DeBel. GaU doubtedly made a part. It deferves remark, that, ac- hb. vi. ( cording to his account, the druidical inftitution firft took rife in Britain, and paffed from thence into Gaul *, fo that they who afpired to be thorough matters of that learning were wont to refort to Britain. He adds too, that fuch as were to be initiated among the druids, were obliged to commit to their memory a great number of verfes, infomuch that fome employed 20 years in this courfe of education 5 and that they did not think it lawful to record thefe poems in writ¬ ing, but facredly handed them down by tradition from race to race. So ftrong was the attachment of the Celtic nations to their poetry and their bards, that amidft all the changes of their government and manners, even long after the order of the druids was extinft, and the na¬ tional religion altered, the bards continued to flouriffi } not as a fet of ftrolling fongfters, like the Greek Aoicitt or rhapfodifs, in Homer’s time, but as an order of men highly refpe&ed in the ftate, and fupported by a public eftabliffiment. We find them, according to the teftimonies of Strabo and Diodorus, before the age of Auguftus C*far ; and we find them remaining under the fame name, and exercifing the fame functions as of old, in Ireland, and in the north of Scotland, almofi: down to our own times. It is well known, that, in both BAR [ 397 3 BAR Bard. OJfuvi, ii. 22. Henry's Hijiory, vol. i. P 3^5' both thefe countries, every regulus or chief had his own bard, who was confidered as an officer of rank in his court. Of the honour in which the bards were held, many inftances occur in Offian’s poems. On all important occafions, they were the ambafladors between contending chiefs 5 and their perfons were held facred. “ Cairbor feared to ftretch his fword to the bards, though his foul was dark. Loofe the bards (find his brother Cathmor), they are the Tons of other times. Their voice fhall be heard in other ages, when the kings of Temora have failed.”—The bards, as well as the druids, were ex¬ empted from taxes and military lervices, even in times of the greateft danger ; and when they attended their patrons in the field, to record and celebrate their great actions, they had a guard affigned them for their pro- te&ion. At all feftivals and public affemblies they were feated near the perfon of the king or chieftain, and fometimes even above the greateft nobility and chief of¬ ficers of the court. Nor was the profefiion of the bards lefs lucrative than it was honourable. For, befides the valuable prefents which they occafionally received from their patrons when they gave them uncommon pleafure by their performances, they had eftates in land allotted for their fupport. Nay, fo great was the venera¬ tion which the princes of thefe times entertained for the perfons of their poets, and fo highly were they charmed and delighted with their tuneful drains, that they fometimes pardoned even their capital crimes for a fong. We may very reafonably fuppofe, that a profeffion that was at once fo honourable and advantageous, and enjoyed fo many flattering diftinftions and dtfirable im¬ munities, would not be deferted. It was indeed very much crowded ; and the accounts which we have of the numbers of the bards in fome countries, particularly in Ireland, are hardly credible. We often read, in the poems of Oflian, of a hundred bards belonging to one prince, finging and playing in concert for his entertain¬ ment. Every chief bard, who was called Allah Redan, or doBor in poetry, was allowed to have 30 bards of in¬ ferior note conftantly about his perfon ; and every bard of the fecond rank was allowed a retinue of 15 poetical difcipl es. Though the ancient Britons of the fouthern parts of this ifland had originally the fame tafte and genius for poetry rvith thofe of the north, yet none of their poeti¬ cal compofitions of this period have been preferved. Nor have we any reafon to be furprifed at this. For after the provincial Britons had fubmitted quietly to the Ro¬ man government, yielded up their arms, and had loft their free and martial fpirit, they could take little plea¬ fure in hearing or repeating the fongs of their bards in honour of the glorious achievements of their brave an- ceftors. The Romans, too, if they did not pra&ife the fame barbarous policy which was long after pra&ifed by Edward I. of putting the bards to death, would at leaft difcourage them, and difcountenance the repetition of their poems, for very obvious reafons. The fons of the fong being thus persecuted by their conquerors, and ne- glefted by their countrymen, either abandoned their country or their profeflion 5 and their fongs being no longer heard, were foon forgotten. It is probable that the ancient Britons, as well as many other nations of antiquity, had no idea of poems Bard that were made only to be repeated, and not to be fung || to the found of mufical inftruments. In the firft ftages Eardas of fociety in all countries, the two fifter-arts of poetry /"““ and mufic feem to have been always united 5 every poet was a mufician, and fung his own verfes to the found of fome mufical inftrument. This, we are direflly told by two writers of undoubted credit, was the cafe in Gaul, and confequently in Britain, in this period. “ The bards (fays Diodorus Siculus *) fung their poems to the * Lib. v. found of an inftrument not unlike a lyre.” “ 1 he bards^^- 31* (according to Ammianus Marcellinus f, as above hint- f Lib. xv. ed) celebrated the brave attions of iltuftrious men, inc. 9- heroic poems, which they fung to the fweet founds of the lyre.” This account of thefe Greek and Latin wri¬ ters is confirmed by the general ftrain, and by many particular paffages, of the poems of Oflian. “ Beneath his own tree, at intervals, each bard fat down with his harp. They raifed the fong, and touched the firing, each to the chief he loved X- } Vol. ii. The invention of writing made a confiderable change p. 112, ir; in the bard profeflion. It is now an agreed point, that no poetry is fit to be accompanied with mufic, but what is fimple : a complicated thought or defcription requires the utmoft attention, and leaves none for the mufic; or, if it divide the attention, it makes but aubl fuPra* faint impreflion §. The fimple operas of Quinault § see the bear away the palm from every thing of the kind com- article pofed by Boileau or Racine. But when a language, in its progrefs to maturity, is enriched wdth variety of phrafes fit to exprefs the moft elevated thoughts, men of genius afpired to the higher ftrains of poetry, leav¬ ing mufic and fong to the bards: which diftinguiftied the profeflion of a poet from that of a bard. Homer, in a lax fenfe, may be termed a bard ; for in that cha- ra&er he ftrolled from feaft to feaft. But he was not a bard in the original fenfe : he, indeed, recited his poems to crowded audiences ; but his poems are too complex for mufic, and he probably did not fing them, nor accompany them with the lyre. The Irovadores of Provence were bards in the original fenfe, and made a capital figure in the days of ignorance, when few could read, and fewer write. In later times, the fongs of the bards were taken down in writing, which gave every one accefs to them without a bard ; and the pro¬ feflion funk by degrees into oblivion. Among the Highlanders of Scotland, reading and writing in their own tongue is not common even at prefent ; and that circumftance fupported long the bard profeflion among them, after being forgot among the neighbouring na¬ tions. BARD ANA, or Burdock. See Arctium, Bo¬ tany Index. BARDARIOTAl, in antiquity, were a kind of an¬ cient guard attending the Greek emperors, armed with rods, wherewith they kept off the people from crowd¬ ing too near the prince when on horfeback. Their cap¬ tain, or commander, was denominated primivergius.— The word was probably formed from the harder, or houfings on their horfes. BARDAS, the brother of the emprefs Theodora, and uncle of the famous Photius, is faid to have had no other good quality befides that of loving the fcien- ces and polite literature, which he eftabliftied in the Eaftern. BAR t 398 ] BAR Bardas Eaftern empire; for he was treacherous, cruel, and || ambitious. In the year 856, he affaffinated Iheocliltes, Barfleur. general of the emperor IVXichael s forces, and obtained v his poll. At length he caufed the difgrace of the em- prels Theodora ; and St Ignatius, patriarch of Con- ftantinople, reproaching him for his vices, he had him depofed in 858, in order to make room for Photius. Bardas was affaffinated by Bafilius the Macedonian, in 866. . p > BARDED, in Heraldry, is ufed m fpeakmg ot a horfe that is caparifoned. He bears fable, a cavalier d'or, the horfe barded, argent. BARDESANISTS, a fe& of ancient heretics, thus denominated from their leader, Bardefanes, a Sy¬ rian of Edeffa in Mefopotamia. Bardefanes, born in the middle of the fecond century, became eminent, af¬ ter his converfion to Chrilfianity, for his zeal againft heretics; againft whom, we are informed by St Je¬ rome and Eufebius, he wrote a multitude of books : yet had he the misfortune to fall, himfelf, into the er¬ rors of Valentinus, to which he added fome others of his own. He taught, that the actions of men depend altogether on fate, and that God himfelf is lubjeft to neceflity. His followers went further, and denied the refurreftion of the body, and the incarnation and death of our Saviour ; holding that thefe were only apparent or fantaftical. BARDEWICK, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Lunenburg ; formerly a very large place ; but being ruined in 1189, by the duke of Saxony, has never yet recovered itfelf. It is feated on the river Ilmenau, in E. Long. 10. 6. N. Lat. 53. 40. BARDT, a ftrong and rich town of Germany, in the duchy of Pomerania, with a caftle and fpacious harbour. It is fubjefl to the Swedes ; and is fituated near the Baltic fea, in E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat. 54. 23. BARE, in a general fenfe, fignifies not covered. Hence we fay bare-headed, bare-footed, &c. The Roman women, in times of public diftrefs and mourning, went bare-headed, with their hair loofe.— Among both Greeks, Romans, and Barbarians, we find a feaft called Nudipedalia.—-The Abyffinians never enter their churches, nor the palaces of kings and great men, But bare-footed. BARE-Foot Carmelites and Augujlines, are religious of the order of St Carmel and St Auftin, who live un¬ der a ftrift obfervance, and go without fhoes, like the Capuchins. There are alfo bare-foot fathers of mercy. Formerly there were bare-foot Dominicans, and even bare-foot nuns of the order of St Auguftine. BAREITH, a town of Germany in Franconia, in the margravate of Culembach, with a famous college be¬ longing to the margrave of Brandenburg Bareith. E. Long. 11. 50. N. Lat. 50. o. B ARENT, Diteric, an excellent painter* was born at Amfterdam, and was the fon of a very induftrious painter. He ftudied in Italy, and became the favour¬ ite difciple of Titian, with whom he lived a long time ; but at length returned to Amfterdam, where he painted many extraordinary pieces. He died in 1582, -aged 48. BARFLEUR, a town of France, in Normandy, now the department of the Channel. It was ruined, and Barfleuf had its harbour filled up by the Englifh in 1346. The || cape of that name is 12 miles eaft of Cherburg, and near Barge- it part of the French fleet was deftroyed in 1692. W., ('oar e'L Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 49. 40. BARGAIN and Sale, a fpecies of conveyance in the Englifti law. It is a kind of a real contraft, whereby the bargainer for fome pecuniary confideration bargains and fells, that is, contrafts to convey, the land of the bargainee ; and becomes by fuch bargain a truftee for, or feized to the ufe of, the bargainee ; and then the ftatute of ufes completes the purchafe : or, as it hath been well expreffed, the bargain firft veils the ufe, and then the ftatute veils the pofleflion. But as it was forefeen that conveyances, thus made, would want all thofe benefits of notoriety which the old common- law aflurances were calculated to give ; to prevent there¬ fore clandeftine conveyances of freeholds, it was ena£l- ed in the fame feflion of parliament, by ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 16. that fuch bargains and fales Ihould not enure to pafs a freehold, unlefs the fame be made by in¬ denture, and enrolled within fix months in one of the courts of Weftminfter-hall, or with the cujlos rotulorum of the county. Clandeftine bargains and fales of chattel interefts, or leafes for years, were thought not worth re¬ garding, as fuch interefts were very precarious till about fix years before ; which alfo occafioned them to be over¬ looked in framing the ftatute of ufes: and therefore fuch bargains and fales are not direfted to be enrolled. But how impoflible it is to forefee, and provide againft, all the confequences of innovations ! This omiflion has gi¬ ven rife to the fpecies of conveyance by LEASE and RE¬ LEASE. BARGE (bargie, Dutch), a veffel or boat of Hate, furnilhed with elegant apartments, canopies, and cu- Ihions ; equipped with a band of rowers, and decorated with flags and ftreamers: they are generally ufed for proceflions on the water, by noblemen, officers of ftate, or magiftrates of great cities. Of this fort, too, we may naturally fuppofe the famous barge or galley of Cleopatra, which, according to Shakefpeare, — — Like a burnilh’d throne, Burnt on the water : the poop was beaten gold : Purple her fails ; and fo perfumed, that The winds were love-fick with them : the oars were filver, Which to the tune of flutes kept time, and made The water which they beat to follow falter, As amorous of their ftrokes. - At the helm A feeming mermaid fleer’d: the filken tackles Swell’d with the touches of thofe flower-foft hands That yarely ’form’d their office.——— There are likewife other barges of a fmaller kind, for the ufe of admirals and captains of fhips of war. Ihefe are of a lighter frame, and may be eafiiy hoifted into and out of the fliips to which they oceafionally belong. Barge is alfo the name of a flat-bottomed veffel of burden, for lading and difeharging Ihips, and removing their cargoes from place to place in a harbour. BARGE-Coufi/es, in ArchiteRure, a beam mortifed in¬ to another, to ftrengthen the building. BARGE-Courfe} with bricklayers, a term ufed for that BAR [ 399 ] BAR Barge- courte II Barilla. that part of the tiling which projects over without the principal rafters, in all forts of buildings where there is either a gable or a kirkin-head. « , BARGHMASTER, Barmer, or Bar-Master, in the royal mines, the Reward or judge of the barmote. —The bar-mafter is to keep two great courts of bar- mote yearly ; and every week a fmall one, as occalion requires. BARGHMOTE, or Barmot, a court which takes cognizance of caufes and difputes between miners.— By the cuftom of the mines, no perfon is to fue any miner for ore-debt, or for ore, or for any ground in variance, but only in the court of barmote, on penalty of forfeiting the debt, and paying the charges at law. B ARI, a very handfome and rich town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples j the capital of Terra di Bari, and an archbifhop’s fee. It is well fortified, is feated on the gulf of Venice, and had formerly a good har¬ bour, but it was deftroyed by the Venetians. E. Long. 17. 40. N. Lat.41. 31. Bari, or Terra di Bari, a territory of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, of which the above-mentioned city is the capital. It is bounded on the north by the Capitanata, on the north-weft by the Ulterior Princi- pato, on the fouth by the Bafilicata, on the fouth-eaft by the Terra de Otranto, and on the north-eaft by the gulf of Venice. It has no confiderable river except the Offanto, which feparates it from the Capitanata. The air is temperate j and the foil produces plenty of corn, fruit, and faffron: but there are a great many ferpents, and fpiders called tarantulas. See Aranea. The principal towns are Bari the capital, Frani, An- dria, Bavo, Bilonto, Converfano, Monopoli, Polignia- no, Barletto, and Malfetto. The two firft are archi- epifcopal, and all the reft epifcopal. BARILLA, or Barilha, the name of a plant cul¬ tivated in Spain for its allies, from which the pureft kinds of mineral alkali or foda are obtained. There are four plants, which, in the early part of their growth, bear fo ftrong arefemblance to each other as would deceive any but the farmers and nice obfer- vers. Thefe four are, barilla, gat&ul (or, as feme call it, ulgas&al'), fo%a, and falicornia or falicar. They are all burnt to alhes ; but applied to different ufes, as being poffeffed of different qualities. Some of the roguifli farmers mix more or lefs of the three laft with the firft ; and it requires a complete knowledge of the colour, tafte, and fmell of the alhes to be able to deterf their knavery. Barilla is fown afrelh every year. Its greateft height above ground is four inches : each root pulhes out a vaft number of little ftalks, which again are fubdivided intofmaller fprigs refembling famphirej and all together form a large fpreading tufted bulh. The colour is bright green •, as the plant advances towards maturity, this colour vanilhes away till it comes at laft to be a dull green tinged with brown. Ga%ul bears the greateft affinity to barilla, both in quality and appearance : the principal difference con- fifts in its growing on a ftill drier falter earth, con- fequently it is impregnated with a ftronger fait. It does not rife above two inches out of the ground, fpreading out into little tufts. Its fprigs are much flatter and more pulpy than thofe of barilla, and are ftill more like famphire. It is fown but once in three, four, or five years, according to the nature of the foil. Soxa, when of the fame fize, has the fame appear- ance as gazul; but in time grows much larger, as its natural foil is a ftrong fait marffi, where it is to be found in large tufts of fprigs, treble the fize of barilla, and of a bright green colour, which it retains to the laft. Salicor has a ftalk of a deep green colour inclining to red, which laft becomes by degrees the colour of the whole plant. From the beginning it grows up¬ right, and much refembles a buih of young rofemary. Its natural foil is on the declivities of hills ne^r the fait marlhes, or on the edges of the fmall drains or chan¬ nels cut by the hufbandmen for the purpofe of watering the fields) before it has acquired its full growth, it is very like the barilla of thofe feafons in which the ground has been dunged before fowing. In thofe years of manuring, barilla, contrary to its ufual na¬ ture, comes up with a tinge of red ) and when burnt falls far Ihort of its wonted goodnefs, being bitter, more impregnated with falls than it Ihould be, and rai¬ ling a blifter if applied for a few minutes to the tongue. Barilla contains lefs fait than the others : when burnt, it runs into a mafs refembling a fpongy ftone, with a faint call of blue. Gazul, after burning, comes as near barilla in its outward appearance as it does while growing in its ve¬ getable form ; but if broken, the infide is of a deeper and more gloffy blue. Soza and falicor are darker, and almoft black within, of a heavier confiftence, with very little or no fign of fponginefs. All thefe affies contain a ftrong alkali ) but barilla the beft and pureft, though not in the greateft quan¬ tity. Upon this principle, it is fitteft for making glafs Rnd bleaching linen j the others are ufed in making foap. Each of them would whiten linen ) but all, except barilla, would burn it. A good crop of ba¬ rilla impoverilhes the land to fuch a degree, that it can¬ not bear good barilla a fecond time, being quite ex- haufted. For this reafon the rich farmers lay ma¬ nure upon the ground, and let it lie fallow for a fea- fon ) at the end of which it is fown afreffi without any danger, as the weeds that have fprung up in the year of reft; have carried off all the pernicious effedls of the dung. A proper fucceffion of crops is thus fecured by manuring and fallowing the different parts of the farm, each in their turn. The poorer tribe of cultiva¬ tors cannot purfue the fame method for want of capital) and are therefore under the neceffity of fowing their lands immediately after manuring, which yields them a profit juft fufficient to afford a prefent fcanty fubfiftence, though the quality and price of their barilla be but trifling. The method ufed in makiog barilla is the fame as that followed in Britain in burning kelp. The plant as foon as ripe is plucked up and laid in heaps, then fet on fire. The fait juices run out below into a hole made in the ground, where they run into a vitri¬ fied lump, which is left about a fortnight to cool. An acre may give about a tun. BARING OF trees, in Agriculture, the taking away forae of the earth about the roots, that the winter-rain and fnow-water may penetrate farther into Barilla, Baring. BAR ' [400] BAR Earing into roots. This is frequently pra&ifed in the au- || tumn. Bark. BARJOLS, a fmall populous town of Provence, now v ' the department ofVar, in France. E. Long. 5. 23. N. Lat. 43. 35. BARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia, on the Adriatic •, fo called from the founders, who be¬ ing expelled from the ifland Bara, built this town. It is now called Bari ; fee that article. BARK, in the anatomy of plants, the exterior part of trees, correfponding to the fkin of an animal. For its organization, texture, &c. fee the article Plants. As animals are furnilbed with a panniculus adipo- fus, ufually replete with fat, which invdls and covers all the flefny parts, and fcreens them from external cold j plants are encompaffed with a bark replete with fatty juices, by means whereof the cold is kept out, and in winter-time the fpiculae of ice prevented from fixing and freezing the juices in the veffels : whence it is, that fome fort of trees remain evergreen the year round, by reafon their barks contain more oil than can be fpent and exhaled by the fun, &c. The bark has its peculiar difeafes, and is infefted with infefts peculiar to it.—It appears from the expe¬ riments of M. Buffon, that trees ftripped of their bark the whole length of their ftems, die in about three or four years. But it is very remarkable, that trees thus ftripped in the time of the fap, and fuffered to die, afford timber heavier, more uniformly denfe, ftronger, and fitter for fervice, than if the trees had been cut dowm in their healthy ftate. Something of a like na¬ ture has been obferved by Vitruvius and Evelyn. The ancients wrote their books on bark, efpecially of the afti and lime tree, not on the exterior, but on the inner and finer bark called philyra. There are a great many kinds of barks in ufe in the feveral arts. Some in agriculture, and in tanning lea'- ther, as the oak-bark ; fome in phyfic, as the quinqui¬ na or Jefuit’s bark, mace, &c.; others in dyeing, as the bark of alder, and walnut-trees j others in fpicery, as cinnamon, caflia lignea, &c. *, and others for divers ufes, as the bark of the cork tree, &c. In the Eaft Indies, they prepare the bark of a cer¬ tain tree fo as to fpin like hemp. After it has been beat and fteeped in water, they extradl long threads from it, which are fomething between filk and common thread j being neither fo foft nor fo gloffy as filk, nor fo rough and hard as hemp. They mix filk with it in fome fluffs } and thefe are called nillaes, and cherque- molles. Of the bark of a fpecies of mulberry-tree the Japanefe make their paper. See Morus. In the iftand of Otaheite, the natives make their cloth, which is of three kinds, of the bark of three dif¬ ferent trees ; the paper-mulberry above mentioned, the bread-fruit tree, and the cocoa tree. That made of the mulberry is the fineft and whiteft, and worn chiefly by the principal people. It is manufaftured in the fol¬ lowing manner. When the trees are of a proper fize, they are drawn up, and ftripped of their branches ; af¬ ter which, the roots and tops are cut off: the bark of thefe rods being then flit up longitudinally, is eafily drawn off; and, when a proper quantity has been pro¬ cured, it is carried down to fome running water, in which it is depofited to foak, and fecured from float- Bark, ing away by heavy ftones : when it is fuppofed to be —v— fufficiently foftened, the women fervants go down to the brook, and ftripping themfelves, fit down in the water, to feparate the inner bark from the green part on the outfide : to do this, they place the under fide up¬ on a flat fmooth board, and with a kind of ftiell fcrape it very carefully, dipping it continually in the water till nothing remains but the fine fibres of the inner coat. Being thus prepared in the afternoon, they are fpread out upon plantain leaves in the evening ; they are placed in lengths of about 11 or 12 yards, one by the fide of another, till they are about a foot broad, and two or three layers are alfo laid one upon the o- ther : care is taken that the cloth (hall be in all parts of an equal thicknefs, fo that if the bark happens to be thinner in any one particular part of one layer than the reft, a piece that is fomewhat thicker is picked out to be laid over in the next. In this ftate it remains till the morning, when great part of the water which it contained when it wTas laid out is either drained off or evaporated, and the feveral fibres adhere together, fo as that the whole may be raifed from the ground in one piece. It is then taken away,' and laid upon the fmooth fide of a long piece of wood prepared for the purpofe, and beaten by the women fervants. The in- ftrument ufed for this purpofe is a fquare wooden club, having each of its four fides or faces marked, length- wife, with fmall grooves, or furrows, of different de¬ grees of finenefs ; thofe on one fide being of a width and depth fufficient to receive a fmall pack-thread, and the others finer in a regular gradation, fo that the laft are not more than equal to fewing filk. They beat it firft with the coarfeft fide of this mallet, keeping time like our fmiths ; it fpreads very faft under the ftrokes, chiefly however in the breadth, and the grooves in the mallet mark it with the appearance of threads ; it is fucceflively beaten with the other fides, laft with the fineft, and is then fit for ufe. Of this cloth there are feveral forts, of different degrees of finenefs, in pro¬ portion as it is more or lefs beaten. The other cloth al¬ fo differs in proportion as it is beaten ; but they differ from each other in confequence of the different mate¬ rials of which they are made. The bark of the bread¬ fruit is not taken till the trees are confiderably longer and thicker than thofe of the mulberry ; the procefs af¬ terwards is the fame.—Of the bark, too, of a tree which they call jooerow*, they manufafture excellent matting ; * Hibifcni both a coarfe fort which ferves them to fleep upon, and a finer to wear in wet weather. Of the fame bark they alfo make ropes and lines, from the thicknefs of an inch to the fize of a fmall pack-thread. Bark, or Jefuifs Bark, is a name given by way of eminence to the quinquina, or cinchona. See Cin¬ chona. Bark, in Navigation, a general name given to fmall fttips; it is, however, peculiarly appropriated by feamen to thofe which carry three mafts without a mizen top- fail. Our northern mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this diftinflion to a broad-fterned fhip which carries no ornamental figure on the ftern or prow. Water-BARKS, are little veffels ufed in Holland for the carriage of frefh water to places where it is want¬ ing. BAR [ 401 ] BAR Eal'k as We^ as ^or ^ie fetching fea-water to make fait 11 of. They have a deck, and are filled with water up to Barley- the deck. BARK-Binding, a diftemper incident to trees ; cured by Hitting the bark, or cutting along the grain. BARK-Ga/ling, is when the trees are galled with thorns, &c. It is cured by binding clay on the galled places. BARK-Longue, or Barca Longa, a fmall, low, fliarp- built, but very long veffel, without a deck. It goes with fails and oars, and is very common in Spain. BARKH AMSTE AD, or Berkhamstead^ town of Hertfordihire in England, feems to have been the fite of a Roman town. It had formerly a ftrong cattle built by the Normans, but it has long fince been demo- lithed. W. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 45. 49. BARKING, a town of Eifex in England, feated cn the river Roding, not far from the Thames, in a very unwliolefome air. It has been chiefly noted for a large monaftery, now in ruins ; there being nothing left (landing but a fmall part of the walls and a gate-houfei E. Long. o. 13. N. Lat. 51. 30. BARKING of Trees, the peeling off the rind or bark. This mud be done, in our climate, in . the month of May, becaufe at that time the fap of the tree feparates the bark from the wood. It would be very difficult to perform it at any other time of the year, unlefs the feafon was extremely wet and rainy ; for heat and dry- nefs are a very great hindrance to it. By the French law's, all dealers are forbid to bark their wood w'hile growing, on the penalty of 500 livres. This law was the refult of ignorance j it being now found that barking of trees, and letting them die-, in- creafes the ftrength of timber. BARKLEY, a town of Gloucefterffiire in England, feated on a branch of the river Severn, It was for¬ merly of fome note for a nunnery, and has dill the title of a barony. W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 51. 40. BARKWAY, a town of Hertfordffiire in Eng¬ land, on the great road from London to York. W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 52. BARLAiUS, Caspar, profeffor of philofophy at Amderdam, and one of the bed Latin poets of the 17th century. There was fcarce any thing great that happened in the wrorld, while he lived, but he made a pompous elegy upon it, when reafons of date wTere no obdacle to it. He was a great defender of Arminius % and ffiowed his abilities in hidory by his relation of what paffed in Brafil during the government of Count Maurice of Naffau, publidied in 1647. year after. BARLERIA, Snap-Dragon. See Botany In¬ dex. EARL ETTA, a handfome and drong town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra di Bari, with a bifiiop’s fee. It is fituated on the gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 16. 32. N. Lat. 41. 30. BARLEY, in Botany. See Hordeum, Botany and Agriculture Index. The principal ufe of barley among us is for making beer; in order to which it is fird malted. See the ar¬ ticle Beer. The Spaniards, among whom malt liquors are little known, feed their horfes with barley as we do with oats. In Scotland, barley is a common ingredient in Vol III. Part ft. brothsj and the confumpt of it for that purpofe is very Barley confiderable, barley-broth being a didr as frequent there |1 as that offoup in France. , Barlow. Pearl BARLET, and French BARLEY; barley freed " 'r of the hufk by a mill 5 the didindtion between the two being, that the pearl barley is reduced to the fize of fmall drot, all but the very heart of the grain being ground away. Bar LEY-Water, is a decodlion of either of thefe, re¬ puted foft and lubricating, of frequent ufe in phyfic. This well known decodlion is a very ufeful drink in many diforders ; and is recommended, with nitre, by fome authors of reputation, in dow fevers. BARLEY-Corn is ufed to denote a long meafure, con¬ taining in length the third part of an inch, and in breadth the eighth. The French carpenters alfo ufe barley-corn, grain d'orge, as equivalent to a line, or the twelfth part of an inch, BARLEY-Corn (grain d'orge), is alfo ufed in building for a little cavity between the mouldings of joiners work, ferved to feparate or keep them afunder j thus called becaufe made of a kind of plane of the fame name. BARLOW, William, biffiop of Chicheder, de- fcended of an ancient family in Wales, was born in the county of Effex. In his youth he favoured the Refor¬ mation 5 and travelled to Germany to be indru6led by Luther, and other preachers of the new dodlrinej How long he continued a Protedant is uncertain: but from his letter to King Henry VIII. quoted below, it appears that he wrote feveral books againd the church of Rome. However, he was a regular canon in the Augudine monadery of St Ofith in the county of Ef¬ fex, and dudied fome time at Oxford with the brothers of that order, where he took the degree of doctor in divinity. He was then made prior of the convent at Biffiam in Berkffiire ; and afterwards fucceeded to the feveral priories of Blackmore, Typtree, Lega, Broim- hole, and Haverford-wed. On the diffolution of ab¬ beys, he refigned not only with a good grace, but per- fuaded feveral other abbots to follow his example. King Henry was fo pleafed with his ready obedience on this occafion, that he fent him, in 1535, on an embaffy to Scotland 5 in the fame year made him bi¬ ffiop of St Afaph ■, in two months after, trandated him to the fee of St David’s, and in 1547 to that of Bath and Wells. During this time, our good biffiop, as appears from the following epidle to the king, was, or pretended to be, a daunch Papid : it was written in 1533. “ Prayfe be to God, who of his infynyte good- nefs and mercy inedymable hath brought me out of darknefs into light, and from deadly ignorance into the quick knowledge of the truth. From which, through the fiend’s indigation and falfe perfuafion, I have great¬ ly fwerved. In fo much that I have made certayn bokes, and have differed them to be emprinted, as the tretife of the Buryall of the Mafs, ^ie entered into orders, and became prebendary ot Win- chefter and reftor of Eafton near that city. In 1588, he was made prebendary of Litchfield, which he ex¬ changed for the place of treafurer of that church. Some years after, he was made chaplain to Prince Henry, the fon of King James I. ; and in 1614, archdeacon of Salifbury. He was the firft writer on the nature and properties of the magnet. Barlow died in the year 1625, and was buried in the church at Eafton. His works are, 1. “ The Navigator’s Supply, containing many things of principal importance belonging to na¬ vigation, and ufe of diverfe inftruments framed chiefly for that purpofe.” London, 1597, 4to, Dedicated to Robert earl of Effex. 2.“ Magnetical Advertifements, or diverfe pertinent Obfervations and approved Expe¬ riments concerning the Nature and Properties of the Loadftone.” London, 1616, 4U). 3. “ A brief Dif- covery of the idle Animadverfions of Mark Ridley, M. D. upon a Treatife entitled Magnetical Advertife¬ ments.” London, 1618, 4to. Barlow, Thomas, born in 1607, was appointed fellow of Queen’s college in Oxford in 1633 j and two years after was chofen reader of metaphyfics to the uni- verfity. He was keeper of the Bodleian library, and in I 657 was chofen provoft of Queen’s college. After the reftoration of King Charles II. he was nominated one of the commiflioners for reftoring the members un- juftly expelled in 1648. He wrote at that time The Cafe of Toleration in Matters of Religion, to Mr R. Boyle. In 1675, he was made biftiop of Lincoln. After the popilh plot, he publithed feveral trafls againft the Roman catholic religion •, in which he ftiows an uncommon extent of learning, and Ikill in polemical divinity. Neverthelefs, when the duke of York was proclaimed king, he took all opportunities of exprefling his affeftion toward him *, but after the revolution he as readily voted that the king had abdi- 2 ] BAR cated his kingdom ; and was very vigorous in excluding Bariow thofe of the clergy who refufed the oaths, from their || benefices. ' < Barmas. j Mr Granger obferves, that “ this learned prelate,—v~—1 whom nature defigned for a fcholar, and who a£ted in conformity with the bent of nature, was perhaps as great a mafter of the learned languages, and ot the works of the celebrated authors who have written in thofe languages, as any man in his age. The greateft part of his writings, of which Mr Wood has given us a catalogue, are againft Popery : and his conduct for fome time, like that of other Calvinifts, appeared to be in direft oppofition to the church of Rome. But after James afcended the throne, hefeemed to approach much nearer to Popery than he ever did before. He fent the king an addrefs of thanks -for his declaration for liberty of confcience, and is faid to have written reafons for reading that declaration. His compliances were much the fame after the revolution. His mo¬ deration, to call it by the fofteft name, was very great j indeed fo great as to bring the firmnefs of his charac¬ ter in queftion. But cafuiftry, which was his moft diftinguiftied talent, not only reconciles feeming contra- diftions, but has alfo been known to admit contradicdions themfelves. He was, abitradted from this laxity of principles, a very great and worthy man.” He died at Buckden, in Huntingdonftnre, on the 8th of Odober 1691, in the 85th year of his age. Barlow, Francis, an Englifti paifiter, was born in Lincolnlhire. On his coming to London, he was placed with one Shephard, a limner j but his ge¬ nius led him chiefly to drawing of birds, fifti, and other animals. There are fix books of animals from his drawings, and he painted fome ceilings with birds for noblemen and gentlemen in the country. His etchings are numerous ; his illuftration of Elop is his greateft work. He died in 1702. There is fome- thing pleafing in the compofition and manner of this mafter, though neither is excellent. His drawing too is very indifferent \ nor does he characterize any animal juftly. His birds in general are better than his beafts. BARM, the fame with yeft. See Yest.—Barm is faid to have been firft ufed by the Celtae in the compofition of bread. About the time of Agricola’s entrance into Lancalhire, a new fort of loaf had been introduced at Rome, which was formed only of wa¬ ter and flour, and much efteemed for its lightnefs : and it was called the water cake from its Ample com¬ pofition, and the Parthian roll from its original inven¬ tors. But even this was not comparable to the French or Spanifh bread for its lightnefs. I he ufe of currni*> # see and the knowledge of brewing, had acquainted the Celtes with an ingredient for their bread, which was much better calculated to render it light and pleafant, than the leaven, the eggs, the milk, or the wine and honey, of other nations. This was the fpume which arofe on the furface of their curmi in fermentation, and which the Welch denominate burm, and we barm. 'I he Celtes of Gaul, of Spain, and moft probably therefore of South Britain, had long ufed it ; and their bread was, in confequence of this, fuperior in lightnefs to that of any other nation in the worldf. See the ar- ^ pi;nyt lib. tides Baking and Bread. xvih. c. 7, BARMAS, an Eaft Indian people, who in 1515 n. poffdTed BAR [ 403 ] BAR Earmas poffeffed all the coafl extending from Bengal to Pegu. || It appears alfo, that they were formerly mailers of Barnabas’s. the dominions of which extended as far as China*, 1- ' * ' and of confequence the Barmas were mafters of moft of the northern part of the peninfula beyond the Gan¬ ges. Their dominions, however, were afterwards re¬ duced to very narrow bounds, and their king became tributary to the king of Pegu ; but by degrees they not only recovered their former empire, but conquered the kingdoms of Pegu, Siam, and feveral others. By the lateft accounts, their kingdom extends from the pro¬ vince of Yun-nan in China, about Soo miles in length from north to fouth, and 250 in breadth from eaft to weft. See Asia and Pegu. BARN, in Hujhandry, a covered place or houfe, with air-holes in the fides, for laying up any fort of grain, hay, or ftraw. St BARNABAS’S Day, aChriftian feftival, cele¬ brated on the 1 ith of June.—St Barnabas was born in Cyprus, and defcended of the tribe of Levi, whofe Jewilh anceftors are thought to have retired thither to fecure themfelve.s from violence during the troublefome times in Judea. His proper name was Jofes; to which, after his converfion to Chriftianity, the apoftles added that of Barnabas, ftgnifying either the fon of prophecy, or the fon of confolation ; the firft refpe&ing his eminent prophetic gifts, the other his great charity in felling his eftate for the comfort and relief of the poor Chri- ftians. He was educated at Jerufalem, under the great Jewilh dodtor Gamaliel *, which might probably lay the foundation of that intimate friendlhip which was afterwards contracted between this apoftle and St Paul. The time of his converlion is uncertain ; but he is ge¬ nerally efteemed one of the feventy difciples chofen by our Saviour himfelf. At Antioch, St Paul and St Barnabas had a con- teft, which ended in their feparation : but what fol¬ lowed it with refpedt to St Barnabas is not related in the ABs of the Apojlles. Some fay, he went into Ita¬ ly, and founded a church at Milan. At Salamis, we are. told, he fuffered martyrdom *, whither fome Jews, being come out of Syria, fet upon him, as he was de¬ puting in the fynagogue, and ftoned him to death. He was buried by his kinfman Mark, whom he had taken with him, in a cave near that city. The re¬ mains of his body are faid to have been difcovered in the reign of the emperor Zeno, together with a copy of St Matthew’s gofpel, written with his own hand, and Iving on his breaft. St B ARNABAS'S Epiflle, an apocryphal work afcribed to St Barnabas, and frequently cited by St Clement of Alexandria and Origen. It was firft publilhed in Greek, from a copy of Father Hugh Menard, a Bene:- didline monk. An ancient verfion of it was found in a manufcript of the abbey of Coebey, near a thoufand years old. Voflius publilhed it, in the year 1656, to¬ gether with the epifiles of St Ignatius. St Barnabas's Gofpel, another apocryphal work, afcribed to St Barnabas the apoftle, wherein the hiftory of Jelus Chrift is related in a manner very different from the account given us by the four Evangelifts. The Mahometans have this gofpel in Arabic, and it correfponds very well with thofe traditions which Ma¬ homet followed in his Koran. It was, probably, a forgery of fome nominal Chriftians j and afterwards altered and interpolated by the Mahometans, the better Barnabas’s to ferve their purpofe. !l BARNABITES, a religious order, founded in the Sarneveu u 16th century by three Italian gentlemen, who had been advifed by a famous preacher of thofe days to read carefully the epiftles of St Paul. Hence they were called clerks of St Paul; and Barnabites, becaufe they performed their firft exercife in a church of St Barna¬ bas at Milan. Their habit is black ; and their office to inftrmft, catechife, and ferve in million. BARNACLE, a fpecies of goofe. See Anas, Or¬ nithology Index. BARNACLES, in Farriery, an inftrument com- pofed of two branches joined at one end with a hinge, to put upon horfes nofes when they will not Hand quiet¬ ly to be Ihod, blooded, or drefled. BARNADESIA. See Botany Index. BARNARD, or Bernard, John, the fon of John Barnard gent, was born at Caftor in Lincolnlhire, and educated at Cambridge. After feveral preferments, he was made a prebendary of the church of Lincoln. He wrote Cenfura Clerior, again!! fcandalous minifters not fit to be reftored to church livings ; the Life of Dr Heylyn j and a few other works. He died at Newark, Auguft 17. 1683. BARNARD Cafle, feated on the river Tees in the county of Durham, is a town and barony belonging to Vane earl of Darlington. It is indifferently large, and has a manufa61ory of ftockings. W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 54. 35. BARNES, Joshua, profeffor of the Greek language at Cambridge, in the beginning of the 18th century. He rvas chofen queen’s profeffor of Greek in 1695, a language he wrote and fpoke with the utmoft facility. His firft publication was a whimfical trad!, entitled, Gerania, or a New Difcovery of the little fort of people called Pygmies. After that appeared his Life of Ed¬ ward III. in which he introduces his hero making long and elaborate fpeeches.—In the year 1700, when he publilhed many of his works, Mrs Mafon, of Hem- mingford, in Huntingdonlhire, a widow lady of be¬ tween 40 and 50, with a jointure of 200I. per annum, who had been for fome time a great admirer of him, came to Cambridge, and defired leave to fettle 100I. a-year upon him after her death 5 which he politely refufed, unlefs Ihe would likewife condefcend to make him happy with her perfon, which was not very enga¬ ging. The lady was too obliging to refufe any thing to Joftma, for whom Ihe faid, “ the fun flood Hill j” and they were accordingly married. Mr Barnes wrote feveral other books befides thofe above mentioned, par¬ ticularly, Sacred Poems j The Life of Oliver Cromwell, the Tyrant *, feveral dramatic pieces ; a poetical Para- phrafe on the Hiftory of Efther, in Greek verfe, with a Latin tranflation, &c. : and he publifhed editions of Euripides, Anacreon, and Homer’s Iliad and Odyfley, with notes and a Latin tranflation. He wrote with greater eafe in Greek than even in Englilh, and yet is generally allowed not to have underftood the delicacies of that language. He was of fuch a humane difpofition, and fo unacquainted with the world, that he gave his only coat to a vagrant begging at his door. This ex¬ cellent man died on the 3d of Auguft 1712, in the 58th year of his age. BARNEVELDT, John d’Olden, the celebrated 3 E 2 Dutch BAR [ 404 ] BAR Barnevelck Dutch ftatefman, and one of the founders of the civil || liberty of Holland. His patriotic zeal inducing him to , Barocci. limit the authority of Maurice prince of Orange the fe- v~””v cond ftadtholder of Holland, the partizans of that prince falfely accufed him of a defign to deliver his country in¬ to the hands of the Spanilh monarch. On this abfurd . charge he was tried by 26 commifi'aries deputed from the feven provinces, condemned, and beheaded in 1619- His fons William and Rene, with a view of revenging their father’s death, formed a confpiracy againft the itadtholder, which was difcovered. William fled : but Rene was taken and condemned to die j which fatal circumftance has immortalized the memory of his mo¬ ther, of whom the following anecdote is recorded. She folicited a pardon for Rene ; upon which Maurice ex- prefled his furprife that (lie fliould do that for her fon which (he had refuled for her hufband. To this remark, Ihe replied with indignation, “ I would not alk a par¬ don for my hulband, becaufe he was innocent. I foli- cit it for my fon, becaufe he is guilty.” BARNET, a town partly in Middlefex and partly in Hertfordlhire. It is a great thoroughfare, and the market is very remarkable for hogs. W. Long. O. $. N. Lat. 51. 42. BaRNSLEY, or Black Barnsley, a town of the weft riding of Yorkfliire, feated on the fide of a hill, and five furlongs in length. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 53- 35- BARNSTABLE, a fea-port town of Devonfhire, feated on the river Tau, over which there is a good bridge. It is a corporation town, and fends two mem¬ bers to parliament. W. Long. 4. 5. N. Lat. 51. 15. BARO, or Baron, Peter, profefibr of divinity in the univerfity of Cambridge, in the 16th century, was born at Eftampes in France, and educated in the uni¬ verfity of Bourges, where he was admitted a licentiate in the law : but being of the Proteftant religion, he was obliged to leave his native country to avoid perfe- cution } and withdrawing into England, was kindly en¬ tertained by Lord Burleigh. He afterwards fettled at Cambridge ; and by the recommendation of his noble patron, was, in 1574, chofen Lady Margaret’s profeflbr there. For fome years he quietly enjoyed his profef- forftiip *, but there was at laft raifed a reftlefs faction againft.him, by his oppofing the dofrrine of abfolute predeftination ; which rendered his place fo uneafy to him, that he chofe to leave the univerfity, and to fettle in London. He wrote, 1. In Jonam Prophet am Free- le&iones xxxix. 2. De Prcejhintia et Dignitate Divince Legis; and other pieces. He died in London, about the year 1600. BAROCCI, Frederic, a celebrated painter, was born at Urbino, where the genius of Raphael infpired him. In his early youth he travelled to Rome ; where he painted feveral things in frefco. He then returned to Urbino \ and giving himfelf up to intenfe ftudy, ac¬ quired a great name in painting. His genius parti¬ cularly led him to religious fubjefls. At his leifure hours, he etched a few prints from his own defigns; which are highly finifhed, and executed with great foftnefs and delicacy. The Salutation is his capital performance in that way : of which we feldom meet with any impreflions, but thofe taken from the retouched plate, which are very harfti. He died at Urbino in 4612, aged 84, BAROCHE, a town of Cambaya, in the dominions Baroehe of the Great Mogul ; it is walled round, and was for- |j merly a place of great trade. It is now inhabited by Baromete*, weavers and fuch mechanics as manufacture cotton v~Lj cloth. Here they have the beft cotton in the world, and of confequence the belt baftas are manufadtured in this place. The EngHfti and Dutch had formerly fac¬ tories here, which are now abandoned. E. Long. 72. 5. N. Lat. 22. 15. BAROCO, in Logic, a term given to the fourth mode of the fecond figure of fyllogifms. A tyllogifm in baroco has the firft propofition univerfal and affirma¬ tive, but the fecond and third particular and negative, and the middle term is the predicate in the two firft propofitions. For example, Nu/lus homo non ejl bipes: Non omnc animal tjl bipes : Non omne animal ejl homo. BAROMETER (from weight, and meafure), an inftrument for meaturing the weight of the atmofphere, and of ufe in foretelling the changes of the weather, and alfo for meafuring the height of moun¬ tains, &c. r The common barometer confifts of a glafs tube her- Principles metically fealed at one end, and filled with quickfilver the well defecated and purged of its air. The finger being rometer• then placed on the open end, in immediate contadl with the mercury, fo as not to admit the leaft particle of air, the tube is inverted, and the lower end plunged into a bafon of the fame prepared mercury ; then upon re¬ moving the finger, the mercury in the tube will join that in the baibn, and the mercurial column in the tube will fubfide to the height of 29 or 30 inches, according to the ftate of the atmofphere at that time. This is the principle on which all barometers are conftrudled. Of their invention, the different kinds of them, and the theories by which their phenomena are folved, we fliall proceed to give an hiftorical account. 2 In the beginning of the laft century, when the doc- Difcovered trine of a plenum wfas in vogue, philofophers were 0f by Galileo, opinion, that the aicent of water in pumps was o"7ing ved by for. to the abhorrence of a vacuum ; and that by means ofrjceiii. fuftion, fluids might be raifed to any height whatever. But Galileo, who flourifhed about that time, difcovered that water could not afcend in a pump unlefs the fucker reached within 33 feet of its furface in the well. From hence he concluded, that not the power of fu£lion, but the preffure of the atmofphere, was the caufe of the af- cent of water in pumps j that a column of water 33 feet high was a counterpoife to one of air, of an equal bafe, whofe height extended to the top of the atmofphere ; and that for this reafon the water would not follow the fucker any farther. From this Torricelli, Galileo’s dif- ciple, took the hint j and confidered, that if a column of water of about 33 feet in height W’as equal in weight to one of air having the fame bafe, a column of mercury no longer than about 29^ inches would be fo too, be¬ caufe mercury being about 14 times heavier than water, a column of mercury muft be 14 times ftiorter than one of water equally heavy. Accordingly, having filled a glafs tube with mercury, and inverted it into a bafon of the fame, he found the mercury in the tube to defcend till it flood about inches above the furface of that in the bafon. Notwithftanding BAT [ 405 Notvvitliftanding this clear proof of the preffure of pothelis of Linus. 4 Experi¬ ments in confirma¬ tion of it. S Refuted Barometer. —v—' the atmofphere, however, the affertors of a plenum left 3 no means untried to folve the phenomena of the Tor- ^/"riceliian experiment by fome other hypothefis. The moft ridiculous folution, and which at the fame time gave the adverfe party the greateft difficulty to over¬ throw it, was that of Linus. He contended, that in the upper part of the tube, there is a film or rope of mer¬ cury, extended through the feeming vacuity 5 and that, by this rope, the reft of the mercury was fufpended, and kept from falling into the bafon. Even this fo ab- furd hypothefis he pretended to confirm by the follow¬ ing experiments. Take, fays he, a fmall tube, open at both ends, fuppofe about 20 inches long *, fill this tube with mercury, flopping the knver orifice with your thumb : Then doling the upper end with your finger, and immerging the lower in ftagnant mercury, you (hall perceive, upon the removal of your thumb, a manifeft fu&ion of your finger into the tube *, and the tube and mercury will both flick fo clofe to it that you may car¬ ry them about the room. Therefore, fays he, the in¬ ternal cylinder of mercury in the tube is not held up by the preponderate air without ; for if fo, whence comes fo ftrong a fu&ion, and fo firm an adhefion of the tube to the finger ?—The fame effecf follows, though the tube be not quite filled with mercury ; for if a little fpace of air is left at the top, after the tube is immerged in the ftagnant mercury, there will be a confiderable fu&ion as before. Thefe experiments, which are themfelves clear proofs of the preffure of the air, fupported for fome time the funicular hypothefis, as it was called, of Linus. But when it was difcovered, that if the tube was carried to the top of a high mountain the mercury flood lower than on the plain, and that if removed into the vacuum of an air-pump it fell out altogether, the hypothefis of wemarK- . Linus was reieded by every body.—There, are, how- siulc expen- ^ j j j • * ever, two experiments which create a confiderable dif¬ ficulty. One is mentioned by Mr Huygens, viz., that if a glafs tube 75 inches long, or perhaps longer, is filled with mercury well purged of its air, and then in¬ verted, the whole will remain fufpended ; whereas, ac¬ cording to the Torricellian experiment, it ought tofub- fide immediately to the height of 29 or 30 inches. It is true indeed, that, upon fhaking the tube, the mer¬ cury prefently fubfides to that height ; but why it fhould remain fufpended at all, more than twice the height to which it can be raifed by the preiTure of the moft denfe atmofphere, feems not eaftly accounted for: and accordingly, in the Philofophical Tranfaflions we counted for^n<^ attempts to account for it by the preffure of a me¬ in the Phi- dium more fubtile than the common air, and capable of pervading both the mercury and glafs. We find there alfo another very furprifing faff of the fame kind mentioned 5 viz. that a pretty large tube under 29 in¬ ches in length, filled with mercury, and inverted into a bafon of the fame, will remain full, though there be a fmall hole in the top. This too, is there accounted for by the preffure of a medium more fubtile than com¬ mon air; but by no means in a fatisfaftory manner. Mr Rowning, who mentions the phenomenon of the 75 inch tube, accounts for it in the following manner. “ The oaufe of this phenomenon feems to be, that by the great weight of fo long a column of mercury, it was preffed into fo clofe contafl with the glafs in pour- 6 Remark ments by Mr Huy¬ gens, Unfatisfac- torily ac- lofophical Tranfae- tions. 8 Mr Row- ning’s folu tion. 9 Infuffi.- cient. ] BAR ing in, that, by the mutual attraflion of cohefion be-Barometer, tween the mercury and the glafs, the whole column was fuftained after the tube was inverted.”—Here,, however, we muft obferve, that this folution feems equally unfatisfa&ory with that of the fubtile medium already mentioned; becaufe it is only one end of the co¬ lumn which fuftains fo great a preffure from the weight of the mercury ; and therefore, though five or fix inches of the upper part of the tube, where the preffure had been ftrongeft, might thus remain full of mercury, yet the reft ought to fall down. Befides, it is only the outfide of the mercurial column that is in contact with the glafs, and confequently thefe parts only ought to be attra&ed. Therefore, even granting the preffure to be equally vio¬ lent, on the inverfion of the tube, all the way from 29 to 75 inches, yet the glafs ought to be only as it were filvered over by a very thin film of mercury, while the middle parts of the column ought to fall out by reafon of their fluidity. xcr The other experiment hinted at, is with regard to Another fiphons: which, though it belongs more properly to the^P®rj!^en£ article Hydrostatics, yet feems neceflary to be men-phonSt tioned here. It is this : That a fiphon, once,fet a run¬ ning, will continue to do fo though fet under the re¬ ceiver of an air-pump and the air exhaufted in the moft perfetft manner ; or if a fiphon is filled, and then fet under a receiver and the air exhaufted, if by any con¬ trivance the end of the lower leg is opened, it will im¬ mediately begin to run, and difcharge the water of any veffel in which the other leg is placed, as though it was in the open air. The caufe of this phenomenon, as well as the former, feems very difficult to be invefti- gated. Some philofophers have attempted a folution on a principle fomething fimilar to that of the funi- „ eular hypothefis of Linus above-mentioned; namely, Anoihor that “ fluids in fiphons feem as it were to form one con-fohRLn. tinned body ; fo that the heavier part, defcending, like a chain pulls the lighter after it.” This might be deemed a fuffieient explanation, if the fiphon were on¬ ly to empty the water it at firft contains in itfelf: I3 but when we confider that the water in the veffel, Infuffi- which much exceeds the quantity contained in thecient. fiphon, is likewife evacuated, this hypothefis can by no means be admitted; becaufe this would be like the lighter part of a chain pulling the heavier af¬ ter it. 13 Concerning the caufe of thefe Angular phenomena, Another fo- we can only offer the following conjecture. The ex' iftence of a medium much more fubtile than air, and0f which pervades the vacuum of an air-pump with the city, utmoft facility, is now fufficiently afcertained in the phenomena of ele&ricity. It is alfo well known, that this fluid furrounds the whole earth to an indeterminate height. If, therefore, this fluid either is the power of gravity itfelf, or is aCIed upon by that power, it muft neceflarily prefs upon all terreftrial bodies in a manner fimilar to the preffure of the atmofphere. If then we could from any veffel entirely exclude this fubtile fluid, and form an eleClrical vacuum, as well as we can do an aerial one by means of the air pump, we would in that cafe fee fluids as evidently raifed by the preffure of the eleClric matter, as we now fee them raifed by that of the air. But though this cannot be done, we are affured that there are certain fubftances, of which glafs is one, through which the eleCtric manner cannot pafs BAR [ 406 ] BAR pafs but with difficulty. We are likewife certain, that though the eleflric matter paffes through the pores of wa¬ ter, metals, &c. with very great facility, yet it ftill mult meet with fome refiftance from their folid and impene¬ trable parts, which cannot be pervaded by any material fubftance. We know alfo, that all fubftances do na¬ turally contain a certain quantity of this eleftric mat¬ ter, which they are not always ready to part with-, and when by any means the fluid they contain is fet in mo¬ tion, they are then faid to be eleSirified. Now, though we are certain, that the friftion of glafs by mercury does fet in motion the ele&ric fluid contained in the mercury or in the glafs j yet when the tube is filled with the metallic fluid, whatever quantity has been extricated either from the glafs or mercury during the time of filling, will be re-abforbed again by the me¬ tal and conveyed to the earth during the time of in- verfion -, and confequently, the mercurial tube, when inverted, will not be elettrified, but both glafs and mercury will be in their natural ftate. Here, then, the •preffure of the ele&rical fluid is kept off in fome mea- fure from the upper part of the mercury by the glafs, which it cannot penetrate eafily at leaf!. 1 o the mercury in the bafon it has free accefs, and therefore preffes more upon the lower than the upper part the confequence of which is a fufpenfion of the mercury. It is true, this fluid very eafily penetrates the metallic matter but it muft be confidered, that the eleflric fluid^ itfelf is in fome meafure entangled in the particles of the quickfilver, and cannot be extricated without mo¬ tion. As foon therefore as the tube is fhaken, fome part of the elearicity is extricated, and the mercury begins to defcend. The fubtility of the medium is fuch, that no fooner has it begun to extricate itfelf, than, by the motion of the metal downwards, it iffues forth in great quantities, fo as to become vifible, like a blue flame, in the dark. The equilibrium is therefore de- ftroyed in an inftant, as it would be were we to admit air to the top of the barometer j nay, in a more effec¬ tual manner. For if a fmall quantity of air was ad¬ mitted to the top of a barometer, the mercury would only defcend in proportion to the quantity of air ad¬ mitted ; but here, na fooner is a quantity of eleftric matter admitted, than it procures admiflion for a vaft deal more, and confequently the mercury defcends with accelerated velocity.— On this principle the afcent of water in the fiphon while in vacuo isfo eafily accounted for, that we need not take up time in explaining it far¬ ther.—But why an inverted glafs tube fliould remain full of mercury when it has a hole either great or fmall in the top, is more difficult to be accounted for, and requires this farther circumftance to be taken into con- fideration, viz. that though all folid bodies will, by the aftion of gravity, or by any other impulfe, eafily approach very near to one another, yet they cannot be brought into abfolute contaft without a very confiderable force, much greater than is fufficient to overcome their gravity 5 and thus it appears from fome experiments, that the links of a chain are by no means in contaft with one another, till the chain has a confiderable weight append¬ ed to it. This may be the cafe with the tube in que- ftion. The air by its gravity defcends upon it, and is ready to enter the fmall hole in the top -, but, by a re- pulfive power from the glafs, its aftion is prevented, fo that the mercury cannot fall. It was, however, fome time after the Torricellian ex- Barometer, periment had been made, and even after it had been _ univerfally agreed that the fufpenfion of the mercury *4 was owing to the weight of the atmofphere, before it ^rjiI^ter was difcovered that this preffure of the air was different pr0gnoAi_ at different times though the tube was kept in the fame eating the place. But the variations of altitude in the mercurial weather, column were too obvious to remain long unobferved , and accordingly philofophers foon became careful enough to mark them. When this was done, it was impofiible to avoid obferving alfo, that the changes in the height of the mercury were accompanied, or very quickly fuc- ceeded, by changes in the weather. Hence, the inflru- ment obtained the name of the weuther-glafs, and was generally made ufe of with a view to the fore-knowledge of the weather. In this charadler, its principal pheno¬ mena are as follow : 1.. 1. The rifing of the mercury prefages, in general, jts pheno. fair weather j and its falling, foul weather, as rain, mena as a fnow, high winds, and ftorms. wcather- 2. In very hot weather, the falling of the mercury forelhows thunder. 3. In winter, the rifing prefages froft j and in frofly weather, if the mercury falls three or four divifions, there will certainly follow a thaw. But in a continued froft, if the mercury rifes, it will certainly fnow. 4. When foul weather happens foon atter the falling of the mercury, expeft but little of it ; and, on the contrary, expedl but little fair wreather when it proves fair fhortly after the mercury has rifen. 5. In foul weather, when the mercury rifes much and high, and thus continues for two or three days be¬ fore the foul weather is quite over, then expedt a conti¬ nuance of fair weather to follow. 6. In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low, and thus continues for two or three days before the rain comes, then expedl a great deal of wet, and probably high winds. 7. The unfettled motion of the mercury denotes un¬ certain and changeable weather. 8. You are not fo ftridlly to obferve the words en¬ graven on the plates (though in general it will agree with them), as the mercury’s rifing zni falling. For if it ft and at much rain, and then rifes up to changeable, it prefages fair weather; though not to continue fo long as if the mercury had rifen higher : and fo, on the con¬ trary, if the mercury flood at fair, arid falls to change¬ able, it prefages foul weather j though not fo much ot it as if it had funk lower. . _ Thefe are the obfervations of Mr Patrick, on which Remarks Mr Rowning makes the following remarks : “ Irom^wr)- thefe obfervations it appears, that it is not fo much the height of the mercury in the tube that indicates the weather, as the motion of it up and down : where¬ fore, in order to pafs a right judgment of what weather is to be expedfed, we ought to know whether the mer¬ cury is adtually rifing or falling j to which end the fol¬ lowing rules are of ufe. “ 1. If the furfaee of the mercury is convex, ftand- ing higher in the middle of the tube than at the fideSj it is generally a fign that the mercury is then rifing. “ 2. If the furface is concave, it is then finking ; and, “ 3. If it is plain, the mercury is ftationary ; or. ra¬ ther, if it is a little convex : for mercury being put into a BAR Barometer. 17 V Thefe phe¬ nomena pe¬ culiar to the tempe¬ rate and frigid zones. * mitf. TranfaEl. N° 330. 18 Phenomena of the baro¬ meter hal¬ ved by Dr Halley. a glafs tube, efpecially a fmall one, will naturally have its furface a little convex, becaufe the particles of mer¬ cury attraft one another more forcibly than they are attra&ed by glafs. Further, “ 4. If the glafs is fmall, {hake the tube •, and if the air is grown heavier, the mercury will rife about half the tenth of an inch higher than it flood before j if it is grown lighter, it will link as much. This pro¬ ceeds from the mercury’s flicking to the Tides of the tube, which prevents the free motion of it till it is dif- cngaged by the (hock : and therefore, when an obfer- vation is to be made with fuch a tube, it ought always to be fhaken lirft ; for fometimes the mercury will not vary of its own accord, till the weather it ought to have indicated is prefent. Here we muft obferve, that the above-mentioned phenomena are peculiar to places lying at a conlider- able diftance from the equator ; for, in the torrid zone, the mercury in the barometer feldom either rifes or falls much. In Jamaica, it is obferved by Sir Wil¬ liam Beefton *, that the mercury in the morning con- ftantly flood at one degree below changeable, and at noon funk to one degree above rain ; fo that the whole fcale of variation there was only T35 of an inch. At St Helena, too, where Dr Halley made his obfervations, he found the mercury to remain wholly ftationary what¬ ever weather happened. Of thefe phenomena, their caufes, and why the barometer indicates an approaching change of weather, the Do&or gives us the following account : “ 1. In calm weather, when the air is inclined to rain, the mercury is commonly low. 2. In ferene, good, and fettled weather, the mer¬ cury is generally high. “ 3. Upon very great winds, though they be not accompanied with rain, the mercury finks loweft of all. With relation to the point of the compafs the wind blows upon, “ 4. CtT/eris paribus, the greateft heights of the mer¬ cury are found upon eafterly, or north-eafterly, winds. “ 5. In calm frofty weather, the mercury generally ftands high. “ 6. After very great ftorms of wind, when the mer¬ cury has been very low, it generally rifes again very faft, “ 7. The more northerly places have greater altera¬ tions of the barometer than the more foutherly. “ 8. Within the tropics, and near them, thofe ac¬ counts we have had from others, and my own obferva¬ tions at St Helena, make very little or no variation of the height of the mercury in all weathers. “ Hence I conceive, that the principal caufe of the rife and fall of the mercury is from the variable winds which are found in the temperate zones, and whofe great inconftancy here in England is notorious. “ A fecond caufe is, the uncertain exhalation and precipitation of the vapo irs lodging in the air, where¬ by it comes to be at one time much more crowded than at another, and confequently heavier ; but this latter depends in a great meafure upon the former. Now from thefe principles I (hall endeavour to explicate the feveral phenomena of the barometer, taking them in the fame order I have laid them down. Thus, “ 1. The mercury’s being lower inclines it to rain ; becaufe the air being light, the vapours are no longer 4 [ 407 1 BAR fupported thereby, being become fpecifically heavier Barometer, than the medium wherein they floated; fo that theyv——' defcend towards the earth, and, in their fall, meeting with other aqueous particles, they incorporate toge¬ ther, and form little drops of rain : but the mercury’s being at one time lower than another, is the effeft of two contrary winds blowing from the place where the barometer Itands; whereby the air of that place is car¬ ried both ways from it, and confequently the incumbent cylinder of air is diminitbed, and accordingly the mer¬ cury finks: As, for inftance, if in the German ocean it fhould blow a gale of weflerly wind, and at the fame time, an eaflerly wind in the Irifh lea; or, if in France it fhould blow a northerly wind, and in Scotland a foutherly ; it muft be granted, that that part of the atmofphere impendant over England would thereby be exhaufted and attenuated, and the mercury would fub- fide, and the vapours which before floated in thefe parts of the air of equal gravity with themfelves would fink to the earth. “ 2. The greater height of the barometer is occa- fioned by two contrary winds blowing towards the place of obfervation, whereby the air of other places is brought thither and accumulated ; fo that the incum¬ bent cylinder of air being increafed both in height and weight, the mercury prefled thereby muft needs ftand high, as long as the wind continues fo to blow ; and then the air being fpecifically heavier, the vapours are better kept fuipended, fo that they have no inclination to precipitate and fall down in drops, which is the rea- fon of the ferene good weather which attends the greater heights of the mercury. “ 3. The mercury finks the loweft of all by the very rapid motion of the air in ftorms of wind. For the tradl or region of the earth’s furface, wherein the winds rage, not extending all round the globe, that ftagnant air which is left behind, as like wife that on the fides, cannot come in fo faft as to fupply the evacuation made by fo fwift a current ; fo that the air muft neceffarily be attenuated when and where the faid winds continue to blow, and that more or lefs according to their vio¬ lence : add to which; that the horizontal motion of the air being io quick as it is, may in all probability take off fome pari of the perpendicular preflure thereof; and the great agitation of its particles is the reafon why the vapours are diffipated, and do not condenfe into drops fo as to form rain, other wife the natural confequence of the air’s rarefaiftion. “■ 4. The mercury ftands higheft upon the eafterly and north-eafterly winds ; becaufe in the great Atlantic ocean, on this fide the 35th degree of north latitude, the winds are almoft always wefterly or fouth-wefterly; fo that whenever here the wind comes up at eaft and north-eaft, it is fure to be checked by a contrary gale as foon as it reaches the ocean ; wherefore, according to our fecond remark, the air muft needs be heaped over this ifland, and confequer.tly the mercury muft ftand high as often as thefe winds blow. This holds true in this country ; but is not a general rule for others, where the winds are under different circumftances: and I have fometimes feen the mercury here as low as 29 inches upon an eafterly wind ; but then it blew ex¬ ceedingly hard, and fo comes to be accounted for by what was obferved in the third remark. “ 5. In calm frofty weather the mercury generally ftands Barsmeter.ftamlU fcigh j becaufe (as I conceive) it feldom freezes *■——Y—■» but when the winds come out of the northern and north-eaftern quarters, or at lead unlefs thofe winds blow at no great diftance off. For the north parts of Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and all that fraft from whence north-eaffern winds come, are fubjeft toalmoft continual froft all the winter: and thereby the lower air is very much condenfed, and in that date is brought hitherward by thofe winds, and, being accu¬ mulated by the oppofition of the wederly wind blowing in the ocean, the mercury mud needs be preffed to a more than ordinary height ; and as a concurring caufe, the dirinking of the lower parts of the air into lefler room by cold, mud needs caufe a defcent of the upper parts of the atmofphere, to reduce the cavity made by this contraction to an equilibrium. “ 6. After great dorms, when the mercury has been very low, it generally rifes again very fad : I once ob- ferved it to rife one inch and a half in lefs than lix hours after a long-continued dorm of fouth-wed wind. The reafon is, becaufe the air being very much rare- ded by the great evacuations which fuch continued dorms make thereof, the neighbouring air runs in the more fwiftly to bring it to an equilibrium ; as we fee water runs the fader for having a greater decli¬ vity. “ y. The variations are greater in the more northerly places, as at Stockholm greater than at Paris (compared by M. Pafchal); beoaufe the more northerly parts have ufually greater dorms of wind than the more foutherly, whereby the mercury diould fink lower in that ex¬ treme ; and then the northerly winds bringing in the more denfe and ponderous air from the neighbourhood of the pole, and that again being checked by a foutherly wind at no great didance, and lo heaped, mud of necef- fity make the mercury in fuch cafe dand higher in the other extreme. “ 8. Ladly, This remark, that there is little or no variation near the equinoftial, does above all others confirm the hypothefis of the variable winds being the caufe of thefe variations of the height of the mercury ; for in the places above named there is always an eafy gale of wind blowing nearly upon the fame point, viz. E. N. E. at Barbadoes, and E. S. E. at St Helena 5 fo that there being no contrary currents of air to ex- haud or accumulate it, the atmofphere continues much in the fame date: however, upon hurricanes, the mod violent of dorms, the mercury has been obferv- ed very low j but this is but once in two or three years, and it foon recovers its fettled date, about 291 inches.” Objections theory has been controverted, and the princi- V.o this pal obje£Hons are, “ That if the wind was the foie theory. agent in raifing or depreding the mercury, the altera¬ tions of its height in the barometer would be only re¬ lative or topical j there would dill be the fame quanti¬ ty fupported at feveral places taken colleddively : thus what a tube at London lod, another at Paris, Pifa, or Zurich, &c. would gain. But the contrary is found to be the cafe ; for, from all the obfervations hitherto made, the barometers in feveral didant parts of the globe rife and fall together. This is a very furprifing faft and deferves to be well examined. Again, fet- ting afide all other objections, it is impodible, on Dr Halley’s hypothefis, to explain the mercury’s fall be¬ fore, and rife after, rain. For fuppofe two contrary BarCmetef; winds fweeping the air from over London : We know . that few if any of the winds reach above a mile high $ all therefore they can do will be to cut off a certain part of the column of air over London : if the confe- quence of this be the fall of the mercury, yet there is no apparent reafon for the rains following it. The vapours indeed may be let lower j but it will only be till they come into an air of the fame fpecific gravity with themfelves j and there they will dick as before. Ladly, it is impoffible, according to the laws of fluids, that the air above any place could be exhauded by the blowing of two contrary winds from it j tor, fuppofe a north-ead and fouth-wed wind both blow from London at the fame time, there will be two others at the fame time blowing towards it from oppofite points, viz. a north-wed and fouth-ead one, which will every moment redore the equilibrium, fo that it can never be lod in any confiderable degree at lead.” 23 Mr Leibnitz accounted for the finking of the mer-Hypothefis cury before rain upon another principle, viz. That asot a body fpecifically lighter than a fiuid, while it is fu-Leibhltz’ fpended by it, adds more weight to that fluid than when, by being reduced in its bulk, it becomes fpe¬ cifically heavier, and defcends ; fo the vapour, after it is reduced into the form of clouds, and defcends, adds lefs weight to the air than before 5 and therefore 2i the mercury falls. To which it is anfwered, I. That Refuted, when a body defcends in a fiuid, its motion in a very little time becomes uniform, or nearly fo, a farther acceleration of it being prevented by the refidance of the fiuid ; and then, by the third law of nature, it forces the fluid downwards with a force equal to that whereby it tends to be farther accelerated, that is, with a force equal to its whole weight. 2. The mer¬ cury by its defcent foretels rain a much longer time before it comes, than the vapour after it is condenfed into clouds can be fuppofed lo take up in falling* 3. Suppofing that as many vapours as fall in rain du¬ ring a whole year were at once to be condenled into clouds, and even quite ceafe to gravitate upon the air, its gravity would fcarcely be diminifhed thereby fo much as is equivalent to the defcent of two inches of mercu¬ ry in the barometer. Befides, in many places be¬ tween the tropics, the rains fall at certain feafons in very great quantities, and yet the barometer fhows there very little or no alteration in the weight of the atmofphere. _ # 22 Another hypothefis fomewhat fimilar to that of Leib- Another nitz has been given : but as it is liable to the ohjec- hypothefis, tionsjuft now mentioned, efpecially the laft, we for- bear to give any particular account of it j and (hall at¬ tempt, upon other principles, to give a fatisfadlory folu- tion of this phenomenon. The neceffary preliminaries to our hypothefis are, ^notijer 1. That vapour is formed by an intimate union between theory, the element of fire and that of water, by which the fire or heat is fo totally enveloped, and its afiion fo entirely fufpended by the watery particles, that it not only lofes its properties of giving light and of burning, but becomes incapable of affefting the mofl: fenfible thermometer 5 in which cafe, it is faid by Dr Black, the author of this theory, to be in the latent Hate. For the proofs of this, fee the articles Evaporation, Cold, Congelation, &c. 2. If the atmofphere is affeaed B A B Barometer, affefted by any unufual degree of heat, it thence be- v™"*' comes incapable of fupporting fo long a column of mercury as before, for which reafon that in the baro¬ meter finks. This appears from the obfervations of Sir William Beeflon already mentioned ; and likewife from thofe of De Luc, which fhall be afterwards taken no¬ tice of. Thefe axioms being eftablifhed, it thence follows, that as vapour is formed by an union of fire with wa¬ ter, or if we pleafe to call it an eleSlive attraction be¬ tween them, or folution of the water in the fire, it is impoflible that the vapour can be condenfed until this union, attraction, or fulution, be at an end. The be¬ ginning of the condenlation of the vapour then, or the firlt fymptoms of an approaching rain, mutt be the fe- paration of the fire which lies hid in»the vapour. This may be at firtt flow and partial, or it may be fudden and violent : in the firtt cafe, the rain will come on flowly, and after a confiderable interval ; and in the other, it will be very quick, and in great quantity. But Dr Black hath proved, that when fire quits its . latent ttate, however long it may have lain dormant and infenfible,’ it always a flumes, its. proper qualities again, and affeCts the thermometer as though it had never been abforbed. The confequence of this mull be, that in proportion as the latent heat is difcharged from the vapour, it muft fenfibly affeCl thofe parts of the atmofphere into which it is difcharged ; and in pro¬ portion to the heat communicated to thefe, they will become fpecifically lighter, and the mercury fink of courfe. Neither are we to imagine that the quantity of heat, difcharged by the vapour is inconfiderable ; for Dr Black hath fhown, that when any quantity of water, a pound for inflance, is condenfed from the va¬ pour of a common ftill, as much heat is communicated to the head and refrigeratory as would have been fuffi- cient to heat the pound of water red hot, could it have borne that degree of fenfible heat. The caufes by which this feparation between the fire and water is, or may be effeCled, come to be confider- ed under the articles Rain, Condensation, Vapour, &c. Here we have only to obferve, that as the fepa¬ ration may be gradual and flow, the barometer may^ indicate rain for a confiderable time before it happens : or if the fenfible heat communicated from the vapour to the atmofphere lhall be abforbed by the colder parts, or by any unknown means carried off, or pre¬ vented from affe&ing the fpecific gravity of the air, the barometer will not be affeffed •, and yet the water being deprived of the heat neceflary to fuftain it, mull defcend in rain \ and thus it is found that the indica¬ tions of the barometer do not always hold true. Hence alfo it appears, that though the fpecific gravity of the air is diminifhed, unlefs that diminution proceeds from a difcharge of the latent heat contained in the vapours, no rain will follow ; and thus the finking of the baro¬ meter may prognofticate wind as well as rain, or fome- times nothing at all. The difficulty, however, on this hypothefis, is to account for the barometer being flationary in all wea¬ thers between the tropics ; whereas it ought to move up and down there as well as here, only more fudden- Lv> as the changes of weather there are more fudden than here. But it mull be confidered, that in thefe climates, during the daytime, the adlion of the fun’s Vol. III. Part II. [ 409 ] BAR rays is fo violent, that what is gained by the difcharge Basoneter. of latent heat from the vapour, is loft by the interpofi-v""—y——1 11 tion of the clouds betwixt the fun and earth, or by the great evaporation which is conftantly going on ; and in the night, the cold of the atmofphere is fo much in- creafed, that it abforbs the heat as faff as the vapour difcharges it, fo that no fenfible eftedl can be produ¬ ced ; for in warm climates, though the day is excef- fively hot, the night is obferved to be vaftly colder in proportion than it is with us. This, however, does not prevent the barometer from being affedted by other caufes, as well as with us 5 for Dr Halley obferves, that in the time of hurricanes it finks very low. The cauf'c of this is moft probably a great commotion in the elec¬ tric fluid, by which the air is internally agitated, and its power of gravitation in part fufpended.-—A confir¬ mation of the above hypothefis, however, is taken from the different heights at which the mercury arrives in different climates. The barometer range, for inftanee, at the latitude of 450 is the greateft of all ; becaufe here the evaporation and condenfation of the vapours are both very confiderable, at the fame time that the latent heat difcharged cannot be abforbed fo fuddenlv as in the torrid zone, the difference betwixt the length of the days and nights being greater, and conftquently the nights warmer in fummer and colder in winter. Farther to the northward the range is lefs, and in the latitude of 6o° only two inches, by reafon of the great¬ er cold and length of the days and nights ; whence the quantity of vapour condenfed, or of latent heat expel¬ led, becomes proportiohably lefs. Having thus given an account of the feveral pheno-Different mena of the barometer confidered as a weather-glafs, k'ncls of and likewife endeavoured to account for them in the " moft fatisfadfory manner, we now proceed to give a particular defcription of the barometers moft common¬ ly made ufe of, with various fchemes for their improve¬ ment. Fig. I. reprefents the common barometer, fuch as was invented by Torricelli, and fuch as we have al¬ ready given a general defcription of. AB reprefents a tube of glafs, a quarter of an inch in diameter, and 34 inches long, hermetically fealed at A. This tube being fuppofed to be filled with mercury, is then in¬ verted into the bafon CD ; upon which the mercury- in the tube falls down to GH, fomewhat above 28 inches, while that in the bafon rifes to CF. The low- eft ftation of the mercury in this country is found to be 28 inches, and the higheft 31. From the furface of the mercury CF, therefore, 28 inches are to be mea- fured on the tube AB, which fuppofe to reach to the point K. This point, therefore, is the loweft of the fcale of variation, and in the common barometers is marked Jlormy. In like manner, the higheft point of the fcale of variation I, is placed 31 inches above EF j and is marked ’very dry on one fide for the fummer, and verii hard frqfl on the other for the winter. The next half inch below is marked Jet fair on the one fide, and fet frojl on the other. At 30 inches from CF is marked the word fair on one fide, and frof on the other. Half an inch below that, is wrote the word changeable, which anfwers both for fummer and winter. At 29 inches is rain on the one fide, and fnow on the other ; and at 28^ are the words much rain on the one fide, and much fnow on the other. Each of thefe 3 F large barometers defcribed. Plate LXXXV. BAR Barometer, large divifions is ufually fubdivided into 10} and there > —‘ is a {mall Hiding index fitted to the inftrument, by ivhich the afeent or defeent of the mercury to any number of divifions is pointed out. Each of thefe tenths is fometimes divided into ten more, or hundredths of an inch, by means of a Hiding flip of brafs with a vernier fcale on it, which (hall be hereafter deferibed and ex¬ plained. This kind of barometer is the mofl common, and perhaps the moft ufeful and accurate, of any that has yet been invented, from the following circum- ftance, that the natural fimplicity of its eonftrudtion, in preference to others hereafter deferibed, does not admit of any kind of refiflance to the free motion of the column of mercury in the tube. The fcale of va¬ riation being only three inches, and it being naturally wiflied to difeover more minute variations than can thus be perceived, feveral improvements have been thought of. The improvement mofl generally adopted is the dia¬ gonal barometer reprefente-d fig. 2. in which the fcale of variation, inftead of three inches, may be made as many feet, by bending the tube fo as to make the up¬ per part of it the diagonal of a parallelogram, of which the fhorteft fide is the three-inches fcale of variation of the common barometer. This, however, has a very great inconvenience : for not only is the friction of the mercury upon the glafs fo much increafed that the height doth not vary with every flight change of air } but the column of mercury is apt to break in the tube, and part of it to be left behind, upon any confiderable defeent. Fig. 3. is the reifangular barometer} where AC re- prefents a pretty wide cylinder of glafs, from which proceeds the tube CDF bent into a right angle at D. Suppofe now the cylinder AC to be four times larger than the tube CD, fo that every inch of the cylinder from C to A ftiould be equal in capacity to four inches of the tube CD. The whole being then filled with mercury, and inverted, the mercury will fubfide from A to B, at the fame time that it cannot run out at the open orifice F, becaufe the air preffes in that way. If any alteration then happens in the weight of the air, fuppofe fuch as would be fuflicient to raife the mer¬ cury an inch from B towards A, it is evident that this could not be done without the mercury in the ho¬ rizontal leg retiring four inches from E towards D } and thus the fcale of variation counted on the horizon¬ tal leg would be 12 inches. But the inconveniences of friction are much greater here than in the diagonal barometer } and befides, by the leaft accident, the mer¬ cury is apt to be driven out at the open orifice F. The pendant barometer (fig. 4.) confifts of a Angle tube, fufpended by a firing faltened to the end A. This tube is of a conical or tapering figure, the end A being fomewhat lefs than the end B. It is herme¬ tically fealed at A, and filled with mercury : then will the mercury fink to its common ftation, and admit of a length of altitude CD, equal to that in the common barometers. But from the conical bore of the tube, the mercury will defeend as the air grows lighter, till it reaches its loweft altitude, when the mercury will Hand from the lower part of the tube B to E, fo that BE will be equal to 28 inches : confequently the mer¬ cury will, in fuch a tube, move from A to E, or 32 inches, if the tube be five feet, or 60 inches} and BAR therefore the fcale AE is here above ten times greater Barometer. than in the common barometer: but the fault of this ——j barometer is, that the tubes being of a very fmall bore, the fri£tion will be confiderable, and prevent its mov¬ ing freely ; and if the tube is made of a wider bore, the mercury will be apt to fall out. Fig. 5. is an invention of Mr Rowning, by which the fcale of variation may be increafed to any length, or even become infinite. ABC is a compound tube hermetically fealed at A, and open at C, empty from A to D, filled with mercury from thence to B, and from thence to E with water. Let GBH be a hori¬ zontal line } then it is plain, from the nature of the fiphon, that all the compound fluid contained in the part from H to G, will be always in cequilibrio with itfelf, be the weight of the air what it will, becaufe the preflure at H and G muft be equal. Whence it is evident, that the column of mercury DH is in ee- quilibrio with the column of w’ater GE, and a column of air taken conjointly, and will therefore vary with the fum of the variations of thefe. That the variation in this barometer may be infinite, will appear from the following computation. Let the proportion between the bores of the tube AF and FC be fuch, that when HD, the dift’erence of the legs wherein the mercury is contained, is augmented one inch, GE, the difference of the legs wherein the water is contained, fliall be di- miniflied 14 } then, as much as the preffure of the mer¬ cury is augmented, that of the water will be diminilhed, and fo the preflure of both taken together will remain as it was 5 and confequently, after it has begun to rife, it will have the fame tendency to rife on, without ever coming to an equilibrium with the air. Fig. 6. reprefents Dr Hook’s wheel-barometer. Here ACDG is a glafs tube, having a large round head at A, and turned up at the lower end F. Upon the fur- face of the mercury in the bent leg is an iron ball G, with a firing going over a pulley CD. To the other end of the firing is faftened a fmaller ball H, w'hich as the mercury rifes in the leg FG, turns the index KL from N towards M, on the graduated circle MNOP } as it rifes in the other leg, the index is carried the con¬ trary way by the defeent of the heavier ball G, along with the mercury. The friction of this machine, how¬ ever, unlefs it is made with very great accuracy, ren¬ ders it ufelefs. Fig. 7. is another barometer, invented by Mr Rown¬ ing, in which alfo the fcale may be infinite. ABCD is a cylindrical veffel, filled with a fluid to the height W, in which is immerged the barometer SP confifling of the following parts : The principal one is the glafs tube TP (reprefented feparately at tp'), whofe upper end T is hermetically fealed : this end does not appear to the eye, being received into the lower end of a tin pipe GH, wdrich in its other end G receives a cylin- dric rod or tube ST, and thus fixes it to the tube TP. This rod ST may be taken off, in order to put in its ftead a larger or a leffer as occafion requires. S is a flar at the top of the rod ST : and ferves as an index by pointing to the graduated fcale LA, which is fixed to the cover of the veffel ABCD. MN is a large cy¬ lindrical tube made of tin (reprefented feparately at m «), which receives in its cavity the fmaller part of the tube TP, and is w7ell cemented to it at both ends, that none of the fluid may get in. The tube TP, with this apparatus^ E 410 1 BAR r 411 J BAR apparatus, being filled with mercury, and plunged into the bafon MP, which hangs by two or more wires upon the lower end of the tube MN, muft be fo poifed as to float in the liquor contained in the veffel AECDj and then the whole machine rifes when the atmolphere be¬ comes' lighter, and vice verfa. Let it now be fuppofed, that the fluid made ufe of is water ; that the given variation in the weight of the atmofphere is fuch, that, by prefling upon the furface of the water at W, the furface of the mercury at X may be raifed an inch higher (meafuring from its furface at P) than before ; and that the breadth of the cavity of the tube at X, and of the bafon at P, are fuch, that by this afcent of the mercury, there may be a cubic inch of it in the cavity X more than before, and confequently in the bafon a cubic inch lefs. Now, upon this fuppofition, there will be a cubic inch of water in the bafon more than there was before ; becaufe the water will fucceed the mercury, to fill up its place. Upon this account the whole machine will be rendered heavier than before by the weight of a cubic inch of water j and therefore will fink, according to the laws of hydroftatics, till a cubic inch of that part of the rod WS, which was above the furface of the water at W, comes under it. Then, if we fuppofe this rod fo fmall, that a cubic inch of it fhall be 14 inches in length, the whole ma¬ chine will fink 14 inches lower into the fluid than be¬ fore \ and confequently the furface of the mercury in the bafon will be preffed, more than it was before, by a column of water 14 inches high. But the prefliire of 24 inches of water is equivalent to one of mercury 5 this additional preflure will make the mercury afcend at X as much as the fuppofed variation in the weight of the air did at firft. This afcent will give room for a fecond cubic inch of water to enter the bafon ; the ma¬ chine will therefore be again rendered fo much heavier, and will fubfide 14 inches farther, and fo on in infini¬ tum. If the rod was fo fmall that more than fourteen inches of it were required to make a cubic inch, the va¬ riation of this machine would be negative with refpeft to the common barometer ; and inflead of coming nearer to an equilibrium with the air by its afccnt or defcent, it would continually recede farther from it : but if lefs than 14 inches of rod were required to make a cubic inch, the fcale of variation would be finite, and might be made in any proportion to the common one. Neither this nor the other infinite barometer have ever been tried, fo that how far they would anfvver the purpofes of a barometer is as yet unknown. Fig. 8. reprefents another contrivance for enlarging the fcale of the barometer to any fize.—h B is the tube of a common barometer open at B and fealed at A, fufpended at the end of the lever which moves on the fulcrum E.—CD is a fixed glafs tube, which ferves in place of the ciftern. This lait tube muft be fo wide as to allow the tube AB to play up and down within it.— AB being filled with mercurv, is nearly counterbalanced by the long end of the lever. When the atmofphere becomes lighter, the mercury defcends in the long tube, and the furface qf the mercury rifing in the ciftern pufties up the tube AB, which at the fame time becoming lighter, the lever preponderates, and points out the moft minute variations. Here too the fri&ion occafions inconveniences j but this may be in fome meafure remedied by a fmall ftiake of the appa- Barometer, ratus at each infpe£tion. —y— In the Philofophical Tranfaflions, Mr Cafwell gives the following account of a barometer, which has been commended as a very accurate one ; “ Let ABCD (fig. 9.) reprefent a bucket of water in which is the barometer e r e % 0 s m, which confifts of a body e ■ s m, and a tube e % y 0: the body and tube are both concave cylinders communicating with one another, and made of tin : the bottom of the tube, z y, has a lead weight to link it fo that the top of the body may juft fwim even with the furface of the water by the addition of fome grain weights on the top. The water, when the inftru- ment is forced with its mouth downwards, gets up into the tube to the height y u. There is added on the top a fmall concave cylinder, which I call the pipe, to di- ftinguifh it from the bottom fmall cylinder which I call the tube. This pipe is to fuftain the inftrument from finking to the bottom : w is a wire $ tns, d c, are two threads oblique to the furface of the water, which threads perform the office of diagonals : for that while the inftrument finks more or lefs by the attradlion of the gravity of the air, there, where the furface of the water cuts the thread, is formed a fmall bubble 5 which bub¬ ble afcends up the thread, as the mercury in the com¬ mon barometer afcends. The dimenfions of this inftrument given there are, 2l inches for the circumference of the body, the alti¬ tude 4, each bafe having a convexity of 6 J inches. The inner circumference of the tube is 5.14 inches, and its length 4^ fo that the 'whole body and tube will con¬ tain almoft 2-§- quarts. The circumference of the pipe, that the machine may not go to the bottom on every fmall alteration of the gravity of the air, is 2.14 inches j according to which dimenfions, he calculates that it will require 44 grains to fink the body to the bottom, allowing it only four inches to defcend ; at the fame time that it is evident, that the fewer grains that are required to fink it to this depth, the more nice the barometer will be. He alfo calculates, that when the mercury in the common barometer, is 30^ inches high, the body with a weight of 44 grains on its top will be kept in (equilibria with the water ; but when the mercury Hands at 28 inches, only 19 grains can be fupported ; and laftly, by computing the length of the diagonal threads, &c. he finds, that his inftru¬ ment is 1200 times more exadt than the common baro¬ meter. The following are his obfervations on the ufe of . re “ 1. While the mercury of the common barometer is Mr Caf- often known to be ftationary 24 hours together, the bub- well’s ob- ble of the new barometer is rarely found to ftand ftill f45 : J362 v 30 : 3°*379- Now the logarithm of 30=4771.21 ditto of 30,379=4825.73 the difference is = 54-52 which difference (hows, that there are 54’52 fathoms between one place and another, or 327 feet j though in reality both places are on the fame level. “ But if the fpecific gravity of the mercury, in the two barometers, were as the two above alluded to of Bergman and Fourcroy ; viz. one of 14,110, and the other of 13,000, which may happen to be the cafe, as the heavieft is commonly reputed the pureft mercury ^ on this fuppofition the error muft: have amounted to 35,576 toifes, or above 2134 an<^ a ^a^ 3 becaufe 13,000 : 14,110 :: 30 : 32,561.. New Fig.l. A BAROMETER. Fitj, 14. Fig. j. PLATE LXXXl Fig . a . Fig. 11. —rr^i Fiq. lO. 11 — Srttfg/ BAR Barometer, Now the logarithm of 30=4771,21 Baron. and that of 32,561 = 51 26,97 the difference is =355,76 ; which fhows that the error fhould amount to fo many fathoms, or 2134,5 feet. BARON, a perfon who holds a barony. The ori¬ gin and primary import of this term are much con- tefted. Menage derives it from the Latin baro, which we filid ufed in the pure age of that language for vir, a Jlout or valiant man; whence, according to this author, it was, that thofe placed next the king in battles were called barones, as being the braveft men in the army ; and as princes frequently rewarded the bravery and fi¬ delity of thofe about them with fees, the word came to be ufed for any noble perfon who holds a fee imme¬ diately of the king. Ifidore, and after him Camden, take the word in its original fenfe, to fignify a merce¬ nary foldier. Meffieurs of the Port Royal derive it from /3«eg«f, weight or authority. Cicero ufes the word baro for a ftupid brutal man j and the old Germans make mention of buffeting a baron, i. e. a villain ; as the Italians ufe the word barone to fignify a beggar. M. de Marca derives baron from the German bar, man, or freeman ; others derive it from the old Gaulifh, Cel¬ tic, and Hebrew languages j but the mofl probable opinion is, that it comes from the Spanifh varo, * Jlout, noble perfon ; whence wives ufed to call their hufbands, and princes their tenants, barons. In the Salic law, as well as the laws of the Lombards, the word baron fig- nifies a man in the general ; and the old glolfary of Philomenes tranflates baron by man. Baron is more particularly ufed among us, for a lord or peer of the lowed clafs j or a degree of nobi¬ lity next below that of a vifcount, and above that of a knight or baronet. In ancient records the word baron included all the nobility of England, becaufe re¬ gularly all noblemen were barons, though they had alfo a higher dignity. But it hath fometimes happened, that, when an ancient baron hath been raifed to a new degree of peerage, in the courfe of a few generations the two titles have defcended differently *, one perhaps to the male defcendants, the other to the heirs genera] j whereby the earldom or other fuperior title hath fub- fifted without a barony : and there are alfo modern in- flances where earls and vifcounts have been created without annexing a barony to their other honours : fo that now the rule doth not hold univerfally that all peers are barons. The original and antiquity of barons has occafioned great inquiries among our Englifli antiquarians. The moft probable opinion is fuppofed to be, that they were the fame with our prefent lords of manors •, to which the name of court baron (which is the lord’s court, and incident to every manor) gives feme countenance. It is faid the original name of this dignity in England was vavaffour, which by the Saxons was changed to thane, and by the Normans into baron. It may be collected from King John’s tnagna ckarta, that originally all lords of manors, or barons, had feats in the great council or parliament : but fuch is the deficiency of public records, that the firft precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th year of King Henry III. j which, al¬ though it was iffued out in the king’s name, was nei- B A R ther by his authority nor by his direction : for, not only B'aroa. the king himfelf, but his fon Prince Edward, and moft y— of the nobility who flood loyal to him, were then pri- foners in the hands of the rebellious barons \ having been fo made in the month of May preceding, at the battle of Lewes, and fo continued until the memorable battle of Evefham, which happened in Auguft the year following ; when, by the happy efcape of Prince Ed¬ ward, he. refcued the king and his adherents out of the hands of Simon Mountfort earl of Leicefter. It cannot be doubted but that feveral parliaments were held by King Henry III. and King Edward I. j yet no record is to be found giving any account thereof (except the 5th of King Edward L), until the 22d year of the reign, of the laft mentioned king. Before the 49th of Henry III. the ancient parlia¬ ments confifted of the archbifhops, bifhops, abbots, earls, and barons. Of thefe barons there were two forts : the greater barons, or the king’s chief tenants, who held of him in capite by barony 5 and the leffer barons, who held of the firfl military fervice in capite. The farmer had fummons to parliament by feveral writs ; and the latter (i. e. all thofe who were pofleffed of thirteen knights fees and a quarter) had a general fum¬ mons from the fheriff in each county. Thus things continued till the 49th of Henry III. But then, in- Itead of keeping to the old form, the prevailing powers thought fit to fummon, not all, but only thofe of the greater barons who were of their party j and, inftead of the leffer barons who came with large retinues, to fend their precepts to the fheriff of each county, to caufe two knights in every fliire to be chofen, and one or two burgeffes for each borough, to reprefent the body of the people refiding in thefe counties and boroughs 5 which gave rife to the feparation into two houfes of parliament. By degrees the title came to be confined to the greater barons, or lords of parliament only ; and there were no other barons among the peer¬ age but fuch as were fummoned by writ, in refpedl of the tenure of their lands or baronies, till Richard II. firft made it a mere title of honour, by conferring it on divers perfons by his letters patent. See further on this fubjedt the article Law. When a baron is called up to the houfe of peers by writ of fummons, the writ is in the king’s name, and he is directed to come to the parliament appointed to be held at a certain time and place, and there to treat and advife with his majefty, the prelates, and nobility, about the weighty affairs of the nation. The ceremo¬ ny of the admiflion of a baron into the houfe of peers is thus: He is brought into the houfe between two barons, who condudt him up to the lord chancellor, his patent or writ of fummons being carried by a king at arms, who prefents it kneeling to the lord chan¬ cellor, who reads it, and then congratulates him on his becoming a member of the houfe of peers, and in¬ verts him with his parliamentary robe. The patent is then delivered to the clerk of the parliament, and the oaths are adminiftered to the new peer, who is then conducted to his feat on the barons bench. Some ba* rons hold their feats by tenure. The firft who was raifed to this dignity by patent was John de Beau¬ champ of Holt Caftle, created baron of Kiddermin- fter in Worcefterfhire, to him and his heirs male, by King Richard II. in the nth year rf his reign. He 3 G 2 • inverted [ 419 1 Earoti. BAR [420 invefted him with a mantle and cap. The coronation- 1 robes of a baron are the fame as an earl 3, except that he has only two rows of fpots on each {boulder. In like manner, his parliamentary robes have but two guards of white fur, with rows of gold lace. In other refpefts they are the fame as other peers. King Charles II. granted a coronet to the barons. It has fix pearls, fit at equal diftances on the chaplet. His cap is the fame as a vifcount’s. His ftyle is Right Honourable; and he is ilyled by the king or queen, Right Trujly and We/I Beloved. BARONS by ancient tenure were thofe who held certain territories of the king, who ftill referved the tenure in chief to himfelf. We,alfo read of barons by temporal tenure; who are fuch as hold honours, caftles, manors, as heads of their barony, that is by grand fear- geanty ; by which tenure they were anciently fum- moned to parliament. But at prefent a baron by te¬ nure is no lord of parliament, till he be called thither by writ. The barons by tenure after the Conqueft, were di¬ vided into majores and minores, and were fummoned accordingly to parliament *, the majores or greater ba¬ rons, by immediate writ from the king ; the minores, or leffer barons, by general writ from the high fheriflf, at the king’s command, Anciently they diftinguilhed the greater barons from the lefs, by attributing high, and even fovereign jurif- diction, to the former, and only inferior jurifdidlion over fmaller matters to the latter. BARONS of the Exchequer, the four judges to whom the adminiftration of juftice is committed, in caufes be¬ tween the king and his fubjefts relating to matters concerning the revenue. They were formerly barons of the realm, but of late are generally perfons learned in the laws. Their office is alfo to look into the ac¬ counts of the king, for which reafon they have auditors under them. See Exchequer. BARONS of the Cinque-ports are members of the houfe of commons, elected by the five ports, two for each port. See the article ClNQUE-PORTS. Baron and Feme, in the Englifh Law, a term ufed for hufband and wife, in relation to each other: and they are deemed but one perfon •, fo that a wife cannot be witnefs for or againft her hulband, nor he for or againft his wife, except in cafes of high treafon. Baron and Feme, in Heraldry, is when the coats of arms of a man and his wife are born par pale in the fame efcutcheon, the man’s being always on the dexter fide, and the woman’s on the finifter •, but here the woman is fuppofid not an heirefs, for then her coat muft be borne by the hufband on an efcutcheon of pre¬ tence. BARON, Robert, a dramatic author, who lived during the reign of Charles I. and the proteftorfiiip of Oliver Cromwell. He received the earlier parts of his education at Cambridge, after which he became a member of the honourable fociety of Gray’s Inn. Du¬ ring his refidence at the univerfity, he wrote a novel called the Cyprian Academy, in which he introduced the two firfl of the dramatic pieces mentioned below. The third of them is a much more regular and perfedl play, and was probably written when the author had attained a riper age. The names of them are, 1. Deo- rum Dona} a mafque. 2. Grijous and Hegiot a pafto- ] B A R ral. 3. Mir%ti, a tragedy. Mr Baron had a great i;aroa intimacy with the celebrated Mr James Howell, the ^ || great traveller, in whofe colledlions of Letters * there {':!lor,et;- is one to this gentleman, who was at that time at Paris. f To Mr Howell in particular, and to all the ladies and Let. 418.* gentlewomen in England in general,^he has dedicated his romance. BARONET, a dignity or degree of honour next be¬ neath a baron, and above a knight j having precedency of all knights excepting thofe of the Garter, and being the only knighthood that is hereditary. The dignity of baronet is given by patent, and is the loweft degree of honour that is hereditary. The order was founded by King James I. at the fuggeftion of Sir Robert Cotton, in 1611, when 200 baronets were created at oncej to which number it was intended they fliould always be reftrained: but it is now enlarged at the king’s pleafure, without limitation. They had feveral confiderable privileges given them, with an habendam to them and their heirs male. They were allowed to charge their coat with the arms of Ulfter, which are, in a field argent, a finiiter hand, gules ; and that upon condition of their defending the province of Ulfter in Ireland againft: the rebels, who then haraffed it extremely : to which end they were each to raife and keep up 30 foldiers at their own ex¬ pence for three years together, or to pay into the ex¬ chequer a fum fufficient to do it *, which, at 8d. per day per head, was 1095I. So that, including fees, the expence of this dignity may be about 1200I. fter- ling. To be qualified for it, one muft be a gentle¬ man born, and have a clear eftate of 1000I. per an¬ num. Baronets take place according to the dates of their patents $ by the terms of which no honour is to be eredled between barons and baronets. The title Sir is granted them by a peculiar claufe in their patents, though they be not dubbed knights: but both a baro¬ net, and his eldeft fon, being of full age, may claim knighthood.—The firft baronet who was created was Sir Nicholas Bacon of Redgrave in Suffolk, whofe fucceffor is therefore ftyled Primus Baronetorum An- glice. BARONETS of Scotland, called alfo Baronets of Nova Scotia. The order of knights baronets was alfo de- figned to be eftablilhed in Scotland in the year 1621, by king James I. for the plantation and cultivation of the province of Nova Scotia in America j but it was not adlually inftituted till the year 1625 by his fon Charles I. when the firft perfon dignified with this title was Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonftone, a younger fon of the earl of Sutherland. The king granted a cer¬ tain portion of land in Acadia or New Scotland, to each of them, which they were to hold of Sir William Alexander (afterwards earl of Stirling), for their en¬ couragement who ffiould hazard their lives for the good and increafe of that plantation, with precedency to them, and their heirs-male for ever, before all knights called equites aurati, and all leffer barons called lairds, and all other gentlemen, except Sir William Alexan¬ der his majefty’s lieutenant in Nova Scotia, his heirs, their wives and children ; that the title of Sir fliould be prefixed to their Chriftian name, and Baronet added to their furname j and that their own and their eldefi: fons wives Ihould enjoy the title of Lady, Madame, or TSntnp- BAR [4 Baronets, ^His majefly was fo defirous of adding every Baroni. mark of dignity to this his favourite order, that, four ——-v "" ' vears after its intlitution, he iffued a royal warrant, granting them the privilege of wearing an orange rib¬ bon and a medal ; which lalt was prefented to each of them by the king himfelf, according to the words of the warrant. All the privileges of the order, particu¬ larly this of wearing the medal, were confirmed at the king’s requeft by the convention of eftates in the year 1630*, and in order to eflablitb them on the moft fo- lid foundation, they were again confirmed by an aft of fche parliament of Scotland in the year 1633. This mark of diftinftion fell to the ground with all the other honours of Scotland during the ufurpation of the long parliament and of Oliver Cromwell. It conti¬ nued in general, though not total, difufe after the Re- ftoration. There have been former meetings of the or¬ der to revive the ufe of it, one in the year 1721, and another in 1734. Thefe meetings proved ineffeftual, becaufe the proper fteps towards its revival were not taken *, but, under the aufpices of our illuttrious mo¬ narch George III. fuch meafures were concerted in the year 1775 as have effeftually eftablilhed this honour¬ able dignity. BARONETS of Ireland. This order was likewife in- ftituted by King James I. in the 18th year of his reign, for the fame purpofe and with the fame privileges with¬ in the kingdom of Ireland, as he had conferred on the like order in England j for which the Irifh baronets paid the fame fees into the treafury of Ireland. The firfl of that kingdom who was advanced to this here¬ ditary dignity was Sir Francis Blundell, then fecretary for the affairs of Ireland. Since his time feveral have been created, no number being limited. BARONI, Leonora, a celebrated finger and com- pofer, was born at Naples, but fpent the greatelt part of her life at Rome. She was daughter of Adriana Baroni of Mantua, baronefs of Pian-caretta *, a lady alfo diftinguiflied for her mufical talents, and for her beauty furnamed the fair. Leonora had lefs beauty than her mother; but excelled her in her profound Ikill in mufic, the finenefs of her voice, and the charm- ingnefs of her manner. She is faid by Mr Bayle to have been one of the fineft fingers in the world. She was, as well as her mother, celebrated by the wits, who ftrove to excel each other in recording her prai- fes ; and in 1639 there was publifhed, at Bracciano, a colleftion of Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanifh, and French poems addrefled to her, under this title, plauji Poetici alle Gloria della Signora Leonora Baroni. Among the Latin poems of Milton are no fewer than three entitled Ad Leonoram Rotme canentem, wherein this lady is celebrated for her finging, with an allufion to her mother’s exquifite performance on the lute. A fine eulogium on this accomplifhed woman is contain¬ ed in a difcourfe on the Mufic of the Italians, printed with the life of Malherbe, and fome other treatifes at Paris, 1672, in I2mo. This difcourfe was compofed by M. Maugars prior of St Peter de Mac, the king’s interpreter of the Englilh language, and befides fo fa¬ mous a performer on the viol, that the king of Spain and feveral other fovereign princes of Europe defired to hear him. The charafter given by this perfon of Leonora Baroni is as follows : She is endowed with fine parts j (he has a very good judgment to diftinguifti I 1 ] BAR good from bad mufic •, fhe underfiands it pcrfeftly well, Baroni and even compofes 5 which makes her abfolute miftrefs || of what fire lings, and gives her the moil exaft pro- Barony. nunciation and expreflion of the fenfe of her words. v She does not pretend to beauty, neither is fire difa- greeable or a coquet. She lings with a bold and ge¬ nerous modefty, and an agreeable gravity j her voice reaches a large compafs of notes, and is exaft, loud, and harmonious j (he foftens and raifes it without flraining or making grimaces. Her raptures and fighs are not lafcivious •, her looks having nothing impudent, nor does fhe tranfgrefs a virgin modefty in her geftures. In palling from one key to another, fire fhows fome- times the divifions of the enharmonic and chromatic kind with fo much art and fweetnefs, that every body is ravifhed with that fine and difficult method of fing¬ ing. She has no need of any perfon to aflift her with a theorbo or viol, one of which is neceffary to make her finging complete ; for fire plays perfeftly well her- felf on both thefe inftruments. In Ihort, I have had the good fortune to hear her ling feveral times above 30 different airs, with fecond and third ftanzas com¬ pofed by herfelf. I muft not forget to tell you, that one day the did me the particular favour to ling with her mother and her lifter. Her mother played upon the lute, her filler upon the harp, and herfelf upon the theorbo. This concert, compofed of three fine voices, and of three different inftruments, fo powerful¬ ly tranfported my fenfes, and threw me into fuch rap¬ tures, that I forgot my mortality, and thought myfelf already among the angels enjoying the felicity of the bleffed.” B ARONIUS, Ca:sar, a pious and learned cardi¬ nal, was born at Sore in 1538. He ftudied at Rome,, and put himfelf under the difcipline of St Philip de Ne- ri. In 1593, he was made general of the congregation of the Oratory by the refignation of the founder Philip de Neri. Pope Clement VIII. made him his confeffor, and created him a cardinal in 1596. He was after¬ wards made librarian to the Vatican *, and died in 1605, at 68 years of age. He wrote feveral works, the prin¬ cipal of which is his /Innales Ecclefafici, from A. D. 1 to 1198, in 1 2 vols folio; which has been abridged by feveral perfons, particularly by Henry Spondseus,. Bzovius, and Ludovico Arelib. BARONY, BARonia, or Baronagium, the lordfhip or fee of a baron, either temporal orfpiritual : In which fenfe barony amounts to the fame with what is other- wife called honour. A barony may be confidered as a lordfhip held by fome fervice in chief of the king, coinciding with what is other wife called ferjeanty. Baronies, in their firft creation, moved from the king himfelf, the chief lord of the whole realm, and could be holden imme¬ diately of no other lord. For example, the king en¬ feoffed a man of a great feigneurie in land, to hold to the perfon enfeoffed and his heirs, of the king and his heirs, by baronial fervice ; to wit, by the fervice of 20, 40, 60 knights, or of fuch other number of knights, either more or fewer, as the king by his en¬ feoffment limited or appointed.—In the ages next after - the Conqueft, when a great lord was enfeoffed by the king of a large feigneurie, fuch feigneurie was called a barony, but more commonly an honour; as, the honour of Gloucefterftiire, the honour of Wallingford, the ho¬ nour B A ft [ 4 Barony nour of Lancafler, the honour of Richmond, and the i! like. There were in England certain honours, which Bairaba. were often‘called by Norman or other foreign names j " v this is to fay, fometimes by the Englifh and lometimes by the foreign name. This happened when the fame perfon was lord of an honour in Normandy, or fome other foreign country, and alfo of an honour in Eng¬ land. For example, William de Forz, de Force, or de Fortibus, was lord of the honour of Albemarle in Normandy : he was alfo lord of two honours in Eng¬ land j to wit, the honour of Holdernefs, and the ho¬ nour of Skipton in Cravene. Thefe honours in Eng¬ land were fometimes called by the Norman name, the honour of Albemarle, or the honour of the earl of Albemarle. In like manner, the earl of Britannic was lord of the honour of Britannie in France, and alfo of the honour of Richmond in England : the honour of -Richmond was fometimes called by the foreign name, the honour of Britannie, or the honour of the earl of Britannie. This ferveth to explain the terms “ honour of Albemarle in England,” honor A/bemarlice, or comi- ■tis Albemarlice in Anglia ; honor Britannia:, or comitis Britanniee in Anglia, “ the honour of Britannie,” or “ the earl of Britannie in England.” Not that Al¬ bemarle or Britannie were in England, but that the fame perfon refpeflively was lord of each of the faid honours abroad and of each of the (aid honours in -England. The baronies belonging to bilhops are by fome called regalia, as being held folely on the king’s liberality. Thefe do not confift in one barony alone, but in many : for tot erant baronies, quot majora prce- dia. A barony, according to Bra&on, is a right indivi- fible. Wherefore, if an inheritance be to be divided among coparceners, though fome capital meffuages may be divided, yet if the capital meffuage be the head of a county or barony, it may not be parcelled : and the reafon is, left by this divifion many of the rights of counties and baronies by degrees come to nothing, to the prejudice of the realm, which is faid to be com- . pofed of counties and baronies. BARRA, or Barray, ifland of. See Barray. Barra, in commerce, a long meafure ufed in Por¬ tugal and fome parts of Spain, to meafure woollen cloths, linen cloths, and ferges. There are three forts: the barra of Valencia, 13 of which make 12® yards Englifh meafure ; the barra of Caftile, 7 of which make 64 yards j and the barra of Arragon, 3 of which make :24 yards Englifti. BARRABA, Desert of -, a tra£l of land in Sibe- ria, lying between the rivers Irtis and Oby, in the pro¬ vince of Tobolfk. It is uninhabited, but not through any deficiency of the foil 5 for that is excellent for tillage, and part of it might alfo be laid out in mea¬ dows and paftures. It is interfperfed with a great number of lakes, which abound with a fpecies of carp called by the neighbouring people karawfchen ; and the country produces great numbers of elks, deer, foxes, ermine, and fquirrels. Between the Irtis and Oby are fome rich copper mines ; particularly on a mountain called Piclowa, from the piEla or white firs that grow upon it, Every hundred weight of the ore found here yields 12 pounds of pure copper ; and there is no occafion for digging deep in order to come at it. Moft of thefe ores, befides being very rich in copper, 2 ] BAR yield a great deal of filver, which affords fo much gold Barraba as makes rich returns for the trouble and expence of jj extrafting it. Barray. BARRACAN, in commerce, a fort of fluff, not dia- -v— pered, fomething like camblet, but of a coarfer grain. It is ufed to make cloaks, furtouts, and fuch other gar¬ ments, to keep off the rain.—The cities where the moft barracans are made in France are Valenciennes, Lifle, Abbeville, Amiens, and Roan. Thofe of Valenciennes are the moft valued } they are all of wool, both the warp and the woof. BARRACIDA, a fpecies of pike. See Esox, Ich¬ thyology Index. BARRACKS, or Baracks, places for foldiers to lodge in, efpecially in garrifons.—Barracks, when damp, are greatly prejudicial to the health of the foldiers lodged in them j occafioning dyfenteries, intermitting fevers, coughs, rheumatic pains, &.c. For w'hich reafon, quar- ter-mafters ought to be careful in examining every bar¬ rack offered by the magiftrates of a place j reje&ing all ground-floors in houfesthat have either been uninhabited, or have any figns of moifture. BARRATOR, or Barretor, in Lauo, a perfon guilty of barretry. See Barretry. Lambert derives the word barretor from the Latin balatro, “ a vile knave j” but the proper derivation is from the French barrateur, i. e. “ a deceiver $” and this agrees with the defcription of a. common barretor in my Lord Coke’s report, viz. that he is a common mover and roaintainer of fuits in difturbance of the peace, and in taking and detaining the poffeflion of houfes and lands or goods by falfe inventions, &c. And therefore it was adjudged that the indi&ment againft him ought to be in thefe words, viz. That he is commu¬ nis malefa&or, calumniator, et feminator litium et difcor- diarum inter vicinos fuos, et pads regisperturbator, &c. And there it is faid that a common barretor is the moft dangerous oppreffur in the law, for he oppreffeth the innocent by colour of law, which was made to protect them from oppreflion. BARRATRY, in Law. See Barretry. Barratry, in a fliipmafter, is his cheating the owners. If goods delivered on fhip-board are em¬ bezzled, all the mariners ought to contribute to the fa- tisfa61ion of the parly that loft his goods, by the ma¬ ritime law; and the caufe is to be tried in the admiral¬ ty. In a cafe where a Ihip was infured againft the bar¬ ratry of the matter, &c. and the jury found that the fhip was loft by the fraud and negligence of the matter, the court agreed, that the fraud was barratry, though not named in the covenant 5 but that negligence was not. BARRAUX, a fortrefs of Dauphiny, belonging to France. It ftands in the valley of Grtfivaudan, and was built by a duke of Savoy in 1597. The French took it in 1598, and have kept it ever fince. It is feated on the river Ifer, in E. Long. 4. 35. N. Lat, 45. o. - BARRAY, or Barra, one of the Weflern ifles, in the county of Invernefs, Scotland; is eight miles in length, and four in breadth. The foil in general is thin and fit only for pafture, but in fome places it pro¬ duces corn and potatoes. The population amounts to 1604. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the cod and ling filhery, which is here very fuccefsful. In the BAR C 423 ] B A , R Barray t^>e 7ear I7^7 ^iey carried 30,000 ling to tlie Glafgow || market. The fi(h is carried to market in the fame Barretry. ^oat in which it is taken, either by going round the 1""' xnull of Cantire, or drawing the boat by horfes acrofs the ifthmus of Tarbet. There is a good harbour in the north-eaft fide. Some cattle are reared in the ifiand, and a little kelp is burned on the (bore. BAR.RE, Louis Francois Joseph de la, of Tournay, author of feveral works printed at Paris. Amongft others, Imper. Oricnta/e, Recueil des Medailles des Empereurs, “ Memoirs for the hiftory of France,” &c. He died in 1738. BARREL, in Commerce, a round veffel, extending more in length than in breadth, made of wood, in form of a little tun. It ferves for holding feveral forts of merchandife. Barrel is alfo a meafure of liquids. The Englilh barrel, wine meafure, contains the eighth part of a tun, the fourth part of a pipe, and one half of a hogfhead ; that is to fay, it contains 314 gallons: a barrel, beer- meafure, contains 36 gallons and ale-meafure 32 gal¬ lons. The barrel of beer, vinegar, or liquor preparing for vinegar, ought to contain 34 gallons, according to the ftandard of the ale quart. Barrel alfo denotes a certain weight of feveral mer- chandifes, which differ according to the feveral commo¬ dities. A barrel of Effex butter weighs 106 pounds ; and of Suffolk butter, 256 pounds. The barrel of her¬ rings ought to contain 32 gallons wine-meafure, which amount to about 28 gallons old ftandard, containing about 1000 herrings. The barrel of falmon muft con¬ tain 42 gallons; the barrel of eels the fame. The bar¬ rel of foap muft weigh 256 lb. Barrel, in Mechanics, a term given by watch¬ makers to the cylinder about which the fpring is wrapped; and by gunfmiths to the cylindrical tube of a gun, piftol, &c. through which the ball is dif- charged. Barrel, in Anatomy, a pretty large cavity behind the tympanum of the ear, about four or five lines deep, and five or fix wide. Fire Barrels. See FiRE-Ship. Thundering BARRELS, in the military art, are filled with bombs, grenades, and other fire-works to be rolled down a breach. BARRENNESS, the fame with fterility. See STE¬ RILITY. B ARRETRY, in Law, is the offence of frequently exciting and ftirring up fuits and quarrels between his majefty’s fubje£!s, either at law or otherwife. The punifhment for this offence, in a common perfon, is by fine and imprifonment: but if the offender (as is too frequently the cafe") belongs to the profeftion of the law, a barretor who is thus able as well as willing to do mifchief ought alfo to be difabled from pra61ifing for the future. And indeed it is enafted by ftatute 12 Geo. I. c. 29. that if any one, who hath been convi&ed of forgery, perjury, fubornation of per¬ jury, or common barretry, lhall pradlife as an attor¬ ney, folicitor, or agent, in any fuit ; the court, upon complaint, (hall examine it in a fummary way ; and, if proved, fhall diredt the offender to be tranfported for feven years. Hereunto alfo may be referred another offence, of equal malignity and audacioufnefs; that of fuing another in the name of a fidlitious plaintiff, ei¬ ther one not in being at all, or one who is ignorant of Barretry the fuit. This offence, if committed in any of the |J king’s fuperior courts, is left, as a high contempt, to Barrington. be puniftied at their difcretion: but in courts of a " v ^ lower degree, where the crime is equally pernicious, but the authority of the judges not equally extenfive, it is diredled by ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 2. to be punilhed by fix months imprifonment, and treble damages to the party injured. BARRICADE, or BARRiCADO,a military term for a fence formed in hafte with veffels, balkets of earth, trees, pallifades, or the like, to preferve an army from the ihot or affault of the enemy.—The moft ufual ma¬ terials for barricades confift of pales or flakes, croffed with batoons, and ftiod with iron at the feet, ufually fet up in paffages or breaches. Barricade, in naval architedlure, a ftrong wooden rail, fupported by ftanchions, extending acrofs the fore- moft part of the quarter-deck. In a veffel of war, the vacant fpaces between the ftanchions are commonly fill¬ ed with rope matts, cork, or pieces of old cable; and the upper part, which contains a double rope-netting above the rail, is fluffed with full hammocks to inter¬ cept the motion, and prevent the execution of fmall- ftiot in the time of battle. BARRIER, in Fortification, a kind of fence made at a paffage, retrenchment, &c. to flop up the entry thereof. It is compofed of great flakes, about four or five feet high, placed at the diftance of eight or ten feet from one another, with tranfums, or overthwart rafters, to flop either horfe or foot, that would enter or rufix in with violence : in the middle is a moveable bar of wood, that opens or (huts at pleafure. A barrier is com¬ monly fet up in a void fpace, between the citadel and the town, in half moons, &c. Barriers, fignifies that which the French call jeu de barres, i. e. palejlra ; a martial exercife of men arm¬ ed and fighting together with fliort fwords, within cer¬ tain bars or rails which feparated them from the fpefta- tors : it is now difufed in this country. BARRING A vein, in Farriery, an operation per¬ formed upon the veins of a horfe’s legs, and other parts of his body, with intent to flop the courfe, and leffen the quantity, of the malignant humours that pre¬ vail there. BARRINGTON, John Shuts, Lord Vifeount Barrington, a nobleman diftinguiftied for theological learning, was the youngeft fon of Benjamin Shute, merchant, and was born in 1678. He received part of his education at the univerfity of Utrecht ; and, af¬ ter returning to England, ftudied law in the Inner Temple. In 1701 he commenced writer in favour of the civil rights of Proteftant diffenters, to which body he belonged. At the recommendation of Lord So¬ mers he was employed to engage the Preftxyterians in Scotland to favour the union of the two kingdoms ; and in 1708, for this fervice, was appointed to the place of commiflioner of the cuftoms. From this he was removed by the Tory miniftry of Queen Anne ; but his fortune was, in the mean time, improved by the bequeft of two confiderable eftates ; one of them left him by Francis Barrington of Tofts, Efq. whofe name he affumed by a£l: of parliament. Mr Barring¬ ton now flood at the head of the Diffenters. On the accsflion of George I. he vlras returned member of parliament BAR [ 42 parliament for Bervvick-npon-I weed *, ana in 1720 the king raifed him to the Irith peerage, by the ityle of Vifcount Barrington of Ardglafe. He was unfoitu- nately engaged as lub-governor in one of the bubbles of the time, the Harburgh lottery, and underwent the difgrace of expulfion from the houfe of commons, in 1723 •, a cenfure which was thought greatly too fevere* and altogether unmerited on his part. In 1725 he pub- liihed his principal work, entitled Mifcellanea Sacra^ or a new method of confidering fo much of the Hiftory of the Apoftles as is contained in Scripture, in an ab- flraft of their hiftory, an abltraft of that abftraft, and four critical eflays j 2 vols. Svo. 1 his work traces the methods taken by the firft preachers of the gofpel for propagating Chriftianity, and explains the feveral gifts of the Spirit, by which they were enabled to dif- charge their office. It has always been reckoned a valuable and judicious defence of the Chriftian caufe j and was reprinted with additions and corre£lions, in 3 vols. Svo, 1770, by his fon, afterwards biftiop of Durham. In the fame year he publiffied “ An EiTay on the feveral Difpenfations of God to Mankind, in the Order in which they lie in the Bible, ^c.” Svo, 1725. He wrote various other tra&s, chiefly on fub- je&s relative to toleration in matters of religion. He died in 1734, in his 56th year, leaving feveral chil¬ dren, of whom five fons had the uncommon fortune of rifing to high ftations in the church, the law, the army, and the navy. Lord Barrington was a friend and difciple of Locke, and adopted his fentiments as to the right and advantage of free inquiry, and the va¬ lue of civil and religious liberty. He contributed greatly to the rifing fpirit of liberal fcriptural criti- cifm among thofe who wiflied to render religion ra¬ tional. He was a man of great moderation, and, though chiefly conne&ed with the Diffenters, he occa- fionally frequented and communicated with the efta- bliffied church. Gen, Biog. Barrington, Dairies, fourth fon of Lord Vif¬ count Barrington, diftinguiffied as an antiquarian and naturalift, was educated for the profeffion of the law, and, after poffeffing various polls, was appointed a Welffi judge in 1757, and afterwards fecond juftice of Chefter. He never rofe to much eminence at the bar, but he ffiowed his knowledge of the law as an objeft of liberal lludy, by a valuable publication entitled “ Obfervations on the Statutes, chiefly the more an¬ cient, from Magna Charta to 21 James I. c. Of], : with an Appendix, being a propofal for new-modelling the Statutes,” 4to, 1766. Thil work has been quoted with great refpeft by many of our hiftorians and con- flitutional antiquaries. In 1773 he publiffied an edi¬ tion of Orojtus, with Alfred’s Saxon verfion, and an Engliffi tranflation and notes of his own, which met with fome fevere-animadverlion from the critics. His “ Trafts on the Probability of reaching the North Pole,” 1775, 4to, were written in confequence of the northern voyage of difeovery undertaken by Captain Phipps (now Lord Mulgrave). He accumulates in them a variety of evidence favourable to his own opi¬ nion of the pra£licability of attaining the object in which that voyage failed ; but there is little proba¬ bility that the attempt will be renewed. Mr Bar¬ rington’s other writings, which are numerous, are chiefly to be found in the publications of the Royal 4. ] BAR and Antiquarian Societies, of both of which he was£arringtos long an affiduous member, and of the latter, vice-pre- || fident. They relate to a variety of topics in natural _ Barros- ^ hiftory and antiquities, and fhow great induftry and ’ extent of refearch, though with an occafional leaning to Angularity and paradox. Many of his trafls were collefted by him in a 4to volume entitled, “ Mifcel- lanieS on various Subjects,” 1781. His “ Experiments and Obfervations on the Singing of Birds,” and his “ Effay on the Language of Birds,” are among the- moft curious and ingenious of his papers. Thefe, and many others, prove that he was not only deeply converfant in books, but was a very attentive and fa- gacious obferver of nature. In private life he was a man of worth and integrity, unambitious, and devoted to ftudv and literary converfation. He refigned his office of juftice of Chefter in 1785, and afterwards lived in retirement in his chambers in King’s-Bench- Walks, Inner-Temple, aflbeiating chiefly with his bro¬ ther benchers, and amufing himfelf with fuperintend- ing the improvements of the gardens. He died March 14. 1800, and was buried in the Temple church. BARRINGTON I A. See Botany Index. BARRISTER, is a counfellor learned in the lair, admitted to plead at the bar, and there to take upon him the proteftion and defence of clients. They are termed jurifconfulti; and in other countries called h- centiati in jure: and anciently barrifters at law were called apprentices of the law, in Latin apprenticii juris nobiliores. The time before they ought to be called to the bar, by the ancient orders, was eight years, now reduced to five ; and the exercifes done by them (if they rvere not called ex gratia) were tivelve grand moots performed in the inns of Chancery in the time of the grand readings, and 24 petty moots in the term times, before the readers of the refpe&ive inns: and a barrifter newly called is to attend the fix (or four) next long vacations the exercife of the houfe, viz. in Lent and Summer, and is thereupon for thofe three (or two) years ftyled a vacation barrifler. Alfo they are called utter barrifters, i. e. pleaders oujier the bar, to diftinguilh them from benchers, or thofe that have been readers, who are fometimes admitted to plead within the bar, as the king, queen, or prince’s counfel are* BARRITUS is a Avord of German original, adopt¬ ed by the Romans to fignify the general ffiout ufually given by the foldiers of their armies on their firft en¬ counter, after the clajftcum or alarm, d his cuftom, hoAvever, of fetting up a general tliout Avas not pecu¬ liar to the Romans, but prevailed among the Trojans according to Homer, amongft the Germans, the Gauls, Macedonians and Perfians. See Classicum. BARROS, John, a celebrated Portuguefe hiftori- an, born at Vifco in 1496. He Avas educated at the court of King Emanuel, among the princes of the blood, and made a great progrefs in Greek and Latin. The Infant John, to whom he attached himfelf, and became preceptor, having fucceeded the king his fa¬ ther in 1521, Barros obtained a place in this prince’s houfehold ; and in 1522, Avas made governor of St George del Mina, on the coaft of Guinea. Three years after, the king having recalled him to court, made him treafurer of the Indies, and this poft infpired him Avith the thought of writing this hiftory, for which B A R Barros, purpofe lie retired to Pompas, where he died in x 970. Earrow , His hiftory of Afia and the Indies is divided into de- ' cades 5 the firft of which he publithed in 1552, the fecond in 155^, and the third in 1563 *, but the fourth decade was not publilhed till the year 1615, when it appeared by order of King Philip III. who had the manufcript purchafed of the heirs of John Bar¬ ros. Several authors have continued it, fo that we have at prefent 12 decades. He left many other- works •, fome of which have been printed, and others remain in manfcript. BARROW, Isaac, an eminent mathematician and divine, was the fon of Mr Thomas Barrow a linen draper in London, where he was born in 1630. He was at firft placed at the Charter-houfe fcjiool for two or three years. There, however, his conduft gave but little hopes of fuccefs in the profeflion of a feholar ; for he was extremely fond of fighting, and promoting it among his fchoolfellows: but being removed from thence, his difpofition took a happier turn j and ha¬ ving foon made great progrefs in learning, he was admitted a penfioner of Peter-houfe in Cambridge. He now applied himfelf with great diligence to the ftudy of all parts of literature, efpecially to that of natural philofophy. He afterwards turned his thoughts to the profeflion of phyfic, and made confiderable progrefs in anatomy, botany, and chemiftry ; after this he ftudied chronology, aftrpnomy, and geometry. He then travelled into France and Italy, and in a voyage from Leghorn to Smyrna, gave a proof of his bravery ; for the (hip being attacked by an Al¬ gerine pirate, he remained upon deck, and with the greateft intrepidity fought, till the pirate, perceiving the ftout refiftance the fhip made, flieered off and left her (a). At Smyrna he met with a moft kind reception from Mr Bretton the Englifh conful, upon whofe deatli he afterwards wrote a Latin elegy. From thence he pro¬ ceeded to Conftantinople, where he received the like civilities from Sir Thomas Bendifti the Englifh ambaf- fador, and Sir Thomas Dawes, with whom he after¬ wards preferved an intimate friendfliip. At Conftan¬ tinople he read over the works of St Chryfoftom, once bilhop of that fee, whom he preferred to all the other fathers. When he had been in Turkey fomewhat more than a year, he returned to Venice. From thence he came home in 1659, through Germany and Holland j and was epifcopally ordained by Bifhop Brownrig. In 1660, he was chofen to the Greek profefforlhip at Cambridge. When he entered upon this province, he intended to have read upon the tra- Vol. III. Part II. B A R gedies of Sophocles ; but he altered his intention, and Barrow, made choice of Ariftotle’s rhetoric. Thefe lectures — having been lent to a friend who never returned them, are irrecoverably loft. July the 16th 1662, he was eledted profeffor of geometry in Grelham college, by the recommendation of Dr Wilkins, mafter of Trinity- college, and afterwards bilhop of Chefter. Upon the 20th of May 1663 he was eledted a fellow of the Royal Society, in the firft choice made by the council after their charter. The fame year the executors of Mr L ucas having, according to his appointment, founded a mathematical fchool at Cambridge, they fix-- ed upon Mr Barrow for the firft profeffor ; and though his two profefforftnps were not inconfiftent with each other, he chofe to refign that of Greftiam college, which he did May the 20th, 1664. In 1669 he re- figned his mathematical chair to his learned friend Mr Ifaac Newton, being now determined to give up the ftudy of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon quitting his profefforlhip, he was only a fellow of Trinity-college, till his uncle gave him a fmall fine- cure in Wales, and Dr Seth Ward biftrop of Salif- bury conferred upon him a prebend in his church. In the year 1670 he was created dodlor in divinity by mandate ; and, upon the promotion of Dr Pearfon mafter of Trinity-college to tire fee of Chefter, he was appointed to fucceed him by the king’s patent, bear¬ ing date the 13th of February 1672. When the king advanced him to this dignity, he was pleafed to fay, “ he had given it to the beft fcholar in England.” His majefty did not fpeak from report, but from his own knowledge : the dodlor being then his chaplain, he ufed often to converfe with him, and in his humor¬ ous wTay, to call him an “ unfair preacher,” becaufe he exhaufted every fubjedl, and left no room for others to come after him. In 1675 he was chofen vice-chan¬ cellor of the univerfity. The dodtor’s works are very numerous, and fuch as do honour to the Englilh nation. They are, 1. Euclid’s Elements. 2. Euclid’s Data. 3. Optical Ledlures, read in the public fchool of Cam¬ bridge. 4. Thirteen Geometrical Ledlures. 5. The Works of Archimedes, the four Books of Apollonius’s Conic Sedlions, and Theodofius’s Spherics explained in a new Method. 6. A Ledlure, in which Archi¬ medes’s Theorems of the Sphere and Cylinder are in- veftigated and briefly demonftrated. 7. Mathematical Ledlures, read in the public fchools of the univerfity of Cambridge : the above were all printed in Latin : and as to his Englilh works, they are printed together in four volumes folio.—“ The name of Dr Barrow (fays the reverend and learned Mr Granger) will ever be il- 3 H luftrious 1 425 1 (a) There is another anecdote told of him, which not only fhowed his intrepidity, but an uncommon good- nefs of difpofition, in circumftances where an ordinary lhare of it would have been probably extinguifhed. He was once in a gentleman’s houfe in the country, where the neceffary was at the end of a long garden, and con- fequently at a great diftance from the room where he lodged: as he was going to it before day, for he was a very early rifer, a fierce maftiff, who ufed to be chained up all day, and let loofe at night for the fecurity of the houfe, perceiving a ftrange perfon in the garden at that unfeafonable time, fet upon him with great fury. The doftor catched him by the throat, threw him, and lay upon him 5 and whilft he kept him down, confidered what he ftiould do in that exigence : once he had a mind to kill him •, but he altered this refolution, upon recollefling that it would be unjuft, fince the dog did only his duty, and he himfelf was in the fault, for rambling out of his room before it was light. At length he called out fo loud, that he was heard by fome of the houfe, who came prefently out, and freed the doftor and the dog from the danger they were both in. BAR [ 426 ] BAR Barrow, luftrious for a ftrength of mind and compafs of know- Barrows. ledge that did honour to his country. Pie was unri- v— 1 ■' vailed in mathematical learning, and efpecially in the fublime geometry j in which he has been excelled only by one man, and that man was his pupil, the great Sir Ifaac Newton. The fame genius that feemed to be born only to bring hidden truths to light, to rife to the heights or defcend to the depths of fcienee, would fometimes anmfe itfelf in the flowery paths of poetry, and he compofed verfes both in Greek and Latin. He at length gave himfelf up entirely to divinity ; and particularly to the moll ufeful part of it, that which has a tendency to make men wifer and better. He has, in his excellent fermons on the Creed, folved every difficulty and removed every obftacle that oppofed itfelf to our faith, and made divine revelation as clear as the demonftrations in his own Euclid. In his fermons he knew not how to leave off writing till he had exhaufted his fubjeft j and his admirable difcourfe on the Duty and Reward of Bounty to the Poor, took him up three hours and a half in preaching. This excellent per- fon, who was a bright example of Chriftian virtue, as well as a prodigy of learning, died on the 4th of May 1677, in the 47th year of his age j” and was interred in Weftminftcr abbey, where a monument, adorned with his bull, was foon after erefted, by the contribu¬ tion of his friends. BARROWS, in Ancient Topography, artificial hil¬ locks or mounts, met with in many parts of the world, intended as repofitories for the dead, and formed ei¬ ther of Hones heaped up, or of earth. For the former, more generally known by the name of cairns, fee Cairns.—Of the latter Dr Plott takes notice of two forts in Oxfordftiire : one placed on the military ways j the other in the fields, meadows, or woods 5 the firft fort doubtlefs of Roman ere&ion, the other more pro¬ bably ereffed by the Britons or Danes. We have an examination of the barrows in Cornwall by Dr Wil¬ liams, in the Phil. Tranf. N® 458. from wbofe obfer- vations we find that they are compofed of foreign or adventitious earth j that is, fuch as does not rife on the place, but is fetched from fome dilfance.—Monuments of this kind are alfo very frequent in Scotland. On digging into the barrows, urns have been found in fome of them, made of calcined earth, and containing burnt bones and affies •, in others, Hone chefts contain¬ ing bones entire; in others, bones neither lodged in chefts nor depofited in urns. Thefe tumuli are round, not greatly elevated, and generally at their bafes fur- rounded with a fofs. They are of different fizes j in proportion, it is fuppoled, to the greatnefs, rank, and power, of the deceafed perfon. The links or fands of Skail, in Sandwick, one of the Orkneys, abound in round barrows. Some are formed of earth alone, others of ftone covered with earth. In the former was found a coffin, made of fix flat ftones. They are too Ihort to receive a body at full length : the fkeletons found in them lie with the knees preffed to the breaft, and the legs doubled along the thighs. A bag, made of ruihes, has been found at the feet of fome of thefe ikeletons, containing the bones, moft probably, of an¬ other ot the family. In one were to be feen multi¬ tudes of fmall beetles; and as fimilar inledls have been difeovered in the bag which enclofed the facred Ibis, we may fuppofe that the Egyptians, and the nation to whom thefe tumuli did belong, might have had the Barrow fame fuperftition refpedting them. On fome of the —y~— corpfes interred in this ifland, the mode of burning was obferved. The affies, depofited in an urn which was covered on the top with a flat ftone, have been found in the cell of one of the barrows. This coffin or cell was placed on the ground, then covered with a heap of ftones, and that again cafed with earth and feds. Both barrow and contents evince them to be of a different age from the former. Thefe tumuli were in the nature of family vaults : in them have been found two tiers of coffins. It is probable, that on the death of any one of the family, the tumulus was opened, and the body inter¬ red near its kindred bones. Ancient Greece and Latium concurred in the fame practice with the natives of this ifland. Patroclus among the Greeks, and Hetfor among the Trojans, received but the fame funeral honours with our Cale¬ donian heroes 5 and the aflies of Dercennus the Lau- rentine monarch had the fame fimple protetftion. The urn and pall of the Trojan warrior might perhaps be more fuperb than thofe of a Britiffi leader : the rifing monument of each had the common materials from ousv mother earth. The fnowy bones his friends and brothers place, With tears collecled, in a golden vale. The golden vafe in purple palls they roll’d Of fofteft texture and inwrought with gold. Laft o’er the urn the facred earth they fpread, And rais’d a tomb, memorial of the dead. Pope's Homer's Iliad, xxiv. ICC5, Or, as it is more ftrongiy expreffed by the fame ele¬ gant tranfiator, in the account of the funeral of Pa¬ troclus } High in the midft they heap the fwelling bed Of rifing earth, memorial of the dead. Ib. xxiii. 319, The Grecians barrows, however, do not feem to have been all equally fimple. The barrow of Alyattes, fa¬ ther of Crcefus king of Lydia, is deferibed by Hero¬ dotus as a moft fuperb monument, inferior only to the works of the Egyptians and Babylonians. It was a vaft mound of earth heaped on a bafement of large ftones by three claffes of the people •, one of which was compofed of girls who were proftitutes. Alyat¬ tes died, after a long reign, in the year 562 before the Chriftian era. Above a century intervened, but the hittorian relates, that to his time five ftonts (sgeq termini ox ftelce') on which letters were engraved, had remained on the top, recording what each clals had performed j and from the meafurement it had appear¬ ed, that the greater portion was done by the girls. Strabo likewife has mentioned it as a huge mound rai- fed on a lofty bafement by the multitude of the city. The circumference was fix ftadia or three quarters of a mile; the height two plethra or two hundred feet j and the width thirteen plethra. It was cuftomary among the Greeks to place on barrows either the image of fome animal, or Jielee, commonly round pil¬ lars with inferiptions. The famous barrow of the A- thenians in the plain of Marathon, deferibed by Pau- fanias, is an inftance of the latter ufage. An ancient monument in Italy by the Appian-way, called without reafon BAR [ 427 ] BAR Barrows. rea^on the fepulchre of the Curiatii, lias the fame num- . -t i hf*r of termini as remained on the barrow of Alyattesj the bafement, which is fquare, fupporting five round pyramids.—Of the barrow of Alyattes the apparent magnitude is defcribed by travellers as now much di- minifhed, and the bottom rendered wider and lefs di- iiinft than before, by the gradual increafe of the foil below. It Hands in the midil of others by the lake Gygteus ; where the burying-place of the Lydian princes was fituated. The barrows are of various lizes ; the fmaller made perhaps for children of the younger branches of the royal family. Four or five are diitin- guiOied by their fuperior magnitude, and are vilible as hills at a great diftance. That of Alyattes is greatly fupereminent. The lake it is likely furnilhed the foil. All of them are covered with green turf 5 and all retain their conical form without any finking in of the top. Barrows, or fimilar tumuli, are alfo found in great numbers in America. Thefe are of different fizes, ac- * Veter o?z cor<:^ng’ to •^■r Jefferf. /b. L. s. 13 3 14 at 2 16 43° 1 2l 16s 20. 141b 26 10 1 8 8 H 7 L.38 17 Secondly, Find how much cotton, at pd. per lb. 381. 17s. will purchafe as under : d. If 9 lb. 1 Z. = 38 20 777 12 J7 9)9324( C. If 1 BAR z. c. 2.8 : : 13.875 2.8 111000 27750 lb. •°3 7 5)38-8500(1036: 37-5 • • • Bartar II Bartliele- my. c. -9 1 Anf. ^SS0 1125 c. Anf. 107,61b.—1 If the above queftion be wrought decimally, the ope¬ ration may ftand as follows: 2250 2250 Tlie value or price of the goods received and deliver¬ ed in bartar being always equal, it is obvious that the produiR of the quantities received and delivered, multi¬ plied in their refpeiRive rates, will be equal. Hence arifes a rule which may be ufed with advan¬ tage in working feveral queflions j namely, Multiply the given quantity and rate of the one commodity, and the produft divided by the rate of the other commodity quotes the quantity fought j or divided by the quantity quotes the rate. ^uejl. 2. How many yards of linen, at 4s. per yard, fhould I have in bartar for 120 yards of velvet, at 15s. 6d. ? Yds. Sixp. Sixp. Yds. 120X 31 = 3720, and 8)3720(459 Jrtf. BARTH, or Bart, John, a brave filberman of Dun¬ kirk, who rofe to the rank of an admiral ; and is cele¬ brated for his fignal valour and naval exploits, in the annals of France. He died in 1702, aged 51. BARTHELEMY, John James, a celebrated lite¬ rary charaffer, born at Caffis, a little fea-port on the fhores of the Mediterranean, January 1716. A twelve years of age he was fent to fchool at Mar- feilles. Being admitted into the college of the oratory, he was put under the care of Father Renaud, a perfon of tafte and wit, who foon difcovered fimilar qualities in his pupil, and became uncommonly attentive to his pro- grefs. M. de Vifclede, a man of letters, and friend to the former, alfo concurred with him in his endeavours, and young Barthelemy’s career foon became equally ra¬ pid and brilliant. He had refolved to dedicate himfelf to the church} but, in order to prepare for this, it became neceffary to change his place of refidence, for M. de Belzunce, then bifhop of Marfeilles, being aftuated by a narrow jealou- fy, refufed to admit the ftudents of the oratory to holy orders. Barthelemy, therefore, quitting his old matters with regret, found himfelf under the neceflity of ftudy- ing philofophy and theology with the Jefuits. As he had not at firft the good fortune to fall into able hands, he determined to follow a private plan of education, independent of the profeffors. He according¬ ly applied himfelf to the ancient languages, and was inde¬ fatigable in obtaining a knowledge of the Greek, He¬ brew, Chaldean, and Syriac. His paffion for learning had, however, nearly coft him his life, for he fell dan- geroufly ill, and did not recover his ftrength until he had entered the feminary where he received the tonfure. In BAR t 43i J BAR Eartheie- In l3ks retreat, he dedicated his leifure hours to the my. itudy of Arabic. A young Maronite, who had been educated at Rome, afforded him his affiftance, and enabled him not only to read, but even to fpeak it. On this, his new friend propofed to him to render all the fervices in his power to the Maronites, Armenians, and other catholic Arabians, who were but flightly acquainted with the language of the country in which they refided : in other words, he wilhed that he would announce the word of God to them in their native tongue, and accordingly prefented him with forae Arabic fermons, compofed by a Jefuit, who belonged to the propaganda. Barthelemy got one or two of them by heart, and pronounced them in a fpacious hall belonging to the leminary, to the entire fatisfadtion of his oriental audi¬ tors. His reputation now rofe high, and he began to be confidered as a youth of uncommon promife, when a trifling incident occurred which tended not a little to increafe it. Ten or twelve of the principal merchants of Marfeilles one day introduced a perfon to him who had implored their charity on the exchange, obferving that he was by birth a Jew, and had been railed, on account of his great learning, to the dignity of a rabbin \ but having perceived, in confequence of his fludies, that the Chriftian was the true religion, he bad become a con¬ vert. He at the fame time added, that he was profound¬ ly inftrufted in the oriental languages, and demanded to be put to the proof, by being confronted with feme learned man. Barthelemy, not then 21 years of age, was imme¬ diately pitched upon. It was in vain he aflured them, that although he could read, he was unable to fpeak the languages in queftion ; they prefied him to enter into converfation with the native of the eaft ; and the flranger himfelf entreated that the conference might immediately commence. The challenge was at length accepted, and the foreigner began the conteft, from which Barthelemy retired with the character of a prodigy of eaftern eru¬ dition. Barthelemy having now finifhed his education at the feminary, retired to Aubagne, and fpent forae time in the bofora of his family, by all the members of which he was greatly beloved. He was aocuftomed, how¬ ever, to repair frequently to Marfeilles, on purpofe to vifit the academicians, and other learned men refiding there. Among thofe to whom he attached himfelf in a particular manner, was a M. Cary, the poffeflbr of a fine cabinet of medals and a valuable collection of books, which were quite analogous to the favourite fub- je£t of his purfuits and ftudies. They fpent whole days together in converting on literary fubje£ts; after which, Barthelemv, as if infatiable of knowledge, would retire to the Minims, where Father Sigaloux, a correfpondent of the academy of fciences, was employed in making aftronomical obfervations. In thefe labours the young abbe became his aflbeiate, for be was ambitious of im¬ proving in every kind of knowledge. But he began at length to perceive, that in order to render his ftudies profitable, it would be necoflary to circumfcribe them, as mediocrity of knowledge, the in¬ evitable refult of a diverfity of applications, was but 2 little preferable to ignorance itfelf. Occupied with thefe fentiments, he repaired to Paris in 1744, with a view to devote himfelf entirely to literature. He was furniftied with a letter to M. de Boze, keeper of the medals, and perpetual fecretary of infcriptions and belles lettres. This learned man, lb eftimable in every point of view, received him with great politenefs, and introduced him to the acquaintance of the moft di- ftinguilhed members of the three academies, who dined twice a-week at his apartments. Mixing with fociety of this kind, Barthelemy became more deeply enamour¬ ed than ever with a love of letters, and a refpeCl for thofe who cultivated them. x M. de Boze, in the mean time, carefully ftudied the chara&er and difpofition of the young man, and at length favoured him with his friendftiip, and even with his con¬ fidence 5 at leaft he conferred as much of thefe as was poftible for a man of fo much circumfpeCiion and referve. As the increafing age, and declining health, of M. de Boze would not permit him to apply any longer with the intenfe inveftigation neceffary for the com¬ pletion of the cabinet of medals, he had entertained feme thoughts of affociating M. de Baftie, a learned antiquary belonging to the academy of infcriptions, as a partner in his labours. That gentleman loft the ap« pointment, however, in confequence of an unlucky ex- preffion, and Bartbelemy was fele&ed a few months afterwards : this nomination was approved of by M. Bignon the librarian, and Maurepas the minifter of the department. From that moment the abbe dedicated both his days and nights to the ftudy of thofe medals which his colleague had been prevented, by his in¬ firmities, from arranging. Amidft his multiplied occupations, Barthelemy be¬ gan to enjoy a mode of life fo conformable to his tafte and his talents, when he beheld with affright a new career prefent itfelf. In the courfe of his journey to the capital he had feen M. de Bauffet, then a canon, at Aix. They were friends and countrymen ; for M. de Bauffet was born at Aubagne, where his family had been long eftabliftied. As he was a young man of confiderable expe&ations, he had promifed that Barthe¬ lemy flrould become his vicar-general the moment be himfeif was decorated with the mitre. Such a flatter¬ ing offer was not to be rejected \ and as the canon was now nominated to tire biflwpric of Bezieres, he did not fail to remind his old acquaintance of their mu¬ tual engagement. The ferrovv of the medalift on this occafion was too great to be concealed : he was, how¬ ever, too fcrupulous an obferver of his word to break his promife; but the prelate, who favv and felt for the embarraffment of Barthelemy, immediately defifted from his importunities. On the death of Pvf. de Boze, keeper of the cabinet of medals, in 1753, Barthelemy, who bad been his colleague during feven years, of courfe expefted to fuc- ceed him in that honourable fituation. One perfen, h >wever, ftarted as a candidate ; but notwithftanding the abbe, relying on the juftice of his pretenfions, took no ftep whatever to obtain the appointme nt, yet the zeal of his friends rendered all felicitations on his part unneceffarv, for they were both numerous and powerful. M. de Maleflierbes, vhofe unfortunate and tragical death all worthy men deplore ; M. de Stain- ville, BAR [43 Bmliele- ville, afterwards a duke and minifter ; and M.de Gon- my. taut, brother of the laft Martbal de Biron, fupported 1 V ' his pretenfions, and he was accordingly nominated fuc- ceffor to his friend in 1753* M. de Stainville, afterwards better known during his adminitfration by the title of duke de Choifeul, in 1754 was appointed ambaffador to Rome, Madame de Stainville, a lady both young and beautiful, being paffionately attached to learning and learned men, con¬ ceived a particular regard for the abbe, and it was propofed that he Ihould occupy a place in their car¬ riage, on this occalion, and make the tour of Italy along with them. Such a propofition could not fail to be highly flattering ; but he was obliged, from prin¬ ciples of duty, to refrain for a time from complying with their withes. He fet out foon after, however, and arrived in November at Rome, where he and his companion were received and treated in the kindeft manner by the French plenipotentiary, who lived in a magnificent ftyle. Pope Benedidt XIV. who then wore the tiara, being a learned man himlelf, did not fail to diftinguifli Barthelemy by the moft courteous reception. But his flay at Rome was not long, for he was defirous of vifiting Naples, rendered particularly interefting to an antiquary, at that period, by the re¬ cent difcoveries made in its neighbourhood. He and his fellow-traveller were occupied during a whole month in admiring the curiofities of that capital, and in ftudy- ing ancient literature 5 after which they took a journey of 30 leagues, to behold the monuments of Grecian architedlure, ftill exifting on the fite of the ancient city of Pfeftum. The fpacious apartments of the palace of Portici, containing the antiquities of Herculaneum and Pompeia, were ftill more interefting, and excited a far greater de¬ gree of curiofity in the breafts of the French philofo- phers. There they beheld an immenfe quantity of paint¬ ings, ftatues, bufts, vafes, and utenfils of every kind ; ob¬ jects peculiarly calculated to engage their attention and excite their applaufe. It was not, however, without a certain mixture of grief and furprife that they noticed the four or five hundred manufcripts, faved from the ruins of Herculaneum, lying in the fame forlorn ftate in which they were difcovered. Two or three only had been unrolled, of which the learned Mazocchi has given an explanation : as thefe contained nothing important, the operation was abandoned. But Barthelemy was not fo eafily difcouraged, for he unceafingly folicited, he almoft condefcended to in¬ trigue, with a view to engage the poffeflbrs of thefe treafures to turn them to the beft advantage. He, at length, perceived his labours about to be crowned with fuccefs a few years afterwards, but he was finally dif- appointed by the death of the marquis Caraccioli, the minifter of Naples, who had entered moft cordially in¬ to his views. Another fubjeft about this time alfo engaged the attention of the abbe. He was exceedingly defirous of prefenting the learned men of France with a fpe- cimen of the ancient writing employed in the Greek manufcripts. He accordingly addrefled himfelf, on this fubjedt, to his friend Mazocchi, and alfo to M. Paderno, who fuperintended the treafures of Portici: both, however, replied that they were exprefsly enjoin- 2 ] BA ed not to communicate any thing R On this he folicited permiflion to look, for a few minutes only, on a page of a manufeript which had been cut from top to bottom fince its difeovery. It contained 28 lines, and Barthe¬ lemy read it over fix different times with extreme at¬ tention ; after this he retired to a corner and tranf- cribed the precious fragment, on a piece of paper, from memory. He then returned, and having made a men¬ tal collation between the copy and the original he cor- redted two or three trifling errors that had efcaped his attention. Having thus rendered himfelf mafter of a faejimile of the MS. which related to the perfecution of the Greek philofophers during the time of Pericles, he tranfmitted the literary plunder in the courfe of that very day to the academy of belles lettres, ftridtly en¬ joining fecrecy, however, that Mazocchi and Paderno might efcape all manner of blame. M. de Stainville having been appointed ambaffador to the court of Vienna, in 1757, the abbe accompanied his lady thither. On his arrival he found that his friend and protedlor had made certain engagements with the French miniftry, on purpofe to gratify his paftion for an¬ tiquities. In confequence of this he had leave to vifit Greece and the fea ports of the Mediterranean,' at the king’s expence, where he was to amafs new treafures, and return with them to his native country by Marfeilles. But, notwithftanding all the attradlions that this pro- jedt prefented, his fcrupulous attachment to his duty prevailed over his paflion for knowledge ; as he deem¬ ed it highly improper that the cabinet of medals ftiould be fo long (but. At length, towards the Cnd of 1758, M. de Stainville, now become duke de Choifeul, was nominated minifter for foreign affairs in the room of the abbe de Bernis, who had retired with a cardinal’s hat. No fooner did this event take place, than both he and his lady deter¬ mined to provide for their friend. They accordingly requefted Barthelemy to ftate the fum that would make him eafy for life, and he inftantly mentioned 6000 livres a-year 5 blulhing at the fame time at the largenefs of the demand. As the purfe of the nation was now open to the pa¬ tron, he diftributed his favours with a liberal hand ; and it muft be owned that, on this occafion, an objett worthy of remuneration prefented itfelf in the perfon of the learned abbe. Accordingly, in 1759, he prefent¬ ed him with a penfion on the archbifhopric of Alby *, in 1765 he conferred on him the treafurerlhip of St Martin de Tours, and in 1768 he made him fecretary- general to the Swifs guards. In addition to thefe the abbe alfo enjoyed a penfion of 5000 livres on the Mer¬ cury. His income was now very large, but he employ¬ ed it nobly ; for he diftributed the furplus, which was confiderable, among indigent men of letters. In 1771 M. de Choifeul was difgraced, being fuc- ceeded in his office by his enemy the duke d’Aiguillon, and exiled to his eftate at Chanteloupe. On this oc¬ cafion he was forfaken as ufual by the courtiers, who had balked in the funlhine of his favour \ but he w7as not deferted by the grateful antiquary, who inftantly repaired thither to pay his refpedls ; nay, when the king demanded the duke’s refignation of the poll of colonel-general of the Swifs guards, the abbe, with a fpirit \ BAR [ 433 ] BAR Biirthele- fpirit that does honour to his memory, infifted on iend- my. ing in his own refignation of the fecretaryftiip •, but the ex-minitler interfered, and prevailed upon him not to deliver it up without an indemnification, which fhould be fan&ioned by the great feal, and authorized by let¬ ters patent enregillered in parliament. Barthelemy was now in poffeffion of more than i 20ol. fterling per annum *, of this he diltributed be¬ tween three and four hundred in the manner before related : the remainder was not diflipated in pomp and oftentation, but employed in fuch a manner as to en¬ able him to enjoy philofophic eafe. He alfo educa¬ ted and eftablifhed three nephews in life, one of whom has been fucceffively ambaffador and director: he at the fame time fupported the reft of his family in Pro¬ vence, and felefled a noble library, which he difpofed of fome years before his death. After having thus polfeffed an ample income during more than twenty years, the abbe Barthelemy found himfelf, towards the latter end of his exiftence, re¬ duced to live on a pittance calculated merely to furnifh the indifpenfeble neceffaries of life, in confequence of the fuppreflion of places and appointments that enfued immediately after the revolution. He was never heard, however, to complain ; nay, he did not feem to per¬ ceive the change j and, while he was ftill permitted by his age and infirmities to walk from one end of Paris to the other, to pay his refpe£ts to Madame de Choi- feul, he feemed to the full as happy as before. In 1788 appeared his celebrated work, entitled Voyage du jeune Anacharjis en Greece, dans le milieu du tjuatrienicJiecle avant l’’ere Chrctienne. He had begun it in 1757, and, during an uninterrupted fucceflion of 30 years, occupied his leifure hours in bringing it to maturity* His hero, a young Scythian, defcended from the famous philofopher Anacharfis, whofe name he bears, is fuppofed to repair to Greece, for his inftruffion in his early youth, and, after making a tour of her repub¬ lics, her colonies, and her iflands, he returns to his native country and w7rites this book, in his old age, after the hero of Macedon had overturned the Perfian empire. In the manner of modern travellers, he gives an account of the cuftoms, government, and antiquities, of the country he has vifited ; a copious introduftion fupplies whatever may be wanting in refpe£t to hiftori- cal details j while various dilTertations on the mufic of the Greeks, on the library of the Athenians, and on the economy, purfuits, ruling paffions, manners and cuftoms, of all the furrounding ftates, afford ample gratification to the reader of tafte. In 1789 the author became a candidate for a chair in the French academy ; and fuch was the reputation he had obtained by his labours, that this learned body became particularly anxious to enrol him among its members •, he was accordingly elefted by acclamation. The fpeech delivered by the Abbe on his inauguration has been equally celebrated for its fimplicity and mo- defty. In 1790 M. de St Prieft, minifter of the depart¬ ment of Paris, made him an offer of the place of li¬ brarian to the king, then vacant by the refignation of M. le Noir. This was, at that period, a very flattering propofal, but it was not accepted ; for the Abbe ima¬ gined that it might interfere with his literary occupa- VoL. III. Part II. tions, and therefore, after exprefling his gratitude, he Barthele. declined the intended favour. my. In the mean time, while Barthelemy wras thus refu- ' "" * ' ' J fing one of the moft honourable offices that a man of letters could at that time afpire to, he did not negledfc the department which had fo long been confided to his charge. His ardour, in refpedt to every thing that concerned the cabinet of medals, remained unabated and unaltered through life, and he now found means to have his nephew, Barthelemy Cour^y, affuciated with him in his labours. This grand eolledlion had re¬ ceived a confiderable increafe, and been embelliftied with a number of fine fpecimens fince it was confided to his care. To enrich it ftill more, he carried on a correfpondence, not only with the various provinces of France, but alfo with all parts of Europe. In the mean time, the health of the learned medaP lift declined daily, and, in 1792, his ftrength began to fail him. Towards the beginning of the next year he became fubjedf to fainting fits, which deprived him of the exercife of his faculties for feveral hours toge¬ ther. Being naturally calm and courageous, he did not appear, however, to be in the leaft affeifted by thefe accidents, but his friends confidered them as fymptoms of a fpeedy diffolution. He was now feventy-eight years of age, fixty of which had been fpent in literary toils, when an event occurred, calculated to excite the moft bitter indigna¬ tion. On the 30th Auguft, 1793, this feeble old man was denounced as an ariftocrat, and his nephew and fe¬ veral other young men employed about the library were included in the fuppofed guilt. The accufation pro¬ ceeded from a perfon of the name of Duby, a clerk in the library, and was conveyed in a letter written by him to a perfon of the name of Chretien, a paflry- cook, who happened to be a member of the fedlion, before which it was firft read, and then tranfmitted to the municipality. It ought not to be omitted here that Duby did not know Chretien, or Chretien Duby, and that Barthelemy was not acquainted with either of them ! A warrant was immediately iffued againft the fup¬ pofed culprits, and this was fignified by the officers of juftice to the Abbe, who happened to be at Madame de Choifeul’s, on the morning of the 2d of September. On this he inftantly arofe, and, without difeovering any fymptoms of fear, took his leave of that lady, and was conduced to the Magdelonettes, where h(^ found his nephew Cour^y. Such, however, was the refpedl paid to his virtues and his talents, even within the walls of a prifon, that, on entering the gate, he was received with every expreffion of regard by the inhabitants of this dreary manfion, and the gaoler, whofe name was Vanbertrand, paid the utmoft attention to him. He was accordingly lodged in a little apartment along with his relation, and in the courfe of that evening he re¬ ceived a vifit from Madame de Choileul, who had ta¬ ken care to intimate the event to the government. No fooner was the committee informed that the Abbe Bar¬ thelemy had been included in the order that was meant only to extend to fome of the fubalterns employed in the library, than orders were inftantly iffued for his re- leafe, and we are affured by his friend the duke de Ni- vernois, that the clerks in the public offices difplayed the uttuoft zeal in forwarding the neceffary papers for his 3 I liberation ; BAR [ 434 ] BAR Barthele- beration : accordingly at eleven o’clock at night be was awaked from his deep, and condudled to the houfe of his fair friend. But the attention of the government did not flop here ; for in a few weeks afterwards, the place of na¬ tional librarian being vacant by the death of Carra, and the refignation of Chamfort, who had held it jointly, it was offered to the Abbe, with the moft flattering marks of attention. His age and infirmities, however, af¬ forded but too good a pretext for his refufal. In 1794 his approaching diffolution was apparent to every one but himfelf, for his fainting fits became longer and more frequent} however, as he did not re¬ tain any remembrance of them, he occupied his time as ufual ; in other words, he devoted all his hours to friendlhip and literature. He had now reached the eightieth year of a life which had been entirely fpent in a laborious and incef- fant application to ftudy, which had fecretly weakened the fprings of exiftence. The rigour of the winter of 1-795, againft which he had adopted no precautions, is fuppofed to have haflened the cataftrophe ; this did not occur, however, until the fpring. On the 25th of April he dined with Madame de Cboifeul. In the courfe of the night he became fo weak that he was unable to ring his bell 5 and in the morning, when his fervant entered, he was found with his feet in the bed and his head on the floor, entirely deprived of fenfation. After being replaced, his re- colleftion returned, but he grew gradually wor'fe, and he was carried off without experiencing any pain, April 30. 1795. He retained full poflVflion of all his fenfes until the very laft moment. At one o’clock he read Horace as if nothing extraordinary had occurred *, but his hands turning cold, in confequence of the approach of death, became unable.to fupport the book, which fell to the ground. His head foon after was feen to incline on one fide, he appeared to fleep, and it was believed by his nephew and his attendants that this was really the cafe ; but it was foon difeovered that his refpiration had ceafed, and that this learned man was no more ! Thus died, without any of the ufual ftruggles that accompany death, John James Barthelemy, one of the greatefl ornaments of his age, regretted by all his re¬ lations as if he had been their Common father, whofe life prefented an example, and whofe Avorks form a model for ^iterary men. In perfon he was above the middle fize, and, if we are to give credit to his ad¬ mirers, his countenance difplayed an air of antiquity wonderfully correfpondent to his ftudies. His bull, carved by the chtlfel of Houdon, is allowed to be a inafterpiece of art, and that able fculptor has con¬ trived to infufe into the phyfiognomy a mixture of the mildnefs, fimplieity, good-nature, and grandeur, fo vi- fible in the original. BARTHIUS, Gaspar, a very learned and copi¬ ous writer, born at Cuftrin in Brandenburg, the 22d of June 1576. Mr Baillet has inferted him in his En¬ fant Cehbres ; where he tells us, that at 12 years of age he tranflated David’s Pfalms into Latin verfe of every meafure, and puhliftied feveral Latin poems. Up¬ on the death of his father (who was profeffor of civil law at Francfdrt, counfellor to the eleftor of Branden¬ burg, and his chancellor at Cuftrin), he was fent to Gotha, then to Eifenach, and afterwards, according to Bartholl- cuftom, wrent through all the different univerfities in mis. Germany. When he had finifhed his ftudies, he began ‘ ' '<~m+ his travels $ he vifited Italy, France, Spain, England, and Holland, improving himfelf by the converfation and works of the learned in every country. He ftu- died the modern as well as ancient languages, and his tranflations from the Spanifh and French (bow that he was not content with, a fuperficial knowledge. Upon his return to Germany, he took up his refidence at Leipfic, where he led a retired life, his paffion for ftu¬ dy having made him renounce all fort of employment. He wrote a vaft number of books •, the principal of which are, 1. His Adverfaria, a large volume in folio; the fecond and third volumes of which he left in manu- feript. 2. A Tranflation of ./Eneas Gazaeus. 3. A large volume of Notes upon Claudian, in qto. 4. Three large volumes upon Statius ; &c. He died at Leipfic, in 1658, aged 71. BARTHOLINUS Caspar, a learned phyfician and anatomift in the 17th century, was born at Malmoe, a town in the province of Schonen, which then be¬ longed to Denmark. At three years of age he had fuch a quick capacity, that in 14 days he learned to read ; and in his 13th year he compofed Greek and Latin orations, and pronounced them in public. When he was about 18 he went to the univerfity of Copen¬ hagen, and afterwards ftudied at Roftock and Wirtem- berg. He next fet out upon his travels; during which he neglefted no opportunity of improving himfelf at the different univerfities to which he came, and every¬ where receiving marks of refpeft. He wras in 1613 chofen proftfior of phyfic in that univerfity, which he enjoyed 11 years; when, falling into a dangerous ill- r.efs, he made a vow, that if it fhould pleafe God to reftore him, he would folely apply himfelf to the ftudy of divinity. He recovered, and kept his word; and foon after obtained the profefforlhip of divinity, and the canonry of Rofchild. He died on the 13th of July 1629, after having written feveral Imall works chiefly on metaphyfics, logic, and rhetoric. Bartholinus, Thomas, a celebrated phyfician, fon of the former, was born at Copenhagen in 1616. Af ter ftudying fome years in his own country, he in 1637 went to Leyden, where he ftudied phyfic during three yeas. He then travelled into France; and refided two years at Paris and Montpelier, in order to improve himfelf under the famous phyficians of thofe univerfities. Afterwards going to Italy, he continued three years at Padua; and at length went to Bafil, where he ob¬ tained the degree of doctor of philofophy. Soon after, he returned to Copenhagen; where in 1647 he was appointed profeffor of the mathematics ; and next year was nominated to the anatomical chair, an employment better fuited to his genius and inclination ; which be difeharged with great afliduity for 13 years, and dif- tinguiftied himfelf by making feveral difeoveries with refpeft to the la&eal veins and lymphatic veffels. His clofe application, however, having rendered his con- ftitution very infirm, he, in 1661, refigned his chair; but the king of Denmark allowed him the title of honorary profejfor. He now retired to a little eftate he had purebafed a! Hagefted, near Copenhagen, where he hoped to have fpent the remainder of his days in peace and tranquillity ; but his houfe being burnt in 16.50, BAR [ 435 ] BAS St BartLo- 1650, his library, with all his books and manufcripts, lomew’s was deftroyed. In confideration of this lols the king appointed him his phyfician with a handfome falary, Bartolo- and exempted his land from all taxes ; the univerfity of itiso. Copenhagen alfo appointed him their librarian j and, •—"-V”" in 1675, the king did him the honour to give him a feat in the grand council of Denmark. He wrote, 1. Anatomia Cafpari Bartholini Parentis, novis Obfer- vationibus primum locuptetata, 8vo. 2. De Monflris in Hatura et Medicina, 4X0. 3. De Armil/is Veterum, prce- fertim Danorum Schedion, 8vo ; and feveral other works. This great man died on the 4th of December 1680. St BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY, a feftival of the Chriftian church, celebrated on the 24th of Augmt. St Bartholomew was one of the twelve apoftles j and is efteemed to be the fame as Nathanael, one of the firft difciples that came to Chrift. It is thought this apoftle travelled as far as India, to propagate the gofpel ; for Eufebius relates, that a famous philofopher and Chriftian, named Panlcenus, defiring to imitate the apoftolical zeal in propagating the faith, and travelling for that purpofe as far as In¬ dia, found there, among thofe who yet retained the knowledge of Chrift, the gofpel of St Matthew, writ¬ ten, as the tradition afferts, by St Bartholomew, one of the twelve apoftles, when he preached the gofpel in that country. From thence he returned to the more northern and weftern parts of Afia, and preached to the people of Hierapolis j then in Lycaonia •, and laftly at Albania, a city upon the Cafpian fea, where his en¬ deavours to reclaim the people from idolatry were crowned with martyrdom, he being (according to feme writers) flayed alive, and crucified with his head down¬ wards.—There is mention made of a Gofpel of St Bar¬ tholomew, in the preface to Origen’s Homilies on St Luke, and in the preface to St Jerome’s Commentary tm St Matthew : but it is generally looked upon as fpurious, and is placed by Pope Gelafius among the apocryphal books. Bartholomew, St, one of the Caribbee iflands, belonging to the French, who fent a colony thither in 2648. It is about 24 miles in compafs, and has a good haven. W. Long. 62. 15. N. Lat. 18. 16. BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order founded at Genoa in the year 1307 ; but the monks leading very irregular lives, the order was fuppreffed by Pope Innocent X. in 1650, and their effects were confifea- ted. In the church of the monaftery of this order at Genoa is preferved the image which it is pretended Chrift fent to King Abgarus, See Abgarus. BARTOLOCCI, Julius, a learned monk, and profeflbr of Hebrew at Rome, was born at Celeno, in , 1613 5 and diftinguifhed himfelf by writing an ex¬ cellent Hebrew and Latin catalogue of the Hebrew writers and writings, in 4 vols folio, a continuation of which was performed by Imbonati his difciple. He died in 1687. BARTOLOMEO, Francisco, a celebrated pain¬ ter, born at Savignano, a village 10 miles from Flo¬ rence, in the year 1469, was the difciple of Cofimo Roifelli, but was much more beholden to the works of Leonardo da Vinci for his extraordinary Ikill in pain¬ ting. He was well verfed in the fundamentals of defign. Raphael, after quitting the fchool of Perugino, ap¬ plied to this mafter 5 and under him ftudied the rules of perfpeiflive, with the art of managing and uniting Britton his colours. In the year 1500, he turned Dominican H friar j and fome time after was fent by his fuperiors to Bafaltes. ^ the convent of St Martin, in Florence. He painted ^ both portraits and hiftories ; but his fcrupulous con- Icience would hardly ever fuller him to draw naked fi¬ gures, though nobody underftood them better. He died in 1517, aged 48. BARTON, a town of Lincolnftiire, feated on the river Flumber, where there is a confiderable ferry to pafs over into Yorklhire. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lah S3- 4°- BARTSIA, Painted Cup. See Botany Index. BARUCH, the Prophecy of, one of the apocry¬ phal books, fubjoined to the canon of the Old Tefta- ment. Baruch was the fon of Neriah, who was the dif¬ ciple and amanuenfis of the prophet Jeremiah. It has been reckoned part of Jeremiah’s prophecy, and is oft¬ en cited by the ancient fathers as fuch. Jofephus tells us, Baruch was defcended of a noble family and it is faid in the book itfelf, that he Avrote this prophecy at Babylon 5 but at what time is uncertain. It is difficult to determine in what language this prophecy was ori¬ ginally written. There are extant three copies of it j one in Greek, the other two in Syriac ; but which of thefe, or whether any one of them, be the original, is uncertain. BARULES, in church hiftory, certain heretics, who held, that the Son of God had only a phantom of a body ; that fouls were created before the world, and that they lived all at one time. BARUTH, an ancient town of Turkey, in Syria, with a Chriftian church of the Neftorian perfuafion. It is fituated in a fine fertile foil, but is inconfiderable now to what it was formerly. E. Long. 34. 20. N» Lat. 33. 30. . Baruth, an Indian meafure, containing 17 gantans: It ought to weigh about three pounds and a half En- glifti avoirdupois. BARYTONUM, in the Greek grammar, denotes a verb, which having no accent marked on the laft fyl- lable, a grave accent is to be underftood. In Italian mafic, burytona anfwers to our common pitch of bafs. BAS chevalier. See Bachelor. BAS-Rehef See BASSO-Retievo. Bas, James Philip le, a modern French engraver, by whom we have fome excellent prints. His great force feems to lie in landfcapes and fmall figures, which he executed in a fuperior manner. His ftyle of en¬ graving is extremely neat j but yet he proves the free¬ dom of the etching, and harmonizes the whole with the graver and dry point. We have alfo a variety of pretty vignettes by this artift. He flouriffied about the middle of the prefent century 5 but we have no account of the time of his birth or death. x BASALTES, (from bafal, “iron,” or Name, de* di/igenter examino), in Natural Hi/iory, a heavy, hard ■"i vat ion, ftone, chiefly black or green, confifting of prifmatic ^cc* cryftals, the number of whofe fides is uncertain. The Engliffi miners call it cockle ; the German fchoerl. Its fpecific gravity is to that of water as 3000 or upwards to icoo. It frequently contains iron ; and confifts either of particles of an indeterminate figure, or of a fparry, ftriated, or fibrous texture. It has a flinty hardnefs, is infoluble by acids, and is fufible by fire. 3 I 2 The BAS [ 436 ] BAS Bafaltes. The following is an analyfis of fome bafaltes by Mr —"v—1 Bergman j and as the refemblance of it to lava will be frequently mentioned in the fucceeding part of this ar¬ ticle, we (hall here contraft this analyfis with that of lava by the fame author. a Compara¬ tive analy- lis of bafal¬ tes and lava. Bafaltes, 100 parts con¬ tains Siliceous earth 50 Argillaceous 15 Calcareous 8 Magnefia 2 Iron 25 Lava, 100 parts contains Siliceous earth 49 Argillaceous 35 Calcareous 4 Iron 12 Phil. Tran, jyr Kennedy, an ingenious chemift, analyzed feve- Edm. vol. v. ra| fpecjes 0f bafalt, whinftone, and lava, of which the following are the refults. Bafalt from Staffa contains, in ICO parts, Silex - - 48 Argil - - 16 Oxyd of iron - - 16 Lime _ - 9 Moifture and other volatile matter 5 Soda, about - - 4 Muriatic acid, about - - * 99 Whinftone of Saliihury rock near Edinburgh contains, in 100 parts, Silex . - 46 Argil - - 19 Oxyd of iron - - 17 Lime - - 8 Moifture and other volatile matter 4 Soda, about - - 3*J Muriatic acid, about _ . 1 98-5 Whinftone from Caltonhill near Edinburgh contains, in 100 parts, Silex - - 5° Argil - - 18.5 Oxyd of iron - . I6-7J Carbonate of lime - " 3 Moifture and other volatile matter 5 Soda, about - - 4 Muriatic acid, about - - 1 98.25 Lava from Catania, Mount iEtna, contains in 100 parts, Silex - - 51 Argil - - 19 Oxyd of iron - - 14.5 Lime - - 9.5 Soda, about - - 4 Muriatic acid, about - - 1 Lava from Sta Venere, /Etna, contains in 100 parts, Bafaltes. Silex - - 50.75 Argil - - 17.5 Oxyd of iron - - I4*25 Lime - - 10 Soda, about - - 4 Muriatic acid, about - - 1 97-5 The moft remarkable property of this fubftance is its figure, being never found in ftrata, like other mar¬ bles, but always Handing up in the form of regular angular columns, compofed of a number of joints, one placed upon, and nicely fitted to another, as if formed by the hands of a fldlful workman. See Plate LXXXV. fig. 15. ^ _ _ 3 Bafaltes was originally found in columns in Ethio- Bafaltes* pia, and fragments of it in the river Tmolus, and'where fome other places. We now have it frequently, both 0llnt* in columns and fmall pieces, in Spain, Ruflia, Poland, near Drefden, and in Silefia ; but the nobleft (lore in the world feems to be that called the Giant’s Caufe- way in Ireland, and Staffa, one of the weftern ides of Scotland *. Great quantities of bafaltes are likewife * $ee found in the neighbourhood of Mount /Etna in Sicily, Giant's of Hecla in Iceland, and of the volcano in the ifland Caufeway of Bourbon. Thefe are the only three aflive volcanoes and StaSa' in whofe neighbourhood it is to be met with j but it is alfo found in the extinguifhed volcanoes in Italy, though not in the neighbourhood of Vefuvius. 4 In Ireland the bafaltes rifes far up the country, runs Of the into the fea, croffes at the bottom, and rifes again on p13"1 s the oppofite land. In Staffa the whole end of the ifland is fupported by natural ranges of pillars, moftly above 50 feet high, (landing in natural colonnades, according as the bays and points of land have formed themfelves, upon a firm bafis of folid unformed rock. Above thefe, the ftratum, which reaches to the foil or furface of the ifland, varies in thicknefs, as the ifland itfelf is formed into hills or valleys, each hill, which hangs over the valleys below, forming an ample pedi¬ ment. Some of thefe, above 60 feet in thicknefs from the bafe to the point, are formed by the (loping of the hill on each fide, almoft into the (hape of thofe ufed in archite&ure. The pillars of the Giant’s Caufeway have been very particularly defcribed and examined. The moft ac¬ curate account of them is to be met with in a work entitled, “ Letters concerning the northern coaft of the county of Antrim 5” from which the following parti¬ culars relative to the prefent fubjeft are extrafted. ^ “ 1. The pillars of the Caufeway are fmall, not very Particular much exceeding I foot in breadth and 30 in length ; account ef (barply defined, neat in their articulation, with con-the Plllars* cave or convex terminations to each point. In many of the capes and hills they are of a larger fize ; more piate imperfeft and irregular in their figure and articulation, LXXXVI» having often flat terminations to their joints. At fig’I* Fairhead they are of a gigantic magnitude, fometimes exceeding 5 feet in breadth and 100 in length ; often¬ times apparently deftitute of joints altogether. Through many parts of the country, this fpecies of (lone is en¬ tirely rude and unformed, feparating in loofe blocks -,3 Z in 99 BAS [ 437 ] BAS Bafaltes. in which ftate, it refembles the ftone known in Sweden -' i' by the name of trappe. “ 2. The pillars of the Giant’s Caufeway ftand on the level of the beach ; from whence they may be tra¬ ced through all degrees of elevation to the fummit of the higheft grounds in the neighbourhood. “ 3. At the Caufeway, and in moft other places, they ftand perpendicular to the horizon. In fome of the capes, and particularly near Uftiet harbour, in the ifte of Bagherry, they lie in an oblique pofition. At Doon point in the fame ifland, and along the Balintoy fliore, they form a variety of regular curves. “ 4. The ftone is black, elofe, and uniform j the varieties of colour are blue, reddifh, and gray j and of all kinds of grain, from extreme finenefs to the coarfe granulated appearance of a ftone which refembles im- perfedt granite, abounding in cryftals of fchorl, chiefly black, though fometimes of various colours. “ 5. Though the ftone of the Giant’s Caufeway be in general compadt and homogeneous *, yet it is re¬ markable, that the upper joint of each pillar, where it can be afcertained with any certainty, is always rude¬ ly formed and cellular. The grofs pillars alfo in the capes and mountains frequently abound in thefe air¬ holes through all their parts, which fometimes contain fine clay, and other apparently foreign bodies : and the irregular bafaltes beginning where the pillars ceafe, or lying over them, is in general extremely honey-comb¬ ed ; containing in its cells cryftals of zeolite, little morfels of fine brown clay, fometimes very pure fteatite, g and in a few inftances bits of agate.” Account of Sir Jofeph Banks obferves, that the bending pillars- thofe in of Staffa differ confiderably from thofe of the Giant’s Stafla. Caufeway. In Staffa they lie down on their Tides, each forming the fegment of a circle 5 and in one place, a fmall mafs of them very much refembles the ribs of a fhip. Thofe of the Giant’s Caufeway which he faw, ran along the face of a high cliff, bent ftrangely in the middle, as if unable, at their firft formation, while in a foft ftale, to fupport the mafs of incumbent matter. Rocks of roc^s t^e Cyclops, in the neighbourhood of the Cyclops Aitna, exhibit very magnificent bafaltic pillars. A defcribed. general view of them is given on Plate LXXXVI. fig. 2. where a, b, c, are the three principal rocks j e is the extremity of an ifland, one half of which is compo- fed of lava, on a bafe of bafaltes, of no uncommon na¬ ture j above which there is a cruft of pozzolana, com¬ bined with a certain white calcareous matter, which is pretty hard and com pad! ; and which, as it is compo- fed by the adtion of the air, appears like a piece of knotty porous wood. That rock, at fome former pe¬ riod, became fo hard as to fplit ; and the clefts were then filled up with a very hard and porous matter like fcoriae. This matter afterwards acquiring new hard- nefs, alfo fplit, leaving large interftices, which in their turn have been filled up with a fpecies of compound yellow matter. The ifland was formerly inhabited $ and there ftill remains a flight of fteps leading from the fhore to the ruins of fome houfes which appear to have been hewn in the rock. The rook b has the ftraighteft and moft regular co¬ lumns of any. It is reprefented diftindlly in Plate LXXXVII. fig. 1. and likewife a general view of c and d, with the foot of iEtna leading to Catanea, Thefe bafaltic columns, at firft view, feem to referable Bafaltes. thofe of the Giant’s Caufeway, and others commonly ——~v met with : but on a nearer infpedlion, we find a re¬ markable difference 5 being aiiembled in groups of five or fix about one, which ferves as their common centre. They are of various fizes and forms j fome fquare, others hexagonal, heptagonal, or odfagonal. One half of this rock is compofed of perpendicular co¬ lumns j the other of another fpecies of bafaltes difpofed in inclined, and almoft reflilinear, layers. Thefe are in contadft with the columns, and are as clofely con- nedted with them as they are with one another. The layers are longer at the bafe than towards the top of the rock. It is further to be remarked, that moft of thefe layers are fubdivided as they rife upwards ; fo that towards thefe upper extremities, one layer prefents to the eye fometimes one, fometimes two, and fome¬ times three, divifions. The fragments of bafaltes ta¬ ken off from thefe layers are of a rhomboidal figure, becaufe the layers break obliquely. Thefe layers, though inclined towards the bafe, be¬ come almoft perpendicular towards the upper part of the rock, where they appear united in a point, and overtop moft of the vifible and elevated parts of the prifmatic columns. Thefe columns terminate in fuch a manner as to form a kind of ftaircafe. They appear even to rife under a Ipecies of clay with which they are covered at one extremity, till they reunite themfelves with the point which is formed by the moft elevated parts of the layers of bafaltes befide them. This extraneous matter with which thefe columns are covered, and of which the fummit of this pyramid confifts, appears to be of the fame fpecies with the former, compofing the upper part of the ifland already defcribed. The bafaltes of that iftand has one particularity, viz. that it is full of fmall cryftals of about the fize of peas. Thefe appear no lefs beautiful than rock-cryftal j but they are much fofter, and yield even to the aftion of the air. We fee here large fragments of bafaltes which were formerly full of cryftals, but deftroyed by- time. They are now not unlike a fponge, from the- great number of holes which appear all over their fur- face. Thofe pieces of bafaltes which contain moft of thefe cryftals are not fo hard as thofe which contain fewer of them. g The promontory of Caftel d’laci, which terminates Bafaltes on the bafis of Attna, is almoft entirely compofed of ba-Ae pro- faltes, but of a kind very different from the former. It^°n£^g°^ confifts of a great number of cylinders, from the dia-cpia(.i meter of fix inches to that of twenty feet. Some oflcribed. thefe are folid, others hollow like cannon : fome ex¬ tended in layers, others fimilar to carrots of tobacco confifting of a number of pieces fqueezed together. Some of thefe cylinders are ftraight, others curved into a variety of forms. Some look like globes enclofed in the rocks ; and in the fractures of thefe globes we per¬ ceive the ftrata of which they are compofed. Fig. 2. reprefents the bafaltes at the foot of this promontory on the fouth fide. The little mounts in¬ to which it appears to be collefted, are fometimes on¬ ly one French foot in diameter, fometimes fix. They are compofed of fmall prifms or needles, or of cubic trapezoids, and confift of a matter diftinguilhed by the name of dirty lava* It is made up of pozzolana, con- folidated ; BAS [ 433 ] BAS Bafaltes. folidated by a certain liquid, which, while it has com- < ■»—v——municated folidity to the pozzolana, has at the fame time fuffered that fubftance to {brink eonfiderably, in fuch a manner as to leave large chinks between the pieces of bafaltes, which are thus formed by the opera¬ tion of the liquid on the pozzolana. It appears alfo to have infinuated itfelf into the clay with which the promontory is covered } which is become hard in its turn, and which has alfo fplit into chinks that appear to contain a kind of hard matter. Thefe defcriptions and figures will ferve to give an idea of the appearance of the bafaltes, which is now generally accounted a kind of marble. Wallerius con- fiders it as a fpecies of the corneous or horn-rock 5 and ^ . Cronftedt enumerates it among thofe fubftances which Bafaltes he calls garnet earths. The largeft block of this {tone ufed in dif- that ever was feen, was placed according to Pliny, by ferent an- yefpafian in the temple of Peace. It reprefented the cientwoiks.ggure o£ Nilus, with 16 children playing about it, de¬ noting as many cubits of the rife of the river. The ftatue of Memnon, in the temple of Serapis at Thebes, which founded at the rifing of the fun, was alfo made of the fame material, if we may believe this author. Moil of the Egyptian figures are likewife made of ba¬ faltes. Some of the ancients call it lapis Lydius, from Lydia, where it feems it was formerly found in great- eft abundance. The moderns denominate it the touch- Jlonc, as being ufed for the trial of gold and filver. SubfUnces Various fubftances are found intermixed with bafal- niixed withtes ; of which Mr Hamilton, in the letters above-men- bafaltes. tioned, enumerates the following : I. Extenfive layers of red ochre, varying in all degrees from a dull fer- < ruginous colour to a bright red, anfwering very well for coarfe painting. 2. Veins of iron ore, fometimes very rich, commonly of a very brown or reddifti caft, at other times of a blue colour. 3. Steatites, gene¬ rally of a: greenilh foapy appearance, more rarely of a pure wrhite, and railing an imperfedl faponaceous froth when agitated with water. 4. Zeolite, of a bright and pure white colour ; in maffes, varying in weight from a grain to a pound ; generally difpofed in cavities of the cellular bafaltes j often affecting a cryftallization, in which the fibres proceed as rays from a centre j and in fome inftances have a beautiful fpangled appearance, refembling that of tbiftle-down. The moft remarkable property of this fubftance is, that with any of the mi¬ neral acids, but efpecially with that of nitre, it forms a gelatinous mixture in the courfe of a few hours. 5. Peperino ftone, a friable matrix of indurated clay and iron, ftndded with little bits of zeolite or other fubftances •, and which is often of a reddifti burnt co¬ lour. 6. Pumice-ftone of a black colour, containing iron not entirely dephlogifticated, but ftill adling on IX the magnetical needle. Of the na- Thefe fubftances are met with among the bafaltes tureofba- of the Giant’s Caufeway in Ireland. In other places faltes. its attendants may perhaps vary according to circum- ftances. The bafaltes itfelf has been confidered by fome as a cryftallization from water j but others ftre- nuoufty maintain that it is only a fpecies of lava, and in defence of thefe opinions very confiderable difputes have been carried on, The following is a ftate of the concerning arguments on both {ides from Mr Hamilton’s treatife it. already mentioned. iz Mr Hamil ton’s ftate of the ar¬ guments In fupport of the volcanic origin of the bafaltes it has been argued, 1. That it agrees almoft entirely with lava in its ele¬ mentary principles, in its grain, the fpecies of the fo¬ reign bodies it includes, and all the diverfities of its texture. 2. The iron of the bafaltes is found to be in a me¬ tallic ftale, capable of acting on the magnetical needle, which is alfo the cafe with that found in compacl lava. 3. The bafaltes is fufible per fe; & property which it has in common wftth lavas. 4. The bafaltes is a foreign fubftance fuperinduced on the original limeftone-foil of the country, in a ftate of foftnefs capable of allowing the flints to penetrate confiderably within its lower fur face. 5. Thofe extenfive beds of red ochre which abound among our bafaltes are fuppofed to be an iron earth re¬ duced to that ftate by the powerful a£lion of heat ; for fuch a change may be produced on iron in our com¬ mon furnaces, provided there be a fufficient afflux of frefti air} and the bafaltes itfelf, in fuch circumftances, is eafily reducible to an impure ochre. This is alfo found to take place in the living volcanoes, particular¬ ly within their craters *, and is therefore luppofed to af¬ ford a prefumptive argument of the action of fire in the neighbourhood of bafaltes. 6. Though zeolite is not yet proved to be the a&ual production of a volcano, yet its prefence is always fup¬ pofed to give countenance to this hypothefis j becaufe zeolite is found in countries where the aCtion of fuh- terraneous fire is ftill vifible, and where there is reafon to believe that the whole foil has been ravaged by that principle, Thus it abounds in Iceland, where the flames of Hecla yet continue to blaze } and in the ifle of Bourbon, where there is ftill a volcano in force. It is therefore fuppofed to arife from the decompofition of the products of a volcano, where the fires have been long exlinCt. 7. Cryftals of fehorl appear in great plenty among many kinds of our bafaltes } and thefe, though not ab- folutely limited to volcanic countries, yet being found in great abundance among the Italian lavas, in circum¬ ftances exaftly correfponding to thofe of our bafaltes, are thought to fupply a good probable argument in the prefent cafe. 8. The pf perino ftone is thought to be undoubted¬ ly of a volcanic origin. It has frequently the burnt and fpongy appearance of many of the volcanic pro¬ ducts; and that of the Giant’s Caufeway agrees exaCt- ly with the peperino of Iceland and Bourbon. 9. Puzzolane earth is met with among the bafaltes of France; and there is very little reafon to doubt that our bafaltes, if pulverized, would agree with it in every refpeCt ; that is, it would produce a fine {harp powder, containing the fame elementary parts, and probably agreeing Avith it in its valuable ufes as a cement. T his earth is alfo found in the Canary iflands, which are thought to have other marks of fire ; it is met rvith in all the volcanized parts of Italy, and is never found excepting vvliere there are other evident marks of fire. 10. Pumice-ftone is univerfally allowed to be produ¬ ced by fire, and indeed bears the refemblance of a cin¬ der BAS 13 Of the bafaltes thrown out by Vefu- vius. Bafaltes. der fo obvloufly, that one rauft be inftantly convinced —v of its original. This is alfo found among the bafaltes of Ireland. 11. There are three living volcanoes, within whofe neighbourhood the bafaltes and moft of its ufual at¬ tendant fulfils have been obferved, viz. j^Etna in Sicily, Hecla in Iceland, and the ifland of Bourbon on the coaft of Africa. To which it may be added, that it is found throughout all the volcanized parts of Italy, though not anywrhere immediately in the neighbour¬ hood of Vefuvius. Sir William Hamilton, however, informs us, that in the year 1779 l,e “ picked up fome fragments of large and regular cryitals'of clole-grained lava or bafalt; the diameter of which, when the prifms are complete, might have been eight or nine inches.” He obferves, that Vefuvius does not exhibit any lavas regularly cryltallized, and forming what are called Giants Caufeways, except a lava that ran into the fea, near Torre del Graeco, in the year 1631, which has a imall degree of fueh an appearance. As the fragments of bafaltes which he found on this mountain, however, had been evidently thrown out of the crater in their proper form, he puts the queftion, “ May not lavas be more ready to cryftallize within the bowels of a vol¬ cano than after their emilfion ? And may not many of the Giants Caufeways already difcovered be the nu¬ clei of volcanic mountains, whofe lighter and lefs folid parts may have been worn away by the hand of time ?” Mr Faujas de St Fond gives an example of bafalt co¬ lumns placed deep within the crater of an extinguifhed volcano. 12. It is well afcertained by experience, that there are vaft beds of pyrites difperfed through the interior parts of the earth at all depths ; and it is alfo a certain fa£t, that this compound fubftance may be decom¬ pounded by the accidental effufion of water, in fuch a manner as to become hot, and at laft to burn with great fury. This acceffion of pyrites is by many fuppofed to be the true origin of the volcanic fire •, and an ar¬ gument for this is, that the prefent volcanoes do pour forth great quantities of the component parts of py¬ rites, particularly fulphur, iron, and clay. Now, among the fuperinduced fubftances of the county of An¬ trim, and the fame may probably be faid of every other bafaltic country, it is certain that the quantity of iron and clay diffufed through almoft every fpecies of fulfil, amounts to more than one-half of the whole material; fo that two of the principal elements of the pyrites are ftill found there, reduced in many inflances to a Hag or fcoria. The third principle, viz. the ful¬ phur, cannot be expe£led to remain ; becaufe fulphur is totally confumed by combultion ; and what might perhaps efcape and be fublimed would no doubt have fince perilhed by decompofition, in confequence of be- J4 ing expofed to the air. dmes a0me" •I^’ ■^■not^er argument, which to Sir William Ha- Pe^rsmthe™*110" aPPears ver7 convincing, is, that glafs fome- form of times takes on the appearance of prifms, or cryftalli- zes in cooling. He received fome fpecimens of this kind from Mr Parker of Fleet-ftreet, who informed him that a quantity of his glafs had been rendered un- ferviceable by taking fuch a form. Some of thefe were in laminae, which may be eafily feparated, and others refemble bafaltic columns in miniature, having regular faces, “ Many of the rocks of lava in the I 439 1 BAS prifmatic cryftals. ifland of Ponza (fays he) are, with refpeft to their Bafaltes. configurations, ftrikingly like the fpecimens of Mr ^ v—. J Parker’s glafs above mentioned ; none being very re¬ gularly formed bafaltes, but all having a tendency to¬ wards it. Mr Parker could not account for the acci¬ dent that occafioned his glafs to take the bafaltic form ; but I have remarked, both in Naples and Sicily, that 15 fuch lavas as have run into the lea are either formed Lavas into regular bafaltes, or have a great tendency towards wlllc*?nlns fuch a form. The lavas of Mount AEtna, which rar> h v^a^en- inte the fea near Jacic, are perfefl bafaltes ; and a la-dency to va that ran into the fea from Vefuvius, near Torre del run into Graeco in 1631, has an evident tendency to the bafal- balaltes* tic form.” I(s In oppofition to thefe arguments it is urged, that in Arguments many ol the countries where bafaltes moil abound,In there are none ol the charadleriftics of volcanic moun-^°j”^lc 6 tains. They aflert, therefore, that the bafaltes is a theory, fulfil, very exteniively fpread over the furface of the earth ; and that, where it is found in the neighbour¬ hood of volcanic mountains, we ought to fuppofe thefe to be accidentally raifed on a bafaltic foil rather than to have created it. But the advocates for the volca¬ nic fyftem are not much embarraffed with this argu- 17 meut. According to them, the bafaltes has been Anfwered. formed under the earth itfelf, and within the bowels of thefe very mountains ; where it could never have been expofed to view until, by length of time or fome violent flioek of nature, the incumbent mafs muft have undergone a very confiderable alteration, fuch as ihould go near to deftroy every exterior volcanic feature. In fupport of this it may alfo be obferved, that the pro¬ montories of Antrim do bear evident marks of fome very violent convulfion, which has left them in their prefent fituation ; and that the ifland of Bagherry, and fome of the Weflern ifles of Scotland, do really appear like the furviving fragments of a country, great part of which might have been buried in the ocean. It is further added, that though the exterior volcanic eha- ra£Ier be in a great meafure loft in the bafaltic coun¬ tries ; yet this negative evidence can he of little weight, when we confider, that the few inftances where the features have been preferved afford a fufficient anfwer to this objeflion. Thus the Montngne de la Coupe in France ftill bears the marks of its having been former¬ ly a volcano : and this mountain is obferved to ftand on a bafe of bafaltic pillars, not difpofi d in the tumul¬ tuary heap into which they muft have been thrown by the furious aftion of a volcanic eruption, tearing up the natural foil of the country ; but arranged in all the regularity of a Giant’s Caufeway, fuch as might be fuppofed to refult from the cryftallizai ion of a bed of melted lava, where reft and a gradual refrigeration con¬ tributed to render the phenomenon as perfect as pof- fible. 18 To thefe arguments ftated by Mr Hamilton we ftiall Air Fer- add another from Mr Ferber : viz. That at the he went from Home to Oftia they were paving the road "^^^3 with a fpecies of black lava. In fome of the broken found in pieces he obferved little empty holes, of the bignefs of black lava. a walnut, incrufted all around their fides by white or ametbyftine, femipellucid, pointed, or truncated pyra¬ midal crvftallizations, entirely refembling the agate nodules or geodes, which are commonly filled with quartz cryftallizations. There was no crack or fifture in JRafaltes. *9 Mr Berg¬ man’s the¬ ory. 20 Both fire and water contribute to form ba fakes. 21 Of the me¬ thods by which mi¬ neral cry. itals are naturally formed. BAS r 440 ] BAS in the ambient compaft lava 5 the cryflal flierls were pretty hard, and might rather be called quart%. Some fine brownifh duft lay in the reft of the holes, as im¬ palpable and light as allies. He tells us alfo, that in the greateft part of the Paduan, Veronefe,. and Vicen- tine lavas, we meet with an infinite quantity of white polygonal ftierl cryftallizations, whofe figure is as re¬ gular, and ftill more polygonal, than the bafaltes. Thefe may be confidered as the principal arguments in favour of the volcanic theory of bafaltes. On the other hand, the late celebrated Mr Bergman expreffes himfelf to the following purpofe. “ Ten years ago it v,ras a general opinion, that the furface of the earth, together with the mountains, had been produced by moifture. It is true that fome de¬ clared fire to be the firft original caufe, but the greater number paid little attention to this opinion. Now, on the contrary, the opinion that fubterraneous fire had been the principal agent gains ground daily ; and eve¬ ry thing is fuppofed to have been melted, even to the granite. It is not improbable, that both the fire and water have contributed their ftiare in this operation 5 though in fuch a proportion, that the force of the for¬ mer extends much farther than the latter •, and, on the contrary, that the fire has only worked in fome parts of the furface of the earth. It cannot be doubted that there has been fome connexion betwixt the balfatic pillars and fubterraneous fire j as they are found in places where the marks of fire are. yet vifible ; and as they are even found mixed with lava, tophus, and other fubftances produced by fire. “ As far as we know, nature makes ufe of three methods to produce regular forms in the mineral king¬ dom. 1. That of cryftallization or precipitation 5 2. The crufting or fettling of the external furface of a liquid mafs while it is cooling; and, 3. I he burfting of a moift fubftance while it is drying. “ The firft method is the moft common ; but to all appearance, nature has not made ufe of it in the pre- fent cafe. Cryftals are feldom or never found in any quantity running in the fame dire£tion j but either in¬ clining from one another, or, what is ftill more com¬ mon, placed towards one another in Hoping direftions. They are alfo generally feparated a little from one ano¬ ther when they are regular. The nature of the thing requires this, becaufe the feveral particles of which the cryftals are compofed muft have the liberty of obeying that power which affefts their conftitution. The ba- faltic columns, on the contrary, whofe height is fre¬ quently from 30 to 40 feet, are placed parallel to one another in cenfiderable numbers, and fo clofe together that the point of a knife can hardly be introduced be¬ tween them. Befides, in moft places, each pillar is divided into feveral parts or joints, which feem to be placed on one another. And indeed it is not uncom¬ mon for cryftals to be formed above one another in different layers, while the folvent has been vifibly di- rainifhed at different times: but then the upper cry¬ ftals never fit fo exactly upon one another as to pro¬ duce connefled prifms of the fame length or depth in all the ftrata taken together ; but each ftratum, fepa- rately taken, produces its own cryftals. <£ Precipitation, both in the wet and dry way, re- -quires that the particles fliould be free enough to ar¬ range themfelves in a certain order j and as this is not pra&icable in a large melted mafs, no cryftallizaticns BafaltK appear, excepting on its furface or in its cavities. Add v—y-*w to this, that the bafaltes in a frefh fradlure do not (how •a plain fmooth furface under the microfcope ; but ap¬ pear fometimes like grains of different magnitude, and at other times referable fine rays running in different directions, which does not correfpond with the inter¬ nal ftru&ure of cryftals. “ Hence the opinion of bafaltes being formed by cryftallization either in the wet or dry method muft become lefs probable } but it muft not be omitted, that the fpars exhibit a kind of cryftallization, which at firft fight refembles a heap of bafaltes, but upon a clo- fer examination a very great difference is to be found. The form of the fpar is everywhere alike, but the ba¬ faltes differ from one another in fize and the number of their fides. The former, when broken, confifts of many fmall unequal cubes $ but the bafalt does not fe- parate in regular parts, &c. &c. “ Nature’s fecond method of producing regular forms is that of crufting the outer furface of a melted mafs. By a Hidden refrigeration, nature, to effefl this pur¬ pofe, makes ufe of polyhedrous and irregular forms. If we fuppofe a confiderable bed which is made fluid by fire, and fpread over a plain, it evidently appears, that the furface muft firft of all lofe the degree of heat requifite for melting, and begin to congeal. But the cold requifite for this purpofe likewife contrads the uppermoft congealed ftratum into a narrower fpace ; and confequently caufes it to feparate from the remain¬ ing liquid mafs, as the fide expofed to the air is alrea¬ dy too ftiff to give way. In this manner a ftratum is produced, running in a parallel direflion with the whole mafs •, others are ftill produced by the fame caufe in proportion as the refrigeration penetrates deep¬ er. Hence we may very plainly fee how a bed may be divided into ftrata. In the fame manner the refri¬ geration advances on the fides ; which confequently divides the ftrata into polyhedrous pillars, which can hardly ever be exadlly Iquare, as the ftrongeft refrige¬ ration in the inner parts of the mafs advances almoft in a diagonal line from the corners. If we add to this, that a large mafs cannot be equal through its compofi- tion, nor everywhere liquid in the fame degree, it will be eafy to difeover the caufe of feveral irregularities. If the depth of the bed be very confiderable in propor¬ tion to its breadth, prifmatic pillars without crofs divi- fions will be formed at lead lengthwife from the up¬ permoft furface downwards. “ The third way is perfedlly fimilar to the prece¬ ding in its effedl ; but it is different from it by the mafs being foaked in water, and by the burfting of it afunder, being the effe£l of the contraction while it is drying. If we fuppofe fuch a bed to be fpread over a level (pace, the drying advances in the fame manner as the refrigeration in the former cafe. 'Ibis fepara- tion into ftrata properly happens when a confiderable quantity of clay enters into the whole compofition, be¬ caufe the clay decreafes more than any other kind of earth in drying. 22 “ It is moft probable, therefore, that the pillars How the have been produced out of the bafaltic lubftance while balaltes it was yet foft, or at lead not too hard to be foftened by exhalations. If we therefore fuppofe a bed to beconljngt0 fpread over a place where a volcano begins to work, thistneory^ it BAS [ 44 Bafaltes. it is evident that a great quantity of the water always u—prefent on fuch occafions muft be driven upwards in exhalations or vapours ; which, it is well known, pof- fefs a penetrating foftening power, by means of which they produce their firft effect: but when they are in- creafed to a fufficient quantity, they force this tough moitt fubftance upwards : which then gradually falls, and during this time burfts in the manner above de- 23 fcribed. Reafons for “ The reafons for this fuppofition are as follows: faltes not been melted. 24 Mr Kir- wan’s opi nion. that the ba- We d° n.ot.find the internal fubftance of the bafaltes faltes has nieited or vitrified ; which, however, foon happens by fufion ; and for which only a very fmall degree of fire is requifite. It is of confequence very hard to explain how this fubftance could have been fo fluid that no traces of bubbles appear in it; and yet, when broken, feem dull and uneven. Lava is feldom vitrified with¬ in ; but the greater number of bubbles and pores which are found in the whole mafs, are more than fufficient proofs, that it has not been perfeftly melted to its Imalleft parts, but has only been brought to be near fluid. Secondly, the bafaltes fo much referable the finer trapp, both in their grain and original compofi- tion, that they can hardly be diftinguifhed in fmall fragments.” Mr Kirwan is of opinion, that the bafaltes owe their origin both to fire and water : they feem to have been at firft a lava ; but this, while immerfed in wrater, was fo diffufed or diffolved in it with the afliftance of heat, as to cryftallize when cold, or coalefce into regular forms. I hat bafaltes is not the effe£t of mere fufion he concludes with comparing its form with i:s texture. Its form, if produced by fufion, ought to be the effedt of having flowed very thin; but in that cafe its texture Ihould be glaffy : whereas it is merely earthy and de¬ void of cavities. Hence we may underftand how it comes to pafs that lava perfeftly vitrified, and even water, have been found enclofed in bafaltes. Mr Houel’s H°ueU in his Voyage Pittorefque, is at confider- theory. pains to account for the origin of the different fpecies of bafaltes he met with in the neighbourhood of ^Etna. “ Some modern writers (fays he) attribute the configuration of the bafaltes to the fudden cooling of the lava, in confequence of the effedls produced up¬ on it by the coldnefs of fea-water, when it reaches the fea in a ftate of fufion. They fuppofe that the fhock, which it then receives, is the caufe of thofe different configurations which this fubftance affumes; the moft remarkable of which have been already mentioned. This affertion, however, feems to be ill founded. By confidering the bafaltic rock, the firft of the Cyclops reprefented in the plate, we find that the pile is not in its original ftate, and that the feries of columns is at prefent incomplete. It is very probable, that the fpecies of clay found there, and which is extraneous to the bafaltes, has by fome means taken poffeflion of its place ; and it likewife appears, that not one of the ba¬ faltes here defcribed is entire. “ It feems, incredible, however, that a mafs of mat¬ ter reduced by fire to a ftate of liquefa&ion, and flow¬ ing into the fea, fhould be fuddenly changed into regu¬ lar figures by the ftiock of coming into contact with cold water ; and that all the figures which are thus formed fhould be difpofed in the fame manner with regard to one another. For if we fuppofe that the Vol. III. Part II. 25 i ] BAS water made its way into the cavity of the lava at the Bafaltes. inftant when it retreated backwards, then might the ■«—v~- fame quantity of water penetrate into the moft remote parts of the mafs ; and by that means prolong the ca¬ vity which it had begun to form when it firft entered the mafs. The water then being lodged within this burning mafs, and. being in a ftate of dilatation, would have expelled whatever oppofed it, and fwelled the whole mafs in fuch a manner as to form much larger interftices than thofe which appear between the bafaltic columns ; fince thefe are everywhere in clofe contact with one another. Befides, howr could the fudden cool¬ ing of the lava divide the upper part and fides of fuch an enormous mafs as exaftly as if they had been caft in a mould made on purpofe ? “ It remains alfo for thofe who adopt the hypothefis in queftion to explain how the fhock occafioned by the cold water fhould make itfelf felt beyond a certain depth ; fince the very firft moment it comes into con¬ tact with the liquid lava, it muft ceafe to be cold ; for the lava cannot but communicate to it a greater de¬ gree of heat than it communicates of cold in return, as the water is more eafily penetrable by the burning la¬ va than the mafs of lava by the furrounding water. But farther, if at the firft moment after the lava enters the water it were cooled and contradted, the water would foon prevent, by the contraction of its whole furface, any continuation of the effedt which it had firft occafioned. “ This feems to be the great difficulty : for how is it thus poffible for the water to extend its influence to the centre of any very confiderable mafs ? and even fuppofing it to adt at the centre, how could it be able to fix the common centre of all the different co¬ lumns ? “ Let us next confider what a degree of ebullition muft take place in the water when it receives fuch a vaft quantity of water heated not only more intenfely than common fire, but than red-hot iron ! Though that mafs, 100 fathoms in diameter, were to proceed from the bottom of the fea ; or though it were immer¬ fed in it, the degree of ebullition would ftill be the fame ; and it is difficult to conceive what ftiock can be occafioned by a cold which does not exift, on a mafs which burns, or caufes to boil, whatever comes near it. “ One peculiarity attending the bafaltes is, that it remains fixed in the recefs which it has once^occupied. Another, not lefs effential, is its power of dividing it¬ felf in the midft of any one of its hardeft parts, and to form two diftindt pieces, one of which is always con¬ cave, and the other convex ; a divifion which feems the moft lingular curiofity of the whole. “ A third peculiarity might ftill be found in the in¬ terior part of thefe columns, if we were to meet with any that had fuffered more by the lapfe of time than thofe already defcribed ; but it is impoffible for all this to be effedted by water. How can water, \vhich is everywhere the fame, and which may be expedted al¬ ways to produce the fame effedls, produce fuch a va¬ riety on bafaltes by mere contadl ? “ The caufe of all thefe varieties, therefore, feems to be this, that thefe lavas are originally compofed of materials extremely different in their natures, and from which fuch a variety of effedls naturally proceed. The 3 K fame BAS [ fame fpecies of matter, when afluated by the fame caufe, will conftantly produce the fame effea.s. lhoras and Plato, that names were not formed by chance, but naturally fignified fomething.—Bafilides, to imi¬ tate Pythagoras, made his difciples keep filence for five years. In general, the Bafilidians held much the fame opi¬ nions with the Valentinians, another branch of the Gnoftic family. They aflerted, that all the aftions. of men are neceffary ; that faith is a natural gift, to which men are forcibly determined, and ffiould therefore be faved though their lives were ever fo irregular. Irenseus and others allure us, they a6!ed confidently with their principles ; committing all manner of villanies and im¬ purities, in confidence of their natural eleftion. They had a particular hierarchy of divine perfons, or iEons. Under the name Abraxas, they are laid to have wor- fhipped thefupreme God, from whom as a principle, all other things proceeded. There are feveral gems dill fubfiding, inferibed with the name Abraxas, which were ufed by the Bafilidians as amulets againd difeafes and evil fpirits. See Abrasax and Abraxas. BASILIPPUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Breticain Spain •, now Cantillana, a citadel of Andalufia, above Seville, on the Guadalquivir. BASILISCUS, in Zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of lacerta. See Lacerta, Erpetology In¬ dex. BASILISK, a fabulous kind of ferpent, faid to kill by its breath or fight only. Galen fays, that it is of a colour inclining to yellow ; and that it has three little eminences upon its head, fpeckled with whitidi fpots, which have the appearance of a fort of crown. AiJian fays, that its poifon is fo penetrating, as to kill the larged ferpents with its vapour only ; and that if it but bite the end of any man’s dick, it kills him. It drives away all other ferpents by the norfe of its biffing. Pliny fays, it kills thofe who look upon it.—The ge¬ neration of the bafilifk is not lefs marvellous, being faid to be produced from a cock’s egg, brooded on by a ferpent. Thefe, and other things equally ridiculous, are related by Matthiolus, Galen, Diofcorides, Pliny, fend Erafidratus. Hirchmayer and Vander Wiel have Bafis. BAS given the hi dory of the bafililk, and deteflcd the folly Bafilifk and impodure of the traditions concerning it.— In fome apothecaries drops there are little dead lerpents drown, which are faid to be bafililks. But thefe feem rather to be a kind of fmall bird, almod like a cock, but with¬ out feathers : its head is lofty, its wings are almod like a bat’s, its eyes large, and its neck is very llrort. As to thofe which are drown and fold at Venice, and in other places, they are nothing but little thornbacks ar¬ tificially put into a form like that of a young cock, by dretching out their fins, and contriving them with a little head and hollow eyes j and this, Calmet fays, he has in reality obferved in a fuppofed bafilidc, at an apo¬ thecary’s fhop at Paris, and in another at the Jefuits of Pont-a-Mouffbn. Basilisk, in military affairs, a large piece of ord¬ nance, thus denominated from its refemblance to the fuppofed ferpent of that name. I he bafiiilk thiows an Iron ball of 200 pounds weight. It was much talked of in the time of Solyman emperor of the 1 urks, in the wars of Hungary 4, but feems now out of ufe. Pau- lus Jovius relates the terrible daughter made by a fingle ball from one of thefe bafilifks in a Spanifh diip } after penetrating the boards and planks in the diip’s head, it killed above 30 men. Maffeus fpeaks of balilifks made of brafs, which were drawn each by 100 yoke of oxen. -—Modern writers alfo give the name bajilijk to a much fmaller and fizeable piece of ordnance, which the Dutch make 15 feet long, and the French only 10. It carries 48 pounds. BAS1LIUS, furnamed the Macedonian, emperor of the Greeks. He tvas a common foldier, and of an obfeure family in Macedonia, and yet raifed himfelf to the throne : for having pleafed the emperor Michael by his addrefs in the management of his horfes, he became his firff equerry, and then his great chamberlain. He at length affaffinated the famous Bardas, and w:as af- fociated to the empire in 849. He held the eighth ge¬ neral council at Conftantinople •, depofed the patriarch Photius, but in 858 reftored him to the patriarchate^ and declared againft the popes, who refufed to admit him into their communion. He was dreaded by his enemies the Saracens, whom he frequently vanquifhedj and loved by his fubjeas, for his juftice and clemency. He died in’886. Under his reign the Ruflians em¬ braced Chriftianity, and the doarine of the Greek church. He ought not to be confounded with Bafilius the Younger, whofucceeded Zemifcesin 975, and after a reign of 50 years died in 1025. BASINGSTOKE, a corporation town ofHampffiire in England, and a great thoroughfare on the weftern road. It is feated on a fmall brook, in W. Long. I. 10. N. Lat. 51. 20. r 1 , r B ASIOG LOSSUS, a mufcle anfing from the bale of the os hyoides. See Anatomy, Table of the Muf- cles. BASIS, or Base, in Geometry. See Base. Basis, or Bafe, in Chemiftry. Any body which is diffolved by another body, which it receives and fixes, and with which it forms a compound, may be called the bafs of that compound. I hus, for example, the bafis of neutral falts are the alkaline, earthy, and me¬ tallic matters which are faturated by the ieveral acids, and form with them thefe neutral falts. In this fenfe it is that thefe neutral falts are catted falts with earthy bafes. Bafket BAS [ 447 ] BAS Bails bufes, falls with alkaline bafes, falls with metallic bafes ; l| alio the appellations Lafis of alum, bafts of nitre, bafis of Baiket. Glauber's fall, bafts of vitriol, &e. fignify the argilla- T ceous earth, which, with the fulphuric acid, forms alum ; the vegetable alkali, which, with the nitric acid, forms nitre; the mineral alkali, which, with the fulphuric acid, forms Glauber’s fait ; and the metal which with the fulphuric acid, forms a fulphate ; becaufe thefe fub- idances are fuppofed to be fixed, unadtive, and only yielding to the adfion of the acids, which they fix, and to which they give a body and confidence. Basis, among phyficians, denotes the principal in¬ gredients in compound medicines. BASKERVILLE, John, an eminent artift, efpe- cially in letter-founding and printing, of the 18th century. He was born in 1706 at Woverley in Wor- celterfhire, and was heir to an eitatc of about 60I. a-year ; the whole of which income he allowed to his parents till their deaths. In his early years he con¬ ceived a love for fine writing and cutting in Hone ; and being brought up to no particular profeflion, he commenced writing-mafter in Birmingham when about 20 years of age. The improvements in different ma- nufadtures there foon drew his attention, and he ap¬ plied to the japan bufinefs, which he carried on for a long time with diilinguiflied excellence and fuecefs. In 1750 he applied himfelf to letter-founding, the bringing of which to perfedtion coft him much labour and expence. In a few years he proceeded to print¬ ing : and his firft work was an edition of Virgil in royal quarto, which now fells for three guineas. In a fhort time he obtained leave from the univerfity of Cambridge to print a Bible in royal folio, and edi¬ tions of the Common Prayer in three fizes : for which he paid a large fum to the univerfity. He afterwards printed Horace, Terence, Catullus, Lucretius, Juve¬ nal, Salluft, and Florus, in royal quarto ; Virgil in odlavo ; and feveral books in duodecimo. He publilh- ed likewife fome of the Englifh claffics.. The bed tef- ti monies of the merit of thefe performances are them- felves ; and Mr Bafkerville’s name is defervedly rank¬ ed among thofe who, in modern times, have brought the art of printing to its greated perfedtion. Not meeting, however, with that encouragement from the bookfellers which he expedted, he fet up his letter- foundery for fale a little before his death. He died without iffue in July 1776. BASKET, an utenfil made of twigs interwoven to¬ gether, in order to hold fruit, earth, &c. As a mea- fure, it denotes an uncertain quantity ; as, a bafket of medlars is two budiels, of afafoetida from 20 to 50 pounds weight. The ancient Britons were noted for their ingenuity in making balkets, which they export¬ ed in large quantities. Thefe balkets were of very elegant workmandiip, and bore a high price ; and are mentioned by Juvenal among the extravagant e-xpenlive furniture of the Roman tables in his time. Sldde et bafcaudas el mille efcaria. Add balkets, and a thoufand other didies. That thefe balkets were manufadlured in Britain, we learn from the following epigram of Martial : Barbara de piBis veni bafcauda Britannis, fed me jam mavult dicere Roma fuanu A baiket I, by painted Britons wrought, And now to Rome’s imperial city brought. [| Bafnage. Baskets of Earth, in the military art, called by T the French corbeillers, are fmall balkets ufed in lieges, on the parapet of a trench, being filled with earth. They are about a foot and a half high, about a foot and a half in diameter at the top, and 8 or ten inches at bottom ; fo that, being fet together, there is a fort of embrafures lelt at their bottoms, through which the foldiers fire, without expofing themfelves. BASKET-Fifj, a fpecies of fea-dar. See Aste- RIAS. BASKET Salt, that made from falt-fprings j being- purer, whiter, and compofed of finer grains than the common brine-falt. See Salt. BASKING-shark, or Su-N-Fifh of the drifts. See Squalus. BASNAGE, James, a learned and accomplifhed author, and pador of the Walloon church at the Hague, was born at Rouen in Normandy, Augud 8. 1653. He was the fon of Henry Bafnage, one of the ableff advocates in the parliament of Normandy. At 17 years of age, after he had made himfelf mader of the Greek and Latin authors, as well as the Englilh, Spanilh, and Italian languages, he went to Geneva, where he began his divinity dudies under Medrezat, Turretin, and Tronchin ; and finidied them at Sedan, under the profeffors Jurieu and Le Blanc de Beauliem He the n returned to Rouen, where he was received as minider, September 1676 j in which capacity he re¬ mained till the year 1685, when the exercife of the Protedant religion being fuppreffed at Rouen, he ob¬ tained leave of the king to retire to Holland. He fettled at Rotterdam, and was a minider penfionary there till 1691, when he was chofen pador of the Wal¬ loon church of that city. In 1709 Penfionary Hein- fius got him chofen one of the padors of the Walloon church at the Hague, intending not only to employ him in religious but in date affairs. He was employed in a fecret negociation with Mardial d’Uxelles, plenipo¬ tentiary of France at the congrefs of Utrecht; and he executed it with fo much fuccefs, that he was after¬ wards entruded with feveral important commiffions, all which he difcharged in fuch a manner as to gain a great character for his abilities and addrefs ; a cele¬ brated modern writer has therefore faid of him, that he was fitter to be minider of date than of a parilh. The Abbe du Bois, who was at the Hague in 1716, as am- baffador plenipotentiary from his mod Chridian maje- dy, to negociate a defeniive alliance between France, England, and the States General, was ordered by the duke of Orleans, regent of France, to apply himfelf to M. Bafnage, and to follow his advice : they accord¬ ingly adled in concert, and the alliance was concluded in January 1717. He kept an epidolary correfpon- dence with feveral princes, noblemen of high rank, and miniders of date, both Catholic and Protedant, and with a great many learned men in France, Italy, Ger¬ many, and England. The Catholics edoemed him no lefs than the Protedants ; and the works he wrote, which are modly in French, fpread his reputation al- moit all over Europe : among thefe are, 1. 1 he Hido- ry of the religion of the Reformed Churches. 2. Jevv- ilh Antiquities. 3. The Hidory of the Old and Nev* Tedament BAS [ 448 ] BAS Bafnage Teftament; and many others. He died September I! " 22. 1723. Bafs. Basnage, Henry, Sieur de Bectuval, fecond fon to v Henry Bafnage, and brother to James mentioned in the laft article. He applied himfelf to the lludy ol the law, and was admitted advocate in the parliament of Rouen in the year 1679. He did not follow the bar immediately upon his admiffion ; but went to Valencia, where he ftudied under M. de Marville. Upon his re¬ turn from thence, he praftifed with great reputation till the year 1687, when the revocation of the edift of Nantz obliged him to fly to Holland, where he com- pofed the greateft part of his works, and died there the 29th of March 1710. His chief work is Hijloire des Ouvrages des Spavans. Rotterd. 24 vol. in duode¬ cimo. This work was begun in the month of Septem¬ ber 1687, and continued till June When he ar¬ rived in Holland, Mr Bayle, through indifpofition, had \ been obliged to drop his Nouvclles de la Repubhque des Lettres, which induced Mr Bafnage to undertake a work of the fame kind under a different title. BASON, in Hydraulics, a refervoir of water, ufed for various purpofes: thus we fay, The bafon ef a jet d'eau, the bafon of a fountain, and likewife the bafon of a port or harbour. Bason, in Jewifh antiquities, the laver of the taber¬ nacle, made of the brafs looking-glaffes belonging to thofe devout women who watched and flood centinels at the door of the tabernacle. Bason, or Difh, among glafs-grinders. Thefe ar¬ tificers ufe various kinds of bafons, of copper, iron, &c. and of various forms, fome deeper, others flial- lower, according to the focus of the glaffes that are to be ground. Ih thefe bafons it is that convex glaffes are formed, as concave ones are formed on fpheres or bowls. Glaffes are worked in bafons two ways. In the firfl, the bafon is fitted to the arbor or tree of a lathe, and the glafs (fixed with cement to a handle of wood) prefented and held faft in the right hand within the bafon, while the proper motion is given by the foot to the bafon. In the other, the bafon is fixed to a {land or block, and the glafs with its wooden handle moved. The moveable bafons are very fmall, feldom exceeding five or fix inches in diameter •, the others are larger, fometimes above ten feet diameter. After the glafs has been ground in the bafon, it is brought fmooth- er with greafe and emery; and polifhed firft with tripo- li, and finifhed with paper cemented to the*bottom of the bafon. Bason, among hatters, is a large round fhell or cafe, ordinarily of iron, placed over a furnace ; wherein the matter of the hat is moulded into form. The hatters have alfo bafons for the brims of hats, ufually of lead, having an aperture in the middle of a diameter fuffi- cient for the largeft block to go through. BASQUES, a fmall territory of France, towards the Pyrenean mountains. It comprehends Labourd, Lower Navarre, and the diftrift of Soule, which, with Bearn, form the department of the Lower Pyrenees. BASS, the loweft in the four parts of mufic : of uncertain etymology ; whether from the Greek word “ a foundation or from the Italian adjedtive baffo, fignifying “ low.” Of all the parts it is the moft important, and it is upon this that the chords proper to conftitute a particular harmony are determined. Eafs Hence the maxim among muficians, that when the || bafs is properly formed, the harmony can fcarcely be Ea^an- bad. v Bafles are of different kinds. Of which in their order. Thorough-BASS is the harmony made by the bafs- viols, or theorbos, continuing to play both 'while the voices fing and the other inflruments perform their parts, and alfo filling up the intervals when any of the other parts flop. It is played by figures marked over the notes, on the organ, fpinet, harpfichord, &c. and frequently fimply and without figures on the bafs-viol and baffoon. Counter BASS is a fecond or double bafs, where there are feveral in the fame concert. BASS-Viol, a mufical inflrument of the like form with that of a violin, but much larger. It is (truck with a bow as that is; has the fame number of firings; and has eight flops, which are fubdivided into femiitops. Its found is grave, and has a much nobler effedl in a concert than that of the violin. Bass, Ifle of, a rock, about a mile in circumfe¬ rence, in the mouth of the frith of Forth, at a fmall diflance from the town of North Berwick in Eaft Lo¬ thian. It is fleep and inacceffible on all fides, except to the fouth-wefl; and even there it is with great diffi¬ culty that a fingle man can climb up with the help of a rope or ladder. It was formerly kept as a garrifon. A party of King James’s adherents furprifed it at the Revolution, and it was the laft place in the three king¬ doms that fubmitted to the new government; upon which its fortifications were ordered to be neglected. In fummer, this remarkable rock, which rifes to a great height above the w ater, in form of a cone, is quite co¬ vered with fea-fowl which come hither to breed. The chief of thefe are the folan geefe *, which arrive in * See ?eli. June, and retire in September. It alfo contains & {ma\\canus, Or- warren for rabbits, and affords paflure for a few fheep. nithology The force of the tides has now almoft worn a hole Index‘ quite through this rock. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 5^* 3* BAS SAN, Giacomo de Pont, or Le Bassan, a celebrated Venetian painter, was born in 1510. His fubjefts generally were peafants and villagers, bufy at their different rural occupations, according to the va¬ rious feafons of the year ; cattle, landfcapes, and hiflo- rical defigns ; and in all thofe fubjefts the figures were well defigned, and the animals and landfcapes have an agreeable refemblance of fimple nature. His compofi- tions cannot boaft of much elegance or grandeur of tafle, not even thofe which are hiftorical ; but they have abundance of force and truth. His local colours are very well obferved, his carnations are frefh and bril¬ liant, and the chiaro-fcuro and perfpeftive well under- ftood. His touch is free and fpirited ; and the diftan- ces in his landfcapes are always true, if not fometimes too dark in the nearer parts. His werks are fpread all over Europe: many of them were purchafed by Titian ; and there are feveral in the French king’s ca¬ binet, the royal palace, and the Hotel de Touloufe. They are more readily known than thofe of moft other painters ; from the fimilitude of chara&ers and counte¬ nances in the figures and animals ; from the tafte in the buildings, utenfils, and draperies; and, befides, from BAS [449 B;iffan from a vi°let or purple tint that predominates in every land || one of his pi&ures. But the genuine pi&ures of his Baflfantin. hand are not fo eafily afcertained j becaufe he frequent- ly repeated the fame defign, and his fons were moftly employed in copying the works of their father, which he fometimes retouched. As he lived to be very old, he finilhed a great number of pi&ures j yet, notwith- ftanding his application and years, the real pi&ures of Giacomo are not commonly met with. Many of thofe which are called originals by purchafers as well as dealers, being at beft no more than copies by the fons of BalTan, who were far inferior to him j or perhaps by fome painter of ftill meaner abilities. But the true pictures of Giacomo always bear a confiderable price if they happen to be undamaged. He died in 1592, aged 82.—Francis and Leander, his fons, diftinguilh- ed themfelves in the fame art; but inheriting a fpecies of lunacy from their mother, both came to an untimely end. BASSINI, Giovanni Battista, maeftro di cap- pella of the cathedral church of Bologna about the middle of the laft century, was a very voluminous com- pofer of mulic, having given to the world no fewer than 31 different works. He is equally celebrated both as a compofer for the church and for concerts; and was befides a celebrated performer on the violin, and, as it is faid, taught Corelli on that inftrument. His compo- fitions confift of maifes, pfalms, motets with inftru- mental parts, and fonatas for violins ; his fifth opera in particular, containing 12 fonatas for two violins and a bafs, is mod efteemed ; it is written in a flyle wonder¬ fully grave and pathetic, and abounds with evidences of great learning and fine invention. The firft and third operas of Corelli are apparently formed after the model of this work. Baffani was one of the firft who com- pofed motets for a fingle voice, with accompaniments of violins; a praftice which is liable to obje£lion, as it aflimilates church-mufic too nearly to that of the cham¬ ber; and of his fol-motets it muft be confeffed that they differ in ftyle but little from opera airs and cantatas; two operas of them, viz. the eighth and thirteenth, were printed in London by Pearfon above 50 years ago, with the title of Harmonia Vejliva. BASS ANT IN, James, a Scotch aftronomer, fon of the laird of Baffantin in Mers, was born in the reign of James IV. Fie was educated at the univerfity of Glafgow, travelled through Germany and Italy, and then fixed his abode in the univerfity of Paris, where he taught mathematics with great applaufe. Having acquired fome fortune in this occupation, in 1562 he returned to Scotland, where he died in the year 1568. From his writings, he appears to have been no con¬ temptible aftronomer, confidering the times ; but, like moft of the mathematicians of that age, he was not a little addicted to judicial aftrology. Sir James Melvil, in his Memoirs, fays that his brother Sir Robert, when he was exerting his abilities to reconcile the two queens Elizabeth and Mary, met with one Baffantin, a man learned in the high iciences, who told him, “ that all his travel would be in vain ; for, faid he, they will ne¬ ver meet together ; and next, there will never be any thing but diffembling and fecret hatred for a while, and at length captivity and utter wreck to our queen from England.” He added, “ that the kingdom of Eng¬ land at length lhall fall, of right, to the crown of Scot- Tol. III. Part II. Ballet. ] BAS : but it ftiall coft many bloody battles ; and the Bafl'antln Spaniards (hall be helpers, and take a part to themfelves for their labour.” Sir James Melvil is an author of credit; therefore it is probable that our aftrologer ven¬ tured to utter his prediction : but, as it proved true only in part, either he mifunderftood the ftars, or they deceived the aftrologer. His works are, 1. slflrono- mia Jacobi Bajfanlim Scoti, opus abjolutifjimum, (b*c. ter editum Latine et Gal/ice. Genev. 1599. fol. This is the title given it by Tornsefms, who tranflated it into Latin from the French, in which language it was firft publiftied. 2. Baraphrufe de i' AJlrolabe, avec un am¬ plification de I'ufagede l'AJlroiabe. Lyons 1555. Paris 1617, 8vo. 3. Mathematic, genethliaca. 4. Arilhmeti- ca. 5. Mojica fecundum P/atonem. 6. De Matheji in genere. BASSE, or Bass, a town of the French Nether¬ lands, in the county of Flanders, on the confines of Ar¬ tois, remarkable on account of the many fieges it has fuftained; but its fortifications are now demolifhed. It is feated on a canal which runs as far as Deule. E. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 50. 53. BASSE Terre, part of the ifland of St Chriftopher’s, one of the Caribbee iflands, formerly occupied by the French, but ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. BASSET, or Basette, a game with cards, faid to have been invented by a noble Venetian, for which he was banifhed. It was firft introduced in France by Signior Juftiniani, ambaffador of Venice, in 1674. Severe laws were made againft it by Louis XIV. to elude which they difguifed baffet under the name of pour et contre, that is, “ for and againft,” which oc- cafioned new arrets and prohibitions of parliament. The parties concerned in it are, a dealer or banker; his aflift- ant, who fupervifes the lofing cards; and the punter, or any one who plays againft the banker. Befides thefe, there are other terms ufed in this game: as, 1. The fajje or face, which is the firft card turned up by the tailleur belonging to the pack, by which he gains the value of half the money laid down on every card of that fort by the punters. 2. The couch, or firft money which every punter puts on each card ; each perfon that plays having a book of 13 fe- veral cards before him, on which he may lay his mo¬ ney, more or lefs, at difcretion. 3. The paroli; which is, when a punter having won the firft flake, and having a mind to purfue his good fortune, crooks the corner of his card, and lets his prize lie, aiming at a fept et le va. 4. The majfe; when having won the firft flake, the punter is willing to venture more money on the fame card. 5. The pay; when the punter ha¬ ving won the firft flake, be it a (hilling, half crown, guinea, or whatever he laid down on his card, and not caring to hazard the paroli, leaves off, or goes the pay ; in which cafe, if the card turns up wrong, he lofes no¬ thing, having won the couch before; whereas, if it turn right, he by this adventure wons double the mo¬ ney flaked. 6. The alpiew; much the fame with paroli, and ufed when a couch is won by turning up or crooking the corner of the winning card. 7. Sept et le va, the firft great chance or prize, when the pun¬ ter, having won the couch, makes a paroli, and goes on to a fecond chance; fo that if his winning card turns up again, it comes to fept et le va, which is feven 3 L times BAS [ 45 times as much as he laid down on his card. 8. ^uinsze cl Ic va is the next higher prize, when the punter ha¬ ving won the former is refolved to pufh his fortune, and lay his money a fecond time on the fame card by crooking another corner j in which cafe, if it comes up, he wins fifteen times the money he laid down. 9. Trent et le va is the next higher prize, when the punter, crooking the fourth corner of his winning card, if it turn up, wins 33 times the money he firft llaked. 10. Soixant et le va is the higheft prize, and entitles the winner to 67 times his firft money ; which, if it were confiderable, Hands a chance to break the bank j but the bank Hands many chances firfl of breaking the punter. This cannot be won but by the tailleur’s dealing the cards over again. The rules of the game of baffet are as follow : I. The banker holds a pack of 52 cards, and having fliuffled them, he turns the whole pack at once, fo as to dif- cover the lad card j after which he lays down all the cards by couples. 2. The punter has his book of 13 cards in his hand, from the king to the ace 5 out of tbefe he takes one card, or more at pleafure, upon which he lays a Hake. 3. The punter may, at his choice, either lay down his flake before the pack is turned, or immediately after it is turned, or after any number of couples are down. 4. Suppofing the pun* ter to lay down his flake after the pack is turned, and calling I, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. the places of thofe cards which follow the card in view, either immediately after the pack is turned, or after any number of couples are drawn. Then, 5. If the card upon which the punter has laid a flake comes out in any even place, except the firft, he wins a flake equal to his own. 6. If the card upon which the punter has laid a flake comes out in any even place, except the lecond, he lofes his flake. 7. If the card of the punter comes out in the firft place, he neither wins nor lofes, but takes his own flake again. 8. If the card of the punter comes out in the fecond place, he does not lofe his whole flake, but only one half; and this is the cafe in which the punter is faid to be faced. 9. When the punter choofes to come in after any number of couples are down, if his card hap¬ pens to be but once in the pack, and is the laft of all, there is an exception from the general rule ; for though it comes out in an odd place, which fhould entitle him to win a flake equal to his own, yet he neither wins nor lofes from that circumftance, but takes back his own flake. This game has been the objeft of mathematical cal¬ culations. M. de Moivre folves this problem *, to efti- mate at bafiet the lofs of the punter under any circum¬ ftance of cards remaining in the flock when he lays his flake, and of any number of times that his card is re¬ peated in the flock. From this folution he has formed a table {flowing the feveral Ioffes of the punter in what- foever circumftances he may happen to be. From this table it appears, 1. That the fewer the cards are in the flock, the greater is the lofs of the punter. 2. That the leaftlofs of the punter, under the fame circumftances of cards remaining in the flock, is when the card is but twice in it j the next greater when but three times ; ftill greater when four times •, and the greateft when but once. The gain of the banker upon all the money ad¬ ventured at baffet is 15s. 3d. per cent. Basset, Teter, a gentleman of good family, was 4 o ] BAS chamberlain or gentleman of the privy chamber to King Henry V. a conflant attendant on that brave prince, and an eye-witnefs of his moft glorious a£lions both at home and abroad •, all which he particularly deferibed ' in a volume, entitled, The Atis of King Henry V. which remains in MS. in the college of heralds. BASSETING, in the coal mines, denotes the rife of the vein of coal towards the furface of the earth, till it come within two or three feet of the furface itfelf. This is alfo called by the workmen cropping ; and ftands oppofed to dipping, which is the defeent of the vein to fuch a depth that it is rarely, if ever, followed to the end. BASSIA. See Botany Index. BASSO-relievo, or Bas-relief ; a piece of fculpture, where the figures or images do not protube- rate, jet, or Hand out, far above the plane on which they are formed.—Whatever figures or reprefentations are thus cut, ftamped, or otherwife wrought, fo that not the entire body, but only part of it, is raifed above the plane, are faid to be done in relief, or relievo-, and when that work is low, flat, and but little raifed, it is called low relief. When a piece of fculpture, a coin, ora me¬ dal, has its figure raifed fo as to be well diftinguiftied, it is called bold, and we fay its relief is ftrong. BASSOON, a mufical inftrument of the wind-fort, blown with a reed, furniftted with 11 holes, and ufed as a bafs in a concert of hautboys, flutes, &c. To render this inftrument more portable, it is divided into two parts, whence it is called a faggot. Its diameter at bottom is nine inches, and its holes are flopped like thofe of a large flute. BASSORA, Balsora, or Bafrah, a city between Arabia and Perfia, fituated in the extremity of the deferts of Irak, a little to the weft of the Tigris, in about 370 eaft longitude, and 30° north latitude. It was built by the command of the caliph Omar, in the 15th year of the Hegira, for the fake of carrying on more commodioufly an extenfive commerce between the Syrians, Arabians, Perfians, and Indians. It is at pre- fent a very famous empory of the Eaft •, and ftands upon a thick ftony foil, as the word bafra imports, about a day and a half’s journey from one of the mouths of the Tigris, where it empties itfelf into the Perfian gulf, de¬ nominated like wife from this town the Bay of Bafra. Baffct II Baffora. The circumjacent traft is looked upon by the Arabs to be one of the moft delightful fpots in Afia, and even as one of the moft beautiful gardens in the world ; how¬ ever, the hot winds that frequently blow there are very troublefome to travellers, and fometimes overwhelm them with fand driven by the force of thefe winds out of the neighbouring deferts. The city is inhabited by Jacobites, Neftorians, Jews, Mahometans, and Chaldean Chriftians, commonly called Chriflians of St John, which laft are pretty numerous here. The abbe Raynal values the merchandife annually brought to Baffora at 525,000!.: of which the Eng- lifh furnifh 175,000k ; the Dutch 87,500k ; and the Moors, Banians, Armenians, and Arabs, furnfth the remainder. “ The cargoes of thefe nations (fays he) confift of rice, fugar plain, ftriped, and flowered muf- lins from Bengal \ fpices from Ceylon and the Molucca iflands •, coarfe, white, and blue cottons from Coro¬ mandel 5 cardamom, pepper, fanders wood, from Ma¬ labar ; gold and filver fluffs, turbans, (bawls, indigo, from BAS [ 451 ] BAS Baffora ^rom 2urat: 5 Pearls from Baharen, and coffee from Mo- Baftard. cha j iron, lead, and woollen cloth, from Europe. u—-v——^ Other articles of lefs confequenee are imported from dif¬ ferent places. Some of thefe commodities are Hupped on board fmall Arabian veffels 5 but the greater part is brought by European fhips, which have the advantage of a confiderable freight. “ This merchandile is fold for ready money j and paffes through the hands of the Greeks, Jews, and Ar¬ menians. The Banians are employed in changing the coin current at Baffora, for.that which is of higher va¬ lue in India. “ The different commodities colle&ed at Baffora are diftributed into three channels. One half of them goes to Perfia, whither they are conveyed by the caravans •, there being no navigable river in the whole empire. The chief confumption is in the northern provinces, which have not been fo much ravaged as thofe of the fouth. Both of them formerly made their payments in precious Hones, which were become common by the plunder of India. They had afterwards recourfe to copper utenlils, which had been exceedingly multiplied from the great abundance of copper mines. At lafl; they gave gold and filver in exchange, which had been con¬ cealed during a long fcene of tyranny, and are conti¬ nually dug out of the bowels of the earth. If they do not allow time for the trees that produce gum, and have been cut to make frelh (hoots ; if they negleft to multi¬ ply the breed of goats which afford fuch fine wool, and if the fiiks, which are hardly fufficient to fupply the few manufactures remaining in Perfia, continue to be fo fcarce ;—in a word, if this empire does not rife again from its affes, the mines will be exhaufled, and this fource of commerce muft be given up. BASTARD, a natural child, or one begotten and born out of lawful wedlock. Black]}. and canon laws do not allow a child to re- Comment. main a baftard, if the parents afterwards intermarry ; and herein they differ mod materially from our law j which, though not fo ftrifl as to require that a child fhall be begotten, yet makes it an indifpenfable condi¬ tion that it (hall be born, after lawful wedlock. And the reafon of our law is furely much fuperior to that of the Roman, if we confider the principal end and de- fign of eftablifhing the contrad! of marriage, taken in a civil light j abftradedly from any religious views, which has nothing to do with the legitimacy or illegitimacy of the children. The main end and defign of marriage, therefore, being to afcertain and fix upon fome certain perfon, to whom the care, the protedlion, the main¬ tenance, and the education of the children, (liould be¬ long : this end is undoubtedly better anfwered by legi¬ timating all iffue born after wedlock, than by legiti¬ mating all iffue of the fame parties, even born before wedlock, fo as wedlock afterwards enfues : 1. Becaufe of the very great uncertainty there will generally be, in the proof that the iffue was really begotten by the fame man •, whereas, by confining the proof to the birth, and not to the begetting, our law has rendered it perfectly certain, what child is legitimate, and who is to take care of the child. 2. Becaufe, by the Ro¬ man law, a child may be continued a baftard, or made legitimate, at the option of the father and mother, by a marriage ex poji faBo; thereby opening a door to many frauds and partialities, which by our law are pre¬ vented. 3. Becaufe by thofe laws a man may remain Baftard. a baftard till 40 years of age, and then become legiti-—y—~ mate by the fubfequent marriage of his parents j where¬ by the main end of marriage, the protedtion of infants, is totally fruftrated. 4. Becaufe this rule of the Ro¬ man law admits of no limitation as to the time, or num¬ ber of baftards to be fo legitimated 5 but a dozen of them may, 20 years after their birth, by the fubfequent marriage of their parents, be admitted to all the privi¬ leges of legitimate children. This is plainly a great difcouragement to the matrimonial ftate ; to which one main inducement is ufually not only the defire of having children, but alfo the defire of procreating lawful heirs. Whereas, our conftitution guards againft this indecency, and, at the fame time, gives fufficient allowance to the frailties of human nature. For if a child be begotten while the parents are fingle, and they will endeavour to make an early reparation for the offence, by marrying within a few months after, our law is fo indulgent as not to baftardize the child, if it be born, though not begotten, in lawful wedlock ; for this is an incident that can happen but once 5 fince all future children ■will be begotten, as well as born, within the rules of honour and civil fociety. From what has been faid it appears, that all children born before matrimony ar6 baftards by our law : and fo it is of all children born fo long after the death of the hufband, that by the ufual courfe of geftation, they could not be begotten by him. But this being a matter of fome uncertainty, the law is not exaft as to a few days. But if a man dies, and his widow foon after marries again, and a child is born within fuch a time as that by the courfe of nature it might,have been the child of either hulband : in this cafe, he is faid to be more than ordinarily legitimate ; for he may, when he arrives to years of difcretion, choofe which of the fa¬ thers he pleafes. To prevent this, among other incon¬ veniences, the civil law ordained that no widow (hould marry infra annum luBus ; a rule which obtained fo early as the reign of Auguftus, if not of Romulus; and the fame conftitution was probably handed down to our ear¬ ly aneeftors from the Romans, during their ftay in this ifland ; for we find it eftablilhed under the Saxon and Danilh governments. As baftards may be born before the coverture or marriage-ftate is begun, or after it is determined, fo al¬ fo children born during wedlock may in fome circum- ftances be baftards. As if the huffand be out of the kingdom of England (or as the law loofely phrafes it, extra quatuor maria') for above nine months, fo that no accefs to his wife can be prefumed, her iffue during that period (hall be baftards. But generally during the coverture, accefs of the hufband (hall be prefumed, un- lefs the contrary (half be (hown j which is fuch a ne¬ gative as can only be proved by (hewing him to be elfe- whefe ; for the general rule is, prafumiturpro /egitima- tione. In a divorce a menfa et thoro, if the wife breeds children, they are baftards ; for the law will prefume the hufband and wife conformable to the fentence of feparation, unlefs accefs be proved : but in a voluntaiy feparation by agreement, the law will fuppofe accefs, unlefs the negative be ftiown. So alfo, if there is an apparent impofiibility of procreation on the part of the hufband, as if he be only eight years old, or the like, there the iffue of the wife fhall be baftard. Likewife, 3 L 2 in B A . S [ 452 ] BAS Bafiard. in cafe of divorce in the fpiritual court a vinculo matn- —-V ' monii, all the iflue born during the coverture are ba- ftards j becaufe fuch divorce is always upon fome caufe that rendered the marriage unlawful and null from the beginning. As to the duty of parents to their baftard children, by our law, it is principally that of maintenance. For though baftards are not looked upon as children to any civil purpofes, yet the ties of nature, of which mainte¬ nance is one, are not fo eafily diffolved j and they hold indeed as to many other intentions •, as particularly that a man lhall not marry his baftard fifter or daugh¬ ter. The method in which the Englilh law provides maintenance for them is as follows : XVhen a woman is delivered, or declares herfelf with child, of a baftard, and will by oath before a juftice of the peace charge any perfon having got her with child, the juftice lhall caufe fuch perfon to be apprehended, and commit him till he gives fecurity, either to maintain the child, or appear at the next quarter feflions to difpute and try the faft. But, if the woman dies, or is married, before delivery, or mifcarries, or proves not to have been with child, the perfon lhall be difcharged \ otherwife the fef- fions, or two juftices out of feffions, upon original ap¬ plication to them, may take order for the keeping of the baftard, by charging the mother or the reputed father with the payment of money or other fuften- tation for that purpofe. And if fuch putative father, or lewd mother, run aw-ay from the parilh, the over- feers, by diredtion of two juftices, may feize their rent, goods, and chattels, in order to bring up the faid ba¬ ftard child. Yet fuch is the humanity of our laws, that no woman can be compulfively queftioned concern¬ ing the father of her child till one month after her de¬ livery \ which indulgence is, however, very frequently a hardlhip upon parilhes, by giving the parents oppor¬ tunity to efcape. As to the rights and incapacities which appertain to a baftard : The former are very fewq being only fuch as he can acquire; for he can inherit nothing, being look¬ ed upon as the fon of nobody, and fometimes called Jilius nullius, fometimes filius populi. Yet he may gain a furname by reputation, though he has none by inhe¬ ritance. All other children have their primary fettle- ment in their father’s parilh ; but a baftard in the parilh where born, for he hath no father. However, in cafe of fraud, as if a woman either be fent by order of ju¬ ftices, or comes to beg as a vagrant, to a parilh which fhe does not belong to, and drops her baftard there, the baftard lhall, in the firft cafe, be fettled in the pa¬ rilh from whence Ihe was illegally removed j or in the latter cafe, in the mother’s own parilh, if the mother be apprehended for her vagrancy. Baftards alfo, born in any licenfed hofpital for pregnant women, are fettled in the parilh to which the mothers belong.—The in¬ capacity of a baftard confifts principally in this, that he cannot be heir to any one ‘7 for being nullius flius, he is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no anceftor from whom an inheritable blood can be derived : Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an inheritance than fuch illegitimate child, it lhall efcheatto the lord. And as baftards cannot be heirs themfelves, fo neither can they have any heirs but thofe of their own bodies. For as all collateral kindred confifts in being derived from A the fame common anceftor, and as a baftard has no le- Baftani gal auceftor, he can have no collateral kindred j and *—■—v-—J confequently can have no legal heirs, but fuch as claim by a lineal defcent from himfelf. And therefore, if a baftard purchafes land, and dies feized thereof without iffue, and inteftate, the land lhall efcheat to the lord of the fee. A baftard was alfo, in ftri&nefs, incapable of holy orders j and though that were difpenfed with, yet he was utterly difqualified from holding any dig¬ nity in the church , but this dodlrine feems now obfo- lete *, and in all other refpe&s there is no diftindtion between a baftard and another man. And really any other diftin&ion but that of not inheriting, which civil policy renders neceflary, would, with regard to the in¬ nocent offspring of his parent’s crimes, be odious, unjuft, and cruel, to the laft degree j and yet the civil law fo boafted of for its equitable decifions, made baftards in fome cafes incapable even of a gift from their parents. A baftard may, laftly, be made legitimate, and capa¬ ble of inheriting, by the tranfcendant power of an aft of parliament, and not otherwife; as was done in the cafe of John of Gaunt’s baftard children, by a ftatute of Richard II. As to the punifhment for having baftard children : By the ftatute of 18 Eliz. c. 3. two juftices may take order for the punilhment of the mother and reputed fa¬ ther j but what that punilhment fhall be is not therein afcertained : though the cotemporary expofition was, that a corporeal punilhment was intended. By ftatute 7 Jac. I. c. 4. a fpecific punilhment (viz. commitment to the houfe of correftion) is inflifted on the wo¬ man only. But in both cafes it feems that the pe¬ nalty can only be inflifted, if the baftard becomes chargeable to the parilh; for otherwife the very main¬ tenance of the child is confidered as a degree of pu¬ nilhment. By the laft mentioned ftatute the juftices may commit the mother to the houfe of correftion, there to be punilhed and fet on work for one year : and in cafe of a fecond offence, till Ihe find fureties never to offend again. He that gets a baftard in the hundred of Middleton in Kent, forfeits all his goods and chattels to the king *. * Chamt. If a baftard be got under the umbrage of a certain -^'A oak in Knoll wood in Staffordlhire, belonging to the manor of Terley caftle, no punilhment can be inflift¬ ed, nor can the lord nor the bilhop take cognizance of it f. _ +P/0?. Nat. It is enafted by ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 27. that if any MJl. Staff. woman be delivered of a child, which, if born alive,P- Ihould by law be a baftard •, and endeavours privately to conceal its death, by burying the child or the like ; the mother fo offending lhall fuffer death, as in the cafe of murder, unlefs Ihe can prove by one witnefs at leaft: that the child was aftually born dead. This law, which favours pretty ftrongly of feverity, in making the con¬ cealment of the death almoft conclufive evidence of the child’s being murdered by the mother, is never- thelefs to be alfo met with in the criminal codes of many other nations of Europe $ as the Danes, the Swedes, and the French : but it has of late years been ufual with us, upon trials for this offence, to require fome fort of prefumptive evidence that the child was born alive, before the other conftrained prefump- BAS Baftard, Baftardy. tion (that the child, whofe death is concealed, was therefore killed by its parent) is admitted to convid the l—-v—""' prifoner. Concerning baftards in Scotland, and the laws with regard to them, fee Law. Bastard, in refpeft of artillery, is applied to thofe pieces which are of an unufual or illegitimate make or proportion. Thefe are of two kinds, long and thort, according as the defeat is on the redundant or defe&ive fide. The long baftards again, are either common or uncommon. To the common kind belong the double culverin extraordinary, half culverin extraordinary, quarter culverin extraordinary, falcon extraordinary, &c. The ordinary baftard culverin carries a ball of eight pounds. Bastards is alfo an appellation given to a kind of faction or troop of banditti who rofe in (jluienne about the beginning of the fourteenth century, and joining with lome Englifti parties, ravaged the coun¬ try, and fet fire to the towns.—Mezeray fuppofes them to have confifted of the natural Tons of the no¬ bility of Guienne, who being excluded the right of inheriting from their fathers, put themfelves at the head of robbers and plunderers to maintain them¬ felves. BASTARD Flower-fence. See Adenanthera.—The flowers of this plant bruifed and fteeped in milk are faid to be gently anodyne j for which purpofe they are of¬ ten given in the Weft Indies to quiet very young chil¬ dren. The leaves are ufed inftead of fena in Barbadoes and the Leeward iflands. In Jamaica, the plant is cal¬ led fena. Bastard Hemp. See Datisca, Botany Index. BASTARD Rocket, Dyers-Weed, or Wild Woad. See Reseda, Botany Index. Bastard Star-of-Bethlehem. See Albuca, Bo¬ tany Index. BASTARD-Scarlet is a name given to red dyed with bale madder, as coming neareft the bow-dye, or new fcarlet. BASTARDY, is a defe£t of birth objected to one born out of wedlock. Luftathius will have baftards among the Greeks to have been in equal favour with le¬ gitimate children, as low as the Trojan war j but the courfe of antiquity feems againft him. Potter and others thow, that there never was a time when baftardy was not in difgrace. In the time of William the Conqueror, however, ba¬ ftardy feems not to have implied any reproach, if we may judge from the circumftance of that monarch him- felf not fcrupling to aflame the appellation of baftard. His epiftle to Alan count of Bretagne begins, Ego Wil- * Du Ctinge, Uelmus cognomento bafardus *. Bastardy, in relation to its trial in law, is diftin- guifhed into general and fpecial. General baftardy is a certificate from the bilhop of the diocefe, to the king’s juftices, after inquiry made, whether the party is a ba ftard or not, upon fome queftion of inheritance. Ba¬ ftardy fpecial is a fuit commenced in the king’s courts againft a perfon that calls another a baftard. Arms of BASTARDT Humid becrofled with a bar, fil¬ let, or traverfe from the right to the left. They were not formerly allowed to carry the arms of their father, and therefore they invented arms for themlelves j and this is ftill done by the natural fons of a king. 1 453 1 BAS Glojp. Lat. tom. i, P- S°« Right of BASTARDT, Droit de batardife, in the French Baftardy laws, is a right, in virtue whereof the eifefts of baftards ]] dying inteftate devolve to the king or the lord. Baftile. BASTARNAL, or Eastern.®, a people of German original, manners, and language ; who extended them¬ felves a great way to the eaft of the Viftula, the eaft boundary of Germany, among the Sarmatse, as far as the mouth of the Ifter and the Euxine j and were di¬ vided into feveral nations. BASTARNICAl alpes, in Ancient Geography, mountains extending between Poland, Hungary, and Tranfylvania, called alfo the Carpates, and now the Carpathian mountains. BASTI, in Ancient Geography, a town of the pro¬ vince of Baetica in Spain, fituated to the weft of the Campus Spartarius. Now Baza in Granada. BASTI A, a fea-port town of Albania in Turkey in Europe, over againft the ifland of Corfu, at the mouth of the river Calamu. E. Long. 10.35. N. Lat. 39. 40. Bastia, the capital of the ifland of Corfica in the Mediterranean. It has a good harbour, and is ftrongly fortified. It is fituated on the weftern part of the coaft, 70 miles fouth-fouth-weft of Leghorn, in E. Long. 9. 42. N. Lat. 42. 35. BASTILE, denotes a fmall antique caftle, fortified with turrets. Such was the Baftile of Paris, which feems to have been the laft caftle that retained the name : it was begun to be built in 1369 by order of Charles V. and was finiflied in 1383 under the reign of his fuccefibr.—Its chief ufe was for the cuftody of ftate prifoners $ or, more properly fpeaking, for the clandeftine purpofe of unfeeling defpotifm. The lieutenant-general of the police of Paris was the fub-delegate of the miniftry for the department of the Baftile. He had under him a titular commiflary, who was called the commiflary of the Baftile. He had a fixed falary for drawing up what were called in- ftru&ions, but he did not do this exclufively. He had no infpeiftion or function but in cafes where he received orders : the reafon of which was that all that was done in this caftle was arbitrary. Each prifoner on coming to the Baftile had an invent tory made of every thing about him. His trunks, clothes, linens, and pockets were fearched, to difcover whether there were any papers in them relative to the matter for which he was apprehended. It was not ufual to fearch perlons of a certain rank; but they were alked for their knives, razors, fciflars, watches, canes, jewels, and money. After this examination, the prifoner was condudled into an apartment, where he was locked up within three doors. They who had no fervants made their own bed and fire. The hour of dining was eleven, and of flipping fix. At the beginning of their confinement they had nei¬ ther books, ink, or paper j they went neither to mafs, nor on the walks", they were not allowed to write to any one, not even to the lieutenant of the police, on whom all depended, and of whom permiflion muft firft have been allied by means of the major, who feldom refufed. At firft they went to mafs only every other Sunday. When a perfon had obtained leave to write to the lieutenant of the police, he might have alked his permilflon to write to his family, and to receive their anfwersj to have with him his fervant or an at¬ tendant;, BAS Baftile. tendant, &C. which requefts Avere either granted or re- ——v—1 fufed according to circumftances. Nothing could be obtained but through this channel. The officers of the ftaff took the charge of conveying the letters of the prifoners to the police. They were lent regularly at noon and at night : but if they defired it, their letters were fent at any hour by expreffes, who were paid out of the money of thofe who were con¬ fined. The anfwers were always addreffed to the ma¬ jor, who communicated them to the prifoner. If no notice was taken of any requeft contained in the letter of the prifoner, it was a refufal. The attendants whom they appointed for thofe who were not allowed their own fervants, or who had none of their own, were common¬ ly invalid foldiers. Sometimes a prifoner obtained permiffion of having books, his watch, knife, and razors, and even paper and ink. He might have afked to fee the lieutenant of the police when he came to the Baftile. This officer commonly caufed prifoners to be brought down fome days after their arrival. Sometimes he went to vifit them in their chambers. When the lieutenant of the police faw a prifoner, the converfation turned upon the caufe of his confine¬ ment. He fometimes afked for written and figned de¬ clarations. In general, as much circumfpeftion was neceflary in thefe conferences as in the examination it- felf, fince nothing that a perfon might have faid or written was forgotten. When a prifoner wanted to tranfmit any thing to the lieutenant of the police, it was always by means of the major. Notes might have been fent to this officer by the turnkeys. A perfon was never anticipated in any thing—he muft have afked for every thing ; even for permiflion to be fhaved. This office was performed by the furgeon ; who alfo furnifhed fick or indifpofed prifoners with fugar, coffee, tea, chocolate, confeftions, and the neceffary remedies. The time of walking was an hour a-day ; fometimes an hour in the morning and an hour in the evening, in the great court. A prifoner might have been interrogated a few days after his entrance into the Baftile, but frequently this was not done till after fome weeks. Sometimes he was previoufly informed of the day when this was to be done } often he was only acquainted with it the mo¬ ment he was brought down to the council-chamber. This commiflion of interrogatory was executed by the lieutenant of the police, a counfellor of ftate, a mafter of requefts, a counfellor or a commiflioner of the Cha- telet. When the lieutenant of the police did not him- felf interrogate, he ufually came at the end of the exa¬ mination. The commiflioners were purely paffive beings. Fre¬ quently they attempted to frighten a prifoner ; they laid fnares for him, and employed the meaneft artifices to get a confeffion from him. They pretended proofs, ex¬ hibited papers, without fuffering him to read them : af- ferting that they were inftruments of unavoidable con¬ viction. Their interrogatories were always vague. They turned not only on the prifoner’s words and aftions, but on his moft fecret thoughts, and on the difcourfe and conduCt of perfons of his acquaintance, whom it was wilhed to bring into queftion. The examiners told a prifoner that his life was at £ A S flake •, that his fate depended on himfelf; that if he Baftile. would make a fair declaration, they were authorized to u— promife him a fpeedy releafe ; but if he refufed to con- fefs, he would be given up to a fpecial commiftion : that they were in pofleflion of decifive documents, of authentic proofs, more than fufficient to ruin him ; that his accomplices had difcovered all ; that the govern¬ ment had unknown relburces, of which he could have no fufpicion. They fatigued prifoners by varied and infinitely multiplied interrogatories. According to the perfons, they employed promifes, careffes, and menaces. Sometimes they ufed infults, and treated the unhappy fufferers with an infolence that filled up the mea- fure of that tyranny of which they were the bafe in¬ ftruments. If the prifoner made the required confeflion, the commiflioners then told him, that they had no precife authority for his enlargement, but that they had every reafon to expeCl it ; that they were going to folicit it, &c. The prifoner’s confeftions, far from bettering his condition, gave occafion to new interrogatories, often lengthened his confinement, drew in the perfons with whom he had connexions, and expofed himfelf to new vexations. Although there were rules for all occafions, yet every thing was fubjeft to exceptions arifing from influence, recommendations, protection, intrigue, &c. becaufe the firft principle in this place was arbitrary will. Very frequently, perfons confined on the fame account were treated very differently, according as their recommenda¬ tions were more or lefs confiderable. There was a library, founded by a foreign prifoner who died in the Baftile in the beginning of the laft cen¬ tury. Some prifoners obtained leave to go to it ; others, to have the books carried to their chambers. The falfeft things were told the prifoners with an air of fincerity and concern. “ It is very unfortunate that the king has been prejudiced againft you. His ma- jefty cannot hear your name mentioned without being irritated. The affair for which you have left your li¬ berty is only a pretext—they had defigns againft you be¬ fore—you have powerful enemies.” Thefe difeourfes were the etiquette of the place. It would have been in vain for a prifoner to alk leave to write to the king—he could never obtain it. The perpetual and moft infupportable torment of this cruel and odious inquifition, were vague, indeter¬ minate, falfe, or equivocal promifes, inexbauftible and conftantly deceitful hopes of a fpeedy releafe, exhor¬ tations to patience, and blind conjeClures, of which the lieutenant of the police and officers were very la- vifh. To cover the odium of the barbarities exercifed here, and flacken the zeal of relations or patrons, the moft; abfurd and contradiftory Handers againft a prifoner were frequently publifhed. The true caufes of impri- fonment, and real obftacles to releafe, were concealed. Thefe refources, which were infinitely varied, were in- exhauftible. When a prifoner who was known and protected had entirely loft his health, and his life was thought in danger, he was always fent out. The miniftry did not choofe that perfons well known ftiould die in the Baftile. If a prifoner did die there, he was interred in the parifti of St Paul, under the name of a domef- [ 45+ 1 BAS E 4S5 ] BAS tic 5 and this falfity was written in the regifter of deaths, in order to deceive pofterity. There was ano¬ ther regifter in which the true names of the deceafed were entered *, but it was not without great difficulty that extrafts could be procured from it. The commif- fary of the Baftile muft firft have been informed of the ufe the family intended to make of the extract. In 1674 the baggage of Louis chevalier de Rohan, grand huntfman of France, having been taken and rummaged in a fkirmifti, fome letters were found which caufed a fufpicion that he had treated with the Englifti for the furrender of Havre de Grace. He was arreft- ed and put into the Baftile. The Sieur de la Tuan- derie, his agent, concealed himfelf. The proof was not fufficient. A commiflion was named to proceed agsinft the accufed for treafon. La Tuanderie was difcovered at Rouen : an attempt was made to arreft him ; but he fired on the aflailants, and obliged them to kill him on the fpot. Perfons attached to the chevalier de Rohan went every evening round the Baftile, cry¬ ing through a fpeaking trumpet, “ La Tuanderie is dead, and has faid nothing but the chevalier did not hear them. The commiflioners, not being able to get any thing from him, told him, “ that the king knew all, that they had proofs, but only wiftied for his own confeffion, and that they were authorifed to pro- mife him pardon if he would declare the truth.” The chevalier, too credulous, confefled the whole. Then the perfidious commiflioners changed their language. They faid, “ that with refpedl to the pardon, they could not anfvver for it : but that they had hopes of ob¬ taining it, and would go and folicit it.” This they troubled themfelves very little about ; and condemned the criminal to lofe his head. He was conducted on a platform to the fcaffold, by means of a gallery raif- ed to the height of the window of the armoury in the arfenal, which looks towards the little fquare at the end of the Rue des Tournelles. He was beheaded on No¬ vember 27. 1674. The Jefuits of the college of Clermont, in the Rue St Jacques, Paris, having this fame year (1674) invited the king (Louis XIV.) to honour with his prefence a tragedy to be performed by their fcholars, that prince accepted the invitation. Thefe able cour¬ tiers took care to infert in the piece feveral ftrokes of flattery, with which the monarch, greedy of fuch in- cenfe, was greatly pleafed. When the re£Ior of the college was conducing the king home, a nobleman in the train applauded the fuccefs of the tragedy. Louis faid, “ Do you wonder at it ? this is my college.'1'1 The Jefuits did not lofe a word of this. The -very fame night they got engraved in large golden letters on black marble, Collegium Lodovici Magni, inftead of the former infcription which was placed beneath the name of Jefus on the principal gate of the college {Collegium Claramonlanum Societatis Jefus); and in the morning the new infcription was put up in place of the old one. A young fcholar of quality, aged 13, who was witnefs to the zeal of the reverend fathers, made the two following verfes, which he polled up at night on the college gate : Ahfulit hinc Jefum, pofuitque infgnia regis Impia gens : alium non colit ilia Deum. The Jefuits did not fail to cry out facrilege : the young author was difcovered, taken up, and put into Baftile. the Baftile. The implacable fociety caufed him, as a —-v— matter of favour, to be condemned to perpetual im- prifonment 5 and he was transferred to the citadel of the ifle St Marguerite. Several years after, he was brought back to the Baftile. In 1705 he had been a prifoner 3 x years. Having become heir to all his fa¬ mily, who poffefled great property, the Jefuit Rique- let, then confeflor of the Baftile, remonftrated to his brethren on the neceflity of reftoring the prifoner to liberty. The golden {bower which forced the tower of Danae had the fame effe£l on the caltle of the Baftile. The Jefuits made a merit with the prifoner of the prote&ion they granted him } and this man of rank, whofe family would have become extinct with¬ out the aid of the fociety, did not fail to give them ex- tenfive proofs of his gratitude. Nowhere elfe on earth, perhaps, has human mifery, by human means, been rendered fo lading, fo com¬ plete, or fo remedilefs. This the following cafe may fuffice to evince j the particulars of which are tranf- lated from that elegant and energetic writer M. Mer- cier. The heinous offence which merited an imprifon- ment furpaffing torture and rendering death a blefling, though for obvious reafons not fpecified by our author, is known from other fourees to have con filled in fome unguarded expreflions implying difrefpeft concerning the late Gallic monarch Louis XV. Upon the acceflion of Louis XVI. to the throne, the miniftersthen in office, moved by humanity, began their adminiftration with an a£l of clemency and juftice $ they infpedled the regifters of the Baftile, and fet many prifoners at liberty. Among thofe there was an old man who had groaned in confinement for 47 years be¬ tween four thick and cold ftone-walls. Hardened by adverfity, which {Lengthens both the mind and the conftitution, when they are not overpowered by it, he had refifted the horrors of his long imprifonment with an invincible and manly fpirit. His locks white, thin, and fcattered, had almoft acquired the rigidity of iron j whilft his body, environed for fo long a time by a cof¬ fin of ftone, had borrowed from it a firm and compact habit. The narrow door of his tomb, turning upon its grating hinges, opened not as ufual by halves 5 and an unknown voice announced his liberty, and bade him depart. Believing this to be a dream, he hefitated j but at length rofe up and walked forth with trembling flops, amazed at the fpace he traverfed : The flairs of the prifon, the halls, the court, feemed to him vaft, im- roenfe, and almoft without bounds. He flopped from time to time, and gazed around like a bewildered tra¬ veller : His vifion was with difficulty reconciled to the clear light of day : He contemplated the heavens as a new objedl : His eyes remained fixed, and he could not even weep. Stupified with the newly acquired power of changing his pofition, his limbs, like his tongue, re- fufed, in fpite of his efforts, to perform their office j at length he got through the formidable gate. When he felt the motion of the carriage prepared to tranfport him to his former habitation, he fcreamed out, and uttered feme inarticulate founds*, and as he could not bear this new movement, he was obliged to de- feend. Supported by a benevolent arm, he fought out the ftreet where he had formerly refided : he found it, but no trace of his houfe remained j one of the pub¬ lic BAS t 456 1 BAS Baftile. lie edifices occupied the fpot where it had flood. He —now iaw nothing that brought to his recoiledlion, either that particular quarter, the city itfelf, or the objedls with which he had formerly been acquainted. The houfes of his nearefl neighbours, which were frelh in his memory, had affumed a new appearance. In vain were Iiis looks direfted to all the objedls around him ; he could difeoyer nothing of which he had the Imalleft re¬ membrance. Terrified, he flopped and fetched a deep figh. To him, what did it import that the city was peopled with living creatures ? None of them were alive to him ; he was unknown to all the world, and he knew nobody : And whilft lie wept, he regretted his dun¬ geon. At the name of the Baftile, which he often pronoun¬ ced and even claimed as an afylum, and the fight of his clothes that marked a former age, the crowd gathered round him : curiofity, blended with pity, excited their attention. The moft aged alked him many queftions, but had no remembrance of the circumftances he reca¬ pitulated. At length accident brought in his way an ancient domeftic, now a fuperannuated porter, who, confined to his lodge for 15 years, had barely fufficient ftrength to open the gate:—Even he did not know the matter he had ferved ; but informed him that grief and misfortune had brought his wife to the grave 30 years before, that his children were gone abroad to diftant climes, and that of all his relations and friends none now remained. This recital was made with the indif¬ ference which people difeover for events long palled, and almoft forgot. The miferable man groaned, and groaned alone. The crowd around, offering only un¬ known features to his view, made him feel the excefs of his calamities even more than he would have done in the dreadful folitude that he had left. Overcome with forrow, he prefented himfelf before the minifter to whole humanity he owed that liberty which was now a burden to him. Bowing down, he laid, “ Reftore me again to that prifon from which you have taken me : I cannot furvive the lofs of my neareft relations ; of my friends ; and, in one word, of a whole generation : Is it poflible in the fame moment to be informed of this univerfal deftrudlion, and not to wilh for death ? This general mortality, which to the reft of mankind comes flowly and by degrees, has to me been inftantaneous, the operation of a moment. Whilft fecluded from fociety, I lived with myfelf only 5 but here I neither can live with myfelf nor with this new race, to whom my anguifti and defpair appear on¬ ly as a dream. I here is nothing terrible in dying j but it is dreadful indeed to be the laft.” The minifter was melted ; he caufed the old domeftic to attend this unfortunate perfon, as only he could talk to him of his family. This difeourfe was the fingle confolation that he received : for he Ihunned all intercourfe with a new race, born fince he had been exiled from the world •, and he paffed his time in the midft of Paris in the fame folitude as he had done whilft confined in a dungeon for almoft half a century. But the chagrin and mortifica¬ tion of meeting no perfon who could fay to him, We were formerly known to one another, foon put an end to his exiftence. . Such was the nature of this celebrated fortrefs. Many of our readers will probably recoiled! that it was attacked and taken by th -fTi/1 f B A T [ 471 ] BA T if a man endeavours to deprive me of them, I may juf- tify laying hands upon him to prevent himj and in cafe he perfilfs with violence, I may proceed to beat him away. Thus too in the exercife of an office, as that of church warden or beadle, a man may lay hands upon an¬ other to turn him out of church, and prevent his di- flurbing the congregation. And if fued for this or the like battery, he may fet forth the whole cafe, and plead that he laid hands upon him gently, molliter mantis im- pofuit, for this purpofe. On account of thefe caufes of judification, battery is defined to be the unlawful beat¬ ing of another; for which the remedy is, as for affault, by aftion of trefpafs vi et armis: wherein the jury will give adequate damages. BATTISTA, Franco, a celebrated painter, born at Venice, was one of the difciples of Michael Angelo, whofe manner he followed fo clofely, that, in the cor- redfnefs of his outlines, he furpafled moft of the ma¬ ilers of his time. His paintings are pretty numerous, and difperfcd all over Italy and other parts of Europe ; but his colouring being very dry, they are not much more elleemed than the prints etched by his hand. He died in 1561, BATTLE, a general engagement between two ar¬ mies in a country fufficiently open for them to encoun¬ ter in front and at the fame time (fee War). The Avoid is alfo written battel^ battell, and batlail. It is formed from the French battaille, of the Latin verb batuere, to fence or exercife with arms : whence batu- alia and batalia, which properly denoted the aftion or exercife of thofe who learned to fence, and who were hence alfo denominated batuatores. The ancients never joined battle without much ce¬ remony and preparation ; as taking auguries, offering facrifice, haranguing the foldiers, giving the word or a tefera, &c. The fignals of battle were, founding the claffcum or general charge, and difplaying a peculiar flag, called by Plutarch a purple robe. To which may be added, finging paeans, raifing military fhouts, and the like. A Roman legion, ranged in order of battle, confifled of hqflati, placed in the front; of principes, who were all old experienced foldiers, placed behind the former; and of tnarit, heavy armed with large bucklers, behind the principes. The hafati were rank¬ ed elofe ; the ranks of the principes were much opener fo that they could receive the hafati ; and thofe of the triarii opener Hill, infomuch that they could receive both the principes and the hafati within them, with^ out any diforder, and ftill facing the enemy. When therefore the Jiafati found themfelves unable to Hand the enemy’s charge, they retired gently wiihin the principes, where joining with them they renewed the combat. If thefe found themfelves too weak to fuilain the enemy, both retired among the triarii, where ral- lying, they formed anew corps, and charged with more vigour than ever. If thefe failed, the battle was lofl : the Romans had no farther refource. I he moderns are unacquainted with this method of interting or em¬ battling one company into another; without which the former cannot be well fuccoured or defended, and their places taken by others ; which was a thing the Romans praflifed with great exaflnefs. For the ve- lites, and in latter times the archers and (lingers, were not drawn up in this regular manner, but either difpo- fed of before the front of the hafati, or fcattered up 2 and down among the void fpaces of the Jiafati, or fometimes placed in two bodies in the wings. Thefe always began the combat, fkirmifhing in flying par¬ ties with the foremoft troops of the enemy. If they were repulfed, which was ufually the cafe, they fell back to the flanks of the army, or retired again in the rear. When they retired, the hafati advanced to the charge. As to the cavalry, it was polled at the two corners of the army, like the wings on a body ; and fought fome¬ times on foot, fometimes on horfeback. The auxiliary forces compofed the two points of the battle, and co¬ vered the whole body of the Romans.—Other lefs ufual forms of battle among the Romans w’ere the cuneus, or wedge ; globus, or round form ; forfex, or pair of fheers; turris, or an oblong fquare figure; ferra, or faw. The Greeks were inferior to the Ro¬ mans in marlhalling their armies for battle, as they drew up their whole army in a front, and trufted the fuccefs of the day to a (ingle force. They had three forms of battle for the horfe, viz. the fquare, the wedge, and the rhombus or diamond form. The firfl: held bed for the defenfive; the latter for the offenfive ; the wedge being preferred as bringing mod hands to fight. The Greeks notified the places of their battles and viflories by adding the word whence Nicomedia Nicopolis, Theflaloniea, &c. The ancient Britons did the like, by adding the word mais; whence Maifle- veth, Malmaiflmry, &c. The Englifli by the word fe/d.—The Romans had their particular days, called prceliares dies, in which alone it was lawful to join bat¬ tle, and others wherein it was unlawful, called dies atri. The Athenians, by the ancient laws of their country, were not to draw out their forces for battle till after the feventh day of the month : And Lucian relates of the Lacedaemonians, that by the laws of Lycurgus, they were not to fight before full moon. Among the Ger¬ mans, it was reputed an impiety to fight in the wane, of the moon ; and Casfar tells us, that Arioviilus was beaten by him, becaufe, contrary to the laws of his country, he had fought when the moon was in her wane. The German foldiers were intimidated with the apprehenfion, and afforded Caefar an eafy vidlory; acie commijfa, impeditas religione hofes vicit. It is well known that Jerufalem was taken by Pompey in an attack on the Sabbath-day, when by the Jewifh fuperftitious no¬ tions, they were not allowed to fight, or even to defend themfelves. The Romans did not carry their fuperfti- tion fo far : their atri dies were only obferved in refpeft of attacking ; no day was too holy for them to defend themfelves in. Among the ancients, we find frequent inftances of battles in the night; it was by the moon¬ light that Pompey beat Mithridates, and Scipio Afdru- bal and Syphax. The firfl; pitched battle, of which we have any di- ftinft account is, that between Croefus and Cyrus, deferibed by Xenophon, concerning which we have a diflertation exprefsly by M. Freret, wherein feveral points of the ancient tallies are well explained. In the modern war, we find few pitched or fet battles: the chief view of the great commander* of late days is rather to harafs or ftarve the enemy by frequent alarms, cutting off his provifions, carrying off his baggage, feizing his polls, &c. than to join iffue with him, and put the whole on the event of one day ; a battle ge¬ nerally B A V ■Battle neraHy deciding the fate of a campaign, fometimes of [j a whole war. Hence it is a rule, never to venture a ge- Bavaria- , neral battle, unlefs either you fight to advantage, or be ” v forced to it. Joining or giving battle fliould always be by defign : a general thould never fuffer himfelf to be forced to fight. All the meafures, movements, encamp¬ ments, he makes, are to lead to the execution of his great defign,'which is to fight to advantage,'till by fome miflake of the enemy, he at length find the favourable opportunity. It is in this that a fuperior genius will at length prevail over an inferior: in the courfe of a cam¬ paign, he will take a number of advantages over him, which together are equivalent to a battle, the event of which is ever doubtful. BATTLE-s4xe, an ancient military weapon. Axes were a principal part of the offenfive armour of the Celtae. At the fiege of the Roman Capitol by the Gauls under Brennus, we find one of the moft diftin- guilhed of their warriors armed with a battle-axe. And Ammianus Marcellinus, many centuries afterwards, defcribing a body of Gauls, furnilhes them all with battle-axes and fvvords. Some of thefe weapons have been found in the fepulchres of the Britons, on the downs of Wiltlhire, and in the north of Scotland. Within thefe four or five centuries the Irifli went con- ilantly armed with an axe. At the battle of Ban¬ nockburn, King Robert Bruce clave an Englilh cham¬ pion down to the chine, at one blow, with a battle- axe. The axe of Lochaber hath remained a for¬ midable implement of deftru&ion in the hands of our Highlanders, even nearly to the prefent period •, and it is Hill ufed by the city-guard of Edinburgh in quelling mobs, &c. BATTLEMENTS, in Architecture, are indentures or notches in the top of a wall or other building, in the form of embrafures, for the fake of looking through them. BATTOLOGY, in Grammar, a fuperfluous repe¬ tition of fome words or things. BATTON, in merchandife, a name given to cer¬ tain pieces of wood or deal for flooring or other pur- pofes. BATTORY, a name given by the Hans Towns to their magazines or factories abroad. The chief of thefe Battories are thofe at Archangel, Novogorod, Bergh- men, Lifbon, Venice, and Antwerp. BATUA, Butua, Buthoe, or Buthoece, in Ancient Geography, a town of Dalmatia, fituated on the Adria¬ tic ; now Budoa ; which fee. B ATT US, an order of penitents at Avignon and in Provence, whofe piety carries them to exercife fe- vere difcipline upon themfelves both in public and pri¬ vate. * BATZ, a copper coin mixed with fome filver, and current at different rates, according to the alloy in Nu¬ remberg, Bafil, Fribourg, Lucerne, and other cities of Germany and Switzerland. BAVARIA, a duchy and formerly electorate of Germany. This duchy was once a kingdom, which extended from the mountains of Franconia to the fron¬ tiers of Hungary and the Adriatic gulf. It compre¬ hended the countries of Tirol, Carinthia, Carniola, Stiria, Auftria, and other ftates, which are now fallen to different princes. At prefent it is bounded on the eaft by Bohemia and Auftria, on the weft by Suabia, BAY on the north by Franconia, and on the fouth by Tirol. Bavaria. But the duke of Bavaria is not abfolute malter of all ——y-— this country j for within its bounds are fituated many free cities, among which is Ratilbon, and feveral lord- fhips both ecclefiaftical and fecular. It is divided into Upper and Lower Bavaria ; and thefe two provinces confift of i 2 counties, which formerly fufficed to make a duchy, according to the law's of Franconia. The country is watered by five navigable rivers, befides fe¬ veral fmall ones, and 16 lakes. It contains 35 cities, of which Munich is the capital 5 94 towns; 720caftles; 4700 villages ; eight great abbeys; and 75 cloifters or monafteries, befides thofe of the mendicants. It is di¬ vided into four great bailliages called governments. Thefe are Munich, Landihut, Straubing, and Burk- haufen. The principal cities are Ingoldftadt, Donawert, Landfberg, Freiberg, Straubingen, Wilfhaufen, Wafler- berg, Eling, Rain, &c. Befides thefe twTo provinces, the duke of Bavaria poffeffes the upper palatinate of Weftphalia, which has been united to Bavaria, and comprehends feveral counties, cities, towns, and villages. On the other fide of this province is Chamb, the chief city of the county of the fame name, belonging likewife to the duke, of Bavaria. He alio poffeffes the landgravate of Leitchtenberg, which fell to him by the death of Maxi¬ milian Adam, in confequence of family pads made between the houfe of Bavaria and that of Leitch¬ tenberg for their mutual fucceflion. In 1567, the county of Kaag fell to the duke of Bavaria by the death of Ladiflaus the laft count of that name. There are likewife family pads of mutual fucceflion eftablilhed betwixt the houfe of Bavaria and the Palatine of the Rhine. The inhabitants of this country are ftrong and laborious, exercifing themfelves in (hooting with rifled muikets at a mark, in order to render themfelves more expert in war. The houfe of Bavaria is univerfally allowed to be one of the moft ancient in Germany. The counts of Scheyren, whofe caftle at prefent is acloifter, gave them the name. At that place are ftrown the tombs of more than 26 lords of Scheyren. The emperor Otho I. eftabliftred as counts-palatine of Bavaria and landgraves of Scheyren, Arnolph and Herman, fons of Arnolph brother to the duke of Berchtold of Carinthia, mar¬ quis of the county upon the Ens. After the death of Berchtold, the fame emperor, inftead of giving Ba¬ varia to his fon, gave it to Duke Henry his brother, who had married Judith After to Arnolph and Herman. This Duke Henry of Bavaria had by his marriage Henry Hezillon, who was fucceeded by his fon Henry, afterwards chofen emperor by the name of Henry II. This emperor having no children by Saint Cunegond his wife, Bavaria paffed again to the family of Fran¬ conia, and aftenvards to that of Suabia under Henry IV. who poffeffed it till the year 1071, when this laft emperor gave that county to Count Wolf, or Guelph, of Ravenfburg in Suabia. To this Guelph, who died in the ifland of Cyprus, fucceeded Guelph II. and to him his brother Duke Henry IX. who was fucceeded by his fon Henry the Proud. This laft had married the only daughter of the emperor Lotharius, and after the death of his father-in-law became alfo duke of Saxony; but refufing to deliver up the imperial ornaments of his fa¬ ther-in-law to the emperor Conrad III. duke of Sua- [ 472 1 Bavay Eaudius. B - A U [47 bia, or to ackn'owledge hint for emperor, he tvas put to the ban of the empire, and loft his Hates. After the death of Henry, Conrad made his brother Leopold marquis of Auftria and duke of Bavaria *, who, dying without ifiue, was fucceeded by his brother Henry XI. whom the emperor Frederic I. made duke of Auftria, joining together the two counties above and below the "fens, and declaring them free and independent of the government of Bavaria. The fame emperor gave Ba¬ varia thus difmembered, with Saxony, to Henry the Lion, fon of Henry the Proud. But Henry the Lion afterwards lofing the favour of this emperor, was put tt> the ban of the empire: and loft all his poffeffions except Brunfwick and Lunenburg, which ftill remain to his defcendants. In 1180, the duchy of Bavaria was given by the emperor to Otho the landgrave of Wit- telfbach, count palatine of the houfe of Bavaria. In the time of this Otho, the caftle of Scheyren was ■changed into a monaftery, in which the duke was bu¬ ried. From him are defcended the two great families that remain to this day in Germany •, viz. the counts- palatine of the Rhine, and till lately eleflors of Bava¬ ria. The eledftor of Bavaria is now extinft, and funk in the ele£tor-palatine j fo that there are now only eight inftead of nine electoral princes in Germany. BAY AY, a fmall town of the late province of Hainault, now the department of the North, in France, w'hich has been often ruined by the wars of the Low Countries. It was taken by the Auftrians in 1792, but retaken the fame year. E. Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 50. 25- BAUCIS, in fabulous hiftory, an old woman who lived with Philemon her hufband in a cottage in Phry¬ gia. Jupiter and Mercury, travelling over that country, were well received by them, after having been refufed entertainment by every body elfe. To punifh the peo¬ ple for their inhumanity, thefe gods laid the country wafte with water ; but took Baucis and Philemon with them to the top of a mountain, where they faw the deluge, and their own little hut above the waters turned into a temple. Having a wiih granted them, they defired to officiate in this temple as prieft and prieftefs, and alfo that they might die both together j which was granted them. BAUCONICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Vangiones in Gallia Belgica; nine miles from Mo- gontiacum, and eleven from Borbitomagum; and there¬ fore fuppofed to be Oppenheim, a town in the palatinate of the Rhine, and fituated on that river. BAUDELOT, Charles Caesar, a learned advo¬ cate in the parliament of Paris, diilinguiftied himfelf by his {kill in ancient monuments, and was received into the Academy of Belles Lettres in •^•e wrote a Treatife on the Advantages of Travelling ; many Letters and Diftertations on Medals, &c. j and died in 1722, aged 74. B AUDIER, Michael, a gentleman of Languedoc, lived in the reign of Louis XIII. and publifhed feveral books, which procured him the character of a copious and laborious author *, among which are, 1. An In¬ ventory of the General Hiftory of the Turks. 2. The Hiftory of the Seraglio. 3. That of the Religion of the Turks. 4. That of the Court of the King of China. 5. The Life of Cardinal Ximenes, &c. B AUDI US, Dominic, profeftor of Hiftory in the Vol. III. Part II. 3 1 B A U univerfity of Leyden, born at Lifle the 8th of Auguft 1561. He began his ftudies at .Aix-la-Chapelle, and continued them at Leyden. He removed from thence to Geneva, where he ftudied divinity. After refiding here fome time, he returned to Ghent, and from thence to Leyden, where he applied to the civil law, and was admitted d'oftor of law in June 15^5’ Soon after his admiffion, he accompanied the ambafladors from the States to England ; atid during his refidence here be¬ came acquainted with feveral perfons of diftindtion, particularly the famous Sir Philip Sidney. He was admitted advocate at the Hague the 5th of January 1387 j but being foon tired of the bar, went to travel in France, where he remained 10 years. He was much efteemed in that kingdom, and gained many friends there. Achilles de Harlai, firft prefident of the par¬ liament of Paris, got him to be admitted advocate of the parliament of Paris in the year 1592. In 1602, he went to England with Chriftopher de Harlai, the prefident’s fon, who was fent ambaffador to the court of London by Henry the Great. This fame year Bau- dius having been named profeflbr of eloquence at Ley¬ den, went and fettled in that univerfity. He read lec¬ tures on hiftory after the death of Morula, and was per¬ mitted alfo to do the fame on the civil law. In 1611, the States conferred upon him the office of hiftoriogra- pher in conjunction with Meurfms-, and in confequence thereof he wrote The Hiftory of the Truce. Baudius is an elegant profe writer, as appears from his letters, many of which were publifhed after his death. He was alfo an excellent Latin poet. The firft edition of his poems u'as printed in the year 1587 : they confift of verfes of all the different meafures. He publiftied fe- parately a book of iambics in 1591, dedicated to Car¬ dinal Bourbon. Some of his poems he dedicated to the king of England ; others to the prince of Wales, in the edition of 1607, and went over to England to prefent them. He died at Leyden in 1613. B AUDOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Treviri in Germany •, now Boppart, in the electo¬ rate of Triers. See Boppart. BAUDRAND, Michael Anthony, a celebrated geographer, born at Paris July 18. 1633* kle tra¬ velled into feveral countries •, and then applied himfelf to the revifal of Ferrarius’s Geographical Dictionary, which he enlarged by one half. He wrote, T. Notes to Papirius Maffo’s defcription of the Rivers of France. 2. A Geographical and Hiftorical Dictionary. 3. Chri- ftian Geography, or an Account of the Archbiflioprics and Bifhoprics of the whole world ; and made feveral maps. He died at Paris, May 29. 1700. BAUGE, a drugget manufactured in Burgundy, with thread fpun thick and coarfe wool. Bauge, a fmall town of Anjou in France, in the department of Maine and Loire, feated on the river Coefnon. E. Long. O. 10. N. Lat. 47. 30. BAUHIN, John, a diftinguifhed botanift, was born at Lyons in the year 1541. He was the fon of an eminent phyftcian who quitted France, his native country, on account of religion, and fettled at Bafil. In early life he travelled with Gefner, the celebrated na- turalift, and collefted plants in the Alps, in France, and Italy, for the purpofe of the great botanical work which he afterwards accompliffied. He pra£tifed me¬ dicine firft at Bafil, where he was alfo elefted profef- 3 O for Baud ins II . Bauhin. B A U [ 47+ ] - B A U Bauhin. for °f rhetoric in 1566. He refided fome time at ——v—■ •> Yverdun j and was afterwards invited to be phyfician to the duke of Wirtemberg at Monlbelliard, and in this fituation he fpent the remaining forty years of his life. He devoted his ftudies chiefly to botany, on which he beftowed great labour, comparing authors ancient and modern with each other, and with nature, and collecting information from all quarters. He like- wife profecuted other branches of natural hiftory, and published an account of “ Medicinal Waters through¬ out Europe,” and efpecially in the duchy of Wirtem¬ berg ; and a particular account of the mineral fpring of Boll, and the natural hiftory of the place. His great work on plants was not completed at his death, which happened in 1613. A fociety at Yverdun pub- liihed in 1619 the Prodromus of it j but it was not till 1650 and 1651 that the work itfelf appeared in three vols. fol. entitled Hifloria Plantarum nova et abfolu- tijjima, cum auBorum confenfu et di/fenfu circa eas. Bauhin’s fon-in-law, Henry Cherler, was alfo a contri¬ butor to the work. This is a great performance j and, Avith all its defeCls, has been pronounced by Haller to be Avithout an equal. The plants are numerous, gene¬ rally Avell defcribed and difcriminated, and many new fpecies are added. It is ftill confidered as a ftandard Avork ; and the names of John Bauhin and his brother rank high among the founders and firft promoters of botanical fcience. Bauhin, Gafpard, brother of the former, Avas born in 1560. He Avas early devoted to phyfic, and pur- fued his ftudies at Padua, Montpellier, and fome of the celebrated fchools in Germany. In his journeys he col¬ lected a number of plants Avbich had efcaped his brother’s notice. Returning to Bafil in 1580, he Avas admitted to the degree of doCtor, and gave private leCtures in botany and anatomy. In 1582 he was ap¬ pointed to the Greek profelTorfhip in that univerfity, and in 1 j88, to the anatomical and botanical chairs. He Avas at laft made city phyfician, profefl'or of the prac¬ tice of medicine, reCtor of the univerfity, and dean of his faculty. Thus diftinguiftied and honoured, he ac-' quired great reputation. Pie became eminent as a botanift, and was aided in his refearches by the contri¬ butions of his difciples and friends in various parts of Europe. Haller gives him the charaCler of being af- fiduous and laborious in colleCling plants, by which he furpaffed his brother in the number of them, and alfo in the accuracy of his figures ; but he poffelfes lefs acute- nefs of judgment in diftinguilhing varieties, and detec¬ ting the fame fpecies under different names. He pu- blilhed feveral works relative to botany, of which the moft valuable is his Pin ax Theatri Botanici, feu index in Theophrajii, Diofcoridis, P/inii, et botanicorum qui a feculo fcripferunt opera, plantarum fere fex milHum nomina, cum fijnonimiis et differentiis. Opus XIV. an- norum, 410. The confufion that began to arife at this time from the number of botanical Avriters Avho de¬ fcribed the fame plant under different names, rendered fuch a talk as this highly neceffary ; and though there are many defeCts in the execution, the Pinax of Bauhin is ftill a ufeful key to all Avriters before his time. Ano¬ ther great Avork which he planned Avas a Theatrum Botanicum, meant to comprife twelve parts, fol. of Avhich he finiftied three, but only one was publilhed. He alfo gave a very copious catalogue of the plants groAving in the environs of Bafil 5 and he edited the Bauhinia Avorks of Mathiolus, Avith confiderable additions. || Gafpard alfo wrote on anatomy, which he ftudied Baulk, under Hieronymus ab Aquapendente, and purfued with v_m— vigour during his youth. The principal is Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auclum, 410. Frankf 1621 j Avhich is a kind of pinax of anatomical facts and opi¬ nions. He alfo publilhed a colledtion of anatomical plates. He died in 1613. BAUHINIA, Mountain Ebony. See Botany Index. BAVINS, in War, brulh faggots, made with the brulh at length. See Fascines j and Fire-ship, note (d). BAUM, in Botany. See Melissa, Botany In¬ dex. BAUME, St, a mountain of Provence in France, betAveen Marfeilles and Toulon. Here Mary Magda¬ len is faid to have died, on which account it is much frequented. BAUME-1es-Names, a town in France, in the depart¬ ment of Doub, which had a rich nunnery, from whence it takes its name, feated on the river Doux, in E. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 47. 12. Five miles from this town is a remarkable cavern, Avhofe entrance is 20 paces Avide ; and after defcending 300 paces, the gate of a grotto is feen, tAvice as large as that of a city. The grotto is 35 paces deep, 60 Avide, and is covered AA’ith a kind of a vaulted roof, from which water con¬ tinually drops. There is alfo a fmall brook, faid to be frozen in fummer, but not in Avinter •, and at the bottom are ftones that exaftly refemble candied citron peel. When the peafants perceive a mill rifing out of this cave, they affirm that it Avill certainly rain the next day. BAUMEN, or Bauman, a cave of Lorver Saxony in Germany, about a mile from Wermigerode, and 18 from Goflar. The entrance is through a rock $ and fo narroAV, that not above one perfon can pafs at a time. There are feveral paths in it, Avhich the peafants have turned up, in fearching for the bones of animals Avhich they fell for unicorn’s horns. Some think this cave reaches as far as Goflar •, but be this as it Avill, the fke- letons of men have been found in it, Avho are fuppofed to have been loft in the turnings and Avindings. BAUR, William, an eminent Flemifh painter, Avas born at Strafburg, and Avas the difciple of Bren- del. He Avas fome time at Rome, Avhere his ftudies Avere Avholly employed about archite&ure and land- fcapes, Avhich prevented his ftudying the antique. He painted fmall figures in diftemper on vellum. He etch¬ ed Avith great fpirit. His largeft Avorks are in the hi- ftorical Avay. He has given us many of the fieges, and battles, which Avafted Flanders in the 16th century. They may be exaft, and probably they are : but they are rather plans than pi£tures j and have little to re¬ commend them but hiftoric truth, and the freedom of the execution. His beft prints are fome characters he has given us of different nations, in which the peculia¬ rities of each are very Avell preferved. His Ovid is a poor performance. He died at Vienna in 1640. BAUSK or Bautko, a fmall but important toAvn in the duchy of Courland, on the frontiers of Poland, Avith a ftrong caftle built on a rock. It Avas taken by the SAvedes in 1625, and by the Ruffians in 1705, af¬ ter BAX L 475 ] BAX Bautry ter a bloody battle between them and the Swedes. || It is fituated on the river Mufa, in E. Long. 24. 44. Baxter. _ N. Lat. 56. 30. B AUTRY, or Bawtry, a town in the weft rid¬ ing of Yorkfhire, on the road from London to York. It has long been noted for miilftones and grindftones brought hither by the river Idle, on which it is feated. W. Long. I. O. N. Lat. 53. 27. BAUTZEN, or Budissen, a confiderable town of Germany, and capital of Upper Lufatia, fubjeft to the eleftor of Saxony, with a ftrong citadel. The Proteftants as well as Papifts have here the free exer- cife of their religion. E. Long. 14. 42. N. Lat. 51. 10. BAUX, a town of Provence in France, now the department of the Mouths of the Rhine, with the title of a marquifate, feated on a rock, at the top of which is a ftrong caftle. E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 43. 42. BAWD, a perfon who keeps a place of proftitu- tion, or makes a trade of debauching women, and pro¬ curing or conducing of criminal intrigues. Some think the word is derived from the old French Baude, bold or impudent; though Verftegan has a conjecture which would carry it higher, viz. from bathe anciently writ¬ ten bade. In which fenfe originally imported no more than bath-holder, as if bagnios had anciently been the chief fcenes of fuch proftitution. The Romans had their male as well as female bawds} the former denominated leones and proagogi, among us the latter, lence. Donatus, fpeak- ing of the habits of the ancient characters in comedy, fays, Lena paliis varii colons utitur. But the ancient lenones, it is to be obferved, furnilhed boys as well as girls for venereal fer.vice. Another fort of thefe mer¬ chants or dealers in human flefh, were called mango- nes, by the Greeks «v^o>£flt7rj5Aa<, who fold eunuchs, flaves, &c. By a law of Conftantine, bawds were to be punifhed by pouring melted lead down their throats. See the next article. BAWDY-Houfe, a houfe of ill fame, to which lewd perfons of both fexes refort, and there have criminal converfation. The keeping a bawdy-houfe is a common nuifance, not only on account that it endangers the public peace by drawing together debauched and idle perfons, and promoting quarrels, but likewife for its tendency to corrupt the manners of the people. And therefore perfons convicted of keeping bawdy-houfes, are pu- nilhable by fine and impriionment j alfo liable to (land in the pillory, and to fuch other punifhment as the court at their difcretion (hall mfliCt. . Perfons reforting to a bawdy-houfe are likewife puniftiable, and they may be bound to their good behaviour.—It was al¬ ways held infamous to keep a bawdy-houfe : yet fome of our hiftorians mention bawdy-houfes publicly al¬ lowed here in former times till the reign of Henry VIII. and affign the number to be 18 thus allowed on the bank-fide 'in Southwark. See Stews and Bro¬ thel. Bawdy-houfes are licenfed in Holland, and pay a confiderable tax to the ftate. BAWLING, among fportfmen, is fpoke of the dogs, when they are too bufy before they find the fcent good. _ , . BAXTER, Richard, an eminent divine among the Nonconformifts, was born at Rowton in Shrop- Baxter, {hire, November 12. 1615-, and diftinguifhed himfelf —v— by his exemplary life, his pacific and moderate prin¬ ciples, and his numerous writings. He was remark¬ able for his piety even when he was very young. Up¬ on the opening of the long parliament, he was chofen vicar of Kidderminfter. In the heat of the civil wars he withdrew from that town to Coventry, and preach¬ ed to the garrifon and inhabitants. When Oliver Cromwell was made proteftor, he would by no means comply with his meafures, though he preached once before him. He came to London juft before the de- pofing of Richard Cromwell, and preached before the parliament the day before they voted the return of King Charles II. who upon his reftoration appointed him one of his chaplains in ordinary. He afiifted at the conference in the Savoy, as one of the commiffion- ers for dating the fundamentals in religion, and then drew up a reformed liturgy. He was offered the bifhop- rick of Hereford ; which he refufed ; affeCling no higher preferment than the liberty of continuing mini- fter of Kidderminfter-, which he could not obtain, for he was not permitted to preach there above twice of thrice after the Reftoration. Whereupon he returned to London, and preached occafionally about the city, till the a£t of uniformity took place. In 1662, Mr Baxter was married to Margaret Charleton, daughter to Francis Charleton, Efq. of the county of Salop, who was efteemed one of the beft juftices of the peace in that county. She was a woman of great piety, and entered thoroughly into her hufhand’s views concern¬ ing religion. During the plague in 1665 he retired into Buckinghamftiire -, but afterwards returned to Ac¬ ton, where he ftaid till the aft againft conventicles ex¬ pired -, and then his audience was fo large that he wanted room. Upon this he was committed to pri- fon -, but procuring a habeas corpus, he was difchar- ged. After the indulgence in 1672, he returned to London ; and in 1682 he was feized for coming with¬ in five miles of a corporation. In 1684 he was feized again; and in the reign of King James II. was com¬ mitted prifoner to the King’s Bench, and tried before the lord chief juftice Jefferies for his Paraphrafe on the New Teftament, which was called a fcandalous andye- ditious book againft the government. He continued in prifon two years ; from whence he was at laft dif- charged, and had his fine remitted by the king. He died December the 8th 1691 ; and was buried in Chrift-church. Mr Sylvefter fays, that Mr Baxter’s “ perfon was tall and flender, and (looped much his countenance compofed and grave, fomewhat inclining to fmile. He had a piercing eye, a very articulate fpeech, and de¬ portment rather’.plain than complimental.” There is an original portrait of him at Dr Williams’s library, founded for the ufe of Proteftant Diffenting Minifters, in Red-crofs ftreet. Mr Sylvefter alfo fays, that “ he had a great command over his thoughts. He had that happy faculty, fo as to anfwer the charafler that was given of him by a learned man diffenting from him, after difeourfe with him ; which was that he could fay what he would, and he could prove what he faid. . He was moft intent upon the neceffary things. Rational learning he moft valued, and was a very extraordinary matter of. And as to his expreflive faculty, he fpake 3 O 2 properly,- BAX [ 476 ] BAX properly, plainly, pertinently, and pathetically. He could fpeak full ably, both to men’s capacities and to the things infilled on. He was a perfon wonderful at extemporate preaching.” But his common practice appears to have been to preach with notes; though he laid, “ That he thought it very needful for a minifter to have a body of divinity in his head.” He wras ho¬ noured with the friendlhip of fome of the greateft and beft men in the kingdom (as the earl of Lauderdale, the earl of Balcarras, Lord Chief Juftice Hales, Dr Tillotfon, &o.) j and held correfpondence with fome of the molt eminent foreign divines.—He w'rote above 120 books, and had above 60 written againll him. The former, however, it (hould feem, were greatly prefe¬ rable to the latter ; fince Dr Barrow, an excellent judge, fays, that “ his practical writings were never mended, his controverfial feldom confuted.” Mr Granger’s charadfer of him is too ftriking to be omitted. “ Richard Baxter was a man famous for weaknefs of body and ftrength of mind ; for having the ftrongeft fenfe of religion himfelf, and exciting a fenfe of it in the thoughtlefs and profligate : for preach¬ ing more fermons, engaging in more controverfies, and writing more books, than any other Nonconformill of his age. He fpoke, difputed, and wrote with eafe ; and difcovered the fame intrepidity when he reproved Cromwell and expoftulated with Charles II. as when he preached to a congregation of mechanics. His z;eal for religion was extraordinary ; but it feems never to have prompted him to fadlion, or carried him to en- thufiafm. This champion of the Prelbyterians was the common butt of men of every other religion, and of thofe who were of no religion at all. But this had very little effedl upon him : his prefence and his firm- nefs of mind on no occafion forfook him. He was juft the fame man before he wrent into a prifon, while he was in it, and when he came out of it ; and he maintained an uniformity of charadler to the laft gafp of his life. His enemies have placed him in hell; but every man who has not ten times the bigotry that Mr Baxter himfelf had, rauft conclude that he is in a bet¬ ter place. This is a very faint and imperfect Iketch of Mr Baxter’s charadler : men of his fize are not to be drawn in miniature. His portrait, in full propor¬ tion, is in his Narrative of his own Life and Times ; which though a rhapfody, compofed in the manner of a diary, contains a great variety of memorable things, and is itfelf, as far as it goes, a Hiftory of Noncon¬ formity.”—Among his moft famous works were, 1. The Saints Everlafting Reft. 2. Call to the Uncon¬ verted, of which 20,000 were fold in one year ; and it was tranflated not only into all the European lan¬ guages, but into the Indian tongue. 3. Poor Man’s Family Book. 4. Dying Thoughts; and, 5. A Pa- raphrafe on the New Teilament. His practical works have been printed in four volumes folio. Baxter, William, nephew and heir to the former, was an eminent fchoolmafter and critic. He was born at Lanlugany in Shropfliire, in the year 1650 ; and it is remarkable, that at the age of 18, when he firft went to fchool, he knew not one letter nor underftood one word of any language but Welfti; but he fo well im¬ proved his time, that he became a perfon of great and extenfive knowledge* His genius led him chiefly to the ftudy of antiquities and philology, in which he compofed feveral books. The firft he publithed was a Baxter Grammar, in 1679, entitled De Analogia feu Ariey-—\— Latince Linguce Commenturiolus. He alfo pubiilhod a new and corredt edition of Anacreon, with notes ; an edition of Horace ; a Didtionary of the Britifh anti¬ quities, in Latin : and feveral other books. He was a great maftef of the ancient Britifh and Irifh tongues, was particularly fkilled in the Latin and Greek, and in the northern and eaftern languages. He died May 31. 1723, after being above 20 years mafttr of Mer¬ cer’s School in London. Baxter, Andrew, a very ingenious metaphyfical writer, was born in 1686 or 1687, at Old Aberdeen (where his father was a merchant), and educated in King’s College there. His principal employment was that of a private tutor to young gentlemen ; and a- mong others of his pupils were Lord Gray, Lord Elan- tyre, and Mr Flay of Drummelzier. About 1724 he married the daughter of a clergyman in the {hire of Berwick. A few years after he publifhed in 410, “ An Inquiry into the Nature of the human Soul, wherein its immateriality is evinced from the principles of rea- fon and philofophy ;” witheut date. In 1741 he went abroad with Mr Hay, and refided fome years at U- trecht ; having there alfo Lord Blantyre under his care. He made excurfions from thence into Flanders, France, and Germany ; his wife and family refiding, in the mean time, chiefly at Berwick-upon-Tweed. He re¬ turned to Scotland in 1747, and refided till his death at Whittingham, in the (hire of Eaft Lothian. He drew up, for the ufe of his pupils and his fon, a piece entitled Matho ; five, Cofmotheoria puerilis, Dia/ogus. In quo prima elementa de mundi ordine et ornatu propo- nuntur, fo'c. This was afterwards greatly enlarged, and publifhed in Englifh, in two volumes 8vo. In 1750 was publifhed, “ An Appendix to his Inquiry into the Nature of the human Soul wherein he en¬ deavours to remove fome difficulties which had been ftarted againft his notions of the vis inertice of matter, by Maclaurin, in his “ Account of Sir Ifaac New¬ ton’s Philofophical Difcoveries.” To this piece Mr Baxter prefixed a dedication to Mr John Wilkes, with whom he had commenced an acquaintance abroad. He died April the 23d, 1750, after fuffering for fome months under a complication of diforders, of which the gout was the chief. He left a wife, three daugh¬ ters, and one fon, Mr Alexander Baxter ; from which laft the authors of Biographia Britannica received, as they inform us, fundry particulars of his life. His learning and abilities are fufficiently difplayed in his writings. He v'as extremely ftudious, and fometimes fat up whole nights in reading and writing. His temper at the fame time was very cheerful, and he was a friend to innocent merriment. It is faid of Mr Baxter, that he entered with much good humour into the converfation and pleafures of young people, when they were of an innocent nature r and that he prefided, all the time of his abode at Utrecht, at the ordinary which was frequented by all the young Eng- lifti gentlemen there, with much gaiety and politenefs, and in fuch a manner as gave univerfal fatisfa6lion. He alfo frequented the moft polite aflemblies in that city, and his company and converfation were parti¬ cularly acceptable to the ladies. So that Mr Baxter appears to have ftudied the graces, though without neglecting B A Y £ 477 1 BAY Bn«ter negleflin^ more valuable acquifitions and accomplii'h- Cay. nients. He was at once the fcholar and the gentle- 'Y* man. In converfation he was modeft, and not apt to make much (liow of the extenfive knowledge of which he was poflefled. In the difcharge of the fev,eral io- cial and relative duties of life, his conduft was exem¬ plary. He had the moft reverential fentiments of the Deity, of whole prefence and immediate fupport he had always a ftrong impreflion upon his mind ; and the general tenor of his life appears to have been con¬ formable to the rules of virtue. Mr Baxter paid a drift attention to economy, though he dreffed elegant¬ ly, and was not parlimonious in his other expences. It is known alfo that there were feveral occafions on which he afted with remarkable difinterettednels j and Cj far was he from courting preferment, that he has repeatedly declined confiderable offers of that kind which were made him, if he would have taken orders in the church of England. The French, German, and Dutch languages were fpoken by him with much eafe, and the Italian tolerably } and he wrote and read them all, together with the Spaniih. His friends and cor- refpondents were numerous and refpeftable •, and a- mong them are particularly mentioned Mr Pointz, pre¬ ceptor to the late duke of Cumberland, and Dr War- burton, bilhop of Gloucefter. He was a man alfo of great benevolence and eandourg which appears moft ftrikingly from this, inafmuch as though Mr Wilkes had made himfelf fo very obnoxious to the Scotifh na¬ tion in general, yet Mr Baxter kept up with him an affeflionate correfpondence to the laft, even after he was unable to write with his own hand. He left ma¬ ny manuferipts behind him *, he would gladly have finifhed his work upon the human foul : “ I own,” fays he, in a letter to Mr Wilkes, “ if it had been the will of heaven, I would gladly have lived till I had put in order the fecond part of the Enquiry, fhowing the im¬ mortality of the human foul j but Infinite Wifdotn cannot be miftaken in calling me fooner. Our blind- nefs makes us form wifhes.” It was indeed, what he confidered it, his capital work : a fecond edition of it was publifhed in two volumes 8vo in 1737’ an(^ a ^1'rc^ in 1745. In another letter, fpeaking of his endeavours to eftablilh the particular providence of the Deity, and to fhow his inceffant influence and aftion on all the parts of matter, through the wide univerfe, from the inadlivity of this dead fubftance *, expreffes his hope, that when the prefent party-zeal fubfides a little, men will come more eafily in to own fuch a plain truth. “ ITis prediction,” the editors of the Biographia Britannica obferve, “ hath not yet been accompliflied. Several eminent names feem rather difpofed to inereafe than to leffen the powers of matter ; and they have exprefsly maintained that the foul of man is material. However, other names equally eminent have afferted the effential diftindtion between the mind and the body. Perhaps, in the revolutions of opinion, the dodlrine of immate¬ riality may again obtain the general fuffrage of meta- phyfical and philofophical inquiry.” BAY, in Geography, an arm of the fea (hooting up into the land, and terminating in a nook. It is a kind of leffer gulf bigger. than a creek, and is larger in its middle within than at its entrance. The largeft and moft noted bays in the world are thofe of Bifcay, Ben¬ gal, Hudfon’s, Panama, See. Bay II Bayard. Bay denotes likewife a pond-head made to keep in (lore of water for driving the wheels of the furnace or hammer belonging to an iron mill, by the ftream that comes thence through a flood-gate called the pen-Jlock. Bay Colour denotes a fort of red inclining to chef- nut, chiefly uled in fpeaking of horfes. In this fenfe, the word bay is formed from the Latin baius, or badius, and that from the Greek fixiex;, a palm branch ; fo that badius or bay properly denotes color phamceus. Hence alfo, among the ancients, thofe now called bay horfes, were denominated equt palmati. We have divers forts and degrees of bays •, as a light bay, a dapple bay, &c. All bay horfes are faid to have black manes ; which diftinguifhes them from forrels, which have red or white manes. Bay, among huntfmen, is when the dogs have earthed a vermin, or brought a deer, boar, or the like,- to turn head againft them. In this cafe, not only the deer, but the dogs, are faid to bay. It is dangerous going in to a hart at bay, efpecially at rutting-time j for then they are fierceft. There are bays at land, and others in the water. BAY-Tree. See Laurus, Botany Index. BAT-Salt. See Salt. BAY A, or Baja, a town of Lower Hungary, in the county of Bath, lituated near the Danube. E. Long. 19. 30. N. Lat. 46. 25. BAYARD, Peter du Terrail de, efteemed by his cotemporaries the model of foldiers and men of ho¬ nour, and denominated The knight ’without fear and without reproach, was defeended from an ancient and noble family in Danphine. He was with Charles VIII. at the conqueft of the kingdom of Naples ; where he gave remarkable proofs of his valour, efpecially at the battle of Fornoue. He was dangeroufly woupded at the taking of the city of Brefcia : and there reftored to the daughters of his hoft 2000 piftoles, which their mother had diredled them to give him in order to pre¬ vent the houfe from being plundered ; an adlion that has been celebrated by many hiftorians. At his return to France, he was made lieutenant-general of Dauphine. He fought by the fide of Francis I. at the battle of Marignan j and that prince afterwards infilled on being knighted by his hand, after the manner of the ancient knights. The chevalier Bayard defended Meziers du¬ ring fix weeks, againft Charles V.’s army. In I524* at the retreat of Rebec * (the general Bonivet having* 0j' been wounded and obliged to quit the field, the cow- Charles V>- dud of the rear was committed to the chevalier Bayard,book v. who, though fo much a ftranger to the arts of a court that he never rofe to the chief command, was always called, in times of real danger, to the pofts of greateft difficulty and importance. He put himfelf at the head of the men at arms ; and animating them by his pre¬ fence and example to fuftain the whole (hock of the ene¬ my’s troops, he gained time for the reft of his country¬ men to make good their retreat. But in this feryice he received a wround which he immediately perceived to be mortal 5 and being unable to continue any longer on horfeback, he ordered one of his attendants to place him under a tree, with his face towards the enemy j then fixing his eyes on the guard of his fword, which he held up inftead of a crofs, he addreffed his prayers to God ; and in this pofture, which became his cha¬ racter both as a foldier and as a Ckriftian, he calmly waited- BAY T 478 ]• BAY Bayeux, waited the approach of death. Bourbon, who led the Bayle. foremoft of the enemy’s troops, found him in this fi- “V tuation, and expreffed regret and pity at the fight. “ Pity not me,” cried the high-fpirited chevalier, “ I die as a man of honour ought, in the difcharge of “ my duty : they indeed are objefts of pity, who fight “ againft their king, their country, and their oath.” The marquis de Pefcara, paffing foon after, manifefled his admiration of Bayard’s virtue, as well as his forrow for his fate, with the generofity of a gallant enemy j and finding that he could not be removed with fafety from that fpot, ordered a tent to be pitched there, and appointed proper perfons to attend him. He died, notwithftanding their care, as his anceftors for feveral generations had done, in the field of battle. Pefcara, ordered his body to be embalmed, and font to his rela¬ tions ; and fuch was the refpeft paid to military merit in that age, that the duke of Savoy commanded it to be received with royal honours in all the cities of his dominions : in Dauphine, Bayard’s native country, the people of all ranks came out in a folemn proceflion to meet it. BAYEUX, a confiderable town of France in the department of Calvados, with a rich bifhop’s fee. The cathedral church is accounted the fineft in that pro¬ vince ; and its front and three high fteeples are faid to be the beft in France. W. Long. o. 33. N. Lat. 49. 16. BAYLE, PETER, author of the Hiftorical and Cri¬ tical Di&ionary, was born November 18. 1657, at Carla, a village in the county of Foix, in France, where his father John Bayle was a Proteflant minifter. In 1666, he went to the Proteftant univerfity at Puy- laureus, where he ftudied with the greateft applica¬ tion ; and in 1669, removed to the univerfity of Tou- loufe, whither the Proteftants at that time frequently fent their children to ftudy under the Jefuits : but here, to the great grief of his father, he embraced the Romilh religion. However, being foon fenfible of his error, he left that univerfity, and went to ftudy at Ge¬ neva j after which he was chofen profeflbr of philofo- phy at Sedan : but that Proteftant univerfity being fup- preffed by Louis XIV. in 1681, he was obliged to leave the city •, and was foon after chofen profeffor of philofopby and hiftory at Rotterdam, with a falary of about 45I. a year. The year following he publiftied his Letter concerning Comets. And Father Maimbourg having publiftied about this time his Hiftory of Cal- vinifm, wherein he endeavours to draw upon the Pro¬ teftants the contempt and refentment of the Catholics, Mr Bayle wrote a piece to confute his hiftory. The reputation which he had now acquired, induced the States of Friezland, in 1684, to offer him a profeffor- Ihip in their univerfity •, but he wrote them a letter of thanks, and declined the offer. The fame year he began to publilh his Nouve/les de la republique des let- tres. In 1686, he was drawn into a difpute in relation to the famous Chriftina queen of Sweden. In his Journal for April, he took notice of a printed letter fuppofed to have been written by her Swedifh majefty to the che¬ valier de Terlon, wherein ftie condemns the perfecution of the Proteftants in France. He inferted the letter it- felf in his Journal for May ; and in that of June follow¬ ing he fays, “ What we . hinted at in our laft month is confirmed to us from day to day, that Chriftina is the real author of the letter concerning the perfecu- u tions in France, which is afcribed to her : it is a re¬ mainder of Proteftantifm.” Mr Bayle received an anonymous letter j the author of which fays, that he wrote to him of his own accord, being in duty bound to it as a fervant of the queen. He complains that Mr Bayle, fpeaking of her majefty, called her only Chrijlina, without any title •, he finds alfo great fault with his calling the letter “ a remainder of Proteftan¬ tifm.” He blames him likewife for inferting the words “ I am,” in the conclufion of the letter. “ Thefe words (fays this anonymous writer) are not her maje- fty’s ; a queen, as ftie is, cannot employ thefe words but with a regard to a very few perfons, and Mr de Ter¬ lon is not of that number.” Mr Bayle wrote a vindi¬ cation of himfelf as to thefe particulars, with which the author of the anonymous letter declared himfelf fa- tisfied, excepting what related to “ the remainder of Proteftantifm.” He would not admit of the defence with regard to that expreflion ; and in another letter* advifed him to retraft that expreflion. He adds in a poftfcript, “ You mention, in your Journal of Auguft, a fecond letter of the queen, which you fcruple to pub- lilh. Her majefty would be glad to fee that letter ; and you will do a thing agreeable to her if you would fend it to her. You might take this opportunity of writing to her majefty. This counfel may be, of fome ufe to you; do not negleft it.” Mr Bayle took the hint, and wrote a letter to her majefty, dated the 14th of November 1686 j to which the queen, on the 14th of December, wrote the following anfwer :—“ Mr Bayle, I have received your excufes •, and r«tn willing you ftiould know by this letter, that I am fatisfied with them. I am obliged to the zeal of the perfon who gave you occafion of writing to me : for I am ve¬ ry glad to know you. You exprefs fo much refpeft and affeflion for me, that I pardon you fincerely j and I would have you know, that nothing gave me of¬ fence but that remainder of Protefantifm, of which you accufed me. I am very delicate on that head, becaufe nobody can fufpett me of it, without leffening my glo¬ ry, and injuring me in the moft fenfible manner. You wmuld do well if you Ihould even acquaint the public with the miftake you have made, and with your re¬ gret for it. This is all that remains to be done by you, in order to deferve my being entirely fatisfied with you. As to the letter which you have fent me, it is mine without doubt; and fince you tell me that it is printed, you will do me a pleafure if you fend me fome copies of it. As I fear nothing in France, fo neither do I fear any thing at Rome. My fortune, my blood, and even my life, are entirely devoted to the fervice of the church •, but I flatter nobody, and will never fpeak any thing but the truth. I am obliged to thofe who have been pleafed to publifti my letter, for I do not at all difguife my fentiments. I thank God, they are too noble and too honourable to be difowned. However, it is not true that this letter was written to one of my minifters. As 1 have every¬ where enemies and perfons who envy me, fo in all pla¬ ces I have friends and fervants : and I have poflibly as many in France, notwithftanding of the court, as any¬ where in the world. This is purely the truth, and you may regulate yourfelf accordingly. But you fhall not get BAY [ I will enjoin you a henceforth take the books that (hall be B iyle. get & cheap as you imagine. —' penance j which is, that you will trouble of fending me all curious publilhed in Latin, French, Spanilh, or Italian, on whatever fubje6t or fcience, provided they are worthy of being looked into ; I do not even except romances or fatires and above all, if there are any books of chemitlry, I defire you may fend them to me as foon as poflible. Do not forget like wife to fend me your Journal. X ihall order that you be paid for whatever you lay out, do but fend me an account of it. This will be the molt agreeable and moft important fervice that can be done me. May God profper you. Christina Alexandra.” It now only remained that Mr Bayle (hould acquaint the public with the miftake he had made, in order to merit that princefs’s entire fatisfaftion ; and this he did in the beginning of his Journal of the month of January, 1687.. The perfecution which the Proteftants at this time fuffered in France afFeded Mr Bayle extremely. He made occafionally fome refledions on their fulferings in his Journal; and he wrote a pamphlet alfo on the fubjeft. Some time afterwards he publithed his Com¬ ment uire Philofophique upon thefe words, “ Compel them to come in but the great application he gave to this and his other works, threw him into a fit of iicknefs, which obliged him to difcontinue his Litera¬ ry Journal. Being advifed to try a change of air, he left Rotterdam on the 8th of Auguft, and went to Cleves ; whence, after having continued fome time, he removed to Aix la Chapelle, and from thence return¬ ed to Rotterdam on the 18th of OiRober. In the year 1690, the famous book, entitled, aux Refugiex, &c. made its appearance. Mr Jurieu, who took Mr Bayle for the author thereof, wrote a piece againfl it j and he prefixed an advice to the public, wherein he calls Mr Bayle a profane perfon, and a traitor enga¬ ged in a confpiracy againfl: the ftate. As foon as Mr Bayle had read this libel againft him, he went to the grand fchout of Rotterdam, and offered to go to pri- fon, provided his accufer would accompany him, and undergo the puniffiment he deferved if the accufation was found unjufi. He publiihed alfo an anfwer to Mr Jurieu’s charge ; and as his reputation, nay his very life, was at flake in cafe the accufation of treafon was proved, he therefore thought himfelf not obliged to keep any terms with the accufer, and attacked him with the utmoft feverity. Mr Jurieu loft all patience : he applied himfelf to the magiilrates of Amfterdam j who advifed him to a reconciliation with Mr Bayle, and enjoined them not to publiftr any thing againft each other till it was examined by Mr Boyer, the pen- fioner of Rotterdam. But notwithftanding this prohi¬ bition, Mr Jurieu attacked Mr Bayle again with fo much paflion, that he forced him to write a new vindi¬ cation ofhimfelf. In November 1690, M. de Beauval advertifed in his Journal, A fcheme for a Critical DiEhonary. ihis was the work of Mr Bayle. The articles of the three firft letters of the alphabet were already prepared •, but a difpute happening betwixt him and M. de Beauval, obliged him for fome time to lay afide the work. Nor did he refume it till May 1672, when he publiftied his 479 1 bay fcheme : but the public not approving of his plan, he threw it into a different form j and the firft volume was publilhed in Auguft 1695, and the fecond in 061ober ^ following. The work was extremely well received by the public •, but it engaged him in frefti difputes, par¬ ticularly with Mr Jurieu and the Abbe Rtnaudot. Mr Jurieu publiftied a piece, wherein he endeavoured to engage the ecclefiaftical affemblies to condemn the dic¬ tionary ; he prefented it to the fenate fitting at Delft, but they took no notice of the affair. 'I he confiftory of Rotterdam granted Mr Bayle a hearing j and after having heard his anfwers to their remarks on his dic¬ tionary, declared themfelves fatisfied, and advifed him to communicate this to the public. Mr Jurieu made another attempt with the confiftory in 1698 j and fo far he prevailed with them, that they exhorted Mr Bayle to be more cautious with regard to his princi¬ ples in the fecond edition of his didtionary ; which was publithed in 1702, with many editions and improve¬ ments. Mr Bayle was a moft laborious and indefatigable writer. In one of his letters to Maizeux, he fays, that fince his 20th year he hardly remembers to have had any leifure. His intenfe application contributed perhaps to impair his conftitution, for it loon began to decline. He had a decay of the lungs, which weak¬ ened him confiderably j and as this was a diftemper which had cut oft'feveral of his family, he judged it to be mortal, and would take no remedies. He died the 28th of December 1706, after he had been writing the greateft part of the day. He wrote feveral books be- fides what we have mentioned, many of which were in his own defence againft attacks he had received from the abbe Renaudot, Mr Clerk, M. Jaquelot, and o- thers. Among the productions which do honour to the age of Louis XIV. Mr Voltaire has not omitted the Critical Dictionary of our author : “ It is the firft work of the kind (he fays) in which a man may learn to think.” He cenfures indeed thofe articles which contain only a detail of minute faCts, as unworthy ei¬ ther of Bayle, an underftanding reader, or pofterity. “ In placing him (continues the fame author) amongft the writers who do honour to the age of Louis XIV. notwithftanding his being a refugee in Holland, I only conform to the decree of the parliament of Tho- loufe, which, when it declared his will valid in France, notwithftanding the rigour of the laws, exprefsly faid, that fuch a man could not be confidered as a foreign- Bayle 11 Bayon. BAYLY, Lewis, author of that moft memorable book, entitled “ The PraCtice of Piety.” He was born at Caermarthen in Wales, educated at Oxford, made minifter of Eveftiam in Worcefterlhire about 1611, became chaplain to King James, and was promoted to the fee of Bangor in 1616. His book is dedicated to the high and mighty prince, Charles prince of Wales j and the author tells his highnefs, “ that he had endeavoured to extrad out of the chaos of endlefs controverfies the old praCtice of true piety, which flou- riftied before thefe controverfies were hatched.” The defign was good •, and the reception this book has met with may be known from the number of its editions, that in 8vo, 1734, being the fifty-ninth. This pre¬ late died in 1632. BAYON, a town of France, in Lorrain, now the department v [ 4So Mofelle B A Y cleparliuent of Meurthe, feated on tnc river E. Long. 14. 42. N. Lat. 48. 30. Baton, or Baijona, a town of Galicia, in Spain, feated on a fmall gulf of the Atlantic ocean, about 12 miles from Tuy. It has a very commodious harbour, and the country about it is fertile. W. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 43. 3. BAYONET, in the military art, a ftiort broad dagger, formerly with a round handle fitted for the bore of a firelock, to be fixed there after the foldier had fired ; but they are now made with iron handles and rings, that go over thte muzile of the firelock, and are fcrewed faft, fo that the foldier fires with his bayo¬ net on the muzzle of his piece, artd is ready to adf againft the horfe. This ufe of the bayonet fattened on the muzzle of the firelock was a great improvement, fi'rft introduced by the French, and to which, accord¬ ing to M. Folard, they owed a great part of their vic¬ tories in the laft century j and to the negle<5t of this in the next fucceeding war, and trufting to their fire, the fame author attributes mofi: of the lofies they fufiain- td. At the fiege of Malta, a weapon called pi/a ignea was contrived to oppofe the bayonets, being in fome meafure the converfe thereof j as the latter confifts of a dagger added to a fire-arm, the former confifted of a fire-arm added to a pilum or pike. Of late the bayonet has come into very general ufe ; and battles have been won by it without firing a (hot. This way of fighting wTas chiefly reftored by the late king of Pruflia, who made his troops rufh forward at once with bayonets on the enemy. BAYONNE, a city of Gafcony, in France, now the department of the Lower Pyrenees ; feated near the mouth of the river Adour, which forms a good harbour. It is moderately large, and of great im¬ portance. It is divided into three parts. The great town is on this fide the river Nive 5 the little town is between the Nive and the Adour *, and the fuburb of Saint Efprit is beyond this laft river. Both the former are furrounded with an old wall and a dry ditch, and there is a fmall caftle in each. That of Great Bayonne is flanked with four round towers, and is the place where the governor refides. The new caftle is flanked with four towers, in the form of baftions. The firft enclofure is covered with another, compofed of eight baftions, with a great horn-work, and a half-moon ; all which are encompaffed with a ditch, and a covered way. There is communication between the city and the fuburbs by a bridge, and the fuburbs are well forti¬ fied. The citadel is feated beyond the Adour, on the fide of the fuburbs above mentioned. The public buildings have nothing remarkable ; it is the only ci¬ ty in the kingdom that has the advantage of two ri¬ vers, wherein the tide ebbs and flows. The river Nive is deeper than the Adour, but lefs rapid, by which means fhips come up into the middle of the city. There are two bridges over the river, by which the old and new towns communicate with each other. The trade of this town is the more confiderable, on account of its neighbourhood to Spain, and the great quantity of wines which are brought hither from the adjacent ‘country. The Dutch carry off a great number of ‘pipes in exchange for fpices and other commodities, which they bring thither. The inhabitants had for¬ merly the privilege of guarding two of their three B A £ gates, and the third was kept by the king. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 43. 20. BAYS, in Commerce, a fort of open woollen fluff, having a long nap, fometimes frized, and fometimes not. This fluff is without wale 5 and is wrought in a loom with two treddles, like flannel. It is chiefly ma- nufadlured at Colchefter and Bockin in Effex, where there is a hall called the Dutch-baij hall or raw hall. This manufafture was firft introduced into England, with that'of fays, ferges, &c. by the Flemings ; who being perfecuted by the duke of Alva for their re¬ ligion, fled thither about the fifth of Queen Eliza¬ beth’s reign j and had afterwards peculiar privileges granted them by aft of parliament 12 Charles II. 1660, which the bays-makers in the above places ftill enjoy. The exportation of bays v'as formerly much more con¬ fiderable than at prefent when the French have learned fo imitate them. However, the Englifh bays are ftill fent in great quantities to Spain and Portugal, and even to Italy. Their chief ufe is for drtfling the monks and nuns, and fot linings', efpecially in the ar¬ my. The looking-glafs makers alfo ufe them behind their glaffes, to preferve the tin or quickfilver 5 and the cal'emakers to line their cafes. The breadth of bays is commonly a yard and a half, a yard and three quarters, or two yards, by 42 to 48 in length. Thofe of a yard and three quarters are moft proper for the Spanifti trade. BAZAR, or BAfeAR, a denomination among the Turks and Perfians, given to a kind of exchanges, or places where their fineft fluffs and other wares are fold. Thefi? are alfo called be%ejlins. The word ba%ar feems of Arabic origin, where it denotes fale, or ex¬ change of goods. Some of the eaftern bazars are open, like the market-places in Europe, and ferve for the fame ufes, more particularly for the fale of the bulky and lefs valuable commodities. Others are co¬ vered with lofty ceilings, or even domes, pierced to give light ; and it is in thefe the jewellers, goldfmiths, and other dealers in the richer wares, have their fhops. The bazar or maidan of Ifpahan is one of the fineft places in Perfia, and even furpafles all the exchanges in Europe ; yet notwithftanding its magnificence, it is excelled by the bazar of Tauris, which is the largeft that is known, having feveral times held 30,000 men ranged in order of battle. At Conftantinople, there is the old and the new bazar, which are large iquare buildings, covered with domes, and fuftained by arches and pilafters; the former chiefly for arms, harneffes, and the like •, the latter for goldfmiths, jewellers, fur¬ riers, and all forts of manufaftureS. BAZAS, a town of Guienne in France, now the department of Gironde, and formerly a bifhop’s fee. It is built on a rock, five miles from the Garonne, and 42 fouth-eaft of Bourdeaux, in W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 44. 20. BAZAT, or Baza, in Commerce, a long, fine fpun cotton, vLich comes from Jerufalem, whence it is alfo called Jerufalem-colton. BAZGENDGES, in Natural Hijiory, the name of a fubftance ufed by the Turks and other eaftern nations in their fcarlet-dyeing. They mix it for this purpofe with cochineal and tartar 5 the proportions being two ounces of the bazgendges to one ounce of cochineal. Thtfe are generally efteeraed a fort of fruit, that are produced Bay* H Bazgen- dges. B E A [ 48t ] B E A ga'trven- produced on certain trees in Syria and other places j dges and it is ufually fuppofed, that the fcarcity and dearnefs li of them is the only thing that makes them not ufed in Beacons. jrurope> But the bazgendges feem to be no other than the horns of the turpentine tree in the eaftern parts of the world ; and it is not only in Syria that they are found, but China alfo affords them. Many things of this kind were fent over to Mr Geoffrey at Paris from China as the fubftances ufed in the fcarlet-dyeing of that country, and they all proved wholly the fame with the Syrian and Turkifh bazgendges, and with the common turpentine horns. The lentifk, or maftic tree, is alfo fre¬ quently found producing many horns of a like kind with thefe, and of the fame origin, all being owing to the pu- cerons, which make their way into the leaves to breed their young there. BDELLIUM, a gummy refinous juice, produced by a tree in the Eaft Indies, of which we have no fa- tisfaftory account. It is brought into Europe both from the Eaft Indies and Arabia. It is in pieces of different fizes and figures, externally of a dark reddifh brown, fomewhat like myrrh *, internally it is clear, and not unlike to glue $ to the tafte it is (lightly bit- terifh and pungent ; its odour is very agreeable. If held in the mouth, it foon becomes foft and tenacious, flicking to the teeth. Laid on a red-hot iron, it rea¬ dily catches flame, and burns with a crackling noife, and in proportion to its goodnefs it is more or lefs fragrant. Near half of its fubftance diffolves either in water or in fpirit of wine j but the tin£lure made with fpirit is fomewhat ftronger, and by much more agree¬ able. Vinegar, or verjuice, diffolves it wholly. The fimple gum is a better medicine than any preparation from it. It is one of the weakeft of the deobftruent gums, but is ufed as a pedloral and an emmena- gogue. BEACHY-head, a promontory on the coaft of Suf- fex, between Haftings and Shoreham, where the French defeated the Englifh and Dutch fleet in 1690. BEACON, a fignal for the better fecuring the king¬ dom from foreign invafions. See Signal. On certain eminent places of the country are placed long poles ere£l, whereon are faftened pitch-barrels to be fired by night, and fmoke made by day, to give notice in a few hours to the whole kingdom of an ap¬ proaching invafion. Thefe are commonly called bea¬ cons; whence alfo comes beaconage.—We find beacons familiarly in ufe among the primitive Britons and Weftern Highlanders-. The befieged capital of one of our northern ifles in the third century adlually lighted up a fire upon a tower ; and Fingal inftantly knew “ the green flame edged with fmoke” to be a token *OJfmn, of attack and dillrefs*. And there are to this day v°l- K ?• feveral cairns or heaps of ftones upon the heights along the coafts of the Harries, on which the inhabitants ufed to burn heath as a fignal of an approaching enemy. BEACONS are alfo marks and figns erected on the coafts, for guiding and prtferving vefiels at fea, by night as well as by day. The eredlion of beacons, light-houfes, and fea-marks, is a branch of the royal prerogative. The king hath the exclufive power, by commiflion under his great feal, to caufe them to be eredled in fit and convenient places, as well upon the lands of the fubjeft as upon the de- Snefnes of the crown : which power is ufually vefted by Vol. III. Part II. letters patent in the office of lord high admiral. And Beacons by ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 13. the corporation of the Trinity- !1 houfe are impowered to fet up any beacons or fea- Bead-Proof, marks wherever they fhali think them neceffary ; and ^ if the owner of the land or any other perfon (hall de- ftroythem, or ffiall take down any fteeple, tree, or other known fea-mark, he fhall forfeit look or, in Cafe of in¬ ability to pay it, fhall be ipfo fa&o outlawed. BEACONAGE, money paid towards the mainte¬ nance of a beacon. 8ee Beacon.—The word is derived from the Saxon beacnian, to nod, or fhow by a fign j hence alfo the word beckon. BEACONSFIELD, a town of Buckinghamfliire in England, feated on a hill in the road between London and Oxford. It has feveral good inns, though not above 100 houfes. W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 36. BEAD, a fmall globule or ball ufed in necklaces j and made of different materials, as pearl, fteel, garnet, coral, diamond, amber, cryftal, paftes, glafs, &c.— The Romanifts make great ufe of beads in rehearfing their Ave-Marias, and Pater-nojlers ; and the like ufage is found among the dervifes and other religious through¬ out the Eaft, as well Mahometan as Heathen. The an¬ cient Druids appear alfo to have had their beads, many of which are ftill found ; at leaft if the conje£lure of an ingenious author may be admitted, who takes thofe an¬ tique glafs globules, having a fnake painted round them, and called addei'-beads, or fnake-buttons, to have been the beads of our ancient Druids. See Anguis, Ophio- LOGY Index. Beads are alfo ufed in fpeaking of thofe glafs globules vended to the favages on the coaft of Africa ; thus de¬ nominated, becaufe they are ftrung together for the con¬ venience of traffic. The common black glafs of vrhich beads are made for necklaces, &c. is coloured with manganefe only : one part of manganefe is fufficient to give a black co¬ lour to near twenty of glafs. Bead, in Architeblure, a round moulding, commonly^ made upon the edge of a piece of fluff, in the Corin¬ thian and Roman orders, cut or carved in fhort embofs- ments, like beads in necklaces. BEAD-Makers, called by the French paternojlriers^ are thofe employed in the making, ftringing, and felling of beads. At Paris before the revolution there were three companies of paternoftriers, or bead-makers j one who made them of glafs or cryftal; another in wood and horn j and the third in amber, coral, jet, &c. BEAB-Proof, a term ufed by our diftillers to ex prefs that fort of proof of the flandard ftrength of fpiritu- ous liquors, which confifts m their having, when fhaken in a phial, or poured from on high into a ,.lafs, a crown of bubbles, which (land on the iurface fome time after. This is efteemed a proof that the fpirit confifts of equal parts of re&ified fpirits and phlegm. This is a fal¬ lacious rule as to the degree of ftrength in the goods j becaufe any thing that will increafe the tenacity of the fpirit, will give it this proof, though it be under the due ftrength. Our malt-diftillers fpoil the greater part of their goods, by leaving too much of the flunk¬ ing oil of the malt in their fpirit, in order to give it this proof when fomewhat under the ftandard ftrength. But this is a great deceit on the purchafers of malt fpi¬ rits, as they have them by this means not only weaker than they ought to be, but ftinking with an oil that 3 p they B E A Bead-Proof they are not eafily cleared of afterwards. On the other |] band, the dealers in brandy, who ufually have the. art Beale. 0f fophifticating it to a great nicety, are in the right when tpey buy by the ftrongeft bead-proof, as the grand mark of the belt ; for being a proof of the bran¬ dy containing a large quantity of its oil, it is, at the fame time, a* token of its high flavour, and of its being capable of bearing a very large addition of the common fpirits of our own produce, without betraying their fla¬ vour, or lofing its own. We value the French brandy for the quantity of this effential oil of the grape which it contains; and that with good reafon, as it is with us principally ufed for drinking as an agreeably flavoured cordial : but the French themfelves, when they want it for any curious purpofes, are as careful in the rectifica¬ tion of it, and take as much pains to clear it from this oil, as we do to free our malt fpirits from that naufeous and fetid oil which it originally contains. Bead-Roll, among Papifls, a lift of fuch perfons, for the reft of whofe fouls they are obliged to repeat a cer¬ tain number of prayers, which they count by means of their beads. BEAD-Tree. See Melia, Botany Index. BEADLE, (from the Saxon bydel, a tnejfenger), a crier or meffenger of a court, who cites perfons to ap¬ pear and anfw’er. Called alfo a fummoner or apparitor. —Beadle is alfo an officer at an univerfity, whofe chief bufinefs is to walk before the mafters with a mace, at all public proceflions.—There are alfo church beadles, whofe office is well knowm. BEAGLES, a fmall fort of hounds or hunting dogs. Beagles are of divers kinds ; as the fouthern beagle, fomething lefs and fhorter, but thicker than the deep- mouthed hound ; the fieet northern or cat beagle, fmaller, and of a finer fhape than the fouthern, and a harder run¬ ner. From the two, by crofting the ftrains, is bred a third fort held preferable to either. To thefe may be added a ftill fmaller fort of beagles, fcarce bigger than lap-dogs, which make pretty diverfion in hunting the coney, or even the fmall hare in dry weather; but otherwife unferviceable, by reafon of their fize. BEAK, the bill or nib of a bird. See Ornitho¬ logy Index. Beak, or Beah-head, of a ftiip, that part without the ftrip, before the fore-caftle, which is faftened to the Item, and is fapported by the main-knee. The beak, called by the Greeks iptoXov, by the La¬ tins rojlrum, was an important part in the. ancient drips of war, which were hence denominated naves rofiratce. The beak was made of wood ; but fortified with brafs, and faftened to the prow, ferving to annoy the enemy’s veflels. Its invention is attributed to Pifseus an Italian. The firft beaks were made long and high ; but after¬ wards a Corinthian, named Ar'ijlo, contrived to make them fliort and ftrong, and placed fo low, as to pierce the enemies veffels under water. By the help of thefe great havock was nvade by the Syracufans in the Athe¬ nian fleet. BEAKED, in Heraldry, a term ufed to exprefs the beak or bill of a bird. When the beak and legs of a fowl are of a different tinfture from the body, we fay beaked and membered of fuch a tinRure. BEALE, Mary, particularly diftinguiffied by her fkill in painting, was the daughter of Mr Craddock, ruinifter of Waltham upon Thame*, and learned the ru- B E A dimenls of her art from Sir Peter Lely. She painted Beale- in oil, water-colours, and crayons, and had much bull- || nefs; her portraits were in the Italian ftyle, which Are £ean< acquired by copying piftures and drawings from Sir Peter Lely’s and the royal colle£Hons. Her mafter, fays Mr Whdpole, was fuppofed to have had a tender attachment to her ; but as he was referved in commu¬ nicating to her all the refources of his pencil, it pro¬ bably was a gallant rather than a fuccefsful one. Dr Woodfall wrote feveral pieces to her honour, under the name of Belefa. Mrs Beale died in Pall-mall, on the 28th of Dec. 1697, aged 65. Her paintings have much nature, but the colouring is ftiff and heavy. BE ALT, Bealth, or Bui/th, a town of Brecknock- fhire in South Wales, pleafantly feated on the river Wye. It confifts of about 100 houfes. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufa£lure of ftockings. \V. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 52. 4. BEAM, in ArchiteRure, the largeft piece of wood in a building, which lies crofs the walls, and ferves to fupport the principal rafters of the roof, and into which the feet of thefe rafters are framed. No building has lefs than two of thefe beams, viz. one at each end ; and into thefe the girders of the garret roof are alfo framed. The proportions of beams in or near London, are fixed by ftatute, as follows : a beam 15 Let long, muft be 7 inches on one fide its fquare, and 5 on Lie other ; if it be 16 feet long, one fide muft be 8 inches, the other 6, and fo proportionally to their lengths. In the coun¬ try, where wood is more plenty, they ufually make their beams ftronger. BEAMS of a Ship are the great main crofs timbers which hold the fides of the ftiip from falling together, and which alfo fupport the decks and orlops: the main beam is next the main-maft, and from it they are rec¬ koned by firft, fecond, third beam, &c. the greateft beam of all is called the midjbip beam. BEAM-Compafs, an inftrument confiding of a fquare wooden or brafs beam, having Aiding fockets, that car¬ ry fteel or pencil points ; they are ufed for deferibing large circles, where the common compaffes are ufelefs. BEAM-Bird, or Pettij chaps. See MoTAClLLA. Beam alfo denotes the lath, or iron, of a pair of fcales: fometimes the whole apparatus for weighing of goods is fo called : Thus we fay, it weighs fo much at the king’s beam. Beam of a Plough, that in which all the parts of the plough-tail are fixed. See PLOUGH, AGRICULTURE Index. BEAM, or Roller, among weavers, a long and thick wooden cylinder, placed length wife on the back part of the loom of thofe who work with a {buttle. That cy¬ linder, on which the fluff is rolled as it is weaved, is alfo called the beam or roller, and is placed on the fore¬ part of the loom. BE A MINSTER, a town of Dorfetftrire in England, feated on the river Bert, in W. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. S2- 45.- BEAN. See Vicia, Botany Index. The ancients made ufe of beans in gathering the votes of the people, and for the eleflion of magi- ftrates. A white bean fignified abfo/ution, and a black one condemnation. Beans had a myfterious ufe in the lemuraha and parentaha / where the mafter of the family, after wafhing, was to throw a fort of black beans [ 482 1 B E A [ 483 ] B E A Beans beans over bis head, ftill repeating the words, “ I re- ‘y > deem myfelf and family by thefe beans.” Ovid * gives * Fa/?. Kb. a lively defcription of the whole ceremony in verfe.— v. 4- 435* Abftinence from beans was enjoined by Pythagoras, one of whofe fymbols is, kvx/^uv X7ri gives her the wind, fhe is faid tobear under her lee, &c, There is another fenfe of this word, in reference to the burden of a fliip; for they fay a fliip bears, when having too {lender or lean a quarter, ftie will fink too deep into the water with an overlight freight, and thereby can carry but a fmall quantity of goods. Bearings, in ’Heraldry, a term ufed to exprefs a coat of arms, or the figures of armories by which the nobility and gentry are diftinguiftied from the vulgar and from one another. See Heraldry. Bearing Claws, among cock-fighters, denote the foremoft toes, on which the bird goes; and if they be hurt or gravelled, he cannot fight. Bearing of a Stag, is ufed in refpeft of the ftate of his head or the croches which he bears on his horns. If you be alked what a flag bears, you are only to rec¬ kon the croches, and never to exprefs an odd number ; as, if he have four croches on his near horn and five on his far, you muft fay he bears ten ; a falfe right on his near horn : if but four on the near horn and fix on the far horn, you muft fay he bears twelve; a double falfe right on the near horn. BEARN, a late province of France, bounded on the eaft by Bigorre, on the fouth by the mountains of Ar- ragoh, on the weft by Soule and part of Navarre, and on the north by Gafcony and Armagnac. It lies at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains, being about 16 leagues in length and 1 2 in breadth. It is in general a bar¬ ren country ; yet the plains yield confiderable quanti¬ ties of flax, and a good quantity of Indian corn called mailloc. The mountains are rich in mines of iron, cop¬ per, and lead; fome of them alfo are covered with vines, and others with pine trees; and they give rife to 4 feveral mineral fprings, and two confiderable rivers, the Bear* one called the Gave of Oleron, and the other the Gave H of Bearn. Some wine is exported from this country ; , Eeat- and the Spaniards buy up great numbers of the horfes and cattle, together with moft of their linen, of which there is a confiderable manufadfory. The principal places are Pau, Lefcar, Ortez, Novarreins, Sallies, and Oleron. This province, with Bafques, forms the de¬ partment of the Lower Pyrenees. BEAST, in a general fenfe, an appellation given to all four-footed animals, fit either for food, labour, or fport. BEASTS of Burden, in a commercial fenfe, all four- footed animals which ferve to carry merchandifes on their backs. The beafts generally ufed for this purpole are, elephants, dromedaries, camels, horfes, mules, affes, and the Iheep of Mexico and Peru. BEASTS of the Chafe are five, viz. the buck, the doe, the fox, the roe, and the marten. BEASTS and Fowls of the Warren, are the hare, the* coney, the pheafant, and partridge, BEASTS of the Forejl, are the hart, hind, hare, boar, , and wolf. Beast, among gamefters, a game at cards, played in this manner : The belt cards are the king, queen, &c. whereof they make three heaps, the king, the play, and troilet. Three, four, or five, may play ; and to every one is dealt five cards. However, before the play be¬ gins, every one flakes to the three heaps. He that wins* moft tricks, takes up the heap called \\w play ; he that hath the king takes up the heap fo called ; and he that' hath three of any fort, that is, three fours, three fives, three fixes, &c. takes up the troilet heap, BEAT, in a general lignification, fignifies tochaftife, {trike, knock, or vanquifti. This word has feveral other fignifications in the ma¬ nufactures, and in the arts and trades. Sometimes it fignifies to forge and hammer; in which fenfe fmiths and farriers fay, to beat iron. Sometimes it means to pound, to reduce into powder: thus we fay, to beat drugs, to beat pepper, to beat fpices ; that is to fay, to > pulveri'ze them. Beat, in fencing, denotes a blow or ftroke* given • ■ with the fword. There are two kinds of beats; the firft performed with the foible of a man’s fword on the foible < f his adverfary’s, which in the fchools is com¬ monly called bateric, from the French batre, and is chiefly ufed in a purfuit, to make an open upon the adverfary. The fecond and beft kind of beat is per¬ formed with the fort of a man’s fvvord upon the foible of his adverfary’s, not with a fpring, as in binding, but with a jerk or dry beat ; and is therefore moft pro¬ per for the parades without or within the fword, be- caufe of the rebound a man’s fword has thereby from his1 adverfary’s, whereby he procures to himfelf the better and furer opportunity of rifpofting. Beat, in the manege. A horfe is faid to beat the' dujl, when at each flroke or motion he does not take' in ground or way enough with his fore-legs. He is more particularly faid to beat the duft at terra a terra, when he does not take in ground enough with his {boulders, making his tlrokes or motions too Ihort, as if he made them all in one place. He beats the duf at curvets, when he does them too precipitately and too low. He beat: upon a walk, when he walks too Ihort, B E A [ 488 1 B E A J3eat and thus rids but little ground, whether it be in firaight II lines, rounds, or paffings. seating. BEAT of Drum, in the military art, is to give notice by beat of drum of a hidden danger 5 or, that fcattered foldiers may repair to their arms and quarters, is to beat an alarm, or to arms. Alfo to fignify, by different manners of founding a drum, that the foldiers are to fall on the enemy: to retreat before, in, or after, an at¬ tack j to move or march from one place to another ; to permit the foldiers to come out of their quarters at break of day 5 to order to repair to their colours, &c. is to beat a charge, a retreat, a march, &c. Beat, in clock-making. See Beats. Beat, St, a town of France, in the county of Com- minges, at the confluence of the Garonne and the Pique. It is feated between two mountains which are clofe to the town on each fide. The houfes are chiefly built with marble. W. Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 42. 50. BEATER is applied, in matters of commerce, to divers forts of workmen, whofe bufinefs is to hammer or flatten certain matters, particularly metals. Gold-BEATERS, are artifans, who, by beating gold and filver with a hammer on a marble in moulds of vel¬ lum and bullocks guts, reduce them to thin leaves fit for gilding or filvering of copper, iron, Reel, wood, &c. Gold-beaters differ from flatters of gold or filver j as the former bring their metal into leaves by the ham¬ mer, whereas the latter only flatten it by preffing it through a mill preparatory to beating. There are alfo Tin-BEATERS employed in the look- ing-glafs trade, whofe bufinefs is to beat tin on large blocks of marble till it be reduced to thin leaves fit to be applied with quickfilver behind looking-glaffes. See Foliating, Golb-Beating. BEATIFICATION, an aft by which the pope declares a perfon beatified or blefi'ed after his death. It is the firft flep towards canonization, or railing any one to the honour and dignity of a faint. No perfon can be beatified till 50 years after his or her death. All certificates or atteftations of virtues and miracles, the neceffary qualifications for faintfhip, are examined by the congregation of rites. This examination often continues for feveral years ; after which his holinefs de¬ crees the beatification. The corpfe and relics of the future faint are from thenceforth expofed to the vene¬ ration of all good Chriftians ; his images are crowned with rays, and a particular office is fet apart for him j but his body and relics are not carried in proceflion : indulgences likewife, and remiffion of fins, are granted on the day of his beatification •, which though not fo pompous as that of canonization, is however very fplen- did. BEATING, or Pulsation, in Medicine, the reci¬ procal agitation or palpitation of the heart or pulfe. BEATING F/ax or Hemp, is an operation in the drefs- ing of thefe matters, contrived to render them more foft and pliant. When hemp has been fwingled a fe- cond time, and the hurds laid by, they take the ftrikes, and dividing them into dozens and half dozens, make them up into large thick rolls, which being broached on long ftrikes, are fet in the chimney corner to dry *, after which they lay them in a round trough made for the purpofe,. and there with beetles beat them well till they handle both without and within as pliant as pof- Tible, without any hardnefs or roughnefs to bs felt; that done, they take them from the trough, open and divide the ftrikes as before ; and if any be found not 1—i— fufficiently beaten, they roll them up and beat them over as before. Beating hemp is a punilhment inflifted on loofe or diforderly perfons. Beating, in book-binding, denotes the knocking a book in quires on a marble block, with a heavy broad¬ faced hammer, after folding, and before binding or Hitching it. On tire beating it properly, the elegance and excellence of the binding, and the eafy opening of the book, principally depends. Beating, in the paper works, fignifies the beating of paper on a ftone with a heavy hammer, with a large fmooth head and fhort handle, in order to render it more fmooth and uniform, and fit for writing. BEATING the Wind, was a praftice in ufe in the an¬ cient method of trial by combat. If either of the com¬ batants did not appear in the field at the time appoint¬ ed, the other was to beat the wind, or make fo many flourifhes with his weapon j by which he was entitled to ail the advantages of a conqueror. BEATING the Hands or Feet, by way of praife or ap¬ probation. See Applause. BEATING Time, in Mujic, a method of meafuring and marking the time for performers in concert, by a motion of the hand and foot up or down fucceffively and in equal times. Knowing the true time of a crot¬ chet, and fuppofing the meafure aftually fubdivided into four crotchets, and the half mealure into two, the hand or foot being up, if we put it down with the very beginning of the firft note or crotchet, and then raife it with the third, and then down with the begin¬ ning of the next meafure 5 this is called beating the time; and, by praftice, a habit is acquired of making this motion very equal. Each down and up is fome- times called a time or meafure. The general rule is, to contrive the divifion of the meafure fo, that every down and up of the beating (hall end with a particular note, on which very much depends the diftinftnefs, and, as it were, the fenfe of the melody. Hence the beginning of every time or beating in the meafure is reckoned the accented part thereof. Beating time is denoted, in the Italian mufie, by the term d battuta, which is ufually put after what they call recitatwo, where little or no time is obferved, to denote, that here they are to begin again to mark or beat the time exaftly. The Romans aimed at fomewhat of harmony in the ftrokes of their oars •, and had an officer called portif- culus in each galley, whofe bufinefs was to beat time to the rowers, fometimes by a pole or mallet, and fome- times by his voice alone. The ancients marked the rhime in their mufical com- pofitions ; but to make it more obfervable in the prac¬ tice, they beat the meafure or time, and this in differ¬ ent manners. The moft ufual confifted in a motion of the foot, which was raifed from, and ftruck alter¬ nately againft, the ground, according to the modern method. Doing this was commonly the province of the mafter of the mufic, who was thence called {urefo- qos and becaufe placed in the middle of the choir of muficians, and in an elevated fituation, to be feen and heard more eafily by the whole company. Xhefe beaters of meafure were alfo called by the Greeks B E A Beating Greeks 7ro^oiiiv>cot and irodoipKpti, becaufe of the noife of |] ^ their feet ; and ervvleva^ei, becaufe of the uniformity or Beaton, monotony of the rhythm. The Latins denominated -~~~v them pedarii, podarii, and pedicularu. To make the beats or iirokes more audible, their feet were general¬ ly (bod with a fort of fandals either of wood or iron, called by the Greeks K^ovTrxXct, x-givyrUx, and by the Latins pedicula, fcabella, or fcabtlla, be¬ caufe like to little (tools or footftools. Sometimes they beat upon fonorous footftools, with the foot (hod with a wooden or iron foie. They beat the meafure not only with the foot, but alfo with the right hand, all the fingers whereof they joined together, to (trike into the hollow of the left. He who thus marked the rhythm, was called mnnuduBor. The ancients alfo beat time or meafure with (hells, as oyiter (hells and bones of animals, which they ftruck againft one ano¬ ther, much as the moderns now ufe caftanets, and the like inftruments. This the Greeks called xpp&xyuxfyiv, as- is noted by Hefychius. The fcholiaft on Ariito- phanes fpeaks much to the fame purpofe. Other noify inftruments, as drums, cymbals, citterns, $tc. were alfo ufed on the fame occafion. They beat the mea¬ fure generally in two equal or unequal times j at leaft this holds of the ufual rhythm of a piece of mufic, marked either by the noife of fandals, or the (lapping of the hands. But the other rhythmic inftruments laft- mentioned, and which were ufed principally to excite and animate the dancers, marked the cadence after another manner *, that is, the number of their percuf- fions equalled, or even fometimes furpafled, that or the different founds which compofed the air or fong played. Beating, with hunters, a term ufed of a (lag, which runs firft one way and then another. He is then faid to beat vp and dfotow.—Ihe noife made by co¬ nies in rutting time is alfo called beating or tapping. Beating, in Navigation, the operation of making a progrefs at fea againft the dire£Hon of the wind, in a zig-zag line or traverfe, like that in which we afcend a, deep hill. See TACKING. BEATITUDE imports the fupreme good, or the higheft degree of happinefs human nature is fufceptible of; or the mod perfe# date of a rational being, where¬ in the foul has attained to the utmoft excellency and dignitv it is framed for. In which fenfe, it amounts to the fame with what we otherwife call blejfednefs and fovereign felicity ; by the Greeks, iv'dctip-ovtct ; and by the Latins, fummutn bonum, beatitudo, and beatitas. BEATITUDE, among divines, denotes the beatific vifion, or the fruition of God in a future life to all eternity. BEATITUDE is alfo ufed in fpeaking ox the thefes con¬ tained in Chrift’s fermon on the mount, whereby he pro¬ nounces bleffed the poor in fph.it, thofe that mourn,the BEATON, David, archbiftiop of St Andrew’s, and a cardinal of Rome, in the early part of the ibth cen¬ tury, was born in 1494- Pope Paul III. railed him to the degree of a cardinal in December 1538 j and being employed by James V. in negociating his mar- riage with the court of France, he was there confe- crated bifi.op of iVIirepoix. Soon aLer his mftalment as archbiftiop of St Andrew’s, he promoted a furious perfecution of the reformers in Scotland ; when the VoL. III. Part 11. B E A king’s death put a flop, for a time, to his arbitrary Ee?.ton proceedings, he being then excluded from affairs of || government, and confined. He raifed, however, fo '^e‘~ve ftrong a party, that, upon the coronation of the young Queen Mary, he was admitted of the council, made • chancellor, and procured commiflion as legate d latere from the court of Rome. He now began to renew his perfecution of heretics ; and among the reft, of the fa¬ mous Proteftant preacher Mr George Wiftiart, whofe fufferings at the (lake the cardinal viewed from his window with apparent exultation. It is pretended, that Wifhart at his death foretold the murder of Bea¬ ton ; which indeed happened (hortly after, he being ail'aflinated in his chamber, May 29. 1547. He was a haughty bigotted churchman, and thought feventy the proper method of fupprefling herefy ; he had great ta¬ lents, and vices that were no lefs confpicuous. See Scotland. BEATORUM insula, in Ancient Geography, feven days journey to the weft of Thebse, a diftritl of the Nomos Oafites; called an ifland, becaufe furround- ed with fand, like an ifland in the fea, (Ulpian) ; yet abounding in all the neceffaries of life, though encom- paffed with vaft fandy deferts, (Strabo) ; which fome fuppofe to be a third Oafis, in the Regio Ammoniaca ; and the file of the temple of Ammon anfwers to the above deferiplion, as appears from the writers on A- lexander’s expedition thither. It was a place of rele¬ gation or baniftiment for real or pretended criminals, from which there was no efcape. (Ulpian). BEATS, in a watch or clock, are the ftrokes made by the fangs or pallets of the fpindle of the balance, or of the pads in a royal pendulum. See Clock and Watch. BEAUCAIRE, a town of France, in the depart¬ ment of Gard, on the Rhone, oppofite Tarafcon, with which it has a communication by a bridge of boats. One of the mod celebrated fairs in Europe is annually held here. E. Long. 5. 49. N. Lat. 43. 39. BEAUCE, a late province of France, lying be¬ tween the I fie of France, Blafois, and Orleannois. It is fo very fertile in wheat, that it is called the Granary of Paris. Chartres is the principal town. It now forms the department of Eure and Loire. BEAVER, in ’Zoology. See Castor, Mammalia Index. Beaver Skins, in commerce. Of thefe, merchants diftinguifti three forts; the new, the dry, and the fat. The new beaver, which is alfo called the white bea¬ ver, or Mufcovy beaver, becauffe it is commonly kept to be lent into Mufcovy, is that which the favages catch in their winter hunting. It is the beft, and the moft pro¬ per for making fine furs, becaufe it has loft none of its hair by (bedding.- The dry beaver, which is fometimes called lean bea¬ ver, comes from the fummer hunting, which is the time when thefe animals lofe part of their hair. Though this fort of beaver be much inferior to the former, yet it may alfo be employed in furs; but it is chiefly ufed in the manufaflure of hats. The French call it fummer cafor, or beaver. The fat beaver is that which has eontra&ed a cer¬ tain grofs and oily humour, from the fweat which ex¬ hales from the bodies of the favages, who wear it for 3 Q fome [ 489 1 B E A [ 490 ] B E A fome time. Though this fort be better than the dry beaver, yet it is ufed only in the making of hats. Befides hats and furs, in which the beaver’s hair is commonly ufed, they attempted in France, in the year 1699, to make other manufaftures of it: and accord¬ ingly they made cloths, flannels, ftockings, &c. partly of beavers hair, and partly of Segovia wool. This manufactory, which was fet up at Paris, in the fuburb of St Anthony, fucceeded at firfl: pretty well j and ac¬ cording to the genius of the French, the novelty of the thing brought into fome repute the fluffs, flockings, gloves, and cloth, made of beavers hair. But they went out of faffiion on a hidden, becaufe it was found, by ex¬ perience, that they were of a very bad wear, and be¬ tides that the colours faded very much j when they had been wet, they became dry and hard, like felt, which occafioned the mifcarriage of the manufactory for that time. When the hair has been cut off from the beavers fkins, to be ufed in the manufacturing of hats, thofe Ikins are flill employed by feveral workmen ; namely, by the trunk-makers, to cover trunks and boxes j by the fhoemakers, to put into flippers j and by turners, to make fieves for fifting grain and feeds. BEAUFORT, a town of France, in the department of Maine and Loire, with a caftle, near the river Au- thion. It contains two parifhes, and formerly had a convent of Recolets, and yet has not 100 houfes. W. Long. o. 3. N. Lat. 47. 26. Beaufort gives title of duke in England to the noble family of Somerfet, who are lineally defcended from John of Gaunt duke of Lancafter, whofe duchefs re- flded in this town. Beaufort, a ftrong town of Savoy in Italy, on the river Oron. E. Long. 6. 48. N. Lat. 45. 40. BEAUGENCY, a town of France, in the depart¬ ment of Loire, feated on the river Loire. It is famous for its wines. E. Long. 1. 46. N. Lat. 47. 48. BEAUJEU, a town of France, in the department of Rhone and Loire, with an old caflle. It is feated on the river Ardieres, at the foot of a mountain, in E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 46. 9. BEAUJOLOIS, a diftriCt of France, now included in the department of Rhone and Loire, is bounded on the fouth by Lyonois Proper, on the weft by Forez, on the north by Burgundy, and on the eaft by the princi¬ pality of Dombes. It is 25 miles in length, and 20 in breadth : Ville Franche is the capital town. BEAULIEU, Sebastian de Pontault de, a celebrated French engineer, and field-marlhal under Louis XIV. He publiflied plans of all the military expeditions of his mafter, with military leClures annex¬ ed. He died in 1674. BEAUMARIS, a market town of Anglefey in North Wales, which fends one member to parliament. W. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 53. 25. It is, as the name implies, pleafantly feated on a low land at the water’s edge ; is neat and well built, and one ftreet is very handfome. Edward I. created the place; for after founding the caftles of Caernarvon and Conway, he difcovered that it was neceffary to put another curb on the Welch. He therefore built a fprtrefs here in 1295 5 and fixed on a marfhy fpot, near the chapel of St Meugan, fuch as gave him op¬ portunity of forming a great fofs round the caftle, 3 and of filling it with water from the fea. He alfo cut a canal, in order to permit veffels to difcharge their lading beneath the walls : and as a proof of the ex- iftence of fuch a convenience, there were within this century iron rings affixed to them, for the purpofe of mooring the flflps or boats. The marfti was in early times of far greater extent than at prefent, and covered with fine bulrufhes. The firft governor was Sir Wil¬ liam Pickmore, a Gafcon knight appointed by Ed¬ ward I. There were a conftable of the caftle, and a captain of the town. The firft had an annual fee of forty pounds, the laft of twelve pounds three fhillings and fourpence 5 and the porter of the gate of Beau¬ maris had nine pounds two fhillings and fixpence. Twenty-four foldiers were allowed for the guard of the caftle and town, at fourpence a-day to each. The conftable of the caftle was always captain of the town, except in one inftanee : in the 36th of Henry IV. Sir John Boteler held the firft office, and Thomas Norreys the other. The caftle was extremely burthenfome to the country ; quarrels were frequent between the gar- rifon and the country people. In the time of Henry VI. a bloody fray happened, in which David ap Evan ap Howel of Llwydiarth, and many others, were flain. From the time of Sir Rowland Villeville, alias Brit- tayne, reputed bafe fon of Henry VII. and conftable of the caftle, the garrifon was withdrawn till the year 1642, when Thomas Cheadle, deputy to the earl of Dorfet, then conftable, put into it men and ammunition. In 1643, Thomas Bulkeley, Efq. foon after created Lord Bulkeley, fuceeeded: his fon Colonel Richard Bulkeley, and feveral gentlemen of the county, held it for the king till June 1646, when it furrendered on honourable terms to General Mytton, who made Cap¬ tain Evans his deputy-governor. In 1653, ^ie an" nual expence of the garrifon was feventeen hundred and three pounds. Edward I. when he built the town, furrounded it with walls, made it a corporation, and endowed it with great privileges, and lands to a confiderable value. He removed the ancient freehol¬ ders by exchange of property into other counties. Henllys, near the ‘town, was the feat of Gwerydd ap Rhys Goch, one of fifteen tribes, and of his pofterity till this period, when Edward removed them to Boddle Wyddan in Flinlfhire, and beftowed their ancient pa¬ trimony on the corporation. It fends one member to parliament. Its firft reprefentative was Maurice Grif- fydd, who fat in the feventh year of Edward VL There is very good anchorage for fhips in the bay which lies before the town, and has feven fathom wa¬ ter even at the loweft ebb. Veffels often find fecurity here in hard gales. The town has no trade of any kind, yet has its cuftomhoufe for the cafual reception of goods. The ferry lies near the town, and is pass¬ able at lowr water. It was granted by charter to the corporation in the 4th of Queen Elizabeth. There is an order from Edward II. to Robert Power, chamber- lain of North Wales, to infpeft into the ftate of the boat, which w-as then out of repair 5 and in cafe it was feafible, to caufe it to be made fit for ufe, at the ex¬ pence of the bailiwick : but if the boat proved paft repair, a new one was to be built, and the expence al¬ lowed by the king. It appeared that the people of Beaumaris paid annually for the privilege of a ferry thirty flu Rings into the exchequer j but by this order it. Bsaumarl?, Beaumont. B E A [49 it feems that the king was to find the boat. After paf- fing the channel, the diftance over the fands to Aber in Caernarvonfhire, the point the paffenger generally makes for, is four miles. The fands are called Traeth Telavan^ and Wylofaen, or the place of weeping, from the Ihrieks and lamentations of the inhabitants when it was over¬ whelmed by the fea, in the days of Helig ap Clunog. The church is dependant on Llandegvan, which is in the gift of Lord Bulkeley. The former is called the chapel of the bleffed virgin; yet in ancient writings one aide is called St Mary's chapel, and another that of St ! ] B E A Which of us two the bell precedence have, Mine to this wretched world, thine to the grave ? Thou fhould’lt have follow’d me j but death, to blame, Mifcounted years, and meafur’d age by fame. So dearly hall thou bought thy precious lines j Their praife grew fwiftly, fo thy life declines. Thy mufe, the hearer’s queen, the reader’s love, All ears, all hearts (but death’s), could pleafe and move. Bofworth 'Field, p. ibq.. The other is by Bilhop Corbet. {Poems, p. 68.) Beaumont. Nicholas. BEAUMONT, Sir John, the elder brother of Mr Francis Beaumont the famous dramatic poet, was born in the year 1582, and in 1626 had the dignity of a ba¬ ronet conferred upon him by King Charles I. In his youth he applied himfelf to the Mufes with good fuc- cefs 5 and wrote, The Crown of Thorns, a poem, in eiolit books: a mifcellany, entitled Bofworth Field: Tranllations from the Latin poets : and feveral poems on religious and political fubjedls ; as, On the Felli- vals ; On the Bleffed Trinity •, A Dialogue between the World, a Pilgrim, and Virtue; Of the miferable State of Man; Of ficknefs, &c. He died in 1628. His poetic genius was celebrated by Ben Johnfon, Michael Drayton, and others. Beaumont and Fletcher, two celebrated Englilh dramatic writers, who flourilhed in the reign of James I. and fo clofely connefled both as authors and as friends, that it has been judged not improper to give them under one article. Mr Francis Beaumont was defcended from an an¬ cient family of his name at Grace-dieu in Leiceller- Ihire, where he was born about the year 1585 or 1386, in the reign' of Queen Elizabeth. His grandfather, John Beaumont, was mailer of the rolls, and his father Francis Beaumont one of ttie judges of the common- pleas. He was educated at Cambridge, and after¬ wards admitted of the Inner Temple. It is not, hovy- ever, apparent that he made any great proficiency in the law, that being a lludy probably too dryland un¬ entertaining to be attended to by a man of his fertile and fprightly genius. And indeed we fhould fcarcely be furprifed to find that he had given no application to any lludy but poetry, nor attended on any court but that of the Mufes : but, on the contrary, our admiration might fix itfelf in the oppofite extreme, and fill us with allonilhment at the extreme affiduity of his genius and rapidity of his pen, when we look back on the volumi- noufnefs of his works, and then inquire into the time allowed him for them; works that might well have taken up a long life to have executed. For although, out of 33 plays which are collected together as the la¬ bours of thefe united authors, Mr Beaumont was con¬ cerned in much the greater part of them, yet he did not live to complete his 30th year, the king of terrors fummoning him away in the beginning of March 1615, on the pth day of which he was interred in the en¬ trance of St Benedi&’s chapel in Weftminller-Abbey. There is no infcription on his tomb : But there are two epitaphs to his memory ; one by his elder brother Sir John Beaumont: On death, thy murderer, this revenge I take; 1 flight his terrors, and juft queftion make, He that hath fuch acutenefs and fuch wit, As would afk ten good heads to hulband it: He that can write lo well, that no man dare Refume it for the bell; let him beware : Beaumont is dead ; by whofe foie death appears, Wit’s a difeafe confumes men in few years. He left a daughter, Frances Beaumont, who died in Leicefterftiire fince the year 1700. She had in her poffeflion feveral poems of her father’s writing ; but thev were loft at fea in her voyage from Ireland, where ftie'had lived for feme time in the duke of Ormond’s fa¬ mily. Mr John Fletcher was not more meanly defcended than his poetical colleague ; his father, the Rev. Dr Fletcher, having been firft made biftiop of Briftol, by Queen Elizabeth, and afterwards by the fame monarch, in the year 1393, tranflated to the rich fee of London. Our poet was born in 1376; and was, as well as his friend, educated at Cambridge, where he made a great proficiency in his ftudies, and was accounted a very good fcholar. His natural vivacity of wit, for which he was remarkable, foon rendered him a devotee to the mufes ; and his clofe attention to their feryice, and fortunate connexion with a genius equal to his own, foon raifed him to one of the higheft places in the temple of poeti¬ cal fame. As he Avas born near ten years before Mr Beaumont, fo did he alfo furvive him by an equal num¬ ber of years; the general calamity of a plague, which happened in the year i625» involved him in its great deftruftion, he being at that time 49 years of age. During the joint lives of thefe two great poets, it appears that they\ wrote nothing feparately, excepting one little piece by each, which feemed of too trivial a nature for either to require aftiftance in .viz. I he Faith¬ ful Shepherd, a paftoral, by Fletcher ; and The Mafque of Gray’s-Inn Gentlemen, by Beaumont. Yet what ftiare each had in the writing or defigning of the pieces thus compofed by them jointly, there is no poflibility of determining. It is however generally allowed, tha*- Fletcher’s peculiar talent was wit, and Beaumont s, though much the younger man, judgment. Nay, fo extraordinary was the latter property in Mr Beaumont, that it is recorded of the great Ben Johnfon, who feems moreover to have had a fufficient degree of felf-opinion of his own abilities, that he conftantly, fo long as this gentleman lived, fubmitted his own writings to his cenfure, and, as it is thought, availed himfelf of his judgment at leaft in the corre&ing, if not even in the contriving all his plots. It is probable, theretoie, that the forming the plots and contriving the conduct of the fable, the writing of the more ferious and pathetic parts, and lopping the redundant branches of I* Etcher s 3 Q 2 wit. N B E A t 402 ] B E A Beaumont, vvit, vvbofe luxuriance, we are told, frequently flood in *—v need of cafligation, might be in general Beaumont’s portion in the work : while Fletcher, whofe converfa- tion with the beau tnonde (which indeed both of them from their births and ftations in life had been ever ac- cuttomed to), added to the volatile and lively turn he poffeffed, rendered him perfedlly mafter of dialogue and polite language, might execute the defigns formed by the other, and raife the fuperftruflure of thofe lively and fpirited fcenes which Beaumont had only laid the foundation of; and in this he was fo fuccefsful, that though his wit and raillery were extremely keen and poignant, yet they were at the fame time fo perfe&ly genteel, that they ufed rather to pleafe than difguft the very perfons on whom they feemed to refledf. Yet that Fletcher was not entirely excluded from a lhare in the conduct of the drama, may be gathered from a ftory re¬ lated by Winftanley, viz. that our two bards having concerted the rough draught of a tragedy over a bottle of wine at a tavern, Fletcher faid, he would undertake to bill the king ; which words being overheard by the waiter, who had not happened to have been vvitnefs to the context of their converfation, he lodged an informa¬ tion of treafon againft them. But on their explanation of it only to mean the deftrudfion of a theatrical mo¬ narch, their loyalty moreover being unqueflioned, the affair ended in a jeft. On the whole, the works of thefe authors have un¬ doubtedly very great merit, and fume of their pieces de- fervedly ftand on the lifl of the prefent ornaments of the theatre. The plots are ingenious, interefting, and well managed ; the charadfers ftrongly marked ; and the dia¬ logue fprightly and natural : yet there is in the latter a coarfenefs which is not fuitable to the politenefs of the prefent age ; and a fondnefs of repartee, which frequent¬ ly runs into obfcenity ; and which we may fuppofe was the vice of that time, fince even the delicate Shakefpeare himfelf is not entirely free from it. But as thefe au¬ thors have more of that kind of wit than the laft-men- tioned writer, it is not to be wondered if their works were in the licentious reign of Charles II. preferred to his. Now1, however, to the honour of the prefent tafte be it fpoken, the tables are entirely turned ; and while Shakefpeare’s immortal works are our conftant and daily fare, thofe of Beaumont and Fletcher, though delicate in their kind, are only eccalionally ferved up : and even then great pains are taken to clear them of that fumet, which the haul gout of their contemporaries con- lidered as their fupremeft relifli, but which the more un¬ depraved tafle of ours has been juftly taught to look on as, u'hat it really is, no more than a corrupt and un- wholefome taint. Some of their plays were printed in quarto during the lives of the authors; and in the year 1645 there was publifhed in folio a collection of fuch plays as had not been printed before, amounting to between thirty and forty. This collection was publilhed by Mr Shir¬ ley, after the fhutting up of the theatres ; and dedi¬ cated to the earl of Pembroke by ten of the moft fa¬ mous aCtors. In 1679 there was an edition of all their plays publifhed in folio ; another edition in 1711 by Mr Tonfon, in feven volumes 8vo, and the laft in I75I Beaumont, a town of the Netherlands, in Hain- ault, on the confines of the territory of Liege, It was ceded to the French in 1684 ; and taken in 1691 by Btaumwi the Englifh, who blew up the caflle. It is fttuated be- jj tween the rivers Maefe and Sambre, in E. Long. 4. 1. Eeai.ty. N. Lat. 50. 12. ’“v"—■' BEAUMONT U Roger, a town of Upper Normandy in France. E. Long. O. 56. N. Lat. 49. 2. BEAUMONT le Vicompte, a town of Maine in France. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 48. 12. »- BEAUMONT fur Oife, a town in the Ifle of France, feated on the declivity of a hill, with a bridge over the, river Oife. E. Long. 2. 29. N. Lat. 49. 9. BEAUNE, a handfome town of France, in Bur¬ gundy, remarkable for its excellent wine, and for an hofpital founded here in 1443. Its collegiate church is alfo one of the fineft in France ; the great altar is adorned with a table enriched with jewels ; and its or¬ gans are placed on a piece of architecture which is the admiration of the curious. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 47. 2. BEAUSOBRE, Isaac DE, a learned Proteftant writer, of French original, was born at Niort in 1639. He was forced into Holland to avoid the execution of a fentence upon him, which condemned him to make the amende honourable ; and this for having broken the royal fignet, which was put upon the door of a church of the Reformed, to prevent the public profeffion of their religion. He went to Berlin in 1694; was made chaplain to the king of Pruflia, and counfellor of the royal confiftory. He died in X73^> aged 79, after ha¬ ving publifhed feveral works : as, J. Defetife de la Dottrine des Reformes. 2. A Tranflation of the New Teftament and Notes, jointly with M. Lenfant ; much efteemed by the Reformed. 3. Differtation fur les Ada¬ mites de Bo heme; a curious work. 4. HJloire Critique de Manichee et du Manicheifme, 2 tom. in 4to. This has been deemed by philofophers an interefting queftion, and nobody has developed it better than this author. 5. Several differtations in the Bibliotheque Britannique. —Mr Beaufobre had ftrong fenfe with profound erudi¬ tion, and was one of the belt writers among the Re¬ formed ; he preached as he wrote, and he did both with warmth and Ipirit. BEAUTY, in its native fignification, is appropri¬ ated to objedfs of fight. ObjeCts of the other fenfes may be agreeable, fuch as the founds of mufical inftru- ments, the fmoothnefs and foftnels of fome furfaces ; but the agreeablenefs called beauty belongs to objects of fight. " ObjeCts of fight are more complex than thofe of any other fenfe : in" the fimpleft, we perceive colour, figure, length, breadth, thicknefs. A tree is compofed of a trunk, branches, and leaves ; it has colour, figure, fize, and fometimes motion : by means of each of thefe par¬ ticulars, feparately confidered, it appears beautiful ; but a complex perception of the whole greatly aug¬ ments the beauty of the objeft. The human body is a compofition of numberlefs beauties arifing from the parts and qualities of the objeCl, various colours, vari¬ ous motions, figures, fize, &c. all united in one com¬ plex objeCl, and ftriking the eye with combined force. Hence it is, that beauty, a quality fo remarkable in vifible objeCts, lends its name to every thing that is eminently agreeable. Thus, by a figure of fpeech, we fav, a beautiful found, a beautiful thought, a beautiful difcovery, &c. Confidering B E A [ 49 Confidering attentively the beauty of vifible objefts, 'two kinds are difcovered. The firft maybe termed intrinfic beauty, beeaufe it is difcovered in a fingle ob- jeft, without relation to any other : the other may be termed relative, being founded on the relation of ob- Intrinfic beauty is a perception of fenfe merely ; for to perceive the beauty of a fpreading oak, or of a flowing river, no more is required but fingly an add of vifion.1 Relative beauty is accompanied with an aft of under (landing and refleftion : for we perceive not the relative beauty of a fine inftrument or engine until we learn its ufe and deftination. In a word, intrinfic beauty is ultimate ; and relative beauty is that of means relating to fome good end or purpofe. Thefe different beauties agree in one capital cireumftance, that both are equally perceived as belonging to the objeft 5 which will be readily admitted with refpeft to intrinfic beauty, but is not fo obvious with refpeft to the other. The utility of the plough, for example, may make it an ob¬ jeft of admiration or of defire 5 but why fliould utility make it beautiful ? A natural propenfity of the human mind will explain this difficulty : By an eafy tranfition of ideas, the beauty of the effeft is transferred to the caufe, and is perceived as one of the qualities of the caufe. Thus a fubjeft void of intrinfic beauty appears beautiful by its utility ; a dwelling-houfe void of all regularity is however beautiful in the view of con¬ venience *, and the want of fymmetry in a tree will not prevent its appearing beautiful, if it be known to pio- duce good fruit. When thefe two beauties concur in any objeft, it ap¬ pears delightful. Every member of the human body poffeffes both in a high degree. The beauty of utility, being accurately proportioned to the degree of utility, requires no illuflration : But intrinfic beauty, being more complex, cannot be handled diflinftly without being analyzed. If a tree be beau¬ tiful by means of its colour, figure, motion, fize, &c. it is in reality poffeffed of fo many different beauties. The beauty of colour is too familiar to need explana¬ tion. The beauty of figure is more : for example, viewing any body as a whole, the beamy of its figure arifes Rom regularity and fimplicity ; viewing the parts with relation to each other, uniformity, proportion, and order, contribute to its beauty. The beauties of grandeur and motion are confidered feparately. See Grandeur and Motion. < , We fhall here make a few obfervations on fimplicity, which may be of ufe in examining the beauty of fingle objefts. A multitude of objefts crowding into the mind at once, difturb the attention, and pafs without making any lafting impreflion : In the fame manner, even a fingle objeft, confiding of a multiplicity of parts, equals not, in flrength of impreflion, a more Ample objeft com¬ prehended in one view. This juftifies fimplicity in works of art, as oppofed to complicated circumftances and crowded ornaments. It would be endlefs to enumerate the effefts that are produced by the various combinations of the principles of beauty." A few examples will be fufficient to give the reader fome idea of this fubjeft. A circle and a fquare are each perfeftly regular : a fquare, however, is lefs beautiful than a circle ; and the reafon is, that the attention is divided among the fides and angles, of a fquare $ whereas the circumference ef a circle, being } B E A a fingle objeft, makes one entire impreflion : And thus Beauty, fimplicity contributes to beauty. For the fame reafon v - a fquare is more beautiful than a hexagon or oftagon. A fquare is likewife more beautiful than a parallelo¬ gram, becaufe it is more regular and uniform. But this holds with refpeft to intrinfic beauty only : for in many inftances, as in the doors and windows of a dwelling-houfe, utility turns the feales on the fide of the parallelogram. Again, a parallelogram depends, for its beauty, on the proportion of its fides: A great inequality of its fides annihilates its beauty : Approximation toward equality hath the fame effeft j for proportion there de¬ generates into perfeft uniformity, and the figure appears an unfuccefsful attempt toward a fquare. And hence proportion contributes to beauty. An equilateral triangle yields not to a fquare in regu¬ larity nor in uniformity of parts, and it is more Ample. But an equilateral triangle is lefs beautiful than a fquare j which muff be owing to inferiority of order in the pofi- tion of its parts ; the order arifing from the equal incli¬ nation of the fides of fucli an angle is more obfeure than the parallelifm of the fides of a fquare. And hence or¬ der contributes to beauty not lefs than fimplicity, regu¬ larity, or proportion. Uniformity is Angular in one circumftance, that it is apt to difguft by excefs. A number of things def- tined for the fame ufe, as windows, chairs, &c. can¬ not be too uniform. But a fcrupulous uniformity of parts in a large garden or field is far from being agree¬ able. In all the works of nature fimplicity makes a capital figure. It alfo makes a figure in works of art: Pro- fufe ornament in painting, gardening, or architefture, as well as in drefs or in language, fhows a mean or cor¬ rupted tafte. Simplicity in behaviour and manners has an enchanting effeft, and never fails to gain our affec¬ tion. Very different are the artificial manners of mo¬ dern times. A gradual progrefs from fimplicity to complex forms and profufe ornament, feems to be the fate of all the fine arts ; refembling behaviour, which from original candour and fimplicity has degenerated into duplicity of heart and artificial refinements. At prefent, literary produftions are crowded with words, epithets, figures : In mufic, fentiment is neglefted for the luxury of harmony, and for difficult movement.. With regard to the final caufe of beauty, one thing is evident, that our relifh of regularity, uniformity, proportion, order, and fimplicity, contributes greatly to enhance the beauty of the objefts that furround us, and of courfe tends to our happinefs. We may be confirmed in this thought, upon reflefting, hat our tafte for thefe particulars is not accidental, but uniform and univerfal, making a branch of our nature. At. he fame time, regularity, uniformity, order, and fimplicity, contribute each of them to readinefs of apprehenfion, and enable us to form more diftinft ideas of objefts than can be done where thefe particulars are wanting. In fome inftances, as in animals, proportion is evidently connefted with utility, and is the more agreeable on that account. Beautv, in many inftances, promotes induftry j and as it is frequently connefted with utility, it proves an additional incitement to enrich our fields and improve our manufaftures. Thefe, however, are but flight effects,-, B E A [ 494 1 B E A 'Beauty, effects, compared with the connexions that are formed ~-'y-—*' among individuals in fociety by means of beauty. The qualifications of the head and heart are undoubt¬ edly the moft folid and moft permanent foundations of fuch connexions : But as external beauty lios more in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind, than the qualities now mentioned, the fenfe of beauty has a more extenfive influence in forming thefe con¬ nexions. At any rate, it concurs in an eminent de¬ gree with mental qualifications, in producing focial in- tercourfe, mutual good will, and confequently mutual aid and fupport, which are the life of fociety ; it muft not however be overlooked, that the fenfe of beauty does not tend to advance the interefts of fociety, but when in a due mean with refpeX to ftrength. Love, in. particular, arifing from a fenfe of beauty, lofes, when exceflive, its focial charaXer r the appetite for gratification, prevailing over affeXion for the beloved objeX, is ungovernable, and tends violently to its end, regardlefs of the mifery that mutt follow. Love, in this ftate, is no longer a fweet agreeable paflion: it becomes painful, like hunger or third ; and produceth no happi- nefs but in the inftant of fruition. This fuggefts an im¬ portant leffon, that moderation in our defires and appe¬ tites, which fits us for doing our duty, contributes at the fame time the molt to happinefs j even focial paffions, when moderate, are more pleafant than when they fwell beyond proper bounds. Human or Perfonal BEAUTT, only (lightly touched upon in the preceding article, merits more particular difcuflion •, and may be confidered under thefe four heads : Colour, Form, Expreffion, and Grace ; the two former being, as it were, the Body, the two latter the Soul, of beauty. i. Colour. Although this be the lowed of all the condituent parts of beauty, yet it is vulgarly the mod driking and the mod obferved. For which there is a very obvious reafon to be given ; that “ every body can fee, and very few can judge $” the beauties of co¬ lour requiring much lefs of judgment than either of the other three. As to the colour of the body in general, the mod beau¬ tiful perhaps that ever was imagined, was that which A- pelles exprefled in his famous Venus j and which, though the piXure itfelf be lod, Cicero has in fame degree pre- ferved to us, in his excellent defcription of it. It was (as we learn from him) a fine red, beautifully intermixed and incorporated with white 5 and diffufed, in its due propor¬ tions, through each part of the body. Such are the de- fcriptions of a mod beautiful (kin, in feveral of the Ro¬ man poets \ and fuch often is the colouring of Titian, and particularly in his deeping Venus, or whatever other beauty that charming piece was meant to reprefent. The reafon why thefe colours pleafe fo much, is not only their natural livelinefs, nor the much greater charms they obtain from their being properly blended together, but is alfo owing in fome degree to the idea they carry with them of good health 5 without which all beauty grows languid and lefs engaging : and with which it always recovers an additional life and ludre. As to the colour of the face in particular, a great Beauty, deal of beauty is owing (befide the caufes already men- 1 tinned) to variety j that being defigned by nature for the greated concourfe of different colours, of any part in the human body. Colours pleafe by oppofition; and it is in the face that they are the mod diverfified, and the mod oppofed. It is an obfervation apparently whimfical, but per¬ haps not unjud, that the fame thing which makes a fine evening, makes a fine face ; that is, as to the particu¬ lar part of beauty now under confideration. The beauty of an evening (ky, about the fetting of the fun, is owing to the variety of colours that are fcattered along the face of the heavens. It is the fine red clouds, intermixed with white, and fometimes darker ones, with the azure bottom appearing here and there between them, which makes alt that beautiful compofi- tion that delights the eye fo much, and gives fuch a ferene pleafure to the heart. In the fame manner, if you con- lider fome beautiful faces, you may obferve that it is much the fame variety of colours which gives them that pleafing look \ which is fo apt to attraX the eye, and but too often to engage the heart. For all this fort of beauty is refolvable into a proper variation of fledt co¬ lour and red, with the clear bluenefs of the veins plea- fingly intermixed about the temples and the going off* of the cheeks, and fet off by the (hades of full eye¬ brows ; and of the hair, when it falls in a proper man¬ ner round the face. It is for much the fame reafon that the bed landfcape painters have been generally obferved to choofe the au¬ tumnal part of the year for their pieces, rather than the fpring. They prefer the variety of (hades and colours, though in their decline, to all the fredmefs and verdure in their infancy j and think all the charms and livelinefs even of the fpring, more than compenfated by the choice, oppofition, and richnefs of colours, that appear almod on. every tree in the autumn. Though one’s judgment is apt to be guided by par¬ ticular attachments (and that more perhaps in this part of beauty than any other), yet the general perfuafion feems well founded, that a complete brown beauty is really preferable to a perfeX fair one ; the bright brown giving a ludre to all the other colours, a vivacity to the eyes, and a richnefs to the whole look, which one feeks in vain in the whited and mod tranfparent (kins. Ra¬ phael’s mod charming Madonna is a brunette beauty ; and his earlier Madonnas (or thofe of his middle dyle)_ are generally of a lighter and lefs pleafing complexion. All the bed artifls in the nobled age of painting, about Leo the tenth’s time, ufed this deeper and richer kind of colourings and perhaps one might add, that the glar¬ ing lights introduced by Guido, went a great way to¬ wards the declenfion of that art ; as the enfeebling of the colours by Carlo Marat (or his followers) hath (ince alfo completed the fall of it in Italy. Under this article colour, it feems doubtful whether fome things ought not to be comprehended which are not perhaps commonly meant by that name. As that appearing foftnefs or filkinefs of fome (kins: that (a) Magdalen- (a) The look here meant is mod frequently expreffed by the bed painters in their Magdalens *, in which, if -there were no tears on the face, you would fee, by the humid rednefs of the (kin, that die had been weeping extremely. B E A [ 495 ] B E A Magdalen-look in feme fine faces, after weeping *, that brightnefs, as well as tint, of the hair ; that luftre of health that fiiines forth upon the features j that lumi- noufnefs that appears in fome eyes, and that fluid fire, or gliftening, in others : Some of which are of a na¬ ture fo much fuperior to the common beauties of co¬ lour, that they make it doubtful whether they (hould not have been ranked under a higher clafs, and referved for the expreffions of the paflions. They are, however, mentioned here ; becaufe even the mofl: doubtful of them appear to belong partly to this head, as well as partly to the others. 2. Form. This takes in the turn of each part, as well as the fymmetry, of the whole body, even to the turn of an eye-brow, or the falling of the hair. Perhaps, too, the attitude, while fixed, ought to be reckoned under this article : By which is not only meant the pofture of the perfon, but the pofition of each part; as the turning of the neck, the extending of the hand, the placing of a foot, and fo on to the molt minute particulars. The general caufe of beauty in the fox-m or ftiape in both fexes is a proportion, or a union and harmony, in all parts of the body. The diftinguifhing charadler of beauty in the female form, is delicacy and foftnefs ; and in the male, either apparent ftrength or agility. The fineft exemplars that can be feen for the former, is the Venus of Medici •, and for the two latter, the Hercules Farnefe and the Apollo Belvedere. There is one thing indeed in the laft of thefe figures which exceeds the bounds of our prefent inquiry ; what an Italian artift called IIfovra umano ; and what we may call the tranfcendent, or celeftial. It is fome- thing diftindl from all human beauty, and of a nature Beauty, greatly fuperior to it •, fomething that feems like an —-y— air of divinity : Which is expreffed, or at leaft is to be traced out, in but very few works of the artifts ; and of which fcarcely any of the poets have caught any ray in their defcriptions (or perhaps even in their ima¬ gination), except Homer and Virgil, among the an¬ cients j and our Shakefpeare and Milton among the moderns. The beauty of the mere human form is much fuperior to that of colour j and it may be partly for this reafon, that when one is obferving the fineit works of the artifts at Rome (where there is ftiil the noblefl. colledtion of any in the world), one feels the mind more ftruck and more charmed with the capital ilatues, than with the pictures of the greateft mailers. One of the old Roman poets, in fpeaking of a very handfome man, who was candidate for the prize in fome of the public games, fays, that he was much ex- pefted and much admired by all the fpe&ators at his firll appearance $ but that, when he flung off his robes, and difcovered the whole beauty of his fhape altoge- ther, it was fo fuperior, that it quite extinguilhed the beauties they had before fo much admired in his face. Much the fame effeft may be felt in viewing the Venus of Medici. If you obferve the face only, it appears extremely beautiful : but if you confider all the other elegancies of her make, the beauty of her face becomes lefs ftriking, and is almoft loll in fuch a multiplicity of charms. Whoever would learn what makes the beauty of each part of the human body, may find it laid down pretty much at large, by (b) Fehbiens ; or may itudy it with more pleafure to himfelf, in the finell pictures and llatues j \ extremely. There is a very ftrong infiance of this in a Magdalen by Le Brun, in one of the churches at Paris; and feveral by Titian, in Italy j the very bell of which is at the Barberino palace at Venice. In fpeaking of which, Rofalba hardly went too far, when Ihe faid, “ It wept all over 5” or (in the very words Ihe ufed) “ File pleure jufqu’ aux bouts de doigts.” (b) In his Entretiens, vol. ii. p. 14—45. The chief of what he fays there, on the beauty of the different parts of the female form, is as follows : That the head Ihould be well rounded ; and look rather inclining to fmall than large. The forehead, white, fmooth, and open (not with the hair growing down too deep upon it)-; neither flat nor prominent, but like the head, well rounded ; and rather fmall in proportion than large. The hair either bright black or brown ; not thin, but full and waving ; and if it falls in moderate curls the better. The black is particularly ufeful for fetting off the whitenefs of the neck and Ikin. I he eyes black, chefnut, or blue ; clear, bright, and lively ; and rather large in proportion than fmall. The eye-brows, well divided, rather full than thin ; femicircular, and broader in the middle than at the ends; of a neat turn, but not formal. the cheeks {hould not be wide ; fhould have a degree of plumpnefs, with the red and white finely blended together ; and {hould look firm and foft. The ear fliould be rather fmall than large ; well folded, and with an agreeable tinge of red. The nofe {hould be placed fo as to divide the face into two equal parts ; Ihould be of a moderate fize, ftraight, and well-fquared ; though fometimes a little riling in the nofe, which is but juft perceivable, may give a very graceful look to it.. The mouth {hould be {mall; and the lips not of equal thicknefs. I hey {hould be well turned, fmall rather than grofs ; foft, even to the eye ; and with a living red in them. A truly pretty mouth is like a rofe-bud that is beginning to blow. I he teeth {hould be middle-fized, white, well ranged, and even. The chin of a moderate fize ; white, foft, and agreeably rounded. The neck {hould be white, ftraight, and of a foft, eafy, and flexible make, rather long than fliort; lefs above, and increafing gently toward the {houlders : The whitenefs and delicacy of its {kin {hould be continued, or rather go on improving to the boforn. . The {kin in general ftxould be white, properly tinged with red ; with an apparent foftnefs, ana a look of thriving health in it. The {houlders {hould be white, gently fpread, and with a much fofter appearance of ftrength than in thofe of men. The arm {hould be white, round,"firm, and foft; and more particularly fo from the elbow to the hand. The hand {hould unite infenfibly with the arm ; juft as it does in the ftatue of the Venus of Medici. They {hould be long and delicate, and even the joints and nervous part of thexn (hould be without either any hard- rxefs or drynefs. The fingers {hould be fine, long, round, and foft; fmall, and leffening towards the tips of ~ ' them q > Beauty. B E A t 496 ] B E A ftatues ; for in life we commonly fee but a fmall part of the human body, moll of it being either difguifed or al¬ tered by what we call drefs% In faft we do not only thus, in a great meafure, hide beauty; but even injure, and kill it, by fome parts of drefs. A child is no fooner born into the world, than it is bound up, almoft as firmly as an old Egyptian mummy, in feveral folds of linen. It is in vain for him to give all the figns of dillrefs that nature has put in his power, to fhow how much he fuffers whilit they are thus imprifoning his limbs j or all the figns of joy, every time they are fet at liberty. In a few minutes, the old witch who prefides over his infirmeft days tails to tor¬ menting him afrelh, and winds him up again in his dellined confinement. When he comes to be d re ft like a man, he has ligatures applied to his arms, legs, and middle, in ihort all over him, to prevent the natural cir¬ culation of his blood, and make him lefs a£hve and healthy : and if it be a child of the tenderer fex, tire mull be bound yet more ftraitly about the waift and ftomach, to acquire a difproportion that nature never meant in her lliape. The two other conftituent parts of beauty, are ex- preftion and grace-, the former of which is common to all perfons and faces j but the latter is to be met with in very few. 3. ExpreJJion. By this is meant the expreflion of the paflions 5 the turns and changes of the mind, fo far as they are made vifible to the eye by our looks or geftures. Though the mind appears principally in the face and attitudes of the head yet every part almoft of the hu¬ man body, on fome occafion or other, may become ex- preflive. Thus the languithing hanging of the arm, or the vehement exertion of it ; the pain expreffed by the fingers of one of the fons in the famous group of Lao- coon, and in the toes of the dying gladiator. But this again is often loft among us by our drefs ; and indeed is of the lefs concern, becaufe the expreflion of the paf- fions paffes chiefly in the face, which we (by good luck) have not as yet concealed. The parts of the face in which the paflions moft B . frequently make their appearance, are the eyes and • ■ ‘.'l. mouth but from the eyes they diffufe themfelves very ftrongly about the eye-brows : as, in the other cafe, they appear often in the parts all round the mouth. Philofophers may difpute as much as they plcafe about the feat of the foul; but wherever it refides, we. are fure that it fpeaks in the eyes. Perhaps it is injuring the eye brows, to make them only dependents on the eye : for they, efpecially in lively faces, have, as it were, a language of their own j and are extreme¬ ly varied, according to the different fentiments and paflions of the mind. Degree of pleafure may be often difcerned in a la¬ dy’s eye brow, though the have addrefs enough not to let it appear in her eyes 5 and at other times may be difcovered fo much of her thoughts, in the line juft above her eye-brows, that (lie would probably be amaz¬ ed how any body could tell what palled in her mind, and (as (he thought) undifcovered by her face, fo par¬ ticularly and diftinftly. Homer makes the eye-brows the feat of (c) majefty, Virgil of (t>) deje6tion, Horace of (e) modefty, and Juvenal of (f) pride and it is not certain whether every one of the paflions be not afligned, by one or other of the poets, to the fame part. Having hitherto fpoken only of the paflions in gene¬ ral, we will now confider a little which of them add to beauty, and which of them take from it. We may fay, in general, that all the tender and kind paflions add to beauty $ and all the cruel and unkind ones add to deformity : And it is on this account that good nature may very juftly be faid to be “ the beft feature even in the fineft face.” Mr Pope has included the principal paflion of each fort in two very pretty lines: Love, hope, and joy, fair pleafure’s fmiling train $ Hate, fear, and grief, the family of pain. The former of which naturally give an additional luftre and them : and the nails long, rounded at the ends, and pellucid. The bofom ftiould be white and charming ; and the breafts equal in roundnefs, whitenefs, and firmnefs ; neither too muchelevated nor too much depreffed ; rifing gen¬ tly, and very diftinflly feparated j in one word, juft like thofe of the Venus of Medici. The fides fliould be long, and the hips wider than the (boulders and turn off as they do in the fame Venus ; and go down rounding and leffening gradually to the knee. The knee fliould be even, and well rounded the legs ftraight, but varied by a proper rounding of the more flefliy part of them, and the feet finely turned, white, and little. (c) H, Xuavtjflw iTr o!Pgvre//y ones: T/iat is more commanding, and tin's the more delightful and enga- 4 ging. The Grecian painters and fculptors ufed to ex- Beauty..’ prei's the former moft ftrongly in the looks and atli- v——v— tudes of their Minervas, and the latter in thofe of Venus. Xenophon, in his Choice of Hercules (or at lead the excellent tranflator of that piece), has made juft the fame diftindlion in the perfonages of Wifdom and Plea- fure j the former of which he deferibes as moving on to that young hero with the majeftic fort of grace j and the latter with the familiar : Graceful, yet each with different grace they move j This ftriking facred awe, that fofter winning love. No poet feems to have underftood this part of beau¬ ty fo well as our own Milton. He fpeaks of thefe two forts of grace very diftindlly ; and gives the ma¬ jeftic to his Adam, and both the familiar and majellic to Eve, but the latter in a lefs degree than the former r Two of far nobler ffiape, eredl and tall, Godlike erecl, with native honour clad. In naked majefty, feem’d lords of all •, And worthy feem’d. For in their looks divine The image, of their glorious Maker flume : Truth, wifdom, fandtitude fevere and pure ; Severe, but in true filial freedom plac’d : Whence true authority in men : Though both Not equal, as their fex not equal, feem’d. For contemplation he, and valour, form’d j For foftnefs ihe, and fvveet attractive grace. Milton’s Par. Xo/?, book iv. 298,. I efpy’d thee, fair indeed and tall, Under a plantain •, yet methought lefs fair, Lefs winning foft, lefs amiably mild, Than that fmooth wat’ry image (Eve, of Adam and herfelf) lb. ver. ^80. Her heav’nly form Angelic, but more foft and feminine ; Her graceful innocence ; her ev’ry air Of gefture, or leaft adion. B. ix. 461. Grace was in all her flops \ Heav’n in her eye; In every gefture, dignity and love. B. vhi. 4^9* Speaking or mute, all comelinefs and grace Attends thee ; and each word, each motion, forms. lb. 223. Though grace is fo difficult to be accounted for in general, yet there are two particular things which feem to hold univerfally in relation to it. The fir ft is, “ That there is no grace without mo¬ tion , that is, without fome genteel or pleafing mo¬ tion, either of the whole body or of fome limb, or at leaft of fome feature. And it may be hence that Lord Bacon calls grace by the name of decent motion , juft as if they were equivalent terms: “ In beauty, that jiyGr^s of favour is more than that of colour ; and that of gra-vcj. f cious and decent motion, more than that of favour.” p 362. Virgil in one place points out the majefty of Juno, and in another the graceful air of Apollo, by onlyIV>^^. faying that they move 5 and poffibly he means no more when he makes the motion of Venus the princi¬ pal thing by which XEncas difcovers her under all her.®*, i. 406. difguife / t 499 l . B E A fo high a pre-eminence over all their other eompeti- B E A Beauty, tllfguife : though the commentators, as ufual, would »—y—~ fain find out a more dark and myfterious meaning for it. All the bell ftatues are reprefented as in fome a£Hon or motion •, and the mofi: graceful ftatue in the world {the Apollo Belvedere) is fo much fo, that when one faces it at a little diftance, one is almoft apt to imagine -that he is actually going to move on toward you. All graceful heads, even in the portraits of the bell painters, are in motion j and very ftrongly on thofe of Guido in particular j which are all either catling their looks up toward heaven, or down toward the ground, or fide-way, as regarding fome obje. The habit of the Bedaffe is white : on their heads they wear white caps of feveral pieces, with turbans of wool twifled rope-fafhion. 1 hey obferve conftantly the hour of prayer, which they perform in their own afiemblies, and make frequent declarations of the unity of God. BED, a convenience for ftretehing and compofing the body on, for cafe, reft, or fleep, confifting gene- r 5°3 i B. E ■D with bilhops rally of feathers enclofed in a ticken cafe. There are varieties of beds, as a ftanding-bed, a fettee-bed, a tent- v 1 - bed, a truckle-bed, &c. It was univerfally the practice, in the firft ages, for whitta- mankind to fleep upon fkins of beafts. It was oxig\-ker's Hi/lo- nally the cuftom of the Greeks and Romans. It particularly the cuftom of the ancient Britons beforef the Roman invafion ; and thefe fkins were fpread on the floor of their apartments. Afterwards they were chan¬ ged for loofe ruflies and heath, as the Welfli a few' years ago lay on the former, and the Highlanders of Scotland fleep on the latter to this prefent moment. In procefs of time, the Romans fuggefted to the interior Britons the ufe, and the introduftion of agriculture fupplied them with the means, of the greater conveni- ency of draw beds. The beds of the * Roman gentry * Pliny, at this period were generally filled with feathers, andhb viii. thofe of the inns with the foft down of reeds. But for^d^ a™1 many ages the beds of the Italians had been conftantly ^ compofed of ftraw ; it ftill formed thofe of the foldiers and officers at the conqueft of Lancafhire ; and from both, our countrymen learnt their ule. But it appears to have been taken up only by the gentlemen, as the common Welffi had their beds thinly Huffed with ruflies as late as the conclufion of the 12th century ; and with the gentlemen it continued many ages afterwards. Straw was ufed even in the royal chambers of Eng¬ land as late as the clofe of the 13th. Moil of the pea- fants about Manchefter lie on chaff at prefent, as do likewife the common people all over Scotland : In the Highlands heath alfo is very generally ufed as bedding, even by the gentry j and the repofe on a heath bed has been celebrated by travellers as a peculiar luxury, fu- perior to that yielded by down : In France and Italy, llraw beds remain general to this day. But after the above period, beds were no longer fuffered to reft up¬ on the ground. The better mode, that had anciently prevailed in the eaft, and long before been introduced into Italy, w'as adopted in Britain ; and they were now mounted on pedeftals-f. 1 his, however, was equally f Gen. xlix»- confined to the gentlemen. The bed ftill continued on the floor among the common people. And the g.rofs cuftoro, that had prevailed from the beginning was re¬ tained by the lower Britons to the laft ; and thefe. ground-beds were laid along the walls of their houfes, and formed one common dormitory for all the members of the family. The fafliion continued univerfally among the inferior ranks of the Welfli within thefe four nr five ages, and with the more uncivilized part of the High¬ landers down to our own times. And even at no great diflance from Manchefter, in the neighbouring Buxton, and within thefe 60 or 70 years, the perfons that repaired to the bath are all faid to have flept in one long cham¬ ber together ; the upper part being allotted to the ladies, and tlie lower to the gentlemen, and only partitioned from each other by a curtain. Dining-BED, lectus tricliniaris or difcubitonus, that whereon the ancients lay at meals. The dining or dif- cubitory beds were four or five feet high. Three of thefe beds were ordinarily ranged by a fquare table, (whence both the table and the room where they ate were called triclinium) in fuch a manner that one of the fides of the table remained open and acceftible to the waiters. Each bed would hold three or four, rarely five perfons. Thefe beds were unknown before the fe- 1• cond! BED [ 5 BEDEL. See Beadle. Bedel, a fmall town in the north riding of York- ffffre, feated on a little brook, in W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 54. 30. BEDELL, Dr William, a learned prelate, born in Effex in 1570. He went with Sir Henry Wotton the Engliftr ambaffador to the republic of Venice, as his chaplain, in 1604; and continuing eight years in that city, contrafled an intimate acquaintance with the famous Father Paul, of whom he learned Italian fo well as to tranflate the Englilh Common Prayer Book into that language : in return he drew up an Englifli gram¬ mar for Father Paul, who declared he had learned more from him in all parts of divinity than from any one befide. He was accordingly much concerned when Bedell left Venice ; and at his departure prefented him with his piflure, the MSS. of his Hiftory of the Coun¬ cil of Trent, his Hiftory of the Interdict and Inquifi- tion. BED [ 505 ] BED Bedell tion, with other literary donations. In 1629, he ob- )i tained the birtiopric of Kilmore and Ardagh in Ireland ; Bedford. an(j finding thefe dioeefes in great diforder, applied himfelf vigoroufly to reform the abufes there. He was no perfecutor of Papifts, but laboured with great fuccefs to convert the better fort of the Popidi clergy : he procured an Irilh tranflation of the Common Prayer Book, which he caufed to be read in his cathedral every Sunday j and the New Teftament having been tranflated by Archbiihop Daniel, he procured one of the Old Teftament j which he having been prevented from printing himfelf, was afterwards executed at the expence of the great Mr Robert Boyle. He publithed, in 1624, a controverfial book againft the Roman Ca¬ tholics, which he dedicated to Charles prince of Wales j and aflifted the arcbbifliop of Spalatro in finifliing his famous work De Republica Ecclefuijlica.—AVhen the bloody rebellion broke out in Ireland in Qft. 1641, the bifhop at firft did not feel the violence of its effefts ; for the very rebels had conceived a great veneration for him, and they declared he fhould be the laft Englifti- man they would drive out of Ireland. His was the only houfe in the county of Cavan that was inviola* ted, and it was filled with the people who fled to him for {belter. About the middle of December, however, the rebels, purfuant to orders received from their coun¬ cil of ftate at Kilkenny, requited him to difmifs the people that Were with him ; which he refufed to do, declaring he would (hare the fame fate with the reft. Upon this, they feized him, his two fons, and Mr Clogy who had married his daughter-in-law, and car¬ ried them prifoners to the caftle of Clougbboughter, fur- rounded by a deep water, where they put them all, ex¬ cept the bifhop, in irons; after fome time, however, this part of their feverity was abated. After being confined for about three weeks, the bifhop and his two Tons, and Mr Clogy, were exchanged for fome of the principal re¬ bels : but the bifhop died foon after, on the 7th of Fe¬ bruary 1642, his death being chiefly occafioned by his late imprifonment, and the weight of forrows which lay upon his mind. The Irifh did him unufual honours at his burial ; for the chief of the rebels gathered their forces together, and with them accompanied his body to the church-yard. BEDER, a ftrong town of Afia, in the dominions of the Great Mogul. E. Long. 81. 10. N. Lat. 16. 5O. BEDFORD, the county town of Bedfordfhire in England, feated on both fides of the river Oufe, over which there is a ftone bridge ; in W. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 52. 6. It is an ancient town, and pleafantly fituated, but not very large nor well built, though the buildings are much improved of late, and the river made navigable. It fends two members to parliament, and gives the title of duhe to the noble family of Ruflel. At this place the Britons were overthrown in a great bat¬ tle in 572, by Cuthwulf the Saxon king; and here was a ftrong caftle, built in the time of the Normans by Pagan de Beauchamp, the third baron of Bedford. It was reduced by King Stephen after a long fiege; and afterwards taken by King John, after a fiege of 60 days, from Fulco de Brent, who rebelled againft his fovereign, notwithftanding he had taken this caftle be¬ fore from the batons, and had it beftowed upon him by the king. The town is a very ancient corporation. The Slumber of houfes in 1801, was 783? and inhabitants Vol. III. Part II. 3948. It is governed at prefent by a mayor, recorder, Bedford, two bailiffs, twelve aldermen, two chamberlains, a town Bediord- clerk, and three ferjeants. The neighbouring country flafe- is very fruitful in wheat, great quantities of which are carried from hence to Hitchen and Hertford markets, fold, ground, and conveyed to London. The town has five churches, a free fchool, and feveral hofpitals, and en¬ joys a good trade in corn by the way of Lynn. When the river is fwelled with rains, efpecially in winter, it is ttfual in Cambridgeftiire to fay, the bailiff of Bedford is coming ; meaning that it is going to lay their fens under water. BEDFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England. When the Romans landed in Britain, 55 years before Chrift, it was included in the diftridl inhabited by the Catieuchlani, whofe chief or governor Caflibelinua headed the forces of the whole ifland againft Ceefar, and the year folloiving was totally defeated. In 310 the emperor Conftantine divided Britain into five Roman provinces, when this county was included in the third divifion, called Flavin Cafarwnfis; in which ftate it continued 426 years, when the Romans quitted Britain. At the eftablilhment of the kingdom of Mercia (one of the divifions of the Saxon heptarchy) it was confi- dered as part of that kingdom ; and fo continued from 582 to 827, when with the other petty kingdoms of the ifland it became fubjeft to the Weft Saxons under Egbert, and the whole was named England. In 889, Alfred held the fovereignty, when England was divided into counties, hundreds, and tythings, and Bedfordftiire firft received its prefent name. It is in the Norfolk circuit, the province of Canterbury, and biftiopric of Lincoln. Its form is oval, being about 33 miles long, 16 broad, and nearly 73 in circumference ; containing an area of about 323 fquare miles, or 260,000 fquare acres. It fupplies 400 men to the national militia. It contains 124 parifhes, 58 vicarages, and 11 market- towns, viz. Bedford, Ampthill, Bigglefwade, Dunftable, Leighton, Beaudefart, Lutton, Potton, Shefford, Tud- dington, and Woburn, and 55 villages. The total number of inhabitants, in 1801, amounted to 63,393, and the number of houfes to 11,888, occupied by 13,980 families. It is divided into nine hundreds, fends two members to parliament, and pays feven parts of 513 of the land-tax. Its piincipal river, the Oufe, is navigable to Bedford; and divides the county into two parts, of which that to the fouth is the moft confiderable. In its courfe, which is very meandering, it receives feveral fmall ftreams ; the principal one is the Ivel, which takes its rife in the fouthern part of the county. The air is healthy, and the foil in general a deep clay. The north fide of the Oufe is fruitful and woody, but the fouth fide is lefs fertile : yet producing great quantities of wheat and barley, ex¬ cellent in their kind, and woad for dyers. The foil yields plenty of fullers earth for our woollen manufac¬ tory. The chief manufaftures of the county are thread, lace, and ftraw ware. In this county there are many remains of Roman, Saxon, and Norman antiquities; and a few Roman ftations, viz. Sandys near Potton, and the Magiovinum of Antoninus, by ethers fuppofed to be the ancient Salenae, containing 30 acres, where many urns, coins, &c. have been dug up. Another at Madining-bowre, or Maiden-bower, one mile from Dunftable, containing about nine acres, which Camden fuppofes to have been a Roman ftation, from coins 3 S ef BED [ 506 ] BED Bedford- of the emperors having been frequently dug up there, fliire and calls it Magintum. Leighton Beaudefart is fup- . pofed to have been a Roman camp. There is another at , ei ou.m. ^rjt,fey near ShefFord ; and a Roman amphitheatre may be traced near Bradford Magna. The Roman road, Icknield-ftreet, croffes this county, entering at Leigh¬ ton Beaudefart, from whence it paffes Dunftable, where ii inclines northward, over Wardon-hills, to Badlock in Hertfordlhire. The Watling-ftreet enters this county near Laton from St Albans-, paffes a little north of Dunftable, where it croffes the Icknield-ftreet, and from thence to Stoney Stratford in Buckinghamfhire. A Roman road alfo enters near Potton, paffes on to Sandy, and from thence to Bedford, where it croffes the Oufe, and proceeds to Newport Pagnell in Buck- inghamfhire. The following antiquities in this county are worthy of notice : Bedford Bridge and Priory j Chickfand Abbey near Shefford $ Dunftable Priory near Luton ; Eaton Park Houfe or Eaton Bray ; Five Knolls near Dunflable ; Newnham Priory near Bed¬ ford ; Northill Church, three miles from Bigglefwade j Summeris Tower near Luton *, Warden Abbey near Shefford j Woburn Abbey *, Woodhill Caftle, or Old- hill Caftle, near Harewood. BEDLOE, William, who affumed the title of Captain, was an infamous adventurer of low birth, who had travelled over a great part of Europe under differ¬ ent names and difguil’es, and had paffed among feveral ignorant perfons for a man of rank and fortune. ‘ En¬ couraged by the fuccefs of Oates, he turned evidence, gave an account of Godfrey’s murder, and added many circumttances to the narrative of the former. Thefe vil¬ lains had the boldnefs to accufe the queen of entering into a confpiracy againft the king’s life. A reward of ijool. was voted to Bedloe by the common*. He is faid to have afferted the reality of the plot on his death¬ bed : but it abounds with abfurdity, contradidlion, and perjury 5 and flill remains one of the greateft problems in the Britifh annals. He died at Briflol 20th Auguft 1680. Giles Jacob informs us, that he was author of a play called “ The Excommunicated Prince, or the Falfe Relift,” 1679. The printer of it having, with¬ out the author’s knowledge, added a fecond title, and called it “ The Popifh Plot in a Play,” greatly ex¬ cited the curiofity of the public, who were, however, much difappointed when they found the plan of the piece to be founded on a quite different itory. Anthony Wood will not allow the captain the merit of this play ; but afferts that it was written partly, if not en¬ tirely, by one Tho. Walter, M. A. of Jefus college, Oxford. BEDOUINS, or Bedouis, a modern name of the •wild Arabs, whether in Afia or Africa. When fpeak- ing of the Arabs, we fhould diftinguilh whether they are cultivators or pallors; for this difference in their mode of life occafions fo great a one in their manners and genius, that they become almoft foreign nations with refpefl to each other. In the former cafe, leading a fedentary life, attached to the fame foil, and fubjeft to regular governments, the focial Hate in which they live, very nearly refembles our own. Such are the inhabitants of Yemen \ and fuch alfo are the de¬ fendants of thofe ancient conquerors who have either entirely, or in part, given inhabitants to Syria, Egypt, and the Barbary Hates. In the fecond inftance, hav¬ ing only a tranfient intereft in the foil, perpetually Bedouins, removing their tents from one place to another, and v— under fubjeftion to no laws, their mode of exiftence is neither that of polilhed nations nor of favages j and therefore more particularly merits our attention. Such are the Bedouins, or inhabitants of the vaft deferts which extend from the confines of Perfia to Morocco. Though divided into independent communities or tribes, not unfrequently hoftile to each other, they may Hill be confidered as forming one nation. The refemblance of their language is a manifeft token of this relation- Ihip. The only difference that exifts between them is, that the African tribes are of a lefs ancient origin, being pofterior to the conquelt of thefe countries by the caliphs' or fucceffors of Mahomet j while the tribes of the defert of Arabia, properly fo called, have de¬ fended by an uninterrupted fucceffion from the remo- teft ages. To thefe the orientals are aecuftomed to appropriate the name of Arabs, as being the moll an¬ cient and the pureft race. The term Bedaouih added as a fynonymous expreflion, fignifying, “ inhabitants of the Defert.” It is not without reafon that the inhabitants of the* defert boafl. of being the pureft and the bell preferved race of all the Arab tribes : for never have they been conquered, nor have they mixed with any other people by making conquefts } for thofe by which the general name of Arabs has been rendered famous, really belong only to the tribes of Hedjaz and Yemen. Thofe who dwelt in the interior of the country never emigrated at the time of the revolution effected by Mahomet j or if they did take any part in it, it was confined to a few individuals, detached by motives of ambition. Thus we. find the prophet in his Khoran continually ftyling the Arabs of the defert rebels and infidels ; nor has fo great a length of time produced any very confiderable change. We may affert they have in every refpeft re¬ tained their primitive independence and fimplicity. See Arabia. The wandering life of thefe people arifes from the very nature of their deferts. To paint to himfelf thefe deferts (fays M. Volney), the reader muff imagine a Iky almolt perpetually inflamed, and without clouds, immenfe and boundlefs plains, without houfes, trees, rivulets, or hills, where the eye'frequently meets no¬ thing but an extenfive and uniform horizon like the fea, though in fome places the ground is uneven and Honey. AlmoH invariably naked on every fide, the earth prefents nothing but a few wild plants thinly fcattered, and thickets, whofe folitude is rarely diflur- bed but by antelopes, hares, locufls, and rats. Such is the nature of nearly the whole country, which extends fix hundred leagues in length and three hundred in breadth, and flretches from Aleppo to the Arabian fea, and from Egypt to the Perfian gulf. It muff not, however, be imagined that the foil in fo great an ex¬ tent is everywhere the fame ; it varies confiderably in different places. On the frontiers of Syria, for exam¬ ple, the earth is in general fat and cultivable, nay even fruitful. It is the fame alfo on the banks of the Eu¬ phrates : but in the internal parts of the country, and towards the fouth, it becomes white and chalky, as in the parallel of Damafcus j rocky, as in the T ih and the Hedjaz ; and a pure fand, as to the eaffward of Ye¬ men. This variety in the qualities of the foil is pro- du&ive BED [ S°7 ] BED Bedouins. du&Ive of fome minute differences in tlie condition of c—y—' the Bedouins. For imltance, in the more fterile coun¬ tries, that is, thofe which produce but few plants, the tribes are feeble and very diftant ; which is the cafe in the defert of Suez, that of the Red fea, and the inte¬ rior of the great defert called the Najd. When the foil is more fruitful, as between Damafcus and the Eu¬ phrates, the tribes are more numerous and lefs remote from each other ; and, laftly, in the cultivable diftridts, fuch as the pachalics of Aleppo, the Hauran, and the neighbourhood of Gaza, the camps are frequent and contiguous. In the former inftances, the Bedouins are purely pallors, and fubfift only on the produce of their herds, and on a few dates and flelh meat, which they eat either frefh, or dried in the fun and reduced to a powder. In the latter, they fow fome land, and add cheefe, barley, and even rice, to their flefh and milk meats. In thofe diftridfs where the foil is ftony and fandy, as in the Tih, the Hedjaz, and the Najd, the rains make the feeds of the wild plants Ihoot, and revive the thick¬ ets, ranunculi, wormwood, and kali. They caufe marlhes in the lower grounds, which produce reeds and grafs j and the plain affumes a tolerable degree of ver- N dure. This is the feafon of abundance both for the herds and their mailers $ but on the return of the heats, every thing is parched up, and the earth, con¬ verted into a gray and fine dull, prefents nothing but dry Items as hard as wood, on which neither horfes, oxen, nor even goats can feed. In this Hate the de¬ fert would become uninhabitable, and mult be totally abandoned, had not nature formed an animal no lefs hardy and frugal than the foil is Iterile and ungrateful. No creature feems fo peculiarly fitted to the climate in which it exilts. Defigning the camel to dwell in a country where he can find little nourilhment, Nature (fays M. Volney) has been fparing of her materials in the whole of his formation. She has not bellowed on him the plump flelhinefs of the ox, horfe, or elephant j but limiting herfelf to what is flriflly neceflary, Ihe has given him a fmall head without ears, at the end of a long neck without flelh. She has taken .from his legs and thighs every mufcle not immediately requi- lite for motion j and in Ihort, has bellowed on his withered body only the velfels and tendons neceflary to connedl its frame together. She has furnilhed him with a llrong jaw, that he may grind the hardell ali¬ ments ; but left he Ihould confume too much, Ihe has ftraitened his ftomach, and obliged him to chew the cud. She has lined his foot with a lump of flefh, which Hiding in the mud, and being no way adapted to climbing, fits him only for a dry, level, and fandy foil like that of Arabia : Ihe has evidently deftined him likewife to llavery, by refilling him every fort of de¬ fence againft his enemies. Deftitute of the horns of the bull, the hoof of the horfe, the tooth of the ele¬ phant, and the fwiftnefs of the Hag, how can the ca¬ mel refill or avoid the attacks of the lion, the tiger, or even the wolf ? To preferve the fpecies, therefore, na¬ ture has concealed him in the depth of the vail deferts, where the want of vegetables can attradl no game, and whence the want of game repels every voracious ani¬ mal. Tyranny mull have expelled man from the ha¬ bitable parts of the earth before the camel could have loft his liberty. Become domeftic, he has rendered habitable the moll barren foil the world contains. He Bedouins. alone fupplies all his mailer’s wants. The milk of the y—— camel nourilhes the family of the Arab, under the va¬ ried forms of curd, cheefe, and butter ; and they often feed upon his flelh. Slippers and harnefs are made of his fkin, tents and clothing of his hair. Heavy burdens are tranfported by his means : and when the earth de»- nies forage to the horfe, fo valuable to the Bedouin, the Ihe camel fupplies that deficiency by her milk, at no other coll, for fo many advantages, than a few ftalks of brambles or wormwood and pounded date kernels. So great is the importance of the camel to the defert, that were it deprived of that ufeful animal, it mull infallibly lofe every inhabitant. Such is the lituation in which nature has placed the Bedouins, to make of them a race of men equally lin¬ gular in their phyfieal and moral charafter. This fin- gularity is fo linking, that even their neighbours the Syrians regard them as extraordinary beings : efpecially thofe tribes which dwell in the depth of the deferts, fuch as the Anaza, Kaibar, Tai, and others, which never approach the towns. When in the time pf Shaik Daher, fome of their horfemen came as far as Acre, they excited the fame curiolity there as a vifit from the favages of America would among us. Every body viewed with furprife thefe men, who were more dimi¬ nutive, meagre, and fwarthy, than any of the known Bedouins. Their withered legs were only compofed of tendons, and had no calves. Their bellies feemed to cling to their backs, and their hair was frizzled almoft as much as that of the negroes. They on the other hand were no lefs aftonilhed at every thing they faw ; they could neither conceive how the houfes and minarets could Hand ere£l, nor how men ventured to dwell be¬ neath them, and always in the fame fpot ; but above all, they were in an ecftacy on beholding the fea, nor could they comprehend what that defert of water could be. We may imagine that the Arabs of the frontiers are not fuch novices 5 there are even feveral fmall tribes of them, who living in the midft of the country, as in the valley of Bekaa, that of the Jordan, and in Paleftine, approach nearer to the condition of the peafants ; but thefe are defpifed by the others, who look upon them as baftard Arabs and Rayas, or flaves of the Turks. In general, the Bedouins are fmall, meagre, and tawny; more fo, however, in the heart of the defert than on the frontiers of the cultivated country 5 but they are always of a darker hue than the neighbouring peafants. They alfo differ among themfelves in the fame camp ; and M. Volney remarked, that the Araiks, that is, the rich, and their attendants, were always taller and more corpulent than the common clafs. He has feen fome of them above five feet five and fix inches high ; though in general they do not (he fays) exceed five feet two inches. This difference can only be attributed to their food, with which the former are fupplied more abundantly than the latter : And the ef- fedls of this are equally evident in the Arabian and. Turcoman camels ; for thefe latter, dwelling in coun¬ tries rich in forage, are become a fpecies more robuft and fleflry than the former. It may likewife be affirm¬ ed, that the lower clafs of Bedouins live in a ftate of habitual wretchednefs and famine. It will appear al¬ moft incredible to us, but it is an undoubted fa6l, that 3 S 2 the BED [ 5oB ] BED Bedouins the quantity of food ufually confumed by the greateft —■-y- I.-' part of them does not exceed fix ounces a-day. This abftinence is moft remarkable among the tribes of the Najd and the Hedjaz. Six or feven dates foaked in melted butter, a little fweet milk or curds, ferve a man a whole day ; and he efteems himfelf happy vvhen die can add a fmall quantity of coarfe flour or a little ball of rice. Meat is preferved for the greateft fefti- vals ; and they never kill a kid but for a marriage or a funeral. A few wealthy and generous ftiaiks alone can kill young camels, and eat baked rice with their viftuals. In times of dearth, the vulgar, always half famifhed, do not difdain the moft wretched kinds of food ; and eat locufts, rats, lizards, and ferpents broil¬ ed on briars. Hence are they fuch plunderers of the cultivated lands, and robbers on the high-roads : hence alfo their delicate conftitution and their diminutive and meagre bodies, which are rather aftive than vi¬ gorous. It may be worth while to remark, that their evacuations of every kind, even perfpiration, are ex¬ tremely fmall \ their blood is fo deftitute of ferofity, that nothing but the greateft heat can preferve its flui- idity. This, however, does not prevent them from be¬ ing tolerably healthy in other refpe&s ; for maladies are lefs frequent among them than among the inhabitants of the cultivated country. From thefe fa&s we are by no means juftified in concluding that the frugality of the Bedouins is a vir¬ tue purely of choice, or even of climate. The ex¬ treme heat in which they live unqueftionably facilitates their abftinence, by deftroying that aftivity which cold gives to the ftomach. Their being habituated alfo to fo fparing a diet, by hindering the dilatation of the ftomach, becomes doubtlefs a means of their fupporting fuch abftemioufnefs } but the chief and pri¬ mary motive of this habit is with them, as with the reft of mankind, the neceflity of the circumftances in which they are placed, whether from the nature of the foil, as has been before explained, or that ftate of fo- ciety in which they live, and which remains now to be examined. It has been already remarked, that the Bedouin Arabs are divided into tribes, which conftitute fo many diftinft nations. Each of thefe tribes appro¬ priates to itfelf a traft of land forming its domain j in this they do not differ from cultivated nations, except that their territory requires a greater extent, in or¬ der to furnifh fubfiftence for their herds throughout the year. Each tribe is colle&ed in one or more camps, which are difperfed through the country, and which make a fucceflive progrefs over the whole, in proportion as it is exhaufted by the cattle j hence, it is, that within a great extent a few fpots only are in¬ habited, which vary from one day to another; but as the entire fpace is neceffary for the annual fubfiftence of the tribe, whoever encroaches on it is deemed a violator of property } this is with them the law of na¬ tions. If, therefore, a tribe, or any of its fubje&s, enter upon a foreign territory, they are treated as ene¬ mies and robbers, and a war breaks out. Now, as all the tribes have affinities with each other by alliances of blood or conventions, leagues are formed, which ren¬ der thefe wars more or lefs general. The manner of proceeding on fuch occafions is very fimple. The of¬ fence mad* known, they mount their horfes and feek I the enemy : when they meet, they enter into a parley, Bedouins, and the matter is frequently made up ; if not, they at- —v~—J tack either in fmall bodies, or man to man. They encounter each other at full fpeed with fixed lances, which they fometimes dart, notwithftanding their length, at the flying enemy : the victory is rarely con- teftedj it is decided by the firft fhock, and the vanquifh- ed take to flight at full gallop over the naked plain of the defert. Night generally favours their efcape from the conqueror. The tribe which has loft the battle ftrikes its tents, removes to a diftance by forced marches, and feeks an afylum among its allies. The enemy, fatisfied with their fuccefs, drive their herds farther on, and the fugitives foon after return to their former fituation. But the flaughter made in thefe engagements frequent¬ ly fows the feeds of hatreds which perpetuate thefe diffenfions. The intereft of the common fafety has for ages eftabliftied a law among them, which decrees that the blood of every man who is flain muft be avenged by that of his murderer. This vengeance is called Tar, or retaliation ; and the right of exa&ing it devolves on the neareft of kin to the deceafed. So nice are the Arabs on this point of honour, that if any one negle&s to feek his retaliation he is difgraced for ever. He therefore watches every opportunity of revenge : if his enemy perifhes from any other caufe, ftill he is not fatisfied, and his vengeance is dire&ed againft the neareft relation. Thefe animofities are tranfmitted as an inheritance from father to children, and never ceafe but by the extinftion of one of the families, unlefs they agree to facrifice the criminal, or parch ofe the blood for a ftated price, in money, or in flocks. Without this fatisfa&ion, there is neither peace, nor truce, nor alliances, between them, nor fometimes even between whole tribes : There is blood between us, fay they on every occafion j and this expreffion is an infurmountable barrier. Such accidents being necefl'a- rily numerous in a long courfe of tim«, the greater part of the tribes have ancient quarrels, and live in a habitual ftate of war j which, added to their way of life, renders the Bedouins a military people, though they have made no great progrefs in war as an art. Their camps are formed in a kind of irregular circle, compofed of a Angle row of tents, with greater or lefs intervals. Thefe tents, made of goat or camels hair, are black or brown, in which they differ from thofe of the Turcomans, which are white. They are ftretched on three or four pickets, only five or fix feet high, which gives them a very flat appearance ; at a diftance, one of thefe camps feems only like a number of black fpots: but the piercing eye of the Bedouin is not to be deceived. Each tent inhabited by a family is di¬ vided by a curtain into two apartments, one of which is appropriated to the women. The empty fpace within the large circle ferves to fold their cattle every evening. They never have any intrenchments j their only advanced guards and patroles are dogs j their horfes remain faddled and ready to mount on the firft alarm ; but as there is neither order nor regularity, thefe camps, always eafy to furprife, afford no defence in cafe of an attack *, accidents, therefore, very frequent¬ ly happen, and cattle are carried off every day; a fpecies of marauding war in which the Arabs are very experi¬ enced. The tribes which live in the vicinity of the Turks are B E D [ 509 J BED are ftill more accuftomed to attacks and alarms; for thefe grangers, arrogating to tbemfelves, in right of conqoeft, the property of the whole country, treat the Arabs as rebel vaiTals, or as turbulent and danger¬ ous enemies. On this principle, they never ceafe to wage fecret or open war againft them. The pachas ftudy every oecaiion to harafs them. Sometimes they con tell; with them a territory which they had let them, and at others demand a tribute which they never agreed to pay. Should a family of Ihaiks be divided by in- terelt or ambition, they alternately fuccour each party, and conclude by the deftruflion of both. Frequently too they potfon or aflaflinate thofe chiefs whole cou¬ rage or abilities they dread, though they flrould even be their allies. The Arabs, on their fide, regarding the Turks as ufurpers and treacherous enemies, watch every opporrunity to do them injury. Unfortunately, their vengeance falls oftener on the innocent than the guilty. The harmlefs peafant generally fuffers for the offences of the foldier. On the flighted alarm, the Arabs cut their harvefts, carry off their flocks, and in¬ tercept their communication and commerce. The pea¬ fant calls them thieves, and with reafon j but the Be¬ douins claim the right of war, and perhaps they alfo are not in the wrong. However this may be, thefe de¬ predations occafion a mifunderftanding between the Be¬ douins and the inhabitants of the cultivated country, which renders them mutual enemies. Such is the external fituation of the Arabs. It is fubjeft to great viciffitudes, according to the good or bad conduct of their chiefs. Sometimes a feeble tribe raifes and aggrandizes itfelf, whilft another, which was powerful, falls into decay, or perhaps is entirely anni¬ hilated ; not that all its members perilh, but they in¬ corporate themfelves with fome other j and this is the confequence of the internal conftitution of the tribes. Each tribe is compofed of one or more principal fa¬ milies, the members of which bear the title of fliaiks, i. e. chiefs or lords. Thefe families have a great re- femblance to the patricians of Rome and the nobles of modern Europe. One of the (haiks has the fupreme command over the others. He is the general of their little army ; and fometimes affumes the title of emiry which fignifies commander and prince. T he more relations, children, and allies, he has, the greater is his ftrength and power. To thefe he adds particular adherents, whom he fludioufly attaches to him, by fupplying all their wants. But befides this, a number of fmall families, who, not being ftrong enough to live independent, ftand in need of prote£lion and alliances, range themfelves under the banners of this chief. Such an union is called kabila, or tribe. Fhefe tribes are diftinguiflied from each other by the name of their re- fpeftive chiefs, or by that of the ruling family j and when they fpeak of any of the individuals who com- pofe them, they call them the children of fuch a chief, though they may not be all really of his blood, and he himfelf may have been long fince dead. J hus they fay, Be/zz Tetnin, Oulad Tai, the children of Temin and of Tai. This mode of expreflion is even applied, by metaphor, to the names of countries : the ufual phrafe for denoting its inhabitants being to call them the children of fuch a place. Thus the Arabs fay, Ou¬ lad Mafr, the Egyptians *, Oulad Sham, the Syrians j they would alfo (ay, Oulad Franfa, the French } Ou- lad Moufkou, the Ruffians ; a remark which is not un- Bedouins, important to ancient biftory. > ^ The government of this fociety is at once republi¬ can, ariftocratical, and even defpotic, without exaftly correfponding with any of thefe forms. It is republi¬ can, inafmuch^s the people have a great influence in all affairs, and as nothing can be tranfa&ed without the confent of a majority. It is ariftocratical, becaufe the families of the {haiks poffefs fome of the preroga¬ tives which everywhere accompany power ; and, laltly, It is defpotic, becaufe the principal Ihaik has an indefi¬ nite and almofl abfolute authority, which* when he hap¬ pens to be a man of credit and influence, he may even abufe ; but the ftate of thefe tribes confines even this abufe to very narrow limits : for if a chief (hould com¬ mit an aft of injuftice ; if, for example, he fhould kill an Arab, it would be almoft impoffible for him to efcape punifhment; the refentment of the offended par¬ ty would pay no refpeft to his dignity •, the law of re¬ taliation would be put in force *, and, {hould he not pay the blood, he would be infallibly affaflinated, which, from the fimple and private life the fhaiks lead in their camps, would be no difficult thing to effeft. If he haraffes his fubjefts by feverity, they abandon him and go over to another tribe. His own relations take ad¬ vantage of his mifeonduft to depofe him and advance themfelves to his ftation. He can have no refource in foreign troops : his fubjefts communicate too eafily with each other to render it poffible for him to divide their interefts and form a faftion in his favour. Befides, how is he to pay them, fince he receives no kind of taxes from the tribe ; the wealth of the greater part of his fubjefts being limited to abfolute neceflaries, and his own confined to very moderate poffeflions, and thofe too load¬ ed with great expences ? The principal ftiaik in every tribe, in faft, defrays the charges of all who arrive at or leave the camp. He receives the vifits of the allies, and of every perfon who has bufinefs with them. Adjoining to his tent is a large pavilion for the reception of all firangers and paffengers. T. here are held frequent affemblies of the {haiks and principal men, to determine on encampments and removals j on peace and war \ on the differences with the Turkiffi governors and the villages ^ and the litigations and quarrels of individuals. rIo this crowd, which enters fucceffively, he muff give coffee, bread baked on the allies, rice, and fometimes roafted kid or camel ; in a word, he muff keep open table ; and it is the more, important to him to be generous, as this ge- nerofity is clofely connefted with matters of the great- eft confequence. On the exercife of this depend his credit and his power. The famiffied Arab ranks the liberality which feeds him before every virtue; nor is this prejudice without foundation j for experience has proved that covetous chiefs never were men of enlarged views : hence the proverb, as juft as it is brief, A clofe fjl, a narrow heart. 1 o provide for thefe expences, the ffiaik has nothing but his herds, a few fpots of cultivated ground, the profits of his plunder, and the tribute he levies on the high-roads j the total of which is very inconfiderable. 1 he ffiaik with whom 1M. Vol- ney refided in the country of Gaza, about the end of 1784, paffed for one of the moft powerful of thofe diftrifts j yet it did not appear to our author that his expenditure was greater than that of an opulent farmer. BED [5 Bedouins. His perfonal effefts, confiding of a few peliiTes, carpets, ^ arms, liorfes, and camels, could not be eftimated at more than 50,000 livres (a little above 2000I.) j and it muft be obferved, that in this calculation four mares of the breed of racers are valued at 6000 livres (2?ol.), and each camel at 10I. Iterling. We muft not therefore, when we fpeak of the Bedouins, affix to the words Prince and Lord the ideas they ufually convey j we ffiould come nearer to the truth by comparing them to fubftantial farmers in mountainous countries, whofe fim- plicity they refemble in their drefs as well as in their do- meftic life and manners. A ihaik who has the com¬ mand of 500 horfe does not difdain to faddle and bridle his own, nor to give him barley and chopped ftraw. In his tent, his wife makes the coffee, kneads the dough, and fuperintends the dreffing of the victuals. His daugh¬ ters and kinfwomen waffi the linen, and go with pitchers or their head and veils over their faces to draw water from the fountain. 1 hefe manners agree precifely with the defcriptions in Homer and the hiftory of Abraham in Genefis. But it muft be owned that it is difficult to form a juft idea of them without having ourfelves been eye witneffes. The fimplicity, or perhaps more properly the poverty, of the lower clafs of the Bedouins is proportionate to that of their chiefs. All the wealth of a family confifts of moveables j of which the following is a pretty exaft inventory j a few male and female camels j fome goats and poultry; a mare and her bridle and faddle ; a tent; a lance 16 feet long; a crooked fabre; a rufty mulket, with a flint and matchlock ; a pipe; a portable mill; a pot for cooking; a leathern bucket; a fmall coffee roafter ; a mat; fome clothes; a mantle of black wool: and a few glafs or filver rings, which the women wear upon their legs and arms. If none of thefe are wanting their furniture is complete. But what the poor man Hands moft in need of, and what he takes moft pleafure in, is his mare; for this animal is his principal fupport. With his mare the Bedouin makes his excurfions againft hoftile tribes, or feeks plunder in the country and on the highways. The mare is preferred to the horfe, becaufe ftie is more docile, and yields milk, which on occafion fatisfies the thirft and even the hunger of her mafter. Thus confined to the moft abfolute neceffities of life, the Arabs have as little induftry as their wants are few; all their arts confift in weaving their clumfy tents and in making mats and butter. Their whole commerce only extends to the exchanging camels, kids, ftallions, and milk ; for arms, clothing, a little rice or corn, and money, which they bury. They are totally ignorant of all fcience ; and have not even any idea of aftrono- my, geometry, or medicine. They have not a fingle book ; and nothing is fo uncommon among the ftiaiks as to know how to read. All their literature confifts in reciting tales and hiftories in the manner of the Ara¬ bian Nights Entertainments. They have a peculiar paffion for fuch ftories, and employ in them almoft all their leifure, of which they have a great deal. In the evening they feat themfelves on the ground, at the threffiold of their tents, or under cover, if it be cold ; and there, ranged in a circle round a little fire of dung, their pipes in their mouths, and their leggs croffed, they fit a while in filent meditation, till on a hidden one of them breaks forth with Once upon a time,—and con¬ tinues to recite the adventures of fome young ftiaik 3 o ] BED and female Bedouin; he relates in what manner the Bedouins. youth firft got a fecret glimpfe of his miftrefs; and how he became defperately enamoured of her : he minutely defcribes the lovely fair; boafts her black eyes, as large and loft as thofe of the gazelle ; her languid and em- paffioned looks ; her arched eyebrows, refembling two bows of ebony ; her waift ftraight and fupple as a lance: he forgets not her fteps, light as thofe of the young fi/- ley; nor her eyelaffies, blackened with kohl; nor her lips painted blue ; nor her nails, tinged with the gold¬ en-coloured henna ; nor her breafts refembling two pomegranates ; nor her words fweet as honey. He re¬ counts the fufferings of the young lover, fo wnjied with dejire and pajjion, that his body no longer yields any Jha- dow. At length, after detailing his various attempts to fee his miftrefs, the obftacles of the parents, the inva- fions of the enemy, the captivity of the two lovers, &c. he terminates to the fatisfa&ion of the audience, by re- ftoring them, united and happy, to the paternal tent, and by receiving the tribute paid to his eloquence, in the Ma cha allah (an exclamation of praife, equivalent to admirably well!) he has merited. The Bedouins have likewile their love fongs, which have more fenti- ment and nature in them than thofe of the Turks and inhabitants of the towns; doubtlefs, becaufe the former, whofe manners are chafte, knowr what love is : while the latter, abandoned to debauchery, are acquainted on¬ ly with enjoyment. When we confider how much the condition of the Bedouins, efpecially in the depths of the defert, refem- bles in many refpe&s that of the favages of America, we ffiall be inclined to wonder why they have not the fame ferocity ; why, though they fo often experience the extremity of hunger, the praftice of devouring hu¬ man flefh was never heard of among them ; and why, in ffiort, their manners are fo much more fociable and mild. The following reafons are propofed by M. Volney as the true folution of this difficulty. It feems at firft view (he obferves), that America, being rich in pafturage, lakes, and forefls, is more a- dapted to the paftoral mode of life than to any other. But if we confider that thefe forefts, by affording an eafy refuge to animals, proteft them more furely from the power of man, we may conclude that the favage has been induced to become a hunter inftead of a ffiep- herd, by the nature of the country. In this ftate, all his habits have concurred to give him a ferocity of cha- radler. The great fatigues of the chafe have hardened his body ; frequent and extreme hunger, followed by a fudden abundance of game, has rendered him voracious. The habit of fhedding blood, and tearing his prey, has familiarized him to the fight of death and fufferings. Tormented by hunger, he has defired fleffi; and finding it eafy to obtain that of his fellow-creature, he could not long hefitate to kill him to fatisfy the cravings of his appetite. The firft experiment made, this cruelty degenerates into a habit; he becomes a cannibal, fan- guinary and atrocious ; and his mind acquires all the infenfibility of his body. The fituation of the Arab is very different. Amid his vaft naked plains, without water and without fo¬ refts, he has not been able, for want of game or fiffi, to become either a hunter or a fiffierman. The camel has determined him to a paftoral life, the manners of which have influenced his whole charafter. Finding at BED '[ 5ii ] BEE at hand a light, but conftant and fufficient nourifhment, he has acquired the habit of frugality. Content with his milk and his dates, he has not defired flefh 5 he has (hed no blood : his hands are not accuflomed to daugh¬ ter, nor his ears to the cries of fuffering creatures ; he has preferved a humane and fenfible heart. No fooner did the favage ihepherd become acquaint¬ ed with the ufe of the horie, than his manner of life was confiderably changed. The facility of palling rapidly over extenfive tra6ts of country, rendered him a wan¬ derer. He was greedy from want, and became a robber from greedinefs $ and fuch is in fa£t his prefent charafter. A plunderer, rather than a warrior, the Arab pofleffes no fanguinary courage •, he attacks only to defpoil j and if he meets with refillance, never thinks a fmall booty is to be put in competition with his life. To irritate him, you mull (bed his blood ; in which cafe he is found to be as obftinate in his vengeance as he was cautious in avoiding danger. The Bedouins have often been reproached with this fpirit of rapine ; but without wilhing to defend it, we may obferve that one circumflance has not been fuffi- ciently attended to, which is, that it only takes place towards reputed enemies, and is confequently founded on the acknowledged laws of almoft all nations. A- mong themfelves they are remarkable for a good faith, a difinterellednefs, a generofity, which would do ho¬ nour to the moft civilized people. What is there more noble than that right of afylum fo refpe&ed among all the tribes ? A ftranger, nay even an enemy, touches the tent of the Bedouin, and from that inftant his per- fon becomes inviolable. It would be reckoned a dif- graceful meannefs, an indelible fhame, to fatisfy even a juft vengeance at the expence of hofpitality. Has the Bedouin confented to eat bread and fait with his gueft, nothing in the world can induce him to betray him. The power of the fultan himfelf would not be able to force a refugee from the protefHon of a tribe, but by its total extermination. The Bedouin, fo rapacious with¬ out his camp, has no fooner fet his foot within it, than he becomes liberal and generous. What little he pof- fefles he is ever ready to divide. He has even the deli¬ cacy not'to wait till it is alked : when he takes his re- paft, he affe&s to feat himfelf at the door of his tent, in order to invite the paffengers: his generofity is fo fincere, that he does not look upon it as a merit, but merely as a duty ; and he therefore readily takes the fame liberty with others. To obferve the manner in which the Arabs conduft themfelves towards each other, one would imagine that they poffeffed all their goods in common. Neverthelefs they are no ftrangers to pro¬ perty 5 but it has none of that felfiflinefs which the increafe of the imaginary wants of luxury has given it among polilhed nations. Deprived of a multitude of enjoyments which nature has lavifhed upon other coun¬ tries, they are lefs expofed to temptations which might corrupt and debafe them. It is more difficult for their fliaiks to form a fa&ion to enflave and impoverifti the body of the nation. Each individual, capable of fup- plying all his wants, is better able to preferve his cha¬ racter and independence j and private property becomes at once the foundation and bulwark of public liber- ty. This liberty extends even to matters of religion. We obferve a remarkable difference between the Arabs of the towns and thofe of the defert j fince, while the Eedouiis former crouch under the double yoke of political and || religious defpotifm, the latter live in a ftate of perfeft , E^e- , freedom from both : it is true, that on the frontiers of " v" the Turks, the Bedouins, from policy, preferve the appearance of Mahometanifm ; but fo relaxed is their obfervance of its ceremonies, and fo little fervour has their devotion, that they are generally confidered as infidels, who have neither law nor prophets. They even make no difficulty in faying that the religion of Mahomet was not made for them : “ For (add they) how ffiall we make ablutions who have no water ? How can we beftow alms who are not rich ? Why ffiould we faft in the Ramadan, fince the whole year with us is one continual faft ? and what neceffity is there for us to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, if God be prefent everywhere ?” In ffiort, every roan ads and thinks as he pleafes, and the moft perfeft toleration is eftablilhed among them. BEDRIACUM, in Ancient Geography, a village of Italy, fituated, according to Tacitus, between Vero¬ na and Cremona, bu£ nearer the latter than the for¬ mer. For the account given by that hiftorian, Clu- verius conjectures that the ancient Bedriacum flood in the place where the city of Caneto now ftands. This village was remarkable for the defeat of the emperor Galba by Otho, and afterwards of Otho by Vitel- lius. BEDWIN Magna, a village five miles fouth of Hungerford in Berkffiire in England. It has neither market nor fair; but is a borough by prefcription, and fends two members to parliament. It is faid to have been a confiderable place in the time of the Sax¬ ons, and that the traces of its fortifications are ftill ex¬ tant. BEE, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of infeCls, for the characters and claffification of which fee ApiSj Entomology Index. The mellifica, or domeftic ho¬ ney bee, its hiftory and economy, form the fubjeCl of this article. 1 This fpecies is furniffied with downy hairs; has a Defcription dulky coloured breaft, and browniffi belly: the tibiae ^th^°- of the hind legs are ciliated, and tranfverfely ftreaked ne>'iee‘ on the infide. Each foot terminates in two hooks, with their points oppolite to each other j in the middle of thefe hooks there is a little thin appendix, which, when unfolded, enables the infe&s to fallen themfelves to glafs or the moft polilhed bodies. 1 his part they likewife employ for tranfmitting the fmall particles of crude wax, Avhich they find upon flowers, to the cavity in their thigh, hereafter defcribed. The queen and drones, who never colled wax in this manner, have no fuch cavity. This fpecies is alfo furniffied with a pro- bofcis or trunk, which ferves to extraCl the honey from flowers ; and has, befides, a real mouth fituated in the fore part of the head, with which it is able to feed on the farina of flowers, from which afterwards is made wax. The belly is divided into fix rings or joints •, which fometimes ffiorten the body, by flipping the one over the other. In the infide of the belly there is a fmall bladder or refervoir, in which the ho¬ ney is collefted, after having paffed through the pro- bofcis and a narrow pipe which runs through the head and breaft. This bladder, when full of honey, is about the fise of a fmall pea. The .bee [ 5 Bee. The winch is lituated at the extremity of the v belly, is a very curieus weapon j and, when examined 3fts fthiff. t^e microfcope, appears of a furprifing ftrufture It has a horny fheath or fcabbard, which includes two bearded darts. This (heath ends in a (harp point, near the extremity of which a (lit opens, through which, at the time of flinging, the two bearded darts are pro¬ truded beyond the end of the (heath : one of thefe is a little longer than the other, and fixes its beard firft : and the other inftantly following, they penetrate alter¬ nately deeper and deeper, taking hold of the flefli with their beards or hooks, till the whole fling is buried in the flefli j and then a venomous juice is inje£ted through the fame (heath, from a little bag at the root of the fling. Hence the wound occafions an aCute pain and fwelling of the part, which fometirttes continues fe- veral days. Thefe effefts are bed remedied by enlar¬ ging the wound direftly to give it fome difcharge. This poifon feems to owe its mifchievous efficacy to certain pungent falts. Let a bee be provoked to ftrike its fling againft a plate of glafs, and there will be a drop of the poifon difcharged and left Upon the glafs. This being placed under a double microfcope, as the liquor evaporates, the falts will be feen to concrete, forming oblong, pointed, clear cryftals.—*Mr Derham counted on the fling of a wafp eight beards on the fide of each dart, fomewhat like the beards of fifli-hooks ; and the fame number is to be counted on the darts of the bee’s fling. When thefe beards afe (truck deep in the flefli, if the wounded perfon ftarts, or difcompofes the bee before it can difengage them, the fling is left behind flicking in the Wound : but if he have patience to (land quiet, the creature brings the hooks down clofe to the fides of the darts, and withdraws the weapon ; in which cafe, the wound is always much lefs painful. The danger of being flung by bees may be in a great meafure prevented by a quiet compofed behaviour. A thoufand bees will fly and buzz about a perfon without hurting him, if he (land perfectly (till, and forbear difturbing them even when near his face ; in which cafe he may obferve them for hours together without danger *, but if he molefts or beats them away, he ufu- * See E fly about their own and other hives at unufual ’ hours when other bees are at reft, and pine away if not foon fupplied with another fovereign. Her lofs is proclaimed by a clear and interrupted humming. This fign fhould be a warning to the owner of the bees, to take what honey remains in the hive, or to procure them another queen. In this laft cafe the flock in- ftantly revives 5 pleafure and a&ivity are apparent through the whole hive j the prefence of the fovereign reftores vigour and exertion, and her voice commands univerfal refpeft and obedience.: of fuch importance is the queen to the exiftence and profperity of the other members of this community. The diffe&ion of the queen-bee Ihews evidently that the lays many thoufand eggs. It is computed that the ovaria of a queen-bee contain more than 5000 eggs at one time ; and therefore it is not difficult to conceive that a queen-bee may produce 10*000 or 12,000 bees, or even more, in the fpace of two months. Of the The common Drones are fmaller than the queen, Jroires. and larger than the working bees; and in flying they make a greater noife. The difle&ion of the drone gives as great proof of its being the male, as that of the queen does of her being female. In this creature there is no appearance of ovaries or eggs, nor any thing of the ftru&ure of the common working bees, but the ■whole abdomen is filled with tranfparent veflels, wind¬ ing about in various finuofities, and containing a white or milky fluid. This is plainly analogous to that fluid in the males of other animals, which is deftined to ren¬ der the eggs of the female prolific : and this whole ap¬ paratus of veflels, which much refembles the turnings and windings of the feminal veflels in other animals, is plainly intended only for the preparation and retention of this matter, till the deftined time of its being emit¬ ted. On fqueeiing the hinder parts alfo, may be for¬ ced out the penis, a fmall and flender fleffiy body, con¬ tained between two horns of a fomewhat harder fub- ftance, which join at their bafe, but gradually part afunder as they are continued in length. Thefe parts, found in all the drones, and none of them in any other bees except thefe, feem to prove very evidently the difference of fex. If a hive is opened in the beginning of fpring, not a Angle drone will be found in it; from the middle of May till the end of June, hundreds of them will be found, commonly from 200 or 300 to 1000 ; and from thence to the following fpring it would be in vain to feck for them. They go not out till 11 in the morning, and return before fix in the evening. But their expeditions are not thofe of in- duftry. They have no fting, their roftrum and feet are not adapted for collefting wax and honey, nor in¬ deed are they obliged to labour. They only hover upon flowers to extraft the fweets, and all their thoughts are pleafure. Their office is, to impregnate the eggs of the queen after they are depofited in the cells. And while their prefence is thus neceffary, they are fuffered to enjoy the fweets of love and life ; but as foon as they become ufelefs in the hive, the working bees declare the moft cruel tvar againft them, Vol. III. Part II. 3 ) BEE and make terrible daughter of them. This war affe£ls £ee. not only the bees already in life, but even the eggs and maggots j for the law which has pronounced the deftrudtion of the males has no exception, it extends equally to thofe which do not yet breathe and to thofe which do; the hive is cleared of every egg, maggot, or nymph ; the whole is torn away and carried oft'. After the feafon proper for increafing the number of bees is paft, and when they ftiould attend only to the fupplying of their magazines fufficiently with winter ftores, every veftige of the drones is deftroyed, to make room for honey. Whenever thefe drones are obferved to remain in a hive late in the autumn, it is held to be a bad fign of the ftate of the hive. But befides thefe larger drones, Maraldi and Reau¬ mur had long ago difcovered that there were others of a leffer fize, not exceeding that of the common work¬ ing bees. This faff, however, was not fully afcertained before the late experiments of Mr Debraw, to be af¬ terwards mentioned. It is well known, as has been already noticed, that the large drones never appear in the hive before the middle of April j that they are all dead before the end of Auguft, when the principal breeding feafon terminates 5 and that they are deftroy¬ ed, together with all their worms or nymphs, by the working bees, probably by order of the queen, to fave honey : yet it is equally certain, that the bees begin to breed early in the fpring, fometimes in February, if the weather is mild ; and that many broods are com¬ pleted before thefe drones appear. But if drones of a fmaller fize are fuffered to remain, which in a time of fcarcity confume lefs honey than the others, thefe will anfwer the purpofe of fupplying the early broods, and the larger drones are produced againft a time of greater plenty. Some obfervers affirm, that the fmaller drones are all dead before the end of May, when the larger fpecies appear and fuperfede their ufe. Thefe circum- ftances accord with the fuggeftion of Abbe le Pluche in his Spectacle de la Nature, That a fmall number of drones are referved to fupply the neceffities of the en- fuing year ; and that thefe drones are very little, if at. all, larger than the common bees. g The Working Bees compofe the greateft body of xhe work* the ftate. Columella informs us, that the ancients ing bees, diftinguiftied feveral kinds of them. He joins in opi¬ nion with Virgil, who approves of thofe which are fmall, oblong, fmooth, bright, and ffiining, of a gentle and mild difpofition : “ for,” continues he, “ by how much the larger and rounder the bee is, by fo much the worfe it is : but if it be fierce and cruel, it is the worft of all. The angry difpofition of bees of a better charafler is eafily foftened by the frequent intercourfe of thofe who take care of them, for they grow more tame when they are often handled.” The experience of ages has now eftablifhed the fort of bees which have been found to anfwer beft the purpofes of keeping them. The working bees have the care of the hive, colleft the wax and honey, fabricate and work up the wax, build the cells, feed the young, keep the hive clean, drive from thence ftrangers, and employ themfelves in all other concerns relating to the hive. The working bee has two ftomachs ; one which con¬ tains the honey, and a fecond in which is contained the 3 T crude Bee. 9 Of their battle*. 10 Their la¬ bours. BEE [ Si crude wax. The working bees have no parts analo- ' gous to the ovaria of the queen, or that referable the male organs of the drones. Hence they have generally been fuppofed to be neutral or of neither fex. But a different doftrine has lately been eftablilhed 5 which there will be occafion to notice in the fequel. The fling is very neceflary for a working bee, both as an offenlive and as a defenfive weapon : for their ho¬ ney and wax excite the envy of many greedy and lazy infedls; and they have alfo to defend themfelves againft enemies who are fonder of eating them than their honey. There is likewife a time when the drones muft be facri- ficed and exterminated for the good of the fociety j and as they are larger and flronger than the working bees, thefe laft would have a very unequal match, were it not for this poifonous fling. There happen alfo among bees, either of the fame or of different hives, moft deadly feuds, in which their flings are their chief weapons. In thefe contells, great fkill may be difcerned in their manner of pointing the fling between the fcaly rings which cover their bodies, or to fome other eafily vulnerable part. The bee which firft gains the advantage remains the conqueror 5 though the vidlory cods the vi6tor his life, if he has left his fling in the body of the enemy ; for, with the fling, fo much of his body is torn out, that death inevitably follows. Bees have very fevere confliiEls when whole hives engage in a pitched battle, and many are flain on both fides. Their fighting and plundering one another ought chiefly to be imputed, as Mr Thorley obferves, either to their perfedl abhorrence of floth and idlenefs, or to their infatiable third for honey ; for when, in fpring or autumn, the weather is fair, but no honey can be collected from plants, and is to be found only in the hives of other bees, they will venture their lives to get it there. Dr Warder afligns another caufe of their fighting ; which is, the neceflity that the bees are reduced to when their own hive has been plundered, at a feafon when it is too late for them to repair the lofs by any indudry in the fields. Sometimes one of the queens is killed in battle. In this cafe, the bees of both hives unite as foon as her death is generally known among them. All then be¬ come one people ; the vanquifhed go off with the rob¬ bers, richly laden with their own fpoils, and return every day with their new aflociates to pillage their old habitation. This caufes a throng, unufual for the fea¬ fon, at the door of the hive they are plundering •, and if the owner lifts it up at night, when all are gone home, he will find it empty of inhabitants j though there perhaps will remain in it fome honey, which he takes as his property. When two fwarms take flight at the fame time, they fometimes quarrel, and great numbers are dedroyed on both fides, till one of the queens is flain. This ends the conted, and the bees of both fides unite under the fur- viving fovereign. When the bees begin to work in their hives, they divide themfelves into four companies ; one of which roves in the fields in fearch of materials; another em¬ ploys itfelf in laying out the bottom and partitions of their cells ; a third is employed in making the infide fmooth from the corners and angles; and the fourth company brings food for the red, or relieves thofe who 4 ] BEE return with their refpe£tive burdens. But they are not kept condant to one employment; they often change ——v- the talks adigned them : thofe that have been at work being permitted to go abroad, and thofe that have been in the fields already take their places. They feem even to have figns, by which they underdand each other ; for when any of them wants food, it bends down its trunk to the bee from whom it is expe£ted, which then opens its honey-bag, and lets fome drops fall into the other’s mouth, which is at that time opened to re¬ ceive it. Their diligence and labour are fo great, that, in a day’s time, they are able to make cells which lie upon each other numerous enough to contain 3000 bees. xt In the plan and formation of thefe cells they difco-Qfthe ver a moll wonderful fagacity. In conftrufting habita-comt>' ’ tions within a limited compafs, an architect would have three obje£ls in view : firll, to ufe the fmalled quantity that can be of materials; next, to give to the edifice the greated capacity in a determined fpace ; and third¬ ly, to employ the fpot in fuch a manner that none of it may be lod. On examination it would be found that the bees have obtained all thefe advantages in the hexagonal form of their cells : for, fird, there is an eco¬ nomy of wax, as the circumference of one cell makes part of the circumferences of thofe contiguous to it; fecondly, the economy of the fpot, as thefe cells which join to one another leave no void betu'een them ; and thirdly, the greated capacity or fpace ; as, of all the figures which can be contiguous, that with fix fides gives the larged area. This thriftinefs prompts them to make the partitions of their cells thin; yet they are condrucled fo as that the folidity may compenfate for the fcantinefs of materials. The parts mod liable to. injury are the entrance of the cells. Thefe the bees take care to drengthen, by adding quite round the cir¬ cumference of the apertures a fillet of wax, by which means this mouth is three or four times thicker than the fides: and they are drengthened at the bottom by the angle formed by the bottom of three cells falling in the middle of an oppofite cell. The combs lie pa¬ rallel to each other ; and there is left between every one of them a fpace which ferves as a dreet, broad enough for two bees to pafs by each other. There are holes which go quite through the combs, and ferve as lanes for the bees to pafs from one comb to another, without being obliged to go a great way about. When they begin their combs, they form at the top of the hive a root or day to the whole edifice, which is to hang from it. Though they generally lay the founda¬ tions of the combs fo that there fhall be no more be¬ tween them than what is fufficient for two bees to pafs, yet they fometimes place thofe beginnings of two combs too far afunder; and, in this cafe, in order to fill up part of the void fpace arifing from that bad difpofition, they carry their combs on obliquely, to make them gradually approach each other. U his void fpace is fometimes fo condderable, that the bees build in it an intermediate comb, which they terminate as foon as the original combs have only their due didances. As the combs would be apt, when full, to overcome by their weight all the fecurity which the bees can give them againd falling, they who prepare hives fet in them, crofswife, dicks, which ferve as props to the comb«j and fave the bees a great deal of labour. It is no! Bee. la Of their huilditig- materials and provi- lions. i. Wax. BEE [5 not eafy to difcQver the particular manner of their working ; for, notwithftanding the many contrivances ufed for this purpofe, there are fuch numbers in conti¬ nual motion, and fucceed one another with ■ fuch rapi¬ dity, that nothing but confufion appears to the fight. Some of them, however, have been obferved carrying pieces of wax in their talons, and running to the places where they are at work upon the combs. Thefe they faften to the work by means of the fame talons. Each bee is employed but a very (hort time in this way : but there is fo great a number of them that go on in a con- ftant fucceffion, that the comb increales very percepti¬ bly. Befides thefe, there are others that run about beating the work with their wings and the hinder part of their body, probably with a view to make* it more firm and folid. Whilft part of the bees are occupied in forming the cells, others are employed in perfedling and polifhing thofe that are new modelled. This operation is per¬ formed by their talons, taking off every thing that is rough and uneven. Thefe polifhers are not fo defultory in their operations as thofe that make the cells ; they work long and diligently, never intermitting their la¬ bour, excepting to carry out of the cell the particles of wax which they take off in polilhing. Thefe particles are not allowed to be loft •, others are ready to receive them from the polifhers, and to employ them in fome other part of the work. The balls which we fee attached to the legs of bees returning to the hives are not wax, but a powder col- lefled from the ftamina of flowers, and yet brought to the ftate of wax. The fubftance of thefe balls, heated in any veffel, does not melt as wax would do, but be¬ comes dry, and hardens : it may even be reduced to a coal. If thrown into water, it will fink ; whereas wax fwims. To reduce this crude fubftance into wax, it muft firft be digefted in the body of the bee. Every bee, when it leaves the hive to colleft this precious ftore, enters into the cup of the flower, par¬ ticularly fuch as feem charged with the greateft quantity of this yellow farina. As the animal’s body is covered over with hair, it rolls itfelf within the flower, and quickly becomes quite, covered with the duft, which it foon after brufhes off with its two hind legs, and kneads into two little balls. In the thighs of the hind legs there are two cavities, edged with hair 5 and into thefe, as into a bafket, the animal flicks its pellets. Thus employed, the bee flits from flower to flower, increafing its ftore, and adding to its flock of wax, until the ball upon each thigh becomes as big as a grain of pepper $ by this time having got a fufficient load, it returns, making the beft of its way to the hive. After the bees have brought home this crude fub¬ ftance, they eat it by degrees*, or at other times, three or four bees come and eafe the loaded bee, by eating each of them a fhare, the loaded bee giving them a hint fo to do. Hunger is not the motive of their thus eating the balls of waxy matter, efpecially when a fwarm is firft hived ; but it is their defire to provide a fpeedy fupply of real wax for making the combs. At other tiroes, when there is no immediate w'ant of wax, the bees lay this matter up in repofitories, to keep it in ftore. When this waxy matter is fwallowed, it is, by the 15 1 BEE digeftive powers of the bee, converted into real wax, Bee. which the bees again difgorge as they work it up into 1 v 1 combs ; for it is only while thus foft and pliant from the ftomach that they can fabricate it properly. That the wax thus employed is taken from their ftomachs, ap¬ pears from their making a confiderable quantity of comb foon after they are hived, and even on any tree or fhrub where they have refted but a ftiort while before their be¬ ing hived, though no balls were vifible on their legs, excepting thofe of a few which may be juft returned from the field. This is farther confirmed by what hap¬ pened in a fwarm newly hived : for two days together from the time of their quitting their former home it rained conftantly, infomuch that not one bee was able to ftir out during that time *, yet at the end of the two days they had made a comb 15 or 16 inches long, and thick in proportion. The crude wax, when brought home by the bees, is often of as different colours as are the flowers from which it is colledled : but the new combs are always of a white colour, which is afterwards changed only by the impurities arifingfrom the fleam, &c. of the bees. Bees colledl crude wax alfo for food ; for if this was not the cafe, there would be no want of wax after the combs are made : but they are obferved, even in old hives, to return in great numbers loaded with fuch matter, which is depofited in particular cells, and is known by the name of bee-bread. We may guefs that they confume a great deal of this fubftance in food by the quantity colle&ed 5 which, by computation, may in fome hives amount to an hundred weight in a feafon, whilft the real wax in fuch a hive does not perhaps ex¬ ceed two pounds. 13 It is well known that the habitation of bees ought to3* The/>r8- be very clofe j and what their hives want from the ne-^0^’ gligence or unfkilfulnefs of man, thefe animals, fupply by their own induftry : fo that it is their principal care, when firft hived, to flop up all the cranies. For this purpofe they make ufe of a refinous gum, which is more tenacious than wax, and differs greatly from it. This the ancients called propolis. It will grow confiderably hard in the hive, though it will in fome meafure foften by heat j and is often found different in confiftence, co¬ lour, and fmell. It has generally an agreeable aroma¬ tic odour when it is warmed ; and by fome it is-confi- dered as a moft grateful perfume. When the bees be¬ gin to work with it, it is foft *, but it acquires a firmer confiftence every day, till at length it affumes a brown colour, and becomes much harder than wax. The bees carry it on their hinder legs j and fome think it is met with on the birch, the willow, and poplar. However it is procured, it is certain that they plafter the infide of their hives with this compofition. 14 Honey is originally a juice digefted in plants, which 3* The A#, fvveats through their pores, and chiefly in their flowers, "O'* or is contained in refervoirs in which nature ftores it. The bees fometimes penetrate into thefe ftores, and at other times find the liquor exuded. This they colledt in their ftomachs *, fo that, when loaded with it, they feem, to an inattentive eye, to come home without any booty at all. Befides the liquor already mentioned, which is ob¬ tained from the flowers of plants, another fubftance, * ?ee t!ie called honey-dew *, has been difcovered, of which the^1^.^’ 3 T 2 ^ bees ^ Bee. * See the articles A- phis and Honey- dew. BEE [51 bees are equally fond. Of this fubftance there are two kinds, both deriving their origin from vegetables, though in very different ways. The firll kind, the only one known to hufbandmen, and which paffes for a dew that falls on trees, is no other than a mild fweet juice, which, having circulated through the veffels of vegetables, is feparated in proper refervoirs in the flowers, or on the leaves, where it is properly called the honey-dew: fometimes it is depofited in the pith, as in the fugar-cane •, and, at other times, in the juice of pulpy fummer fruit when ripe. Such is the origin of the manna which is colle&ed on the afli and maple of Calabria and Brian^on, where it flows in great plenty from the leaves and trunks of thefe trees, and thickens into the form in which it is ufually feen. The fecond kind of honey-dew, which is the chief refource of bees after the fpring-flowers and dew by tranfpiration on the leaves are paft, owes its origin to a fmall mean infeft *, the excrement thrown out by which makes a part of the moft delicate honey we ever tafte. From whatever fource the bees have colle&ed their honey, the inftant they return home, they feek cells in which they may difgorge and depofite their loads. They have two forts of ftores : one which confifts of honey laid up for the winter ; and the ojher of honey intended for accidental ufe in cafe of bad weather, and for fuch bees as do not go abroad in fearch of it. Their method of fecuring each of thefe is different. They have in each cell a thicker fubftance, which is placed over the honey, to prevent its running out of the cell; and that fubftance is raifed gradually as the cell is fill- ed, till the bees, finding that the cell cannot contain any more, clofe it with a covering of wax, not to be opened till times of want, or during the winter. It has beeri already obferved, that the cells are in¬ ner in which tended for other purpofes befides being places of ftore they breed, for honey. One of their chief ufes is, their being nur- feries for the young. The cells for thofe which are to be working bees are commonly half an inch deep •, thofe for drones, three quarters of an inch j and thofe which are intended for keeping of honey only, ftill deeper. This accounts for the inequalities obferved in the furface of combs. The queen-bee is generally concealed in the moft fe- cret part of the hive, and is never vifible but when fhe lays her eggs in fuch combs as are expofed to fight. When fhe does appear, fhe is always attended by ten or a dozen of the common fort, who form a kind of re¬ tinue, and follow her wherever (he goes with a fedate and grave tread. Before {he lays her eggs, (he exa¬ mines the cells where Ihe defigns to lay them $ and if {he finds that they contain neither honey, wax, nor any embryo, (he introduces the pofterior part of her body into the cell, and fixes to the bottom of it a fmall white egg, which is compofed of a thin white mem¬ brane, full of a whitifh liquor. In this manner Ihe goes on, till (he fills as many cells as {he has eggs to lay, which are generally many thoufands. Sometimes more than one egg has been depofited in the fame cell j when this is the cafe, the working bees remove the fu- pernumerary eggs, and leave only one in each cell. On the firft or fecond day after the egg is lodged in the cell, the drone bee inje&s a fmall quantity of whi- tiftx liquid, which, in about a day, is abforbed by the ' IS Of the man- 6 ] BEE e88‘ the third or fourth day is produced a worm or maggot ; which, when it is grown fo as to touch the oppofite angle, coils itfelf up in the ftiape of a fe- micircle, and floats in a proper liquid, whereby it is nourifhed and enlarged in its dimenfions. This liquor is of a whitifh colour, of the tbicknefs of cream, and of an infipid tafte like flour and w'ater. Naturalifts are not agreed as to the origin and qualities of this liquid. Some have luppofed, that it confifts of fome generative matter, Injected by the working bees into each cell, in order to give fecundity to the eggs : but the moft pro¬ bable opinion is, that it is the fame with ivhat fome writers have called the bee-bread; and that it is a mixture of water with the juices of plants and flowers colledfed merely for the nutrition of the young, whilft they are in their weak and helplefs ftate. Whatever be the nature of this aliment, it is certain that the common working bees are very induftrious in fupply- ing the worms with a fufficient quantity of it. The worm is fed by the working bees for about eight days, till one end touches the other in the form of a ring ; and when it begins to feel itfelf uneafy in its firft pofture, it ceafes to eat, and begins to unrol itfelf, thrufting that end forward towards the mouth of the cell which is to be the head. Fhe attendant bees, obferying thefe fymptoms of approaching transformation, defift from their labours in carrying proper food, and employ themfelves in fattening up the top of the cell with a lid of wax, formed in concentric circles, and by their na¬ tural heat in cheriftiing the brood and haftening the birth. In this concealed ftate the worm extends itfelf at full length, and prepares a web of a fort of fik in the manner of the filk-worm. This web forms a com¬ plete lining for the cell, and affords a convenient recep¬ tacle for the transformation of the worm into a nymph or chryfalis. Some naturalifls fuppofe, that as each cell is deftined to the fucceflive breeding of feveral worms, the whole web, which is compofed of many crufts or doubles, is in reality a collection of as many webs as there have been worms. M. Maraldi appre¬ hends, that this lining is formed of the {kin of the worms thrown off at its entrance into the nymph ftate : but it is urged, that if the cells are opened when newly covered by the bees, the worm within will be found in its own form, and deteCted in the a£t of fpinning its web ; and by means of glaffes it will be found com¬ pofed of fine threads regularly woven together, like thofe of other fpinning animals. In the fpace of 18- or 20 days the whole procefs of transformation is fi- nilhed, and the bee endeavours to difcharge itfelf from confinement by forcing an aperture with its teeth through the covering of the cell. The paffage is gra¬ dually dilated j fo that one horn firft appears, then the head, and afterwards the whole body. This is ufually the work of three hours, and fometimes of half a day. The bee, after it has difengaged itfelf, {lands on the furface of the comb, till it has acquired its natural com¬ plexion, and full maturity and ftrength, fo as to be¬ come fit for labour. The reft of the bees gather round it in this ftate, congratulate its birth, and offer it ho¬ ney out of their own mouths. The exuviae and Mat¬ tered pieces of wax which are left in the cell are re¬ moved by the working bees; and the matrix is no fooner cleanfed and fit for new fecundation, but the queen depofites another egg in it; infomuch that, M. Maraldi BEE [5 Bee. Maraldx fays, he has feen five bees produced in the •v~—' fame cell in the fpace of three months. The young bees are eafily diftinguilhed from the others by their colour } they are gray, inftead of the yellowilh brown of the common bees. The reafon of this is, that their body is black, and the hairs that grow upon it are ■white, from the mixture of which feen together refults a gray $ but this colour forms itfelf into a brownilh yel¬ low by degrees, the rings of the body becoming more brown and the hairs more yellow. The eggs from which drones are to proceed, are, as already obferved, laid in larger cells than thofe of the working bees. The coverings of thefe cells, when the drones are in the nymph ftate, are convex or fwelling outward, whilft the cells of the working bees are flat. This, with the privilege of leading idle effeminate lives, and not working for the public flock, is what diftin- guifhes the drones. The bees depart from their ufual ftyle of building when they are to raife cells for bringing up fuch maggots as are deftined to become queens. Thefe are of a longifti oblong form, having one end bigger than the other, with their exterior furface full of little cavities. Wax, which is employed with fo geometrical a thriftinefs in the raifing of hexagonal cells, is expended with pro- fufion in the cell which is to be the cradle of a royal maggot. They fometimes fix it in the middle, and at other times on one fide of a comb. Several common cells are facrificed to ferve as a bafis and fupport to it. It is placed almoft perpendicular to the common cells, the largefi: end being uppermoft. The lower end is open till the feafon for clofing it comes, or till the mag¬ got is ready for transformation. It would be difficult to conceive how a tender maggot can remain in a cell turned bottom upmoft, if we did not find it buried in a fubftance fcarcely fluid, and if it were not in itfelf, at firft, fmall and light enough to be fufpended in this clammy pafle. As it grows it fills all the upper and larger part of the cell. As foon as the young queen comes out of her cell, that cell is deftroyed, and its place is fupplied by common cells •, but as the founda¬ tion of the royal caftle is left, this part of the comb is found thicker than any other. There are feveral fuch cells prepared •, for if there was only one reared in each hive, the fwarms might often want a conduftrefs. Many accidents may alfo deftroy the little maggot be¬ fore it becomes a bee. It is therefore neceffary that a number of fuch cells fliould be provided •, and accor¬ dingly there are obferved feveral young queens in the beginning of the fummer, more than one of which often takes flight when a fwarm departs. A young queen is in a condition to lead a fwarm, from a hive in which ffie was born in four or five days after ffie has appeared in it with wings. The bees of a fwarm are in a great hurry when they know that their queen is ready to lay. In this cafe, they give to their new cells but part of the depth they are to have, and defer the finiffiing of them till they have traced the number of cells requifite for the prefent time. The cells firfl: made are intended only for working bees $ ig thefe being the mofl: neceffary. Of their When the hive is become too much crowded by the hvarming. addition of the young brood, a part of the bees think of finding themfelves a more commodious habitation, and with that view.fingle out the moll forward of the :7 ] BEE young queens. A new fwarm is therefore confxantly Bee. compofed of one queen at leaft, and of feveral thoufand ^ working bees, as well as of fome hundreds of drones. The working bees are fome old, fome young. Scarce has the colony arrived at its new habitation, when the working bees labour with the utmoft dili¬ gence to procure materials for food and building. Their principal aim is not only to have cells in which they maydepofite their honey: a llronger motive feems to animate them. They feem to know that their queen is in halle to lay her eggs. Their indullry is fuch, that in 24 hours they will have made combs 20 inches long, and wide in proportion. They make more wax during the firfl fortnight, if the feafon is favourable, than they do during all the reft of the year. Other bees are at the fame time bufy in flopping all the holes and crevices they find in their new hive, in order to guard againft the entrance of infe£ls which covet their honey, their wax, or themfelves ; and alfo to exclude the cold air, for it is indifpenfably neceffary that they be lodged warm. When the bees firft fettle in fwarming, indeed when they at any time reft themfelves, there is fomething very particular in their method of taking their repofe. It is done by colledling themfelves in a heap, and hang¬ ing to each other by their feet. They fometimes ex¬ tend thefe heaps to a confiderable length. It would feem probable to us, that the bees from which the others hang muft have a confiderable weight fufpended to them. All that can be faid is, that the bees muft find this to be a fituation agreeable to themfelves. They may perhaps have a method of diftending themfelves with air, thereby to leffen their fpecific gravity ; in the fame manner as fifties do in order to alter their gravity compared with water. When a fwarm divides into two or more bands, which fettle feparately, this divifion is a fure fign that there are two or more queens among them. One of thefe clufters is generally larger than the other. The bees of the fmaller clufter or clufters, detach them¬ felves by little and little, till at laft the whole, together with the queen or queens, unite with the largeft clufter. As foon as the bees are fettled, the fupernumerary queen or queens muft be facrificed to the peace and tranquillity of the hive. This execution generally raifes a confiderable commotion in the hive; and feve¬ ral other bees, as well as the queen or queens, lofe their lives. Their bodies may be obferved on the ground, near the hive. The queen that is chofen is of a more reddilh colour than thofe which are deftroyed ; fo that fruitfulnefs feems to be a great motive of preference in bees; for the nearer they are to the time of laying their eggs, the bigger, larger, and more ffiining are their bodies. The method of hiving thefe fwarms will be ex¬ plained hereafter. ^ Befides the capital inftindls above mentioned, bees Other in- are poffeffed of others, fome of which are equally ne-ftindts. ceffary for their prefervation and happinefs.—They anxioufly provide againft the entrance of infedls into the hive, by gluing up with wax the fmalleft holes in the fkep. Some ftand as fentinels at the mouth of the hive, to prevent infefts of any kind from getting in. But if a fnail, or other large .in£e6l ftiould get in, notwithftanding all refiftance, they fting it to death ; and even cover it over with a coat of propolis, to pre¬ vent i8 Age ofbees. . Opinions concerning the fex and fecundation of bees. * Barlut, Genera of Infecis, p. BEE [ j vent the bad fmell or maggots which might proceed from the putrefaftion of fuch a large animal. Bees feem to be warned of the appearance of bad weather by fome particular feeling. It fometimes happens, even when they are very afliduous and bufy, that they on a fudden ceafe from their work 5 not a fingle one llirs out; and thofe that are abroad hurry home in fuch prodigi¬ ous crowds, that the doors of their habitations are too fmall to admit them. On this occafion look up to the Iky, and you will foon difcoVer fome of thofe black clouds which denote impending rain. Whether they fee the clouds gathering for it, as fome imagine, or whether (as is much more probable) they feel fome other effedts of it upon their bodies, is not yet determin¬ ed j but it is alleged, that no bee is ever caught even in what wTe call a fudden (bower, unlefs it have been at h very great diftance from the hive, or have been before injured by fome accident, or be (ickly and unable to fly fo faft as the reft. Cold is a great enemy to them. To defend themfelves againft its effedts during a hard winter, they crowd together in the middle of the hive, and buzz about, and thereby excite a warmth which is often perceptible by laying the hand upon the glafs window's of the hive. They feem to underftand one another by the motions of their wings : when the queen wants to quit the hive, (lie gives a little buzz ; and all the others immediately follow her example, and retire along with her. As to the age of bees, the large drones live but a little while, being deftroyed without mercy by the working bees, probably to fave honey, as already noticed. But of the other fort lately difcovered, no larger than the working bees, and not eafily to be diftinguifhed from them, the age has not yet been afcertained. Wri¬ ters are not agreed as to the age of the working bees. Some maintain that they are annual, and others fuppofe that they live many years. Many of them, it is well known, die annually of hard labour ; and though they may be preferved by fucceflion in hives or colonies for feveral years, the moft accurate obfervers are of opinion that their age is but a year, or at the longed no more than two fummers. Concerning the fex and fecundation of bees, various experiments have been made of late years, by which new light has been thrown upon the fubjedt, and feve¬ ral difficulties which embarraffed the procefs of gene¬ ration among thefe curious infedts feem to have been removed. Swammerdam, and after him Maraldi, difcovered in the ftrudture of the drones fome refemblance to the male organs of generation, as has already been defcribed, and from thence concluded that they were the males : but neither of thofe accurate and induftrious obfervers could detedf them in the adt of copulation. Swammer¬ dam, therefore, entertained a notion, that the female or queen-bee was fecundated without copulation ; that it was fufticient for her to be near the males *, and that her eggs were impregnated by a kind of vivifying aura, exhaled from the body of the males, and abforbed by the female. However, M. Reaumur thought that he had difcovered the adtual copulation of the drones with the female-bee, and he has very minutely defcribed the procefs of it. A very ingenious naturalift * of the prefent day, without taking any notice of recent dif- I 8 ] BEE coveries, feems to have given into the fame idea. Bee. “ The office of the males or drones (fays he) is to render the queen pregnant. One (ingle female (hould in the midft of feven or eight hundred males, one would think, be inceflhntly affailed. But nature has provided againft that inconvenience, by making them of a conftitution extremely frigid. The female choofes out one that pleafes her \ (he is obliged to make the firft advances, and excite him to love by her carefles. But this favour proves fatal to him : fcarce has he ceafed from amorous dalliance, but he is feen to perifti. The pleafure of thefe obfervations may be taken, by putting a female with feveral males into a bottle.” Others again, as M. Shirach and M. Hattorf, rejeft the drones as bearing no (hare at all iu the bufinefs of propagation, and aflert the queen-bee to be felf-prolific. But for what purpofe then (hould wife nature have fur- nifhed the drones with that large quantity of feminal liquor ? to what ufe fo large an apparatus of fecundating organs fo Well defcribed by Reaumur and Maraldi ? The i*<5t is, that the above gentlemen have founded their opinion upon obfervations that hives are peopled at a time of the year when (as they fuppofe) there are no drones in being. But we have already noticed, that nature has provided drones of different fizes for the pur¬ pofe of impregnation, adapted to different times, occa- fions, and circumftances i And the iniftake of Meffrs Shirach and Hattorf feems to have proceeded from their miffing the large-fized drones, and not being acquainted with or not adverting to the other fort, fo hardly dif- tinguiftiable from the working bees. Laftly, many of the ancients as well as moderns have fuppofed that the eggs of the female bee are not impreg¬ nated with the male fperm, while in the body ef the creature, but that they are depofited unimpregnated in the cells ; and that the male afterwards ejedts the male fperm on them as they lie in the cells, in the fame man¬ ner as the generation of fifties is fuppofed to be perform¬ ed by the males impregnating the fpawn after it is caft out by the females. M. Maraldi f long fince conjee-f tured that this might be the cafe j and he was confirmed^ I71*> in his opinion, by obferving a liquid whitifti fubdance^’ furrounding each egg at the bottom of the cell a little while after it had been laid, and that a great number of eggs, which are not encompaffed by this liquor, remain¬ ed barren in the cell. This method of impregnation has been lately efta- blifhed beyond all contradidtion by the obfervations of Mr Debravv of Cambridge J. Having put fome bees ^ into glafs-hives with a large number of drones, he oh-Tranf. ferved on the firft or fecond day (always before the vol. Ixvii. third) from the time in which the eggs were placedPart **art,3* in the cells, which the queen generally lays on the fourth or fifth day after they are put into the hive, that a great number of bees faftened themfelves to one another, and formed a kind of curtain from the top to the bottom of the hive, probably in order to conceal 20 the procefs of generation. Mr Debraw, however, Mr De- could foon perceive feveral bees, whofe fize he was not braw’s ex- able to diftinguifti, inferting the pofterior part of their bodies each into a cell, and (inking into it; after avelies> little while they retired, and he could fee with the na¬ ked eye a fmall quantity of whitifti liquor left in the angle of the bafe of each cell containing an egg ; this liquot BEE [ 5] liquor was lefs liquid than honey, and had no fweet tafte. In order to prove farthei1 that the eggs are fecun¬ dated by the males, and that their prefence is neceffary at the time of breeding, Mr Debravv made the follow¬ ing experiments. They confift in leaving in a hive the queen, with only the common or working bees, without any drones, to fee whether the eggs (he laid would be prolific. To this end, he took a fwarm, and {hook all the bees into a tub of water, leaving them there till they were quite fenfelefs j by which means he could diftinguifh the drones without any danger of being flung : Leaving thefe out, therefore, he reftored the queen and working-bees to their former ftate, by fpreading them on a brown paper in the fun ; after this he replaced them in a glafs-hive, where they foon began to work as ufual. The queen laid eggs, which, to his great furprife, were impregnated 5 for he ima¬ gined he had feparated all the drones or males, and therefore omitted watching them ; at the end of twen¬ ty days he found feveral of his eggs had, in the ufual courfe of changes, produced bees, while fome had wi¬ thered away, and others were covered with honey. Hence he inferred, that fome of the males had efcaped his notice, and impregnated part of the eggs. To convince himfelf of this, he took away all the brood comb that was in the hive, in order to oblige the bees to provide a frefli quantity, being determined to watch narrowly their motions after new eggs fhould be laid in the cells. On the fecond day after the eggs were placed in the cells, he perceived the fame operation that was mentioned before \ namely, that of the bees hanging down in the form of a curtain, while others thrurt the pofterior part of their body into the cells. He then introduced his hand into the hive, and broke oft a piece of the comb, in which there were two of thefe infers: he found in neither of them.any fling (a cir- eumftance peculiar to the drones) ; upon diffedlion, with the affiftance of a microfcope, he difcovered the four cylindrical bodies which contain the glutinous li¬ quor, of a whitifli colour, as obferved by Maraldi in the large drones. He was therefore now under a ne- ceflity of repeating his experiments, in deftroying the males, and even thofe which might be fufpefted to be fuch. He once more immerfed the fame bees in water ; and when they appeared in a fenfelefs ftate, he gently prefs- ed every one, in order to diftinguifh thofe armed with flings from thofe which had none, and which of courfe he fuppofed to be males: of thofe laft he found fifty- fcven, and replaced the fame in a glafs-hive, where they immediately applied again to the work of making cells*, and on the fourth or fifth day, very early in the morning, he had the p'eafure to fee the queen-bee de- pofite her eggs in thofe cells -, he continued watching moft part of the enfuing days, but could difcover no¬ thing of what he had feen before. The eggs after the fourth day, inftead of changing in the manner of caterpillars, were found in the fame flate they were the firft day, except that fome were co¬ vered with honey. A fingular event happened the next day about noon : all the bees left their own hive, and attempted to get into a neighbouring hive, probably in fearch of males ; but the queen was found dead, ha¬ ving been killed in the engagement. 9 ] BEE To be further fatisfied, Mr Debraw took the brood- Bee. comb, which had not been impregnated, and divided it-'■v'— into two parts : one he placed under a glafs bell, N° 1* with honey-comb for the bees food, taking care to leave a queen, but no drones, among the bees confined in it : the other piece of brood-comb he placed under another glafs bell, N° 2. with a few drones, a queen, and a pro¬ portionable number of common bees. The refult was, that in the glafs, N° 1. there was no impregnation, the eggs remained in the fame ftate they were in when put into the glafs 5 and on giving the bees their liberty on the feventh day, they all flew away, as was found, to be the cafe in the former experiment ; whereas in the glafs, N° 2. the very day after the bees had been put into it, the eggs were impregnated by the drones, the bees did not leave their hive on receiving their liberty, the eggs at the ufual time underwent the neceffary transformations, and a numerous young colony was pro¬ duced. Naturalifts have obferved, that the queen bees are produced in a manner peculiar to themfelves, and dif¬ ferent from the drones and working bees. Some have fuppofed, that the eggs laid by the queen in a hive, and deftined for the produdion of queen bees, are of a pecu¬ liar kind j but though this is not the cafe, as M. Shi- rach has lately difcovered, yet there are particular cells appropriated for this purpofe. Thefe cells are general¬ ly near the edges, and at the bottom of the combs, and fometimes on the fides of a honey-comb : they are of an - oblong circular form, and very ftrong -, and are more or lefs numerous in different hives as occafion feems to re¬ quire. It has alfo been fuppofed, that the matter with which they are nouriftied is of a different kind and qua¬ lity from that employed for the nourifhment of the other bees; that which has been colleded out of the royal cells being of a gummy glutinous nature, of a. deep tranfparent red, and diffolving in the fire rather than crumbling to powder. It h as been generally fuppofed, that the queen bee is the only female contained in the hive j and that the working bees are neutral, or of neither fex. But ^ M. Shirach * has lately eftabliflied a different ^oc'/£l trine, which has been alfo confirmed by the later oh- Jteine des fervations of Mr Debrawf. According to M. Ski-Abeilles, rach, all the working or common bees are females in WV- difguife -, and the queen-bee lays only two kinds of+ eggs, viz. thofe which are to produce the drones, and vol. ixviu thofe from which the working bees are to proceed : part i. and from any one or more of thefe, one or more-queens 21. may be produced •, fo that every worm of the latter or common kind, which has been hatched about three* days, is capable, under certain circumftances, of be¬ coming the queen or mother of a hive. In proof of this do&rine, new and fingular as it may feem, he al¬ leges a number of fatisfaftory and decifive experiments, which have been fince verified by thofe of Mr Debraw. In the early months of the fpring, and in any preceding month, even folate as November, he cut off from an old hive a piece of that part of the comb which contains the eggs of the working bees ; taking care, however, that it contained likewife worms which had been hatch¬ ed about three days. He fixed this in an empty hive, or box, together with a portion of honey-comb, &c« or, in other words, with a fufficiency of food and buildr in°- materials, or wax, for the ufe of the intended co¬ lony. BEE r 5^ 1 BEE Bee. lony. He tlien put into, and confined within the fame -’Y-'— box, a fufHcient number of common working bees, ta¬ ken from the fame or any other hive. As foon as the members of this fmall community found themfelves de¬ prived of their liberty, and without a queen, a dreadful uproar enfued, which continued generally, with fome fhort intervals of filence, for the fpace of about twenty- four hours j during which time it is to be fuppofed they were alternately meditating and holding council on the future fupport of the new republic. On the final ceffa- tion of this tumult, the general and almoft conflant re- fult was, that they betook themfelves to work ; firfl proceeding to the conftru&ion of a royal cell, and then taking the proper meafures for hatching and feeding the brood enclofed within them. Sometimes even on the fecond day the foundations of one or more royal cells were to be perceived j the viewr of which furnifhed cer¬ tain indications that they had ele&ed one of the enclo¬ fed worms to the fovereignty. The operation has been hitherto conduced in the houfe. This new colony may now be fafely truffed in the garden, if the weather be warm, and have the li¬ berty allowed them of pafiing out of the box •, of which they inftantly avail themfelves, and are feen in a Ihort time almoft totally to defert their new habitation. In about two hours, however, they begin to re-enter it. We fhould not neglect to obferve, that if they fliould be placed near the old hive, from which they were ta¬ ken, they will very often attempt to enter it, but are as conftantly repulfed by their former companions and brethren. It is prudent, therefore, to place them at a diftance from the mother ftate, in order to avoid the inconveniences of a civil war. The final refult of the experiment is, that the colony of working bees thus fhut up, with a morfel of common brood, not only hatch it, but are found, at the end of eighteen or twenty days, to have produced from thence one or two queens j which have apparently proceeded from worms of the common fort, pitched upon by them for that purpofe •, and which, under other circumftances, that is, if they had remained in the old hive, there is rea- fon to fuppofe would have been changed into com¬ mon working bees. In the prefent inftance, the com¬ mon worm appears to be converted by them into a queen-bee, merely becaufe the hive was in want of one. Hence we may juftly infer, that the kingdom of the bees is not, if the expreflion may be ufed, a jure divino or hereditary monarchy, but an eleftive kingdom \ in which the choice of their future ruler is made by the body of the people, while fhe is yet in the cradle, or in embryo; and who are determined by motives of preference which will perhaps for ever elude the pene¬ tration of the moft fagacious naturalifts. The conclufions drawn by M. Shirach, from expe¬ riments of the preceding kind, often repeated by him- felf and others with the fame fuccefs, are, that all the common or working bees were originally of the female fex 5 but that when they have undergone their laft me- tamorphofis, they are condemned to a ftate of perpe¬ tual virginity, and the organs of generation are oblite¬ rated j merely becaufe they have not been lodged, fed, and brought up in a particular manner, while they were in the worm ftate. He fuppofes that the worm, de- figned by the community to be a queen, or mother, owes its metamorphofis into a queen, partly to the ex¬ traordinary fize of its cell, and its peucliar pofition in it; but principally to a certain appropriate nourilhment found there, and carefully adminiftered to it by the working bees while it was in the worm ftate ; by which, and poflibly other means unknown, the developement and extenfion of the germ of the female organs, previ- oufly exifting in the embryo, is effedted ; and thofe dif¬ ferences in its form and fize are produced, which after¬ wards fo remarkably ditlinguilh it from the common working bees. This difcovery is capable of being applied towards forming artificial fwarms, or new colonies of bees, by which means their number might be increafed, and their produce in honey and wax proportionably aug¬ mented. Explanation o/" Plate LXXXIX. Fig. i. is the queen bee. 2. Is the drone. 3. Is the working bee. 4. Reprefents the bees hanging to each other by the feet, which is the method of taking their repofe. 5. The probofcis or trunk, which is one of the principal or¬ gans of the bees, wherewith they gather the honey and take their nourilhment. 6. One of the hind legs of a working bee, loaded with wax. 7. A comb, in which the working bees are bred. The cells are the fmalleft of any. Two of them have the young bees en¬ clofed. A royal cell is fufpended on one fide. 8. A comb in which the drones are bred, being larger than the former $ the young drones being included in feve- ral of them; with two royal cells fufpended on the fide. 9. A fimilar comb, in which the royal cell is fixed in the middle of the comb ; and feveral common cells are facrificed to ferve as a balls and fupport to it. In general, the royal cells are fufpended on the fide of a comb, as in fig 7. and 8. To the fide of fig. 9. two royal cells are begun, when they referable pretty much the cup in which an acorn lies. The other royal cells have the young queens included in them. Fig. 10. exhibits the fting and all its parts. The fling is compofed of a Iheath or cafe, and two lhanks, united to each other, and terminating in a lharp point, fo as to look like a fingle part, b, The poifonous bag. c, The tube that ferves to convey the poifon from its bag to the thickeft part of the fling’s fheath. dd, The two lhanks of the fting, mutually conveying to each other, e e, The Iheath of the fting. j'f. The thickeft end of the Iheath, where the tube opens into 'it, by which it receives the infe&’s poifon. g, The extreme point of the fting, formed by the two lhanks of that organ, that are in this place clofely united, h h. The beards with which the lhanks of the fting are armed at their extremities. /, The tube that ferves to fecrete the poifon, which it difcharges into the poifon-bag. k k. The two blind extremities of the faid tube. ////, Two pair of cartilages, of different forms, which are for the moft part of a deep black, and articulated a- mong themfelves, and with the Ihanks of the fting. tn m, Two other cartilages lefs confpicuous than the former, with one pair of which they are articulated. Thefe two cartilages m m, are almolf entirely of a membranaceous fubflance. n n n n n n n n, Eight places in which the foregoing cartilages are articulated among themfelves, and with the lhanks of the fting dd. 0000, Four mufcles ferving to move the fting different ways, by the affiftance of the fame cartilages, p p, Two mufcles which draw the lhanks of the fting into its Iheath. SEE [5 flieatli. ^ Two appendages of the fling which are moved along with it, and i'eem to anfwer no other pur- pole but that of ornament.—Fig. 11. The ovary.-— Fig. 12. Six eggs drawn after nature, and placed on their ends: Thefe eggs are oblong, very llender, but fomewhat thicker on their upper parts.—Fig. 13. An egg viewed with a microfcope : it refembles the Ikin of a filh, divefted of its fcales, but ftill retaining the marks of their infertion.— Fig. 14. Worms of bees, of different fizes, drawn after nature. «, A worm newly hatched, bcde, Four worms that have received more nourilhment, and are more grown, fg, Two worms ftill bigger than the former, having had more time to make ufe of the nourilhment provided for them. They are here reprefented as they lie doubled in their cells, h, A worm placed on its belly fo as to Ihow on its back a black line, inclining to a light blue or gray. This line denotes the ftomach, which ap¬ pears in this place through the tranfparent parts that lie over it. i, A worm lying on its back, and begin¬ ning to draw in the hinder part of its body, and move its head.—Fig. 15. A full-grown worm, viewed with a microfcope. a a, Its 14 annular incifions or divifions. The head and eyes, &c. c c c. Ten breathing- holes.—Fig. 16. The worm forming its web. a a, The lides of the cell that contain it. b, The bottom of the cell, c, The entrance or door of the cell. The worm is here reprefented as making its web in the pro- pereft manner to ftiut up this entrance.—Fig. 17. Worm taken out of the web in which it had enclofed itfelf, and juft ready to call its Ikin.—Fig. 18. A cell con¬ taining the worm changed into a nymph, and per- fedfly lined with the faid worm’s web. Likewife the faid web entire, with the nymph contained in it, as they appear on opening the cell, a-a, The iides of the cell, lined with the worm’s web. b, The mouth of the cell, perfectly clofed by the web. c, The bottom of the cell, d, The w-eb entire, as it appears on opening the cell, which it greatly refembles in form. e, The upper part of the web, of a convex form. This part (hows its filaments pretty diftimftly. f, The en¬ clofed nymph appearing through the tranfparent fides of the web. g, The bottom of the web, anfwering to that of the wax cell.—Fig 19. Worm changed to a nymph, of its natural fize and form, yet fo as to ex¬ hibit its limbs, which are folded up in a moft wonder¬ ful manner.—Fig. 20. The nymph of the bee viewed with the microfcope, difplaying in a diftinfl manner all the parts of the enclofed infeff, and the beautiful manner in which they are laid up. o, The head, bloated with humours. b b, The eyes, projefting confiderably. c c, The horns, or antennae, d, The lip. e e. The teeth, or jaw-bones, ff The firft pair of joints belonging to the probofcis. k, The pro- bofcis itfelf. i i. The firft pair of legs. k k, Two tranfparent ftiff little parts, lying againft the loweft joints of the firft pair of legs. Thefe little parts are not to be found, as they remain in the Ikin it (beds on quitting the nymph ftate. //, The fecond pair of legs. mm. The wings, n n, 1 he blade-bones. 00, The laft pair of legs, p p. The abdominal rings. (g) The hinder part of the body. The fling pro- jefts a little in this place, r, Two little parts accom¬ panying the fling, s, The anus.—Fig. 21. «, A cell .full of bees bread, placed in layers, b, Little grains, Vol. III. Part II, 1 ] BEE of which the faid fubftance, viewed with the micro- Bee. fcope, appears to ccnfift. *—~~v II. Of the Management of Bees, and mof approved Inventions for faving their Lives while we take their Honey and Wax. I. Of the Apiary, and Hives. Columella direfts of the apk that the apiary face the fouth, and be fituated in a ary. place neither too hot nor too much expofed to the cold ; that it be in a valley, in order that the loaded bees may with the greater eafe defcend to their homes j that it be near the manfion-houfe, on account of the conveniency of watching them •, but fo fituated as not to be expofed to noifome fmells, or to the din of men or cattle : that it be furrounded with a wall, which however Ihould not rife above three feet high : that, if poflible a running ftream be near them ; ©r, if that cannot be, that water be brought near them in troughs, with pebbles or fmali ftones in the water, for the bees to reft on while they drink ; or that the water be con¬ fined within gently declining banks, in order that the bees may have fafe accefs to it $ they not being able to produce either combs, honey, or food for their mag¬ gots, without water ; that the neighbourhood of ri¬ vers or bafons of water with high banks be avoided, becaufe winds may whirl the bees into them, and they cannot eafily get on (bore from thence to dry them- felves j and that the garden in which the apiary ftands be well furniflied wuth fuch plants as afford the bees plenty of good pafture. The trees in this garden Ihould be of the dwarf kind, and their heads bulhy, in order that the fwarms which fettle on them may be the more eafily hived. The proprietor ftiould be particularly attentive that the bees have alfo in their neighbourhood fuch plants as yield them plenty of food. 'Columella enumerates ma¬ ny of thefe fitted to a warm climate : among them he mentions thyme, the oak, the pine, the fweet-fmelling cedar, and all fruit-trees. Experience has taught us, that furze, broom, muftard, clover, heath, &c. are excellent for this purpofe. Pliny recommends broom, in particular, as a plant exceedingly grateful and very profitable to bees. With regard to hives, thofe made of ft raw are gene-Qf rally preferred, on feveral accounts ; they are not liable to be over-heated by the rays of the fun j they keep out cold better than wood or any other materials j and the cheapnefs renders the purchafe of them eafy. As the ingenious Mr Wildman’s hives are reckoned to be of a preferable conftru&ion to any other, we ftiall give an account of them in his own words. “ My hives (fays he) are feven inches in height and ten in width. The fldes ere upright, fo that the top and bottom are of the fame diameter. A hive holds nearly a peck. In the upper row of ftraw there is a hoop of about half an inch in breadth j to which are nailed five bars of deal, full a quarter of an inch in thicknefs, and an inch and quarter wide, and half an inch afunder from one another j a narrow ftiort bar is nailed at each fide, half an inch diftant from the bars next them, in order to fill up the remaining parts of the circle •, fo that there are in all feven bars of deal, to which the bees fix their combs. The fpace of half an inch between the bars allows a fufficiept and eafy 3 U paffage BEE [ 522 ] BEE "Bee. paffage for the bees from one comb to another. In or- der to give great fteadinefs to the combs, fo that, up¬ on moving the hive, the combs may not fall of, or in¬ cline out of their diredion, a flick Ihould be run through the middle of the hive, in a direftion direftly acrofs the bars or at right angles with them. When the hives are made, a piece of wood fliould be worked in¬ to the lower row of ftraw, long enough to allow a door for the bees, of four inches in length, and half an inch in height. “ The proprietor of the'bees fhould provide himfelf with feveral flat covers of ftraw, worked of the fame thicknefs as the hives, and a foot in diameter, that fo it may be of the fame width as the outfide of the hives. Before the cover is applied to the hive, a piece of clean paper, of the fize of the top of the hive, ftiould be laid over it; and a coat of cow-dung, which is the leaft apt to crack of any cement eafily to be obtained, ftiould be laid all round the circumference of the hive. Let the cover be laid upon this, and made faft to the hive with a packing-needle and pack-thread, fo that neither cold nor vermin may enter. “ Each hive Ihould ftand Angle on a piece of deal, or other wood, fomewhat larger than the bottom of the hive : That part of the ftand which is at the mouth of the hive ftiould projeft fome inches, for the bees to reft on when they return from the Acid. This ftand Ihould be fupported upon a Angle poll, two and a half feet high } to which it ftiould be fcrewed very fecurely, that high winds, or other accidents, may not blow down both ftand and hive. A quantity of foot mixed with barley chaff ftiould be ftrewed on the ground round the poll; which will effe&ually prevent ants, Hugs, and other vermin, from riflng up to the hive. The foot and chaff fliould from time to time be renewed as it is blown or waftied away ; though, as it is flickered by the ftand, it remains a conflderable time, efpecially if care be taken that no weeds rife through it. Weeds, indeed, ftiould not be permitted to rife near the hive 5 for they may give Ihelter to vermin which may be hurt¬ ful to the bees. “ The Hands for bees ftiould be four yards afunder *, or if the apiary will not admit of fo much, as far afunder as may be, that the bees of one hive may not interfere with thofe of another hive, as is fometimes the cafe when the hives are near one another or on the fame ftand ; for the bees, miftaking their own hives, light fometimes at the wrong door, and a fray enfues, in which one or more may lofe their lives, f ro U ^ perf°n who intends to ere£t an apiary fliould per feafcm0 purchafe a proper number of hives at the latter part of for purcha- the year, when they are cheapeft. The hives fliould ling hives be full of combs, and well ftored with bees. The pur- of bees. chafer ftiould examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The combs of that feafon are white, thofe of the former year are of a darkifli yellow ; and where the combs are black, the hive ftiould be rejefted, becaufe old hives are moft liable to vermin and other accidents. “ If the number of hives wanted were not purchafed in the autumn, it will be neceffary to remedy this ne¬ glect after the feverity of the cold is paft in the fpring. At this feafon, bees which are in good condition will get into the Adds early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly; and do not come out of the hive in bad weather ; for when they do, this indicates they are in pee. great want of proviAons. They are alert on the leaft ' ■ y— difturbance, and by the loudnefs of their humming wre judge of their ftrength. They preferve their hives free from all ftlth, and are ready to defend it againft every enemy that approaches. “ The fummer is an improper time for buying bees, becaufe the heat of the weather foftens the wax, and thereby renders the combs liable to break, if they are not very well fecured. The honey, too, being then thinner than at other times, is more apt to run out of the cells ; which is attended with a double difadvan- tage, namely, the lofs of the honey, and the daubing of the bees, whereby many of them may be deftroyed. A Arft and ftrong fwarm may indeed be purchafed ; and, if leave can be obtained, permitted to ftand in the fame garden till the autumn ; but if leave is not obtained, it may be carried away in the night after it has been hived. “ 1 fuppofe, that, in the flocks purchafed, the bees are in hives of the old conftru&ion. The only di- redion here neceffary is, that the flrft fwarm from thefe flocks fliould be put into one of my hives ; and that another of my hives ftiould in a few days be put under the old flock, in order to prevent its fwarming again.” yS 3. Of Hiving. Bees, as has been already obferved, Of hiving never fwarm till the hive be too much crovvded by the the fwarmi young brood. I hey flrft begin to fwarm in May, or in the end of April, but earlier or later according to the warmth of the feafon. They feldom fwarm before ten in the morning, and feldom later than three in the afternoon. We may know when they are about to fwarm, by clufters of them hanging on the outflde of the hive, and by the drones appearing abroad more than ufual : But the moft certain flgn is, when the bees refrain from flying into the flelds, though the feafon be inviting. Juft before they take flight, there is an un¬ common Alence in the hive; after this, as foon as one takes flight, they all follow. Before the fubfequent fwarmings, there is a great noife in the hive, which is fuppofed to be occafloned by a conteft whether the young or the old queen fhould go out. When the bees of a fivarm fly too high, they are made to defcend lower, by throwing handfuls of fand or duft among them, which they probably miftake for rain. For the fame purpofe, it is ufual to beat on a kettle or frying- pan : This praftice may have taken its rife from ob- ferving that thunder or any great noife prompts fuch bees as are in the flelds to return home. As foon as the fwarm is fettled, the bees which com- pofe it ftiould be got into a hive with all convenient fpeed, to prevent their taking wing again. If they fettle on a fmall branch of a tree, eafy to come at, it T may be cut off and laid upon a cloth ; the hive being ready immediately to put over them. If the branch cannot be conveniently cut, the bees may be fwept from off it into a hive. Lodge but the queen into the hive, and the reft will foon follow. If the bees muft be con- fiderably difturbed in order to get them into a. hive, the moft advifeable way is to let them remain in the place where they have pitched till the evening, when there is lefs danger of their taking wing. If it be ob¬ ferved that they ftill hover about the place they flrfl: alighted upon, the branches there may be rubbed with BEE [ 523 ] BEE Bee. 46 Of uniting Swarms. rue, or alder-leaves, or any other thing ditlafteful to them, to prevent their returning to it. The hive employed on this occafion flrould be cleaned with the utmoft care, and its infide be rubbed very hard with a coarfe cloth, to get off the loofe ftraws, or other impurities, which might coft them a great deal of time and labour to gnaw away. It may then be rubbed with fragrant herbs or flowers, the fmellof which is agreeable to the bees •, or with honey. The hive fhould not be immediately fet on the ttool where it is to remain ; but ftrould be kept near the place at which the bees fettled, till the evening, left fome ftragglers (hould be loft. It (hould be ftraded either with boughs or with a cloth, that the too great heat of the fun may not annoy the bees. We fometimes fee a fwarm of bees, after having left their hive, and even alighted upon a tree, return to their firft abode. This never happens but when the young queen did not come forth with them, for want of ftrength, or perhaps courage to truft her wings for the firft time j or poflibly from a confcioufnefs of her not being impregnated. When a fwarm is too few in number for a hive, an¬ other may be added. The ufual method of thus unit¬ ing fwarms is very eafy. Spread a cloth at night upon the ground clofe to the hive in which the two calls or fwarms are to be unitedlay a flick acrofs this cloth •, then fetch the hive with the new fwarm, fet it over the flick, give a fmart ftroke on the top of the hive, and all the bees will drop down upon the cloth in a clufter. This done, throw afide the empty hive, take the other from off the ftool, and fet this laft over the bees, who will foon afcend into it, mix with thofe already there, and become ©ne and the fame family. Others, inftead of ftriking the bees down upon the cloth, place with its bottom upmoft the hive in which the united fwarms are to live, and ftrike the bees of the other hive down into it. The former of thefe hives is then reftored to its natural fituation, and the bees of both hives foon unite. If fome bees ftill adhere to the other hive, they may be bruftied off on the cloth, and they will foon join their brethren. Or one may take the following method, which gives lefs difturbance to the bees. Set with its mouth upmeft the hive into which the young fwarm has been put, and fet upon it the other hive. The bees in the lower hive, finding themfelves in an inverted fituation, will foon afcend into the upper. Though all writers acknowledge, that one of the queens is conftantly flain on thefe occafions, and gene¬ rally a confiderable number of the working bees ; yet none of them, Columella excepted, has propofed the eafy remedy of killing the queen of the latter caft or fwarm before the union is made; a means by which the lives of the working bees may be preferved. This may be done either by intoxicating them and then picking her out, or by fearching her out when the bees are beaten down upon the cloth ; for this being done in the night, to prevent the battle which might otherwife enfue, there will be no great difficulty in finding her. _ j j r A large fwarm may weigh eight pounds, and 10 gradually lefs to one pound : confequently a very good one may weigh five or fix pounds. All fuch as weigh lefs than four pounds fliould be ftrengthened by uniting to each of them a lefs numerous fwarm. The fize of the Bee. hive fliould be proportioned to the number of the bees ;1 - » and, as a general rule, it fhould be rather under than over fized, becaufe bees require to be kept warmer than a large hive will admit of. ^7 In the Letters from an American Farmer, we have “ee:“u^_ the following entertaining account of the fwarming °fmfrica. bees, their flight into the woods, and the method of difcovering them there. A little experience renders it eafy to predift the time of their fwarming : but the “ difficult point is, when on the wing, to know whe¬ ther they want to go to the woods or not. If they have previoufly pitched in fome hollow trees, it is not the allurements of fait and water, of fennel, hic¬ kory leaves, &c. nor the fineft box, that can induce them to flay. They will prefer thofe rude, rough, habitations, to the beft poliihed mahogany hive. When that is the cafe with mine, I feldom thwart their incli¬ nations. It is in freedom that they work. Were 1 to confine them, they would dwindle away and quit their labour. In fuch excurfions we only part for a while. I am generally fure to find them again the fol¬ lowing fall. This elopement of theirs only adds to my recreations. I know how to deceive even their fuper- lative inftimSI. Nor do I fear lofing them, though 18 miles from my houfe, and lodged in the moft lofty trees in the moft impervious of our forefts. After I have done fowing, by way of recreation I prepare for a week’s jaunt in the woods, not to hunt either the deer or the bears, as my neighbours do, but to catch the more harmlefs bees. I cannot boaft that this chafe is fo noble or fo famous among men : but I find it lefs fatiguing, and full as profitable j and the laft confide- ration is the only one that moves me. I take with ma my dog, as a companion, for he is ufelefs as to this game j my gun, for no one ought to enter the woods without one ; my blanket, fome provifions, fome wax, vermilion, honey, and a fmall pocket-compafs. With thefe implements I proceed to fuch Wi*ods as are at a confiderable diftance from any fettlements. I careful¬ ly examine whether they abound with large trees j if fo, I make a fmall fire, on fome flat ftones, in a con¬ venient place. On the fire I put fome wax clofe by this fire, on another ftone, I drop honey in diftind drops, which I furround with fmall quantities of vermi¬ lion, laid on the ftone j and then I retire carefully to watch whether any bees appear. If there are any in that neighbourhood, I reft affured that the fmell of the burnt wax will unavoidably attract them. I hey will foon find out the honey, for they are fond of preying on that which is not their .own j and in their approach, they will neceffarily tinge themfelves with fome parti¬ cles of vermilion, which will adhere long to their bo¬ dies. I next fix my compafs, to find out their courfe ; which they keep invariably ftraight, when they are re¬ turning home loaded. By the affiftance of my watch, I obferve how long thofe are in returning which are mark¬ ed with vermilion. Thus poffeffed of the couife, and, in fome meafure, of the diftanee, which I can eafily guefs at, I follow the firft, and feldom fail of coming to the tree where thofe republicans are lodged. 1 then mark it *, and thus, with patience, I have found out fometimes II fwarms in a feafon j f id it is inconceiv¬ able what a quantity of honey thefe trees will fiime- times afford. It entirely depends on the fize of the ' 3 U 3 hollow,, 2* Shifting the bees in fearch of yafture. Lib. ix. c. 14. Lib. xxi. c. 12. Vol. ii. p. 24. BEE [ 524 ] BEE hollow, as the bees never reft or {warm till it is reple- nifhed 5 for, like men, it is only the want of room that induces them to quit the maternal hive. Next I proceed to fome of the neareft fettlements, where I procure proper affiftance to cut down the trees, get all my prey fecured, and then return home with my prize. The firft bees I ever procured were thus found in the woods by mere accident *, for, at that time, I had no kind of {kill in this method of tracing them. The body of the tree being perfeflly found, they had lodged themfelves in the hollow of one of its principal limbs, which I carefully fawed oft', and, with a good deal of labour and induftry, brought it home, where I fixed it up in the fame pofition in which I found it growing. This was in April. 1 had five fwarms that year, and they have been ever fince very profperous. This bufinefs generally takes up a week of my time every fall, and to me it is a week of folitary eafe and relaxation.” 3. Of Jhifting the Abode of Bees. Great improve¬ ments may certainly be made in the eflential article of providing plenty of pafture for bees, whenever this fubjeft fliall be more carefully attended to than it has hitherto been. A rich corn country is well known to be a barren defert to them during the moft confiderable part of the year ; and therefore the practice of other na¬ tions, in {hitting the places of abode of their bees, well deferves our imitation. Columella informs us, that, as few places are fo hap¬ pily fituated as to afford the bees proper pafture both in the beginning of the feafon and alfo in the autumn, it was the advice of Celfus, that, after the vernal paf- tures are confumed, the bees {hould be tranfported to places abounding with autumnal flowers; as was prac- tifed by conveying the bees from Achaia to Attica, from Euboea and the Cyclad iflands to Scyrus *, and al¬ fo in Sicily, where they w’ere brought to Hybla from other parts of the ifland. We find by ”liny, that this was likewife the prac¬ tice of Italy in his time. “ As foon,” fays he, “ as the fpring-food for bees has failed in the valleys near our towns, the hives of bees are put into boats, and carried up againft the ftream of the river, in the night, in fearch of better pafture. The bees go out in the morning in queft of provifions, and return regularly to their hives in the boats, with the ftores they have col¬ lected. This method is continued, till the finking of the boats to a certain depth in the water {hows that the hives are fufficiently full; and they are then car¬ ried back to their former homes, where their honey is taken out of them.” And this is ftill the praCtice of the Italians w’ho live near the banks of the Po, (the river which Pliny inftanced particularly in the above- quoted paffage). M. Maillet relates, in his curious Defcription of E- gypt, that, “ fpite of the ignorance and rufticity which have got poffeflion of that country, there yet remain in it feveral footfteps of the induftry and {kill of the ancient Egyptians. One of their moft admirable con¬ trivances is, their fending their bees annually into di- ftant countries, in order to procure them fuftenance there, at a time when they could not find any at home ; and their afterwards bringing them back, like Ihepherds who (hould travel with their flock, and make them feed as they go. It was obferved by the ancient inhabi¬ tants of Lower Egypt, that all plants bloffomed, and J3ee, the fruits of the earth ripened, above fix weeks earlier v— in Upper Egypt than with them. They applied this remark to their bees 5 and the means then made ufe of by them, to enable thefe ufefully induftrious infefts to reap advantage from the more forward ftate of nature there, were exactly the fame as are now praClifed, for the like purpofe, in that country. About the end of OClobtr, all fuch inhabitants of Lower Egypt as have hives of bees, embark them on the Nile, and convey them up that river quite into Upper Egypt; obferving to time it fo that they arrive there juft when the inundation is withdrawn, the lands have been fown, and the flowers begin to bud. The hives thus lent are marked and numbered by their refpeCtive owners, and placed pyramidically in boats prepared for the purpofe. After they have remained fome days at their fartheft ftation, and are fuppofed to have gathered all the wrax: and honey they could find in the fields within two or three leagues around ; their conductors convey them in the fame boats two or three leagues lower down, and there leave the laborious infeCts fo long time as is neceffary for them to colleCt all the riches of this fpot. Thus, the nearer they come to the place of their more permanent abode, they find the productions of the earth, and the plants which afford them food, forward in pro¬ portion. In fine, about the beginning of February, after having travelled through the whole length of Egypt, gathering all the rich produce of the delight¬ ful banks of the Nile, they arrive at the mouth of that river, towards the ocean ; from whence they fet out, and from whence they are now returned to their feve¬ ral homes : for care is taken to keep an exaCt regifter of every diftrift from whence the hives were fent in the beginning of the feafon, of their numbers, of the names of the perfons who fent them, and likewife of the mark or number of the boat in which they were placed.” In many parts of France, floating bee-houfes are very commen. They have on board one barge three- fcore or a hundred bee-hives, well defended from the inclemency of an accidental ftorm. With thefe the owners fuffer themfelves to float gently down the river, the bees continually choofing their flowery pafture a- long the banks of the ftream ; and thus a Angle float¬ ing bee-houfe yields the proprietor a confiderable in¬ come. They have alfo a method of tranfporting their bees by land, well worth our imitation in many parts of this kingdom. Their firft care is, to examine thofe hives, fome of whofe honey combs might be broken or feparated by the jolting of the vehicle; they are made faft one to the other, and againft the tides of the hive, by means of fmall flicks, which may be difpofed dif¬ ferently as occafion will point out. This being done, every hive is fet upon a packing-cloth, or fomething like it, the threads of which are very wide ; the fides of this cloth are then turned up and laid on the outfide of each hive, in which ftate they are tied together with a piece of fmall pack-thread wound feveral times round the hive. As many hives as a cart built for that pur¬ pofe will hold, are afterwards placed in this vehicle. The hives are fet two and two, the whole length of the cart. Over thefe are placed others ; which make, as it were, a fecond ftory or bed of hives. Thofe which Bee. 29 Manage¬ ment of bees in winter. BEE [ 52 which are ftored with combs (hould always be turned toply-turvy. It is for the fake of their combs, and to fix them the better, that they are difpofed in this man¬ ner ; for fuch as have but a fmall quantity of combs in them, are placed in their natural fituation. Care is taken in this ftowage not to let one hive ftop up an¬ other, it being eilentially neceflary for the bees to have air ; and it is for this reafon they are wrapped up in a coarfe cloth, the threads of which were wove very wide, in order that the air may have a free paflfage, and leffen the heat which thefe infects raife in their hives, efpeeially when they move about very tumultu- oufly, as often happens in thefe carts. Thole ufed for this purpofe in Yevre, hold from 30 to 48 hives. As foon as all are thus flowed, the caravan fets out. If the feafon is fultry, they travel only in the night 5 but a proper advantage is made of cool days. Thefe cara¬ vans do not go fait. The horfes mult not be permitted even to trot: they are led flowly, and through the fmootheft roads. When there are not combs in the hives fufficient to fupport the bees during their journey, the owner takes the earliefl opportunity of refting them wherever they can collect wax. The hives are taken out of the cart, then fet upon the ground, and after re¬ moving the cloth from over them, the bees go forth in fearch of food. The fir ft field they come to ferves them as an inn. In the evening, as foon as they are all re¬ turned, the hives are fhut up; and being placed again in the cart, they proceed on their journey. When the caravan is arrived at the journey’s end, the hives are diftributed in the gardens, or in the fields adjacent to the houfes of different peafants, who, for a very fmall reward, undertake to look after them. Thus it is that, in fuch fpots as do not abound in flowers at all feafons, means are found to fupply the bees with food during the whole year. Thefe inftances of the great advantages which attend ftiifting of bees in fearch of pafture, afford an excellent leffon to many places in this kingdom : they direft par¬ ticularly the inhabitants of the rich vales, where the harveft for bees ends early, to remove their flocks to places which abound in heath, this plant continuing in bloom during a confiderable part of autumn, and yield- ing great plenty of food to bees. Thofe in the neigh¬ bourhood of hills and mountains will fave the bees a great deal of labour, by taking alfo the advantage of ftiifting their places of abode. 4. Of feeding and defending Bees in Winter. Provi¬ dence has ordained, that infefls which feed on leaves, flowers, and green fucculent plants, are in an infenfible and torpid ftate from the time that the winter’s cold has deprived them of the means of fubfiftence. 1 hus the bees during the winter are in fo lethargic a ftate, that little food fupports them : but as the weather is very changeable, and every warm and funny day revives them, and prompts them to return to exercife, food be¬ comes neceffary on thefe occafions. Many hives of bees, which are thought to die of cold in the winter, in truth die of famine ; when a rainy fummer has hindered the bees from laying in a fufficient ftore of provifions. The hives fliould therefore be care¬ fully examined in the autumn, and {hould then weigh at leaft 18 pounds. Columella defcribes an annual diftemper which fei- zes bees in the fpring, when the fpurge bloffoms, and X 5 1 BEE the elm difclofes its feeds 5 for that, being allured by Bee. the firft flowers, they feed fo greedily upon them, that v— they furfeit themfelves, and die of a loofenefs, if they are not fpeedily relieved. The authors of the Maifon Rujlique impute this pur¬ ging to the bees feeding on pure honey, which does not form a food fufficiently fubftantial for them, unlefs they have bee-bread to eat at the fame time } and ad- vife giving them a honey-comb taken from another hive, the cells of which are filled with crude wax or bee-bread. There is ftill, however, a want of experiments to af- certain both the time and the manner in which bees {hould be fed. The common pradlice is to feed them in the autumn, giving them as much honey as will bring the whole weight of the hive to near 20 pounds. To this end, the honey is diluted with water, and then put into an empty comb, fplit reeds, or, as Columella di¬ rects, upon clean wool, which the bees will fuck per- feftly dry. But the dilution with water makes the ho¬ ney apt to be candied, and honey in that flate is preju¬ dicial to bees. The following direflions given in the Maifon Ru- Tom. k Jlique feem to be very judicious. Replenifti the weak P* 43$^ hives in September with fuch a portion of combs full of honey taken from other hives as {hall be judged to be a fufficient fupply tor them. In order to do this, turn up the weak hive, after taking the precaution of defending yourfelf with the fmoke of rags, cut out the empty combs, and put the full ones in their place where fecure them with pieces of wood run acrofs, in fuch manner that they may not fall down when the hive is returned to its place. The bees will foen fix them more effe£lually. If this method be thought too troublefome, fet under the hive a plate of liquid ho¬ ney, unmixed with water, with ftraws laid acrofs it, and over thefe a paper pierced full of holes, through which the bees will fuck the honey without daubing themfelves. This ftiould be done in cloudy or rainy weather, when the bees ftir leaft abroad ; and the hive {hould be covered, to proteft the bees from rob¬ bers, who might be allured to it by the fmell of the ho¬ ney. Another circumftance which may render it very ne¬ ceffary to feed the bees is, when feveral days of bad weather enfue immediately after they have fwarmed ; for then, being deftitute of every fupply beyond what they carried with them, they may be in great danger of ftarving. In this cafe, honey ftiould be given them in proportion to the duration of the bad weather. The degree of cold which bees can endure has not been afcertained. We find that they live in the cold parts of Ruflia, and often in hollow trees, without any care being taken of them. Their hives are frequently made of the bark of trees, which does not afford them much proteftion from cold. Mr White, therefore, ju- dicioufly obferves, that bees which ftand on the north fide of a building whofe height intercepts the fun’s beams all the winter, will wafte lefs of their provifions (almoft by half) than others which ftand in the fun: for coming feldom forth, they eat little ; and yet in the fpring are as forward to work and fwarm as thofe which had twice as much honey in the autumn before. The owner ftiould, however, examine their ftate in the winter ; and if he finds, that, inftead of being cluttered between- Bee. honey and the wax. Common method in this coun¬ try. BEE [526 between the combs, they fall down In numbers on the ftool or bottom of the hive, the hive Ihould be carried to a warmer place, where they will foon recover. He muft be cautious in returning them again to the cold, left the honey be candied. Where the winters are extremely fevere, the authors of the Maifon RuJHque advife to lay on the bottom of an old calk the depth of half a foot of very dry earth, powdered and preffed down hard, and to fet on this the ftool with the hive j then, to preferve a communication with the air, which is abfolutely neceffary, to cut a hole in the calk, oppofite to the mouth of the hive, and place a piece of reed, or of alder, made hollow, from the mouth of the hive to the hole in the calk *, and after this to cover the hive with more of the fame dry earth. If there be any room to fear that the bees will not have a lufticiency of food, a plate with honey, covered as be¬ fore dire&ed, may be put under the hive. If the num¬ ber of hives be great, boxes may be made of deals nail¬ ed together, deep enough to contain the hives when covered with dry earth. The bees will thus remain all the winter free from any danger from cold, hunger, or „o enemies. Methods of 5’ ta^ng the Honey and Wax. In this country it taking the is ufual, in feizing the ftores of thefe little animals, to rob them alfo of their lives. The common method is, That when thofe which are doomed for daughter have been marked out (which is generally done in September), a hole is dug near the hive, and a flick, at the end of which is a rag that has been dipped in melted brimftone, being ftuck in that hole, the rag is fet on lire, the hive is immediately fet over it, and the earth is inftantly thrown up all round, fo that none of the fmoke can efcape. In a quarter of an hour, all the bees are feemingly dead ; and they Avill foon after be irrecoverably fo, by being buried in the earth that is returned back into the hole. By this laft means it is that they are abfolutely killed ; for it has been found by experiment, that all the bees which have been affefted only by the fume of the brimftone, reco¬ ver again, except fuch as have been finged or hurt by the flame. Hence it is evident, that fume of brimftone might be ufed for intoxicating the bees, with fome few precautions. The heavieft and the lighteft hives are alike treated in this manner: the former, be- caufe they yield the moft profit, with an immediate re¬ turn •, and the latter, becaufe they would not be able to furvive the winter. Thofe hives which weigh from 15 to 20 pounds are thought to be the fitteft for keeping. * Vide Co- More humane and judicious methods were pra&ifed It/mella, by the ancients * ; and the following fimple method is lib.ix.c. 15. at this day praftifed in Greece, degenerate as it is. “ Mount Hymethus is celebrated for the beft honey in all G reece. This mountain was notlefs famous in times paft for bees and admirable honey ; the ancients belie¬ ving that bees were firft bred here, and that all other bees were but colonies from this mountain •, which if fo, ring the ho-we affiired ourfelves that it muft be from this part of ney with the mountain that the colonies were fent ; both becaufe the bees, the honey here made is the beft, and that here they ier’s^Vour nevcr ^eftroy the bees. It is of a good confiftence, of ney into a ^a'r g°^-colour, and the fame quantity fweetens more water than the like quantity of any other doth. I no fooner knew that they never deftroy or impair the ftock 3 and Varro de Re Ru- ftica, lib. iii. c. 16. 31 Greek me thod of flia ney ; Greece, p. 4”- ] BEE of bees in taking away their honey, but I was inquift- pee. tive to underftand their method of ordering the bees ; *—y——j which being an art fo worthy the knowledge of the cu¬ rious, I (hall not think it befide the purpofe, to relate what I faw, and was informed of to that effect by fuch as had {kill in that place. “ The hives they keep their bees in are made of wil¬ lows or ofiers, faftiioned like our common duft-baikets, wide at top and narrow at the bottom, and piaftered with clay or loam within and without. They are fet Plate XC. as in fig. I. with the wide end uppermoft. The tops are covered with broad flat flicks, which are alfo pia¬ ftered over wdth clay ; and, to fecure them from the weather, they cover them with a tuft of ftravv, as we do. Along each of thtfe flicks, the bees faften their combs 5 fo that a comb may be taken out whole, with¬ out the leaft bruifing, and with the greateft eafe imagi¬ nable. To increafe them in fpring-time, that is in March or April, until the beginning of May, they di¬ vide them •, firft feparating the flicks on which the combs and bees are faftened, from one another, with a knife : fo, taking out the firft comb and bees together on each fide, they put them into another bafket, in the fame order as they were taken out, until they have equally divided them. After this, when they are both again accommodated with flicks and piaftered, they fet the new bafket in the place of the old one, and the old one in fome new place. And all this they do in the middle of the day, at fuch time as the greateft part of the bees are abroad ; who at their coming home, with¬ out much difficulty, by this means divide themfelves equally. This device hinders them from fwarming and flying away. In Auguft, they take out their honey. This they do in the day-time alfo, while they are abroad ; the bees being thereby, fay they, difturbed leaf! : at which time they take out the combs laden with honey, as before ; that is, beginning at each out- fide, and fo taking away, until they have left only fuch a quantity of combs, in the middle, as they judge will be fufticient to maintain the bees in winter ; fweeping thofe bees that are on the combs into the. bafket again, and then covering it with new flicks and plafter.” The Greek method above related was introduced in¬ to France in 1754, as we are informed by M. de Reau¬ mur and Du Hamel, in the memoirs of the Royal A- cademy for that year, p. 331. Attempts have been made in our own country to at¬ tain the defirable end of getting the honey and wax without deftroying the bees; the moft approved of which we fhall now relate as concifely as poffible. 32 Mr Thorley, in his Inquiry into the Nature, Order, Mr Thor- and Government of Bees, thinks colonies preferable to le>’s obfer- hives, for the following reafons: Ffir/?, The more cer-™110"5’^” tain prefervation of very many thoufands of thefe ufe- ful creatures. Secondly, Their greater ftrength (which confifts in numbers), and conftquently their greater fafety from robbers. Thirdly, Their greater wealth, arifing from the united labours of the greater number. He tells us, that he has in fome fummers taken two boxes filled with honey from one colony $ and yet fuf- ficient ftore has been left for their maintenance during the winter ; each box weighing 40 pounds. Add to thefe advantages, the pleafure of viewing them, with the greateft fafety, at all feafons, even in their bufieft time of gathering, and their requiring a much lefs at¬ tendance BEE [ 527 ] BEE Bee. tendance in fwarming time. The bees thus managed —v—are alfo more effedtually iecured from wet and cold, from mice and other vermin. His boxes are made of deal, which, being fpongy, fucks up the breath of the bees fooner than a more fo- lid wood would do. Yellow dram-deal thoroughly fea- foned is the beft. An oftagon, being nearer to a fphere, is better than a fquare form ; for as the bees, in winter, lie in a round body near the centre of the hive, a due heat is then conveyed to all the out-parts, and the honey is kept from candying. The dxmenfions which Mr Thorley, after many years experience, recommends for the boxes, are 10 inches depth, and 1 2 or 14 inches breadth in the infide. He has tried boxes containing a bufliel or more, but found them not to anfwer the defign like thofe of a leffer fize. The larger are much longer in filling ; fo that it is later . ere you come to reap the fruits of the labour of the bees : nor is the honey there fo good and fine, the ef¬ fluvia even of their own bodies tainting it. The beft and pureft honey is that which is gathered in the firft five or fix weeks : and in boxes of lefs di- menfions you may take, in a month or little more, pro¬ vided the feafon be favourable, a box full of the fineft honey. The top of the box fhould be made of an entire board a full inch thick after it has been planed ; and it ftiould project on all fides at leaft an inch beyond the dimen- fions of the box. In the middle of this top there mull be a hole five inches fquare, for a communication be¬ tween the boxes ; and this hole ftiould be covered with a Aiding (butter, of deal or elm, running eafily in a groove over the back window. The eight pannels, nine inches deep, and three quarters of an inch thick when planed, are to be let into the top fo far as to keep them in their proper places ; to be fecured at the corners with plates of brafs, and to be cramped with wires at the bottom to keep them firm j for the heat in fummer will try their ftrength. There (hould be aglafs window behind, fixed in a frame, with a thin deal-cover, two fmall brafs hinges, and a button to faften it. 1 his window will be fufficient for infpedling the progrefs of the bees. Two brafs handles, one on each fide, are neceflary to lift up the box : thefe ftiould be fixed in with two thin plates of iron, near three inches long, fo as to turn up and down, and put three inches below the top-board, which is nailed clofe down with fprigs to the other parts of the box. Thofe who choofe a frame within, to which the bees may faften their combs, need only ufe a couple of deal (licks of an inch fquare, placed acrofs the box, and fupported by two pins of brafs } one an inch and a half below the top, and the other two inches below it ; by which means the combs will quickly find a reft. One thing more, which perfe61s the work, is, a paf- fage, four or five inches long, and lefs than half an inch deep, for the bees to go in and out at the bottom of ,, the box. _ „ Manage- I. In keeping bees in colonies, a houfe is necenary, ment of 0r at leaft a (bed \ without which the weather, efpe- bees in co- cjany tJie heat of the fun, would foon rend the boxes lonies, and : method of to pieces. L , r u j taking their Your houfe may be made of any boards you pleale, honey and but deal is the beft. Of whatever .fort the materials wax. are, the houfe muft be painted, to fecure it from the weather. The length of this houfe, we will fuppofe for fix co¬ lonies, (hould be full r 2 feet and a half, and each co¬ lony (hould (land a foot diftance from the other. It (hould be three feet and a half high, to admit four boxes one upon another j but if only three boxes are employed, two feet eight inches will be fufficient. Its breadth in the infide (hould be two feet. The four corner-pofts (hould be made of oak, and well fixed in the ground, that no ftormy winds may overturn it 5 and all the rails ftiould be of oak, fupported by feveral up¬ rights of the fame, before and behind, that they may not yield or fink under 6, 7, or 8 cwt. or upwards. The floor of the houfe (about two feet from the ground) (hould be ftrong and fmooth, that the lowed box may (land clofe to it. This floor may be made with boards or planks of deal the full length of the bee-houfe j or, which is pre¬ ferable, with a board or plank to each colony, of two feet four inches long, and fixed down to the rails; and that part which appears at the front of the houfe may be cut into a femicircle, as a proper alighting place for the bees. Plane it to a (lope, that the wet may fall off. When this floor to a fingle colony wants to be repaired, it may eafily be removed, and another be placed in its room, without difturbing the other colonies, or touch¬ ing any other part of the floor. Upon this floor, at equal diftances, all your colonies muft be placed againft a door or paffage cut in the front of the houfe. Only obferve farther, to prevent any falfe ftep, that as the top-board of the box (being a full inch broader than the other part) will not permit the two mouths to come together, you muft cut a third in a piece of deal of a fufficient breadth, and place it between the other two, fo clofe that not a bee may get that way into the houfe. And fixing the faid piece of deal down to the floor with two lath-nails, you will find after¬ wards to be of fervice, when you have occafion either to raife a colony, or take a box of honey, and may prove a means of preventing a great deal of trouble and mifehief. The houfe being in this forwardnefs, you may cover it to your own mind, with boards, fine dates, or tiles. But contrive their pofition fo as to carry off the wet, and keep out the cold, rain, fnow, or whatever might any way hurt and prejudice them. The back-doors may be made of half-inch deal, two of them to (hut clofe in a rabbet, cut in an upright pillar, which may be fo contrived as to take in and out, by a mortife in the bottom rail, and a notch in the infide of the upper rail, and faftened with a ftrong hafp. Place thefe pillars in the fpaces between the colonies. Concluding your houfe made after this model, with¬ out front-doors, a weather-board will be very neceffary to carry the water off from the places where the bees fettle and reft. Good painting will be a great prefervative. Forget not to paint the mouths of your colonies with different colours, as red, white, blue, yellow, &c. in form of a half-moon, or fquare, that the bees may the better know their own home. Such diverfity will be a direc¬ tion to them. Thus your bees are kept warm in the coldeft winter 5 and. BEE t 528 ] BEE Bee. and in tlie hotteft fumraer greatly refrefhed by the cool air, the back doors being fet open without any air¬ holes made in the boxes. X)r Warden obferves, that in June, July, and Au- guft, when the colonies come to be very full, and the weather proves very hot, the appearance of a (bower drives the bees home in fuch crowds, that prefling to get in, they Hop the palfage fo clofe, that thofe with¬ in are almofl: fuffocated for want of air ; which makes thefe laft fo uneafy, that they are like mad things. In this extremity, he has lifted the whole colony up a little on one fide j and by thus giving them air, has foon quieted them. He has known them, he fays, come pouring out, on fuch an occafion, in numbers fufficient to have filled at once two or three quarts 5 as if they had been going to fwarm. To prevent this inconve¬ nience, he advifes cutting a hole two inches fquare in about the middle of one of the hinder pannels of each box. Over this hole, nail, in the inlide of the box, a piece of tin-plate punched full of holes fo fmall that a bee cannot creep through them *, and have over it, on the outfide, a very thin Aider, made to run in grooves ; fo that, when it is thrufl: home, all may be clofe and ■warm $ and when it is opened, in very hot weather, the air may pafs through the hole, and prevent the fufto- Cating heat. Or holes may be bored in the pannels themfelves, on fuch an emergency, in a colony already fettled. Such a thorough paffage for the air may be conve¬ nient in extreme heat, which is fometimes fo great as to make the honey run out of the combs. The Me¬ moirs of the truly laudable Berne Society, for the year 1764, give us a particular inftance of this, when they fay, that, In 1761, many in Switzerland were obliged to fmother their bees, when they faw the honey and wax trickling down ; not knowing any other remedy for the Ioffes they daily fuftained. Some (haded thefe hives from the fun, or covered them with cloths wet feveral times a-day, and watered the ground all a- round. The bed time to plant the colonies is either in fpring with new (locks full of bees, or in fummer with fwarms. If fwarms are ufed, procure, if poffible, two of the fame day : hive them either in two boxes or in a hive and a box : at night, place them in the bee- houfe, one over the other •, and with a knife and a lit¬ tle lime and hair (lop clofe the mouth of the hive or upper box, fo that not a bee may be able to go in or out but at the front door. This done, you will in a week or ten days with pleafure fee the combs appear in the boxes j but if it be a hive, nothing can be feen till the bees have wrought down into the box. Never plant a colony with a (ingle fwarm, as Mr Thorley fays he has fometimes done, but with lit¬ tle fuccefs. When the fecond box, or the box under the hive, appears full of bees and combs, it is time to raife your colony. This (hould be done in the du(k of the even¬ ing, and in the following manner ; Place your empty box, with the Hiding fliutter drawn back, behind the houfe, near the colony that is to be raifed, and at nearly the height of the floor : then lifting up the colony with what expedition you can, let the empty box be put in the place where it is to land, and the colony upon it j and (hut up the mouth of the then upper box with lime and hair, as befote directed. ' 1- j * When, by the help of the windows in the back of the boxes, you find the middle box full of combs, and a quantity of honey fealed up in it, the lowed box half full of combs, and few bees in the uppermod box, pro¬ ceed thus: About five o’clock in the afternoon, drive clofe with a mallet the Aiding (hutter under the hive or box that is to be taken from the colony. If the combs are new, the fhutter may be forced home without a mallet ; but be fure it be clofe, that no bees may afcend into the hive or box to be removed. After this (hut clofe th& doors of your houfe, and leave the bees thus cut off from the red of their companions for the fpace of half an hour or more. In this fpace of time, having lod their queen, they will fill themfelves with honey, and be impatient to be fet at liberty. If, in this interval, you examine the box or boxes beneath, and obferve all to be quiet in them, you may be confident that the queen is there, and in fafety. Hereupon raife the back part of the hive or box fo fat1, by a piece of wood flipped under it, as to give the pri- foners room to come out, and they will return to theif fellows : then lifting the box from off the colony, and turning its bottom upmoft, cover it with a cloth all night ; and the next morning, when this cloth is remo¬ ved, the bees that have remained in it will return to the colony. Thus you have a hive or box of honey, and all your bees fafe. If the bees do not all come out in this manner, Dr Warder’s method may be followed, efpecially if it be With a hive. It is to place the hive with the fmall end downward in a pail, peck, or flower-pot, fo as to make it dand firm : then to take an empty hive, and fet it upon the former, and to draw a cloth tight round the joining of the two hives, fo that none of the bees may be able to get out: after this, to drike the full hive fo fmartly as to didurb the bees that are in it, but with fuch paufes between the flrokes as to allow them time to afcend into the empty hive, which mud be held fad while this is doing, led it fall off by the (baking of the other. When you perceive, by the noife of the bees in the upper hive, that they are got into this lad, carry it to a cloth fpread for this purpofe before the colony, with one end fadened to the landing-place, and knock them out upon it : they will foon crawl up the cloth, and join their fellows, who will gladly receive them. Mr Thorley next gives an account of his narcotic, and of the manner of ufing it. The method which he has purfued with great fuc¬ cefs for many years, and which he recommends to the public as the mod effeftual for preferving bees in com¬ mon hives, is incorporation, or uniting two docks into one, By the help of a peculiar fume or opiate, which will put them entirely in your power for a time to di¬ vide and difpofe of at pleafure. But as that dominion over them will be of (hort duration, you mud be expe¬ ditious in this bufinefs. The queen is immediately to be fearched for, and killed. Hives which have fwarmed twice, and are con- fequently reduced in their numbers, are the fitted to be joined together, as this will greatly drengthen and improve them. If a hive which you would take is both BEE [ 529 ] BEE both rich in honey and full of bees, it is but dividing the bees into two parts, and putting them into two boxes inftead of one. Examine whether the flock to which you intend to join the bees of another have ho¬ ney enough in it to maintain the bees of both : it ihould weigh full 20 pounds. The narcotic, or flupifying fume, is made with the fungus tnaximus or pulverulent us, the large mufliroom, commonly known by the name of bunt, puchfijl, or frogcheefe. It is as big as a man’s head, or bigger ; when ripe, it is of a brown colour, turns to powder, and is exceeding light. Put one of thefe pucks into a large paper, prefs it therein to two-thirds or near half the bulk of its former fize, and tie it up very clofe; then put it into an oven fome time after the houfehold bread has been drawn, and let it remain there all night $ when it is dry enough to hold fire it is fit for ufe. The man¬ ner of ufing it is thus : Cut off a piece of the puck, as large as a hen’s egg, and fix it in the end of a fmall flick flit fcr that pur- pofe, and (harpened at the other end ; which place fo that the puck may hang near the middle of an empty hive. This hive muft be fet with the mouth upward, in a pail or bucket which ftiould hold it fieady, near the flock you intend to take. This done, fet fire to the puck, and immediately place the flock of bees over it, tying a cloth round the hives, that no fmoke may come forth; In a minute’s time, or little more, you will hear the bees fall like drops of hail into the empty hive. You may then beat the top of the full hive gently with your hand, to get out as many of them as you can : after this, loofing the cloth, lift the hive off to a table, knock it feveral times againft the table, feveral more bees will tumble out, and perhaps the queen among them. She often is one of the laft that falls. If flie is not there, fearch for her among the main body in the empty hive, fpreading them for this purpofe on a table. You muft proceed in the fame manner with the other hive, with the bees of which thefe are to be united. One of the queens being fecured, you muft put the bee's of both hives together, mingle them thoroughly, and drop them among the combs of the hive which they are intended to inhabit. When they are all in, cover it with a packing or other coarfe cloth which will admit air, and let them remain (hut up all that night and the next day. You will foon be fenfible that they are awaked from this fleep. The fecond night after their union, in the dufk of the evening, gently remove the cloth from off the mouth of the hive (taking care of yourfelf), and the bees will immediately fally forth with a great noife ; but being too late, they will foon return : then inferting two pieces of tobacco-pipes to let in air, keep them confined for three or four days, after which the door may be left open. The beft time for uniting bees is, after their young brood are all out, and before they begin to lodge in the empty cells. As to the hour of the day, he ad- vifes young pradlitioners to do it early in the afternoon, in order that having the longer light they may the more eafily find out the queen. He never knew fuch combined flocks conquered by robbers. They will ei¬ ther fwarm in the next fummer, or yield a hive full of honey. Vol. III. Part II. Mr N. Thornley fon of the above-mentioned clergy- Bee. man, has added to the edition which he has given of his -xr—' father’s book, a poftfcript, purporting, that Perf°ns Glaf^ives< who ehoofe to keep bees in glafs-hives may, after un¬ covering the hole at the top of a flat-topped ftraw-hive, or box, place the glafs over it fo clofe that no bee can go in or out but at the bottom of the hive or box. The glafs-hive muft be covered with an empty hive or with a cloth, that too much light may not prevent the bees from working. As foon as they have filled the ftraw-hive or box, they will begin to work up into the glafs-hive. He tells us, that he himfelf has had one of thefe glafs-hives filled by the bees in 30 days in a fine feafon ; and that it contained 38 pounds of fine honey. When the glafs is completely filled, Aide a tin-plate between it and the hive or box, fo as to cover the paf- fage, and in half an hour the glafs may be taken off with fafety. What few bees remain in it, will readily go to their companions. He has added a glafs win¬ dow to his ftraw-hives, in order to fee what progrefs bees make j which is of fome importance, efpecially if one hive is to be taken away whilft the feafon ftill con¬ tinues favourable for their colledling honey j for when the combs are filled with honey, the cells are fealed up, and the bees forfake them, and refide moftly in the hive in which their woiks are chiefly carried on. Ob- ferving alfo that the bees were apt to extend their combs through the paffage of communication in the upper hive, whether glafs or other, which rendered it neceffary to divide the comb when the upper hive was taken away, he now puts in that paffage a wire fcreen or netting, the meflies of which are large enough for a loaded bee to go eafily through them. This prevents the joining of the combs from one box to the other, and confequently ob¬ viates the neceflity of cutting them, and of fpilling fome of the honey, which running down among a crowd of bees, ufed before to incommode them much, it being difficult for them to clear their wings of it. Fig. 2. is Plate XC. a drawing of one of his colonies. ^ 2. The reverend Mr White informs us, that his of bees in fondnefs for thefe little animals foon put him upon en-boxes, and deavouring if poflible to fave them from fire and brim- m^hod °f. fione; that he thought he had reafon to be content {hare their labours for the prefent, and great reafon to wax/ rejoice if he could at any time preferve their lives, to work for him another year; and that the .main drift of bis obfervations and experiments has therefore been, to difcover an eafy and cheap method, fuited to the abili¬ ties of the common people, of taking away fo much honey as can be fpared, without deftroying or ftarving the bees j and by the fame means to encourage feafon- able fwarms. In his dire&ions how to make the bee-boxes of his inventing, he tells us, fpeaking of the manner of con- ftru&ing a Angle one, that it may be made of deal or any other well-feafoned boards which are not apt to warp or fplit. The boards fhould be near an inch thick 5 the figure of the box fquare, and its height and breadth nine inches and five-eighths, every _ way, meafuring within. With thefe dimenfions it will contain near a peck and a half. The front part muft have a door cut in the middle of the bottom edge, three inches wide, and near half an inch in height, which will give free liberty to the bees to pafs through, yet not be large enough for their enemv the moufe to enter. In the ' 3 X back BEE [ 53° 1 BEE back part you muft cut a hole with a rabbet in it, in which you are to fix a pane of the cleareft and belt crown-glafs, about five inches in length and three in breadth, and fallen it with putty •, let the top of the glafs be placed as high as the roof, withinfide, that you may fee the upper part of the combs, where the bees with their riches are moltly placed. You will by this means be better able to judge of their Hate and llrength, than if your glafs was fixed in the middle. The glafs muft be covered with a thin piece of board, by way of Ihutter, which may be made to hang by a firing, or turn upon a nail, or Hide fidewife between two mouldings. Such as are defirous of feeing more of the bees works, may make the glafs as large as the box will admit without weakening it too much ; or they may add a pane of glafs on the top, which muft like wife be cover¬ ed with a Ihutter, fattened down with pegs, to prevent accidents. The fide of the box which is to be joined to another box of the fame form and dimenfions, as it will not be expofed to the internal air, may be made of a piece of flit deal not half an inch thick. This he calls the fide of communication, becaufe it is not to be wholly enclo- fed : a fpace is to be left at the bottom the whole breadth of the box, and a little more than an inch in height ; and a hole or paffage is to be made at top, three inches long, and more than half an inch wide. Through thefe the bees are to have a communication from one box to the other. The lower communication being on the floor, our labourers, with their burdens, may readily and eafily afcend into either of the boxes. The upper communication is only intended as a paflage between the boxes, refembling the little holes or nar¬ row paffes, which may be obferved in the combs form¬ ed by our fagacious architedls, to fave time and fhorten the way when they have occafion to pafs from one comb to another $ juft as in populous cities, there are narrow lanes and alleys pafling tranfverfely from one large ftreet to another. In the next place you are to provide a loofe board, half an inch thick, and large enough to cover the fide where you have made the communications. You are likewife to have in readinefs feveral little iron ftaples, an inch and half long, with the two points or end bended down more than half an inch. The ufe of thefe will be feen prefently. You have now only to fix two flicks crofling the box from fide to fide, and crofting each other, to be a ftay to the combs 5 one about three inches fix m the bot¬ tom, the other the fame diftance from the top ; and when you have painted the whole, to make it more du¬ rable, your box is finifhed. The judicious bee mafter will here obferve, that the form of the box now defcribed is as plain as poflible for it to be. It is little more than five fquare pieces of board nailed together •, fo that a poor cottager who has but ingenuity enough to faw a board into the given dimenfions, and to drive a nail, may make his own boxes well enough, without the help or expence of a carpenter. No directions are neceffary for making the other box, which muft be of the fame form and dimenfions. The two boxes differ from each other only in this, that the fide of communication of the one muft be on your right hand j of the other on your left. Fig. 3. repre- 4 fents two of thefe boxes, with their openings of commu- Bee, nication, ready to join to eac h other. ——y- Mr White’s manner of hiving a fwarm into one or both of thefe boxes is thus : You are to take the loofe board, and fatten it to one of the boxes, fo as to flop the communications. This may be done by three of the ftaples before mentioned ; one on the top of the box near the front; the two others on the back, near the top and near the bottom. Let one end of the ftaple be thruft into a gimlet-hole made in the box, fo that the other end may go as tight as can be over the loofe board, to keep it from flipping when it is handled. The next morning after the bees have been hived in this box, the other box ftiould be added, and the loofe board thould be taken away. This will prevent a great deal of labour to the bees, and fome to the proprietor. Be careful to fatten the Ihutter fo clofe to the glafs that no light may enter through it j for the bees feem to look upon fuch a light as a hole or breach in their houfe, and on that account may not fo well like their new habitation. But the principal thing to be obfer¬ ved at this time is, to cover the box as foon as the bees are hived with a linen cloth thrown clofely over it, or with green boughs to proteft it from the piercing heat of the fun. Boxes will admit the heat much fooner than ftraw-hivesj and if the bees find their houfe too hot for them, they will be wife enough to leave it. If the fwarm be larger than ufual, inftead of fattening the loofe board to one box, you may join two boxes toge¬ ther with three ftaples, leaving the communication open from one to the other, and then hive your bees into both. In all other refpefts, they are to be hived in boxes after the fame manner as in common hives. The door of the fecond box fhould be carefully flop¬ ped up, and be kept conftantly clofed, in order that the bees may not have an entrance but through the firft box. When the boxes are fet in the places where they are to remain, they muft be fcreened from the fummer’s fun, becaufe the wood will otherwife be heated to a greater degree than either the bees or their works can bear-, and they Ihould likewife be fcreened from the winter’s fun, becaufe the warmth of this will draw the bees from that lethargic ftate which is natural to them, as well as many other infedts, in the winter feafon. For this purpofe, and alfo to fhelter the boxes from rain, our ingenious clergyman has contrived the following frame. Fig. 4. reprefents the front of a frame for twelve co¬ lonies : a, a, are two cells of oak lying flat on the ground more than four feet long. In thefe cells are fixed four oaken pofts, about the thicknefs of fuch as are ufed for drying linen. The two pofts b, b, in the front, are about fix feet two inches above the cells: the other two, ftanding backward, five feet eight inches. You are next to nail fome boards of flit deal horizontally from one of the fore-pofts to the other, to fcreen the bees from the fun. Let thefe boards be feven feet feven inches in length, and nailed to the infide of the pofts ’r and be well feafoned that they may not fhrink or gape in the joints, c, c, Are two fplints of deal, to keep the boards even, and (Lengthen them. Fig. 5. reprefents the back of the frame, d, d, d, dy Are four ftrong boards of the fame length with the frame on which you are to place the boxes. Let the upper BEE [ 53i ] BEE Upper fide of them be very fmooth and even, that the boxes may ftand true upon them : or it may be ftill more advifable, to place under every pair of boxes a fmooth thin board, as long as the boxes, and about a quarter of an inch wider. The bees will foon fallen the boxes to this board in fuch a manner that you may move or weigh the boxes and board together, without break¬ ing the wax or refin, which for many reafons ought to be avoided. Thefe floors mull be fupported by pieces of wood or bearers, which are nailed from poll to poll at each end. They are likewife to be well nailed to the frame, to keep them from finking with the w'eight of the boxes, Reprefents the roof, which projects back¬ ward about feven or eight inches beyond the boxes, to (belter them from rain. You have now only to cut niches or holes in the frame, over againfl: each mouth or entrance into the boxes, at in fig. 4. Let thefe niches be near four inches long ; and under each you mull nail a fmall piece of wood for the bees to alight upon. The morning or evening fun will (hine upon one or both ends of the frame, let its afpeft be what it will: but you may prevent its overheating the boxes, by a loofe board fet up between the pods, and kept in by two or three pegs. The fame gentleman, with great humanity, obferves, that no true lover of bees ever lighted the fatal match without much concern : and that it is evidently more to our advantage, to fpare the lives of our bees, and be content with part of their (lores, than to kill and take polfeffion of the whole. About the latter end of Auguft, fays he, by a little infpeflion through your glaffes, you may eafily difco- ver which of your colonies you may lay under contri¬ bution. Such as have filled a box and a half with their works, will pretty readily yield you the half box. But you are not to depend upon the quantity of combs, without examining how they are (lored with honey. The bees fliould, according to him, have eight or nine pounds left them, by way of wages for their fummer’s work. The mod proper time for this bufinefs is the middle of the day j and as you dand behind the frame, you will need no armour, except a pair of gloves. The operation itfelf is very Ample and eafily performed, thus : Open the mouth of the box you intend to take ; then with a thin knife cut through the refin with which the bees have joined the boxes to each other, till you find that you have feparated them ; and after this, thrud a (heet of tin gently in between the boxes. The communication being hereby dopped, the bees in the fulled box, where it is mod likely the queen is, will be a little didurbed at the operation j but thofe in the other box where we fuppofe the queen is not, will run to and fro in the utmod hurry and confufion, and fend forth a mournful cry, eafily didinguifhed from their other notes. They will ilfue out at the newly opened door } not in a body as when they fwarm, nor with fuch calm and cheerful aflivity as when they go forth to their labours j but by one or two at a time, with a wild flutter and vifible rage and diforder. This, however, is foon over: for as foon as they get abroad and fpy their fellows, they fly to them inflantly and join them at the mouth of the other box. By this means, in an hour or two, for they go out (lowly, you will have a box of pure honey, without leaving a bee in it to moled you } and likewife without dead bees, Bee. which, when you burn them, are often mixed with your y——I honey, and both wade and damage it. Mr White acknowledges, that he has fometimes found this method fail, when the mouth of the box to be taken away has not been condantly and carefully clofed : the bees will in this cafe get acquainted with it as an entrance ; and when you open the mouth in order to their leaving this box, many of them will be apt to return, and the communication being dopped, will in a fliort time carry away all the honey from this to the other box j fo much do they abhor a feparation. When this happens, he has recourfe to the following expedient, which he thinks infallible. He takes a piece of deal, a little larger than Avill cover the mouth of the box, and cuts in it a fquare niche fomewhat more than half an inch wide. In this niche he hangs a little trap¬ door, made of a thin piece of tin, turning upon a pin, with another pin eroding the niche a little lower, (o as to prevent the hanging door from opening both ways. This being placed dole to the mouth, the bees which want to get out will eafily thrud open the door out- wards, but cannot open it the other way to get in again; fo mud, and will readily, make to the other box, leav¬ ing this in about the fpace of two hours, with all its dore, judly due to the tender-hearted bee-mader as a ranfom for their lives. What led Mr White to prefer collateral boxes to thofe before in ufe, was, to ufe his own words, his “ compaflion for the poor bees, who, after traverfing the fields, return home weary and heavy laden, and mud perhaps depofit their burden up two pair of dairs, or in the garret. The lower room, it is likely, is not yet furnidied with dairs : for, as is well known, our little archite£ls lay the foundation of their druflures at the top and build downward. In this cafe, the weary little labourer is to drag her load up the fides of the walls : and when (lie has done this, (he will tra¬ vel many times backward and forward, as I have fre¬ quently feen, along the roof, before (he finds the door or paflage into the fecond dory j and here again (lie is perplexed with a like puzzling labyrinth, before (lie gets into the third. What a wade is here of that pre¬ cious time which our bees value fo much, and which they employ fo well ! and what an expence of drength and fpirits, on which their fupport and fuflenance de¬ pend ! In the collateral boxes, the rooms are all on the ground floor ; and becaufe I know my bees are wife enough to value convenience more than date, I have made them of fuch a moderate, though decent, height, that the bees have much lefs way to climb to the top of them than they have to the crown of a com¬ mon hive.” _ 35 Mr Wildman’s hives have been already deferibed Of the ma- (N° 23, 24.). A good fvvarm will foon fill one of thefe hives, and therefore another hive may be put under it^,. wiM- the next morning. The larger fpace allowed the bees man’s hives, will excite their indudry in filling them with combs. The queen will lay fome eggs in the upper hive; but fo foon as the lower hive is filled with combs, (he will lay mod of them in it. In little more than three weeks, all the eggs laid in the upper hive will be turned into bees 5 and if the feafon is favourable, their cells Avill be foon filled with honey. As foon as they want room, a third hive (hould be 3X2 placed BEE placed under the two former ; and in a few days after the end of three weeks from the time the fwarm was put into the hive, the top hive may be taken away at noon of a fair day ; and if any bees remain in it, carry it to a little diftance from the ftand, and turning its bottom up, and ftriking it on the fides, the bees will be alarmed, take wing, and join their companions in the fecond and third hives. If it is found that the bees are very willing to quit it, it is probable that the queen remains among them. In this cafe, the bees muft be treated in the manner that {hall be direfted when we defcribe Mr Wildman’s method of taking the honey and the wax. The upper hive now taken away (hould be put in a cool place, in which no vermin, mice, &c. can come at the combs, or other damage can happen to them, and be thus preferved in referve. When the hives feem to be again crowded, and the upper hive is well ftored or filled with honey, a fourth hive (hould be placed under the third, and the upper hive be taken off the next fair day at noon, and treated as already directed. As the honey made during the fummer is the beft, and as it is needlefs to keep many full hives in {lore, the hojney may be taken out of the combs of this fecond hive for ufe. If the feafon is very favourable, the bees may ftillfill a third hive. In this cafe, a fifth hive muft be put un¬ der the fourth, and the third taken away as before. The bees will then fill the fourth for their winter ftore. As the honey of the firft hive is better than the ho¬ ney collefted fo late as that in the third, the honey may be taken out of the combs of the firft, and the third may be preferved with the fame care as directed for that. In the month of September, the top hive {hould be examined j if full, it will be a fufficient provifion for the winter j but if light, that is, not containing 20 pounds of honey, the more the better, then, in the month of O&ober, the fifth hive {hould be taken away, and the hive kept in referve fhould be put upon the re¬ maining one, to fupply the bees with abundant provi- fions for the winter. Nor need the owner grudge them this ample ftore j for they are faithful ftewards, and will be proportionally richer and more forward in the fpring and fummer, when he will reap an abundant profit. The fifth hive which was taken away {hould be careful¬ ly preferved during the winter, that it may be reftored to the fame ftock of bees, when an additional hive is wanted next fummer ; or the firft fwarm that comes off may be put into it. The combs in it, if kept free from filth and vermin, will fave much labour, and they will at once go to the collefting of honey. It is almoft needlefs to obferve, that when the hives are changed, a cover, as already dire&ed (fee N° 23.) {hould be put upon every upper hive ; and that when a lower hive becomes an upper hive, the door of it ftmuld be {hut up, that fo their only paffage out {hall be by the lower hive •, for otherwife the queen would be apt to lay eggs in both indifcriminately. The whole of the above detail of the management of one hive may be extended to any number ; it may be proper to keep a regifter to each fet •, becaufe, in reftoring hives to the bees, they may be better pleafed at receiving their own labours than that of other ftocks. If in the autumn the owner has fome -weak hives, ^vhich have neither provifion nor number fufficient for 3 BEE the winter, it is advifable to join the bees to richer Bee. hives : for the greater number of bees will be a mutual y—j advantage to one another during the winter, and ac¬ celerate their labours much in the fpring. For this pur- pofe, carry a poor and a richer hive into a room a little before night: then force the bees out of both hives into two feparate empty hives, in a manner that ftiall be hereafter direfted : {hake upon a cloth the bees out of the hive which contains the feweft ; fearch for the queen ; and as foon as you have fecured her with a fuf¬ ficient retinue, bring the other hive which contains the greater number, and place it on the cloth on which the other bees are, with a fupport under one fide, and with a fpoon {hovel the bees under it. They will foon afcend ; and, while under this impreffion of fear, will unite peaceably with the other bees ; whereas, had they been added to the bees of the richer hive, while in poffeffion of their caftle, many of the new-comers muft have paid with their lives for their intrufion. It appears from the account of the management of 'bees in Mr Wildman’s hives, that there is very little art wanting to caufe the bees to quit the hives which are taken away, unlefs a queen happens by chance to be among them. In that cafe, the fame means may be ufed as are neceffary when we would rob one of the common hives of part of their wealth. The method is as follows: _ 37 Remove the hive from which you would take the His method wax and honey into a room, into which admit but of taking little light, that it may at firft appear to the bees if it was late in the evening. Gently invert the hive, placing it between the frames of a chair or other fteady fupport, and cover it with an empty hive, keeping that fide of the empty hive raifed a little, which is next the window, to give the bees fufficient light to get up inr to it. While you hold the empty hive, fteadily fup- ported on the edge of the full hive, between your fide and your left arm, keep ftriking with the other hand all round the full hive from top to bottom, in the man¬ ner of beating a drum, fo that the bees may be fright¬ ened by the continued noife from all quarters^ and they will in confequence mount out of the full hive in¬ to the empty one. Repeat the ftrokes rather quick than ftrong round the hive, till all the bees are got out of it, which in general will be in about five minutes. It is to be obferved, that the fuller the hive is of bees, the fnoner they will have left it. As foon as a number of them have got into the empty hive, it {hould be raifed a little from the full one, that the bees may not conti¬ nue to run from the one to the other, but rather keep afcending upon one another. So foon as all the bees are out of the full hive, the hive in which the bees are muft be placed on the ftand from which the other hive was taken, in order to receive the. abfent bees as they return from the fields. If this is done early in the feafon, the operator {hould examine the royal cells, that any of them that have young in them may be faved, as well as the combs which have young bees in them, which {hould on no account be touched, though by fparing them a good deal of honey be left behind. Then take out the other combs with a long, broad, and pliable knife, fuch as the apothecaries make ufe of. 1 he combs {hould be cut from the fides and crown as clean as poffible, to fave the future labour of the bees, who muft lick up t 532 ] BEE. PLATE LXXX1X. fN MMl ,f, /It' M WM£0 •n • iH ® ^1 Hyp Sculp! BEE PLATE XC. • -> ' : * *’ / > •: ‘ •' BEE [ 533 ] BE E the honey fpilt, and remove every remain of wax, and then the fides of the hive fhould be fcraped with a oh. table fpoon to clear away what was left by the knife. During the whole of this operation, the hive (hould be placed inclined to the fide from which the combs are taken, that the honey which is fpilt may not daub the remaining combs. If fome combs were unavoidably taken away, in which there are young bees, the parts of the combs in which they are (hould be returned into the hive, and fecured by dicks in the bed manner pof- fible. Place the hive then for fome time upright, that any remaining honey may drain out. If the combs are built in a dire&ion oppofite to the entrance, or at right angles with it, the combs which are the farthed from the entrance are to be preferred 5 becaufe there they are bed dored with honey, and have the fewed young bees in them. Having thus finiihed taking the wax and honey, the next bufinefs is to return the bees to their old hive j and for this purpofe place a table covered with a clean cloth near the dand, and giving the hive in which the bees are a fudden (hake, at the fame time driking it pretty forcibly, the bees will be diaken on the cloth. Put their own hive over them immediately, raifed a little on one fide, that the bees may the more eafily en¬ ter ; and when all are entered, place it on the dand as before. If the hive in which the bees are be turned bottom uppermod, and their own hive^ be placed oyer it, the bees will immediately afcend into it, efpecial- ly if the lower hive is druck on the fides to alarm them. As the chief obje£I of the bees during the fpring and beginning of the dimmer is the propagation of their kind, honey during that time is not collected in fuch quantity as it is afterwards: and on this account it is fcarcely worth while to rob a hive before the latter end of June •, nor is it fafe to doit after the middle of July, led rainy weather may prevent their redoring the combs they have lod, and laying in a dock of honey (ufficient for the winter, unlefs there is a chance of carrying them to a rich padure. Bee is alfo ufed figuratively to denote fweetnefs, in- dudry, &c. Thus Xenophon is called the Attic Bcct on account of the great fweetnefs of his dyle. Antonius got the denomination Meliffa or Bee, on account of his collection of common places.—Leo Allatius gave the appellation opes urbunce to the illudrious men at Rome, from the year 1630 to the year 1632. BEE'/-Bread. See Bee, N° I 2. par. u/t. BEE-Eater. See Merges, Ornithology Index. BEE-F/ower. See Ophrys, Botany Index. BEE-G/ue, called by the ancients propolis, is a foft, un&uous, glutinous matter, employed by bees to ce¬ ment the combs to the hives, and to clofe up the cells. 'R-c'ir N° T 2 BEE-Hives. See Bee, N° 19, 34, 36. BEECH-tree. See Fagus, Botany Index. BEECH-MaJl, the fruit of the beech-tree, faid to be good for fattening hogs, deer, &c.—-It has fometimes, even to men, proved an ufeful fubditute for bread. Chios is faid to have endured a memorable fiege by means of it. r l a BEECH Oil, an oil drawn by exprenion from the mait of the beech-tree, after it has been (helled and pounded. This oil is very common in Picardy^ and ufed there and in other parts of France indead of butter j but mod Eeech-oil of thole who take a great deal of it complain of pains II and a heavinefs in the (tomach. Beer. ^ BEEF, the fle(h of black-cattle prepared for food. Y According to Dr Cullen*, beef, though of a more firm * Left, on texture and lefs foluble than mutton, is equally alka- Mat. Med, lefcent, perfpirable, and nutritious : and if in the fouth- ern countries it is not edeemed fo, it is on account of its imperfeCtion there. BEELE, a kind of pick-axe, ufed by the miners for feparating the ores from the rocks in which they lie ; this indrument is called a lubber by the miners of Cornwall. BEER, is a fpirituous liquor made from any fari¬ naceous grain, but generally from barley. It is, pro¬ perly fpeaking, the wine of barley. The meals of any of thefe grains being extracted by a fufficient quantity of water, and remaining at red in a degree of heat re- quifite for the fpirituous fermentation, naturally under¬ go this fermentation, and are changed into a vinous li¬ quor. But as all thefe matters render the water mu¬ cilaginous, fermentation proceeds flowly and imper- feCtly in fuch liquors. On the other fide, if the quan* , tity of farinaceous matter be fo diminitlied that its ex- trad or decoClion may have a convenient degree of fluidity, this liquor will be impregnated with fo fmall a quantity of fermentable matter, that the beer or wine of the grain will be too weak, and have too little tafle. Thefe inconveniences are remedied by preliminary operations which the grain is made to undergo.—Thefe preparations confid in deeping it in cold water, that it may foak and fwell to a certain degree ; and in laying it in a heap with a fuitable degree of heat, by means of which, and of the imbibed moidure, a germination begins, which is to be dopped by a quick drying, as foon as the bud (hows itfelf. To accelerate this drying, and render it more complete, the grain is (lightly road- ed, by making it pafs down an inclined canal fufficient- ly heated. This germination, and this flight roalling, changes confiderably the nature of the mucilaginous fermentable matter of the grain. The germination at¬ tenuates much, and in fome meafure totally deflroys, the vifcofity of the mucilage ; and it does this, when not carried too far, without depriving the grain of any of its difpofition to ferment. On the contrary, it changes the grain into a faccharine fubdance, as may be perceived by mafliing grains beginning to germi¬ nate. The flight roading contributes alfo to attenuate the mucilaginous fermentable matter of the grain. When the grain is thus prepared, it is fit to be ground, and to impregnate water with much of its fubdance without forming a glue or vifcous mafs. The grain thus pre¬ pared is called malt. This malt is then to be ground $ and all its fubdance, which is fermentable and foluble in water, is to be extricated by means of hot water. This extraft orinfufion is fuftrciently evaporated by boil¬ ing, in caldrons j and fome plant of an agreeable bitter- nefs, fuch as hops, is at that time added, to heighten the tafle of the beer, and to render it capable of being longer preferved. Ladly, this liquor is put into calks, and allowed to ferment ; nature performs the red of the work, and is only to be aflided by the other mod favourable circumdances for the fpirituous fermentation. See Fermentation. Foreigners Beer II Betort. B E F [ 534 ] Foreigners have framed divers conje&ures to account XIV. for the excellency of the Britilh beer, and its fuperio- J rity to that of other countries, even of Bremen, Mons, and Roftoch. It has been pretended our brewers throw dead dogs flayed into their wort, and boil them till the flelh is all confumed. Others, more equitable, at¬ tribute the excellency of our beer to the quality of our malt and water, and the {kill of our brewers in prepar¬ ing it. Sour beer may be reftored divers ways ; as by fait made of the allies of barley-ftraw, put into the veflel and ftirred ; or by three or four handfuls of beech- afhes thrown into the veflel, and ilirred ; or, where the liquor is not very four, by a little put in a bag, with¬ out ilirring 5 chalk calcined, oyfter-fhells, egg-fliells, burnt fea-lhells, crabs eyes, alkalized coral, &c. do the fame, as they imbibe the acidity, and unite with it into a fweetnefs,—Beer, it is faid, may be kept from turning four in fummer, by hanging in the veffel a bag containing a new-laid egg, pricked full of little pin¬ holes, fome laurel-berries, and a few barley-grains j or by a new-laid egg and walnut-tree leaves. Glauber commends his fal mirabile and fixed nitre, put in a linen bag, and hung on the top of the calk fo as to reach the liquor, not only for recovering four beer, but preferving and ftrengthening it. Laurel-berries, the {kin being peeled oiF, will keep •beer from deadnefs ; and beer already dead may be re- llored by impregnating it with fixed air. Beer tajling of the cafk may be freed from it by put¬ ting a handful of wheat in a bag, and hanging it in the Veffel. BEEROTH, a village of Judea, fituated at the foot of Mount Gabaon, feven miles from iElia or Jerufalem, on the road to Nicopolis (Jerome). BEERSHEBA (Mofes), a city to the fouth of the tribe of Judah, adjoining to Idumea (Jofephus). See Bersabe. BEESTINGS, or Breastings, a term ufed by country-people for the firft milk taken from a cow af¬ ter calving.—The beeftings are of a thick confiftence, -and yellow colour, feeming impregnated with fulphur. Dr Morgan imagines them peculiarly fitted and intend¬ ed by nature to cleanfe the young animal from the re¬ crements gathered in its ftomach and inteftines during its long habitation in utero. The like quality and virg tue he fuppofes in women’s firft milk after delivery ; and hence infers the neceflity of the mother’s fuckling her own child, rather than committing it to a nurfe whofe firft milk is gone. BEET. See Beta, Botany Index. BEETLE. See Scarabjeus, Entomology In¬ dex. Beetle alfo denotes a wooden inftrnmentfor driving piles, &c. It is likewife called a Jlamper^ and by pa- viors a rammer. BEEVES, a general name for oxen. See Bos, Mammalia Index. BEFORF, a fmall town of France in the depart¬ ment of Upper Rhine. It was ceded to France by the treaty of Weftphalia in 1648. There are not above 100 houfes in this town, but it is important on account of the great road by this place from Tranche Compte. The fortifications were greatly augmented by Louis BEG It is feated at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. Eefort 6. 2. N. Lat. 47. 38. |j BEG, or Bey, in the Turkifh affairs. See Bey. Beglerbeg. Beg is more particularly applied to the lord of a banner, called alio in the fame language fangiah-beg. A beg has the command of a certain number of the fpahis, or horfe, maintained by the province under the denomination of timariots. All the begs of a pro¬ vince obey one governor-general called begler-beg, or beyler-beg, q. d. lord of lords or of the beys of the pro¬ vince. Begs, or Beghs, of Egypt, denote twelve generals, who have the command of the militia or Handing forces of the kingdom j and are to fecure the country from the infults of Arabs, as well as to protect the pilgrims in their annual expeditions to Mecca. The begs, feveral of whom are defcended from the ancient race of the Mamelukes, are very rich and powerful, maintaining each 500 fighting men for their own guard, and the fervice of their court. On difcontents, they have fre¬ quently rifen in rebellion. They are often at variance with the bafliaw, whom they have, more than once, plundered and imprifoned. BEGA, Cornelius, painter of landfcape, cattle, and converfations, was born at Haerlem in 1620, and was the difeiple of Adrian Oftade. Falling into a dif- fipated way of life, he was difinherited by his father: for which reafon he caft off his father’s name, which was Begeyn, and affumed that of Bega : his early pic¬ tures being marked with the former, and his latter works with the other. He had a fine pencil, and a delicate manner of handling his colours, fo as to give them a look of neatnefs and tranfparence ; and his per¬ formances are fo much efteemed in the Low Countries, as to be placed among the works of the beft artifts. He caught the plague from a woman with whom he was deeply enamoured ; and he ihowed fo much fincerity of affection, that notwithftanding the expoftulations of all his friends and phyficians, he would attend her to the laft moments of her life, and died a few days after, aged 44. BEGHARDS. See Beguards. BEGLERBEG, a governor of one of the principal governments of the Turkifli empire, and next in dignity to the grand vizier. To every beglerbeg the grand fignior gives three enfigns or ftaves, trimmed with a horfetail j to diftinguifti them from the baftiaws, who have but two; and from Ample begs, or fangiac begs, who have but one. The province or government of beglerbeg is called bcglerbeghk, or beglierbeglih. There are two forts j the firft called bafilo beg/erbeglik, which have a certain rent afligned out of the cities, countries, and figniories allotted to the principality : the fecond called faliancc beglerbeglik, for maintenance of which is annexed a fa- lary or rent, colle&ed by the grand fignior’s officers with the treafure of the empire. The beglerbegs of the firft fort are in number 22, viz. thofe of Anatolia, Caramania, Diarbekir, Damafcus, Aleppo, Tripoli, Trebizond, Buda, Timifwar, &c. The beglerbegs of the fecond fort are in number fix, viz. thofe of Cairo, Babylon, &c. Five of the beglerbegs have the title of vixiers, viz. thofe of Anatolia, Babylon, Cairo, Ro¬ mania, and Buda. The BEG [ S35 ] B E H Beglerbeg The heglerbegs appear with great ftate, and a large }| retinue, efpecially in the camp, being obliged to bring Beguines. a f0ldier for «veiy 5000 afpers of rent which they en- L ' joy. Thofe of Romania brought 10,000 effedive men into the field. The beglerbegs are become almoft independent, and have under their jurifdidion feveral fangiacs or particu¬ lar governments, and begs, agas, and other officers who obey them. BEGUARDS, or Beghards, religious of the third order of St Francis in Flanders. They were eftabliffi- ed at Antwerp in the year 1228, and took St Begghe for their patronefs, whence they had their name. From their firft inftitution they employed themfelves in mak¬ ing linen cloth, each fupporting himfelf by his own la¬ bour, and united only by the bonds of charity, with¬ out having any particular rule. But, when Pope Ni¬ cholas IV. had confirmed that of the third order of St Francis in 1289, they embraced it the year following. They were greatly favoured by the dukes of Brabant, particularly John II. and John III. who exempted them from all contributions and taxes. In the year 1425, they began to live in common, and made folemn vows in 1467, after having taken the habit of the Ter- ciaries (or religious of the third order of St Francis) of Liege. At laft, in 1472, they became fubjeft to the general of the congregation of Zepperen in the diocefe of Liege, to which they were united by Pope Sixtus IV. As the convent of Antwerp is fince be¬ come very confiderable, the name of Beguards has been given to all the other religious of the fame congrega¬ tion. But, in 1650, Pope Innocent X. having fup- preffed the general of the congregation of Zt pperen, all the convents of the third order of St Francis, in the diocefes of Liege, Malines, and Antwerp, wrere fubmitted to the vifitation, jurifdidion, and correftion, of the general of Italy, and erefted into a province, under the title of the province of Flanders. This pro¬ vince has at prefent 10 or 12 convents, the principal of which are thofe of Antwerp, BrulTels, Maeftricht, and Louvain. BEGUINES, a congregation of religious or nuns founded either by St Begghe, founder likewife of the Beguards, or by Lambert le Begue ; of whom the former died about the end of the feventh century, the latter about the end of the 12th. They were eftabliffi- ed firft at Liege, and afterwards at Neville, in 1207 ; and from this laft fettlement fprang the great number of Beguinages, which are fpread over all Flanders, and which have pafled from Flanders into Germany. In the latter country, fome of thefe religious fell into ex¬ travagant errors, perfuading themfelves that it was pof- fible, in the prefent life, to arrive at the higheft per- fe&ion, even to impeccability, and a clear view of God \ in ftiort, to fo eminent a degree of contemplation, that there was no neceffity, after this, either to obferve the falls of the church, or fubmit to the direction and laws of mortal men. The council of Vienna con¬ demned thefe errors, and aboliftied the order of Be¬ guines •, permitting, neverthelefs, thofe among them, who continued in the true faith, to live in chaftity and penitence, either with or without vow's. It is by favour of this latter claufe, that there ftill fubfifts fo many communities of Beguines in Flanders ; who, fince the council of Vienna, have conduced themfelves with fo much wifdom and piety, that Pope, John XXII. by his Beguines decretal, which explains that ot his pieaecelfor made H in the council of Vienna, took them under his protec- Behn. tion j and Boniface VIII. in another, exempted them v"'“" from the fecuiar tribunal, and put them under the ju- rifdidtion of the biftiops. There is fcarcely a town in the Low Countries, in which there is not a fociety of Beguines j and, not- withftanding the change of religion at Amfterdam, there is a very flouriffiing one in that city. Thefe fo- cieties confift of feveral houfes placed together in one inclofure, with one or more churches, according to the number of Beguines. There is in every houfe a priorefs, or miftrefs, without whofe leave they dare not ftir out. They make a fort of vow, which is con¬ ceived in the following terms : “IN. promife to be obedient and chafte as long as I continue in this Begui- nage.” They obferve a three years noviciate before they take the habit. The reftor of the pariffi is fupe- rior of the Beguinage ; and he does nothing without the advice of eight Beguines. They were formerly habited in different manners j fome in gray, others in blue; but at prefent they all wear black. When they go abroad, in Amfterdam, they put on a black veil. Formerly they had as many different ftatutes as there were focie- ties. In the vifitations of the year 1600 and 1601, by the archbiffiop Matthias Hovius, they were forbidden, under the penalty of a fine, to have lapdogs. The fineft Beguinage in Flanders is that of Malines. That of Antwerp likewife is very fpacious, and has two fe- parate churches. BEHEADING, a capital punifhment, wherein the head is fevered from the body by the ftroke of an axe, fword, or other cutting inftrument. Beheading was a military punifhment among the Ro^ mans, known by the name of decollatio. Among them the head was laid on a cippus or block, placed in a pit dug for the purpofe; in the army, without the vallum; in the city, without the walls, at a place near the porta decutnana. Preparatory to the ftroke, the^ criminal was tied to a flake, and whipped with cords. In the early ages the blow was given with an axe ; but in afters times with a fword, which was thought the more repu¬ table manner of dying. The execution was but clum- fily performed in the firft times; but afterwards they grew more expert, and took the head off clean, with one circular ftroke. In England, beheading is the punifhment of nobles, as it was formerly in France j being reputed not to de¬ rogate from nobility, as hanging does. In Scotland they do not behead with an axe, as in; England ; nor with a fword, as in Holland ; but with an edged inftrument called the Maiden. With an in-' ftrument fimilar to this, were the bloody executions perpetrated in France during the late revolution. It was called guillotine, from the name of the fuppofed in¬ ventor, who was a phyfician. BEHEMOTH, the hippopotamus or river-horfe.■ See Hippopotamus, Mammalia Index. BEHEN, in Botamj. See Cucubalus, Botany Index. BEHMEN. See Boehmen. BEHN, Aphara, a celebrated authorefs, defend¬ ed from a good family in the city of Canterbury, was born fome time in Charles I.’s reign, but in what year Behri. B E H [ 536 ] B E I year is uncertain. Her father’s name was Johnfon, who through the intereft of Lord Willoughby, to whom he was related, being appointed lieutenant-ge¬ neral of Surinam and 56 iflands, undertook a journey to the Weft Indies, taking with him his whole family, among whom was our poetefs, at that time very young. Mr Johnfon died on the voyage *, but his family reach¬ ing Surinam, fettled there for fome years. Here it was that fhe learned the hiftory of, and acquired a per- fonal intimacy with, the American prince Oroonoko, and his beloved Imoinda, whofe adventures {he hath fo pathetically related in her celebrated novel of that name, and which Mr Southerne afterwards made fuch an admirable ufe of it in adopting it as the ground- work of one of the bed tragedies in the Englilh lan¬ guage. On her return to London, fhe became the wife of one Mr Behn, a merchant, refiding in that city, but of Dutch extraftion. How long he lived after their marriage is not very apparent, probably not very long ; for her wit and abilities having brought her into high eftimation at court, King Charles II. fixed on her as a proper perfon to tranfaift fome affairs of importance a- broad during the courfe of the Dutch war. lo this purpofe (he went over to Antwerp, where, by her in¬ trigues and gallantries, {he fo far crept into the fecrets of ftate, as to anfwer the ends propofed by fending her over. Nay, in the latter end of 1666, by means of the influence {he had over one Vander Albert, a Dutchman of eminence, whofe heart was warmly at¬ tached to her, {he wormed out of him the defign form¬ ed by De Ruyter, in conjunction with the family of the De Wits, of failing up the Thames and burning the Englilh {hips in their harbours, which they after¬ wards put in execution at Rochefter. This fhe imme¬ diately communicated to the Englifh court: but though the event proved her intelligence to be well grounded, yet it was at that time only laughed at •, which, toge¬ ther probably with no great inclination {hown to re¬ ward her for the pains {he had been at, determined her to drop all further thoughts of political affairs, and du¬ ring the remainder of her ftay at Antwerp to give her- felf up entirely to the gaiety and gallantries of the place. Vander Albert continued his addreffes, and after having made fome unfuccefsful attempts to obtain the poffeflion of her perfon on eafier terms than matrimony, at length confented to make her his wife ; but while he was pre¬ paring at Amfterdam for a journey to England with that intent, a fever carried him off, and left her free from any amorous engagements. In her voyage back to England, fhe was very near being loft, the veffel {he was in being driven on the coaft by a ftorm *, but hap¬ pening to founder within fight of land, the paffengers were, by the timely affiftance of boats from the fliore, all fortunately preferved. From this period {he devoted her life entirely toplea- fure and the mufes. Her works are extremely nume¬ rous, and all of them have a lively and amorous turn. It is no wonder then that her wit {hould have gained her the efteem of Mr Dryden, Southerne, and other men of genius, as her beauty, of which in her younger part of life ftve poffeffed a great {hare, did the love of thofe of gallantry. Nor does ftie appear to have been any ftranger to the delicate fenfations of that paf- fion, as appears from fome of her letters to a gentle¬ man, with whom ftie correfponded under the hatne of Beha Lycida, and who feems not to have returned her (1 flame with equal ardour, or received it with that rap- Eeinato ture her charms might well have been expeCled to com¬ mand. She publiftied three volumes of Mifcellany Poems j two volumes of Hiftories and Novels 5 tranflated Fon- tenelle’s Plurality of Worlds, and annexed a Criticifm on it *, and her plays make four volumes. In the dra¬ matic line, the turn of her genius was chiefly to co¬ medy. As to the charader her plays {hould maintain in the records, of dramatic hiftory, it will be difficult' to determine, fince their faults and perfections ftand in ftrong oppofition to each other. In all, even the moft indifferent of her pieces, there are ftrong marks of ge¬ nius and underftanding. Her plots are full of bufinefs and ingenuity, and her dialogue fparkles with the daz¬ zling luftre of genuine wit, which everywhere glitters among it. But then the has been accufed, and that not without great juftice, of interlarding her comedies with the moft indecent fcenes, and giving an indul¬ gence to her wit in the moft indelicate expreflions. Fo this accufation Ihe has herfelf made fome reply in the Preface to the Lucky Chance 5 but the retorting the charge of prudery and precifenefs on her accufers, is far from being a fufficient exculpation of herfelf. 1 he beft and perhaps the only true excufe that can be made for it is, that, as {he wrote for a livelihood, {he was obliged to comply with the corrupt tafte of tho times. After a life intermingled with numerous difappoint- ments, {lie departed from this world on the 16th of April 1689, and lies interred in the cloifters of Weft- minfter Abbey. BEJA, an ancient town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo. It is feated in a very agreeable and fruit¬ ful plain, remarkable for excellent wine. There are three gates remaining, which are of Roman architecture, and a great many Roman antiquities are^ dug out of the earth. The town has a ftrong caftle tor its defence, and is fituated in W. Long. 7. 20. N. Lat. 37* 5^’ was taken from the Moors in 1162. BEJAR, a town of Eftremadura in Spain, famous for its baths. It is feated in a very agreeable valley fur- rounded with high mountains whofe tops are always co¬ vered with fnow. Here the dukes of Bejar have a handfome palace. Tn this neighbourhood are forefts filled with game, and watered by fine fprings ; alfo a lake abounding with excellent fifh, particularly trouts. They pretend that this lake makes fuch a noife before a ftorm, that it may be heard 15 miles off. BEICHLINGEN, a town of Thuringia in Upper Saxony, in E. Long. II. 50, N* Lat, 51. 20. BEILA, a town of Italy, in Piedmont. E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 45. 2. . BEILSTEIN, a town of the landgravate of Heffe in Germany, in E. Long. 8. o. N. Lat. 50. 30. BEINASCHI, Giovanni Battista, called Ca¬ valier Beinafchi, hiftory painter, was a Piedmontefe, and born in 1634. He ftudied in Rome, under the direClion of Pietro del Po j and fome authors affirm, that he was afterwards the difciple of Lanfranc. It was certain that he was peculiarly fond of the works of Lanfranc, and at laft became fo thoroughly ac¬ quainted with the ftyle, manner, and touch, of that 1 .excellent Beiimfcin BEL f S- excellent mafler, that many of the pi&ures of Beinaf- chi are at this day accounted the work of Lanfranc’s own hand. He was an admirable defigner ; his lively invention furnilhed him with a furprifing variety : his thought was noble ; he Avas not only expeditious but correft *, and as a public acknowledgement of his me¬ rit, the honour of knighthood was conferred upon him. BEINHEIM, a fort of Alface in France, feated on the river Sur, near its confluence with the Rhine, in E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 45. 2. BEIRA, a province of Portugal, bounded on the welt by the ocean, on the fouth by the Portuguefe Ettremadura, on the fouth-eaft by the Spanifh province of the fame name, on the eaft by the province of Tra lo? Montos, and on the north by the river Douro. It extends in length about 34 leagues, and in breadth about 30 leagues, and is divided into fix commarcas. Within this province lies Lamego, where the firft af- lembly of the Rates was held ; the chief epifcopal city of Conimbra, or Coimbra, which is likewife an uni- verfity •, and Vifeo, alfo a bifhopric, and formerly the capital of a dukedom. The country is equally agrees able and fruitful, producing corn, wines, &c. in abun¬ dance^ and the hills affording excellent paflure to cattle and Iheep. The fettled militia confifts of about 10,000 men. BEIRAM, or Bairam. See Batram. BEIR ALSTON, a town in Devonfhire, which fends two members to parliament. BEIZA, or Beizath, in Hebrew antiquity, a word fignifying an egg; as alfo a certain meafure in ufe among the Jews. The beiza was likewife a gold coin, weigh¬ ing 40 drachms, among the Perfiansj who gave out that Philip of Macedon owed their king Darius loco beizaths or golden eggs, for tribute-money ; and that Alexander the Great refufed to pay them, faying, that the bird which laid thefe eggs was flown into the other World. BEKKER, Balthasar, one of the moft famous Dutch divines, and author of the celebrated book, 1 he World Bewitched, an ingenious piece againft the vul¬ gar notion of fpirits. Ihis raifed a terrible clamour againft him. He was depofed from the office of mini- fter j but the magiftrates of Amfterdam continued him his penfton. He died in 1698. BEL, Matthias, was born in Hungary, and be¬ came a Lutheran minifter at Prefburg, and hiftoriogra- pher to the emperor Charles VI. He rvrote, among other Avorks, a Hiftory of Hungary, which Avas fo snuch admired, that the emperor fent him letters of nobility ; and notwithftanding his being a Lutheran, the Pope, in 1736, fent him his pifture, and many large gold medals. He was a member of the Royal Society of London, and of the academies of Berlin ahd Peterfburg j and died in 1749> ^ years of age. Bel, or Be/us, the fupreme god of the ancient Chaldeans or Babylonians. He Avas the founder^ of the Babylonian empire ; and is fuppofed to be the Nim- , rod of Scripture, and the fame as the Phoenician^Baal. This god had a temple erefted to him in the city of Babylon, on the very uppermoft range of the famous tower of Babel, or Babylon, wherein Avere many fta- tues of this deity; and one, among the reft, of tnafly' Vol. III. Part TL i7 ] BE L gold, 40 feet high. The whole furniture of this mag- Bel nificent temple was of the fame metal and valued at I! 8oo talents of gold.-^This temple, with its riches, was Beletmm, in being till the time of Xerxes, who, returning from v his unfortunate expedition into Greece, demolithed it, and carried off the immenfe Avealth which it contained. It Avas the ftatue of this god which Nebuchadnezzar, being returned to Babylon, after the end of the JeAvith Avar, fet up and dedicated in the plain of Dura *, the ftory of which is related at large in the third chapter of Daniel. Bel cind the Dragon, the hiftory of; an apocryphal and uncanonical book of Scripture. It Avas always re¬ jected by the Jewiffi church, and is extant neither in the Hebrew nor the Chaldee language, nor is there any proof that it ev'er Avas fo. St Jerome gives it no better title than the Fable of Bel and the Dragon. It is hoAvever permitted to be read, as AVell as the other apocryphal Avritings, for inftru&ion and the improve¬ ment of manners. BEL AC, a fmall town of France, in the province of the Lyonnois, now the department of Upper Vienne, and diftrift of La Marche. It contains about 3000" inhabitants. E. Long. I. ij- N. Lat. 46. 15. BELAY, on board a Ihip, fignifies the fame as fa-' ften.—-Thus they fay, belay the Iheet, or tack, that i's, faften it to the kevel, by winding it feveral times round a laft, &c. BELC ASTRO, an epifcopal city of Italy in the far¬ ther Calabria, and kingdom of Naples. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 17* 15- N. Lat. 39. 6. BELCHITE, a toAvn of Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon, feated on the river Almonazir, in W. Long, o. 30. N. Lat. 41. 19. BELCHOE, a town of Ireland, in the province of Ulfter, and county of Fermanagh, feated on Lough Nilly, in W. Long. 6. 6. N. Lat. 54. 2. BELEM, a toAvn of Eftremadura in Portugal, about a mile from Liffion. It is feated on the north fide of the river Tajo, and is defigned to defend the entrance to Lift»on; and here all the ffiips that fail up the river muft bring to. In this place they inter the kings and queens of Portugal. BELEMNITES, vulgarly called thunder-bolts or thunder Jlones, are compofed of feveral crufts of ft one , encircling each other, of a conical form, and various fizes ; ufually a little hollow, and fomewhat tranf. parent, formed of feveral ftrice radiating from the axis' to the furface of the ftone ; and Avhen burnt or rubbed againft one another, or fcraped with a knife, yield an odour like rafped horm Their fize is various, from d quarter of an inch to eight inches; and their colour and ftiape differ. They are fuppofed to be originally’ either a part of fome fea production ; or a ftone formed in the cavity of fome worm-ffiell, which being of a ten¬ der and brittle nature, has periffied, after giving its' form to the ftohe. They are very frequently found in many parts of England ; and the common people have a notion, that they are always to be met with after d’ ftorm. They are often enclofed in, or adhere to, other: ftones ; and are moft frequent amongft gravel, or in ’ clay ; they abound in Gloucefterffiire ; and are founji^ near Dedington in Oxfordfhire, Avhere they fometimes^ contain’the filver marcafite. ^ BELERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory ' “3 V ’ "f BEL [ 538 ] BEL Belerium, of the Dunmonii or Damnonii, the weftmoft Britons. Belefts. Now called the Land's End, in Cornwall. ' * ¥ BELESIS, or Nanybrus. is faid to have been the founder of the ancient Babylonilh empire, and in con- jundlion with Arbaces the Mede to have put an end to the kingdom of the Affyrians by the defeat and death of Sardanapalus. This firft prince is reprefented as a crafty and mean-fpirited knave ; and at the fame time, as nothing lefs than a hero. It is faid, he was bafe enough to circumvent Arbaces his colleague and friend in the moft Ihameful manner } by pretending a vow he had, in the midil: of the war, made to his god Belus, That if fuccefs was the event of it, and the pa¬ lace of Sardanapalus was confumed, as it was, he would be at the charge and trouble of removing the allies that were left to Babylon; where he would heap them up into a mount near the temple of his god ; there to Hand as a monument to all who Ihould navigate the Euphrates, of the fubverlion of the Aflyrian empire. He, it feems, had been privately informed, by an eu¬ nuch, of the immenfe treafure which had been con- fumed in the conflagration at Nineveh ; and knowing it to be a fecret to Arbaces, his avarice fuggefted to him this artifice. Arbaces not only granted him his re- queft $ but appointed him king of Babylon, with an exemption from all tribute. Belefis, by this artifice, carried a prodigious treafure with him to Babylon j but when the fecret was difcovered, he was called to an account for it, and tried by the other chiefs who had been afliftant in the war, and who, upon his con- feflion of the crime, condemned him to lofe his head. But Arbaces, a munificent and generous prince, free¬ ly forgave him, left him in pofieffion of the treafure, and alfo in the independent government of Babylon, laying, The good he had done ought to ferve as a veil to his crime 5 and thus he became at once a prince of great wealth and dominion. In procefs of time, and under the fucceffor of Ar¬ baces, he became a man of drefs, Ihew, and effeminacy, unworthy of the kingdom or province he held. Nany¬ brus, for fb we mull now call Belefis, underftanding a certain roburt Mede, called Parfondas, held him in the utmoft contempt, and had folicited the emperor of the Medes to diveft him of his dominions, and to confer them upon himfelf, offered a very great reward to the man who fhould take Parfondas and bring him to him. Parfondas hunting fomewhere near Babylon with the king of the Medes, and draggling from the company, happened to fall in with fome of the fervants of the Ba¬ bylonian Nanybrus, who had been tempted with the promifed reward. They were purveyors to the king j and Parfondas being very thirfty, alked them for a draught of wine j which they not only granted, but prevailed upon him to take a meal with them. As he drank freely, fufpefling no treachery, he was eafily perfuaded to pafs that night in company with fome beautiful women, brought on purpofe to detain him. But, while he was in a profound deep, the fervants of Nanybrus rulhing upon him, bound him, and car¬ ried him to their prince ; who bitterly reproached him for endeavouring to eftrange his mafter the king of the Medes from him, and by that means place him¬ felf in his room on the throne of Babylon. Parfon¬ das did not deny the charge ; but with great intrepi¬ dity owned, that he thought himfelf more worthy of a a. crown than fuch an indolent and effeminent prince as Bejeflv. 1 l he was. Nanybrus, highly provoked at the liberty he Eelefme. took, fwore by the gods Belus and Molis, or rather y— Mylitta, that Parfondas himfelf fhould in a fhort time become fo effeminate as to reproach none with effemi¬ nacy. Accordingly, he ordered the eunuch who had the charge of his mufic-women, to (have, paint, and drefs him after the manner of thofe women, to teach, him the art, and in fhort to transform him by all pof- fible means into a woman. His orders were obeyed j and the manly Parfondas foon excelled the faireft fe¬ male in finging, playing, and the other arts of allure¬ ment. In the mean time the king of the Medes, having in vain fought after his favourite fervant, and in vain of¬ fered great rewards to fuch as fhould give him any in¬ formation concerning him, concluded he had been de- ftroyed by fome wild beat! in the chafe. At length, after feven years, the Mede was informed of his ftate and condition by an eunuch, who, being cruelly fcour- ged by Nanybrus’s order, fled, at the inftigation of Parfondas into Media j and there difclofed the whole to the king, who immediately defpatched an officer to demand him. Nanybrus pretended to know nothing of any fuch perfon j upon which another officer was fent by the Mede, with a peremptory order to feize on Nanybrus if he perfifted in the denial, to bind him with his girdle, and lead him to immediate execution. This order had the defired effeft: the Babylonian owned what he had before denied $ promifing to comply, with¬ out further delay, with the king’s demand ; and in the mean time invited the officer to a banquet, at which 150 women, among whom was Parfondas, made their appearance, finging and playing upon various inftru- ments. But, of all, Parfondas appeared by far the moft charming; infomuch, that Nanybrus inquiring of the Mede which he liked beft, he immediately pointed at him. At this the Babylonian clapt his hands j and, falling into an immoderate fit of laughter, told him who the perfon was whom he thus preferred to all the reft j adding, that he could anfwer what he had done before the king of the Medes. The officer was no lefs^ furprifed at fuch an aftoniftiing change than his mafter was afterwards, when Parfondas appeared before him. The only favour Parfondas begged of the king, for all his paft fervices, was, that he would avenge on the Ba¬ bylonian the bafe and highly injurious treatment he had met with at his hands. The Mede marched accord¬ ingly at his inftigation to Babylon ; and, notwith- ftanding the remonftrances of Nanybrus, urging, that Parfondas had, without the leaft provocation, endea¬ voured to deprive him of both his life and kingdom,, declared that in ten days time he would pafs the fen- tence on him which he deferved, for prefuming to aft as judge in his own caufe, inftead of appealing to him. But Nanybrus having in the mean time gained with a large bribe Mitraphernes the Mede’s favourite eunuch,, the king was by him prevailed upon to fentence the Babylonian only to a fine $ which made Parfondas curfe the man who firft found out gold, for the fake of which he was to live the fport and derifion of an effeminate Ba¬ bylonian. BELESME, a town of Perche in France, in the department of Orne, in W.. Long. o. 16. N. Lat. 48. 23- BELEZERO* BEL [ 559 ] BEL Belczero BELEZERO, a town of Rufiia, and capital of a || province of the fame name. It is fituated on the fouth- Belgium eafi; fhore of the White fea, in E. Long. 36. 10. N. Lat. 61. 50. • ' BELFAST, a town of Ireland, in the county of Antrim. It is feated at the bottom of Carrickfergus bay, and is the chief town and port in this part of Ire¬ land, as well for beauty and the number of its inhabi¬ tants, as for its wealth, trade, and (hipping. It has a confiderable trade with different parts of the world, and the inhabitants are moftly Scots, and of the Prelbyterian teligion. W. Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 54. 38. BELFRY, Belfredus, is ufed by military writers of the middle age for a fort of tower eredled by befie- gers to overlook and command the place befieged. Belfry originally denoted a high tower, whereon fen- tinels were placed to watch the avenues of a place, and prevent furprife from parties of the enemies, or to give notice of fires by ringing a bell. In the cities of Flan¬ ders, where there is no belfry on purpofe, the tower of the chief church ferves the fame end. The word belfry is compounded of the Teutonic bell, and freid, peace,” becaufe the bells were hung for preferving the peace. Belfry is alfo ufed for that part of a fteeple where¬ in the bells are hung. This is fometimes called by the middle-age writers campanile,, clocaria, and trifle- gum. Belfry is more particularly ufed for the timber- work which fuftains the bells in a fteeple, or that wood¬ en ftru&ure to which the bells in church-fteeples are fattened. BELG7E, in Ancient Geography, a people of Bri¬ tain, to the weft : Now Hampfhire, Wiltftiire, and Somerfetftiire, (Camden). BELGICA, a town of the Ubii in Gallia Belgica, midway between the rivers Rhine and Roer : Now called Balchufen (Cluverius) } a citadel of Juliers (Bau- drand). Belgica Gallia, one of Caefar’s three divifions of Gaul, contained between the ocean to the north, the rivers Seine and Marne to the weft, the Rhine to the eaft, but on the fouth at different times within different limits. Auguftus, inftituting everywhere a new par¬ tition of provinces, added the Sequani and Helvetii, who till then made a part of Celtic Gaul, to the Bel- gic (Pliny, Ptolemy). The gentilitious name is Belga:, called by Csefar the braveft of the Gauls, becaufe un¬ tainted by the importation of luxuries. The epithet is Belgicus (Virgil). BELGARDEN, a town of Germany, in Eaft Po¬ merania, in the province of Caffubia, and fubjefl to Pruflia. E. Long. 16. 5. N. Lat. 54. 10. BELGINUM, a town of the Treviri, in Gallia Belgica: Now called Batdenau, in the ele&orate of Triers. BELGIUM, manifeftly diftinguifhed from Belgica, as a part from the whole (Csefar) \ who makes Belgium the country of the Bellovaci ; Hirtius adding the Atre- Lates. But as the Ambiani lay between the Bellovaci and Atrebates, we muft alfo add thefe : and thus Bel¬ gium reached to the fea, becaufe the Ambiani lay up¬ on it : and thefe three people conftituted the proper artd genuine Bfelgse (all the reft being adventitious, or foreigners) ; and thefe were the people of Beauvais, Belgium Amiens, and Artois. |j BELGOROD, a town of Ruflia, and capital of a Eelidor. province of the fame name. It is feated on the river " ■■ Donnets, in E. Long. 18. 5. N. Lat. 51. 20. Belgorod, aftrong town ofBelfarabia in European Turkey, ieated at the mouth of the river Niefter, on the Black fea, 80 miles fouth eaft of Bender. E. Long. 31. o. N. Lat. 46. 30. ' BELGRADE, a city of Turkey in Europe, and capital of Servia, feated at the eonttuence of the Save and the Danube, in E. Long. 21. 2. N. Lat. 45. 10. The Danube is very rapid near this city, and its wa¬ ters look whitifti. Belgrade is built on a hill, and was once large, ftrong, and populous. It was furrounded with a double Avail, flanked with a great number of toAvers, and had a caftle lituated on a riling ground, and built with fquare (tones. The fuburbs are very extern- five : and reforled to by Turkilh, JeAvilh, Greek, Hun¬ garian, and Sclavonian merchants. The ftreets Avhere the greateft trade is carried on are covered with Avood, to (helter the dealers from the fun and rain. The ri¬ vers render it very convenient for commerce ; and as the Danube falls into the Black fea, the trade is eafily ex¬ tended to diftant countries, Avhich renders it the ftaple town in thefe parts j and as the Danube runs up to Vienna, they fend goods from thence with a great deal of eafe. The Armenians have a church here, and the Jews a fynagogue, both thefe being employed as fac¬ tors. The (hops are but fmall: and the fellers fit on tables, difpofing of their commodities out of a AvindoAV, for the buyers never go on the infide. The richeft merchandife is expofed to fale in two bezefteins or bazars, built crofswife. There are two exchanges, built with (tone, and fupported Avith pillars not unlike the Royal Exchange at London. There is likeAvife a cara- vanfera or public inn, and a college for young ftudents. It has been taken by the Turks and Imperialifts alter¬ nately feveral times; but was ceded to the Turks in 1739, and the fine fortifications demoliflied. BELGRADO, a town of Friuli, in the Venetian territories in Italy. It (lands near the river Tejamentp, in E. Long. 13. 5. N. Lat. 46. o. BEL I A, in Ancient Geography, a toAvn of hither Spain : Noav Belchite, in the kingdom of Arragon. See Belchite. BELIAL, 7^73, a Hebrew word Avhich fignifies a wicked worthlefs man, one Avho is refolved to endure no fubje&ion. Thus the inhabitants of Gibeah, Avho abufed the Levite’s Avife (Judges xix. 22.), have the name of Belial given them. Hophni and Phineas, the high prieft Eli’s fons, are likewife called fons of Belial (1 Sam. ii. 12.1, upon account of the feveral crimes they had committed, and the unbecoming manner in which they behaved themfelves in the temple of the Lord. Sometimes the name Belial is taken to denote the devil. Thus St Paul fays (Cor. vi. 15.) “ What concord hath Chrift Avith Belial ?” Whence it appears, that in his time the Jews, under the name of Belial, commonly underftood the devil in the places where this term occurs in the Old Teftament. BELIDOR, Bernard Forest de, a Catalonian engineer in the fervice of France, and member of the academies of fciences at Paris and Berlin, and of the 3 Y 2 royal BEL [ 540 } BEL Belulor royal lociety at London ; a celebrated mathematician, il and author of a number of military tra£ls in which the Belifariusi fcjei^ce of mathematics is applied to military ufes. Died v ^ in I765,aged 70. BELIEF, in its general and natural fenfe, denotes a perfuahon, or a ftrong affent of the mind to the truth of any propofition. In which fenfe, belief has no rela¬ tion to any particular kind of means or arguments, but may be produced by any means whatever. Thus we are faid to believe our fenfes, to believe our reafon, to believe a witnefs, &c. And hence, in rhetoric, all forts of proofs, from whatever topics deduced, are called becaufe apt to beget belief or perfuafion touching the matter in hand. Belief, in its more reftrained and technical fenfe, invented by the fchoolraen, denotes that kind of affent which is grounded only on the authority or teflimony of fome perfon or perfons, afferting or attetling the truth of any matter propofed. In this fenfe, belief Hands oppofed to knowledge and fcience. We do not fay we believe that fnow is white, or that the whole is equal to its parts ; but we fee and know them to-be fo. That the three angles of a tri¬ angle are equal to two right angles, or that all motion is naturally rectilinear, are not faid to be things cre¬ dible, but fcientifical •, and the comprehenfion of fuch truths is not belief but fcience. But when a thing propounded to us is neither appa¬ rent to our fenfe, nor evident to our underftanding j neither certainly to be colleCled from any clear and ne- ceflary connexion with the caufe from which it pro¬ ceeds, nor with the effedls which it naturally produces j nor is taken up upon any real arguments, or relation thereof to other acknowledged truths ; and yet, not- with(landing, appears as true, not by manifeftation, but by an atteftation of the truth, and moves us to af¬ fent, not of itfelf, but in virtue of a teftimony given to it—this is faid to be properly credible •, and an alfent to this is the proper notion, of belief or faith. BELIEVERS, an appellation given toward the clofe of the firft century to thofe Chriftians who had been ad¬ mitted into the church by baptifm, and inftrufled in all the myfteries of religion. They had alfo accefs to all the parts of divine worlhip, and were authorized to vote in the ecclefiaftical aflemblies. They were thus called in contradiflinClion to the catechumens, who had not been baptized, and were debarred from thefe privi- leges. BELIO, in Ancient Geography, a river of Lufita- nia, called otherwife Linueas, Limeas, Limias, and Le¬ the, or the river of oblivion : the boundary of the expe¬ dition of Decimus Brutus. The foldiers out of fuper- ilition refufing to crofs, he {hatched an enfign out of the hands of the bearer, and palled over, by which his army was encouraged to follow (Livy). He was the firfl Roman who ever proceeded fo far, and ventured to crofs. The reafon of the appellation, according to Strabo is, that in a military expedition a fedition arifing between the Celtici and Turduli, after crofling that ri¬ ver, in which the general was (lain, they remained dif- perfed there } and from this circum(lance it came to be called the, river of Lethe, or oblivion. Now called £/ Lima, in Portugal, running weftward into the At¬ lantic, to the fouth of the Minho. SELISARIUS, general of the emperor Juftinian’s l army, who overthrew the Perfians in the eafl, the BeluanV Vandals in Africa, and the Goths in Italy. See Rome. Bell. * But after all his great exploits, he was falfely aecufed — of a confpiracy againll the emperor. The real confpi- rators had been detected and (eized, with daggers hid¬ den under their garments. One of them died by his own hand, and the other was dragged from the fanc- tuary. Preffed by remorfe, or tempted by the hopes of fafety, he accufed two officers of the houfehold of Belifarius j and torture forced them to declare that they had afted according to the fecret inftru£tions of their patron. Pefterity will not hadily believe, that a hero who in the vigour of life had difdained the faired offers of ambition and revenge, ffiould ftoop to thq murder of his prince, whom he could not long expert to furvive. His followers were impatient to fly 5 but flight mull have been fupported by rebellion, and he had lived enough for nature and for glory. Belifarius appeared before the council with lefs fear than indig¬ nation : after 40 years fervice, the emperor had pre¬ judged his guilt; and injuftice was fanftified by th^ prelence and authority of the patriarch. The life of Belifarius was gracioufly fpared : but his fortunes were fequeftered 5 and, from December to July, he was guarded as a prifoner in his own palace. At length his innocence was acknowledged ; his freedom and ho¬ nours were reftored j and death, which might be ha- ftened by refentment and grief, removed him from the world about eight months after his deliverance. That he was deprived of his eyes, and reduced by envy to beg his bread, “ Give a penny to Belifarius the gene¬ ral !” is a fidtion of later times; which has obtained credit, or rather favour, as a flrange example of the viciflitudes of fortune.—The fource of this idle fable may be derived from a mifcellaneous work of the 12th century, the Chiliads of John Tzetzes, a monk. He relates the blindnefs and beggary of Belifarius in ten vulgar or political verfes (Chiliad iii. N° 88. 339—348* in Corp. Poet. Graec. tom. ii. p. 311.). Exiruf&x y.^xT6>y ifiaa 7ra> /xiXtu c/SoXov ra> r^asTijAaer*! Ov idtj'XO-tl, XTraTVtpfoi S’ 0 tyiovti. This moral or romantic tale was imported into Italy with the language and manuferipts of Greece ; repeat¬ ed before the end of the 15th century by Crinitus, Pon- tanus, and Volaterranus ; attacked by Alciat for the ho¬ nour of the law, and defended by Baronius (A.D. 561, N° 2, &.c.) for the honour of the church. Yet Tzelzes himfelf had read in other chronicles, that Belifarius did not lofe his fight, and that he recovered his fame and fortunes.—The ftatue in the Villa Borghefe at Rome, in a fitting pofture, with an open hand, which is vulgar¬ ly given to Belifarius, may be aferibed with more pro¬ priety to Auguftus in the aj, fignifying a needle. This goddefs was of a cruel and favage difpofition, delighting in bloodffied and daugh¬ ter ; and was not only the attendant of Mars, but took a pleafure in ffiaring his dangers. She is commonly re- prefented in an attitude expreffive of fury and diftrac- tion, her hair compofed of fnakes clotted with gore, and her garments Uained with blood : ffie is generally depidflured driving the chariot of Mars, with a bloody whip in her hand •, but fometimes ffie is drawn holding a lighted torch or brand, and at others a trumpet. Bel- lona had a temple at Home, near the Circus Flaminius, before which Hood the column of war, from whence the conful threw his lance when he declared war. She was alfo worlhipped at Comana, in Cappadocia j and Camden obferves; that in the time of the emperor 4 Severus, there was a temple of Bellona in the city of Bellona York. |] BELLONARII, in antiquity, priefts of Bellona, Bellows, the goddefs of wars and battles. The bellonard cut "V'—- and mangled their bodies with knives and daggers in a cruel manner, to pacify the deity. In this they are lingular, that they offered their own blood, not that of other creatures, in facrifice. In the fury and enthu- fiafm wherewith they were feized on thefe occafions, they ran about raging, uttering prophecies, and fore¬ telling blood and daughter, devaftations of cities, re¬ volutions of Hates, and the like : whence Martial calls them turba entheata Bellonce. In after-times, they feem to have abated much of their zeal and tranfport, and to have turned the whole into a kind of farce, con¬ tenting themfelves with making figns and appearances of cutting and wounds. Lampridius tells us, the em¬ peror Commodus, out of a fpirit of cruelty, turned the farce again into a tragedy, obliging them to cut and mangle their bodies really. BELLONIA (fo named from the famous Petrus Bellonius, who left many valuable trafts on natural hiftory, &c.), a genus of the monogynia order, belong¬ ing to the pentandria clafs of plants. Of this genus there is only one fpecies known, viz. the afpera, with a rough balm leaf. This is very common in the warm iflands of America. BELLORI, John Peter, of Rome 5 a celebrated antiquary and connoiffeur in the polite arts ; author of the lives of the modern painters, architedls, and feulptors, and of other works on antiquities and me¬ dals. He died in 1696. BELLQVACI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia Belgica, reckoned the bravelt of the Belgae now Beauvafis, in the Ifle of France.. BELLOWS, a machine fo contrived as to exfpiro and infpire the air by turns, by enlarging and con- trafting its capacity. This machine is ufed in cham¬ bers and kitchens, in forges, furnaces, and founderies, to blow up the fire : it ferves alfo for organs and other pneumatic inllruments, to give them a proper degree of air. All thefe are of various conftruftions, accord¬ ing to their different purpofes ; but in general they are compofed of two flat boards, fometimes of an oval, fometimes of a triangular figure : Two or more hoops, bent according to the figure of the boards, are placed between them •, a piece of leather, broad in the middle, and narrow at both ends, is nailed on the edges of the boards, which it thus unites together j as alfo on the hoops which feparate the boards, that the leather may the eafier open and fold again : a tube of iron, brafs, or copper, is faftened to the undermoft board, and there is a valve within, that covers the holes in the under board to keep in the air. Anacharfis the Scythian is recorded as the inventor of bellows. The aftion of bellows bears a near affini¬ ty to that of the lungs; and what we call blowing in the former, affords a good illuflration of what is called refpiring in the latter. Animal life itfelf may on fome occafions be fubfifted by blowing into the lungs with a pair of bellows. Dr Hooke’s experiment to this effeft is famous: having laid the thorax of a dog bare, by cutting away the ribs and diaphragm, pericar¬ dium, &c. and having cut off the afpera arteria below the epiglottis, and bound it on the nofe of a bellows,. BEL [ 549 ] BEL Bellows he found, that as he blowed, the dog recovered, and as || he ceafed, fell convulfive ; and thus was the animal Belomaney. kept alternately alive and dead above the fpace of an ' * hour. There are bellows made wholly of wood, with¬ out any leather about them ; one of which is preferved in the repository of the Royal Society ; and Dr Plot defcribes another in the copper-works at Ellafton in Staffordthire. Ant. della Fruta contrived a fubftitute for bellows, to fpare the expence thereof in the fufion of metals. This is called by Kireher camera eeo/ia, and in England commonly the water bellows, where water falling through a funnel into a clofe veffel, fends from it fo much air continually as blows the fire. See the article Furnace, where different blowing machines of this kind are defcribed. Smiths and founders bellows, whether fingle or double, are wrought by means of a rocker, with a firing or chain fallened thereto, which the workman pulls. The bellows pipe is fitted into that of the tevvel. One of the boards is fixed, fo as not to play at all. By drawing down the handle of the rocker, the moveable board rifes, and by means of a weight on the top of the upper board, finks again The bellows of forges and furnaces of mines ufually re¬ ceive their motion from the wheels of a water-mill. Others, as the bellows of enamellers, are wrought by means of one or more fleps or treddles under the work¬ man’s feet. Laftly, the bellows of organs are wrought by a man called the blower ; and in fmall organs by the foot of the player. Butchers have alfo a kind of blaft or bellows of a peculiar make, by which they bloat or blow up their meat when killed, in order to piecing or parting it the better. Bone BELLO TVS, tpvmfltigss ereivot, occur in Herodotus for thofe applied by the Scythians to the genitals of mares, in order to diftend the uterus, and by this compreffion make them yield a greater quantity of milk. HeJJian BELLOWS are a contrivance for driving air into a mine for the refpiration of the miners. This M. Papin improved, changing its cylindrical form in¬ to a fpiral one; and with this, working it only with his foot, he could make wind to raife a two pound weight. Hydrojlatic BELLOWS. See HYDROSTATICS. BELLUNESE, a territory of Italy, belonging to the Venetians. It lies between Friuli, Codorino, lel- trino, the bifhopric of Trent and Tirol. It has good iron mines, but the only confiderable place is Bel- luno. BELLUNO, a town of Italy, in the Venetian terri¬ tories, and capital of the Bellunefe. It is a bifhop’s fee •, and is fituated among the Alps, on the river Piave, between the towns Cadora and Trevigni, in E. Long- 12. I 5. N. Lat. 46. 9 BELLY, in Anatomy, the fame with what is more ufually called abdomen. See Anatomy Index. BELMONTE, a town of Italy, in the hither Ca¬ labria, and kingdom of Napl«s. It is fituated on the coaft of the Tufcan fea. E. Long. 16. 50. N. Lat. 39. 20. BELOMANCY •, Belomantia, a kind of divina¬ tion by means of arrows, praflifed in the eaft. but chiefly among the Arabians. 'I he word is of Greek origin ; compounded of (i&os, arrow, and (txvTUct, divi- JBelomancy nation. II Belomancy has been performed in different manners. Belfhazzar. One was to mark a parcel of arrows, and put 11 or more of them into a bag : thefe were afterwards drawn out j and according as they were marked or not, they judged of future events. Another way was to have three arrows, upon one of which was wrote, “ God orders it me $” upon an¬ other, “ God forbids it me 5” aAd upon the third nothing at all. Thefe were put into a quiver, out of which they drew one of the three at random •, if it happened to be that with the firft infcription, the thing they confuited about was to be done : if it chanced to be that with the fecond infcription, it was let alone : but if it proved that without infcription, they drew over again. Belomancy is an ancient practice, and probably that which Ezekiel mentions, chap. xxi. 21. At leafl. St Jerome underftands it fo, and obferves that the pra&ice was frequent among the Affyrians and Babylonians. Something like it is alfo mentioned in Hofea, chap. iv. only that ftaves are there mentioned inftead of arroAVs, which is rather rhabdomancy than belomancy. Gro- tius, as well as Jerome, confounds the two together, and Ihows that it prevailed much among the Magi, Chaldeans, and Scythians 5 whence it paffed to the Sela- vonians, and thence to the Germans, whom Tacitus ob¬ ferves to make ufe of it. BELON, Peter, of Le Mans, the capital of Le Maine, a province of France, flourilhed about the mid¬ dle of the 16th century. He publiflied feveral books in Latin. He wrote, in French, of birds, beafts, . fillies, ferpents, and the negledfed culture of plants^ and a book of travels, or obfervations of many Angu¬ larities and memorable things found in Greece, Afia, Judaea, Egypt, Arabia, and other foreign countries. He was murdered near Paris by one of his enemies, in 1564. BELONE, in Ichthyology, the trivial name of a • fpecies of efox. See Esox, ICHTHYOLOG,Y Index* BELSHAZZAR, the laft king of Babylon, gene¬ rally fuppofed to be the fon of Evil-merodaeb, and grandfon to the great Nebuchadnezzar..— During the time that Babylon was befieged by Cyrus, Bellhazzar made an entertainment for a thoufand of his molt emi¬ nent courtiers (Dan. v. 1. &c.) yand being heated with wine, ordered that the veffels of gold ami filver which his grandfather Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple at Jerufalem might be brought to the banquet¬ ing houfe, that he and his princes, together with his wives and concubines, might drink out of them, which accordingly was done } and to add to their profanenefs,: in the midit of their cups, they fang fongs in praife of their feveral idols. But it was not long before a damp was put to the king’s mirth, by a hand appearing upon the wall, which in three words wrote the fentence of his condemnation. The king faw the hand that wrote ; and being exceedingly affrighted, commanded all his wife men, magicians, and aftrologers, to be im¬ mediately called, that they might read the writing and explain its meaning. When they came, the king promifed, that whoever ftiould expound this writing, fhould be made the third perfon of his kingdom, in place and-. BEL [ 550 ] BEL Belfliazzar, and power. But the Magi could comprehend nothing Belts. of this writing j which increafed the diforder and un- l"" eafinefs that the king was in, together with his whole court : whereupon, at the inftance of the queen-mo¬ ther, Daniel was fent for. The king made him the fame offer of honours and prefents that he had done to his own magicians if he would explain the writing. Daniel modeftly refufed thofe offers : but having un¬ dertaken to perform what he required of him, he firft reproved the king with great freedom for his ingrati¬ tude to God, who had advanced him to the rank of a fovereign, and for the profanation of the velfels which were confecrated to his fervice j and then proceeded to the interpretation of the words, which were thefe, Mene, Tekel, JJpharJin. Mene, fays he, which figni- fies number, intimates, that the days both of your life and reign are numbered, or that you have but a fliort time to live $ Tehel, which fignifies weight, intimates, tha^t you have been weighed in the balance of God’s ' juftice, and found too light *, and Upharjin, (or Peres, as Daniel has it, and means the fame thing), which fignifies a fragment, intimates, that your kingdom (hall be divided and given to the Medes and Perfians. Which accordingly came to pafs : for that very night, in the midft of their feafting and revelling, the city was taken by furprife, Belfhazzar flain, and the kingdom tranflated to Cyaxares, whom the Scripture calls Darius the Mede. See Babylon. BELT, the Great, a famous ftrait of Denmark, be¬ tween the ifland of Zeeland and that of Funen, at the entrance of the Baltic fea. It is not, however, fo com¬ modious, norfo much frequented as the Sound. In 1658 the whole ftrait was frozen fo hard, that Charles Gufta- vus king of Sweden marched over it with a defign to take Copenhagen. Belt, the Leffer, lies to the weft of the Great Belt, between the ifland of Funen and the coaft of Jutland. It is one of the paflages from the German ocean to the Baltic, though not three miles in breadth, and very crooked. Belt, Baltheus, properly denotes a kind of military girdle, ufually of leather, wherewith the fword or other weapons are fuftained.—Belts are known among the ancient and middle-age writers by divers names, as fypu,, •zona, cingulum, reminiculum, rinca or ringa, and • baldrel/us. The belt was an effential piece of the an¬ cient armour •, infomuch that we fometimes find it ufed to denote the whole armour. In later ages, the belt was given to a perfon when he was raifed to knight¬ hood ; whence it has alfo been ufed as a badge or mark of the knightly order. The denomination belt is alfo applied to a fort of bandages in ufe among furgeons, &e. Thus we meet with quickfilver belts, ufed for the itch 5 belts for keep¬ ing the belly tight, and difeharging the water in the operation of tapping, &c. Belt, is alfo a frequent difeafe in flieep, cured by cutting their tails off", and laying the fore bare ; then catting mould on it, and applying tar and goofe greafe. Belts, in AJlronomy, two zones or girdles fur¬ rounding the body of the planet Jupiter. See Astro- • NOMY. Belts, in Geography, certain ftraits between the German ocean and the Baltic. The Belts belong to the king of Denmark, who exa&s a toll from all {hips Belts which pafs through them, excepting thofe of Sweden, !j which are exempted. . ^U3‘ BEL-TEIN, a fuperftitious cuftom obferved in the Highlands of Scotland. It is a kind of rural facrifice, performed by the herdfmen of every village on the firft of May. They cut a fquare trench in the ground, Pennant's leaving a turf in the middle : on that they make a fire ?CiWr* of wood, on which they make a large caudle of eggs, butter, oatmeal, and milk ; and bring, befides the in¬ gredients of the caudle, plenty of beer and whifley ; for each of the company muft contribute fomething. The rites begin with fpilling fome of the caudle on the ground, by way of libation : on that, every one takes a cake of oatmeal, upon which are raifed nine fquare knobs, each dedicated to fome particular being, the fup- pofed preferver of their flocks and herds, or to fome par¬ ticular animal, the real deftroyer of them : each perfon then turns his face to the fire, breaks off a knob, and flinging it over his ftioulder, fays, This I give to thee, preferve thou my horfes ; this to thee, preferve thou my Jheep ; and fo on. After that, they ufe the fame cere¬ mony to the noxious animal : This I give to thee, 0 fox ! fpare thou my lambs ; this to thee, 0 hooded crow ! this to thee, 0 eagle ! When the ceremony is over, they dine on the caudle ; and after the feaft is finiflied, what is left is hid by two perfons deputed for that purpofe j but on the next Sunday they re-affemble and finifh the re- liques of the firft entertainment. BELTURBET, a town of Ireland in the county of Cavan, and province of Ulfter, fituated on the river Earn, in W. Long. 7. 35. N. Lat. 54. 7. BELTZ, or Belzo, a province of Red Ruflia in Poland, bounded by Leopold on the fouth, by Chelm on the north, Little Poland on the eaft, and Volhynia on the weft. Its capital town is Beltz. Beltz, or Belzo, a town of Poland, and capital of the province of the fame name, feated on the confines of Upper Volhynia, among marfhes, in E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat. 50. 5. BELVEDERE, in the Italian ArchiteBure, &c. denotes either a pavilion on the top of a building, or an artificial eminence in a garden 5 the word literally fignifying a fine profpeB. Belvedere, a confiderable town of Greece, and capital of a province of the fame name in the Morea. The province lies on the weftern coaft : it is the moft fertile and rich in all the Morea ; and from it the raifins called Belvederes take their name. The town is fitu¬ ated in E. Long. 22. O. N. Lat. 38. 5. BELVIDERE. See Chenopodium, Botany In¬ dex. BELUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Rhae- tia, above Feltria, in the territory of the Veneti •, now Belluno, capital of the Bellunefe in the territory of Ve¬ nice. See Belluno. BELUS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall river of Galilee, at the diftance of two ftadia from Ptolemais, running from the foot of Mount Carmel out of the lake Cendevia. Near this place, according to Jofephus, was a round hollow or valley, where was a kind of fand fit for making glafs 5 which, though exported in great quantities, was found to be inexhauftible. Strabo fays, the whole of the coaft from Tyre to Ptolemais has a fand fit for making glafs $ but that the fand of BEN [ 55i ] BEN the rivulet Belus and its neighbourhood is a better fort; and here, according to Pliny, the making of glafs was firft difcovered. BEiM A, in antiquity, denotes a ftep or pace. The bema made a kind of itinerary meafure among the Greeks, the length of which was equivalent to one cu¬ bit and two thirds, or to ten palms. Whence alfo the term bemati'zein, to meafure a road. Bema, in eceleiialtical writers, denotes the altar or fanftuary in the ancient churches. In which fenfe be- ma made the third or innermoft part of the church, anfwering to the chancel among us. Bema was alfo ufed for the bilhop’s chair, feat, or throne, placed in the fanftuary. It was called bema from the fteps by which it was to be afcended. Bema was alio ufed for the reader’s delk. This in the Greek church was denominated firtpci yvoruv, in the Latin church ambo. Bema is more peculiarly ufed for the Manichees al¬ tar, which was in a different place from that of the Catholics. Bema was alfo a denomination given by this fe6l to the anniverfary of the day when Manes was killed, which with them was a folemn feaft and day of rejoi¬ cing. One of the chief ceremonies of the feaft conlift- ed in fetting out and adorning their bema or altar with great magnificence. BEMBEA, a province of the kingdom of Angola in Africa. It is divided into Higher and Lower $ and extends on one fide along the fea, and on the other di¬ vides Angola from the foreign ftates on the fouth. The country is large, populous, and abounding with cattle j with the fat of which the inhabitants anoint their heads and bodies, and clothe themfelves with their hides coarfely dreffed. They are addicted to the fame idola¬ trous fuperftitions with the reft of the natives, but fpeak a quite different language. The province is wa¬ tered by a river called Lutauo or San FrancifcG, which abounds with crocodiles, fea-horfes, and monftrous fer- pents, that do a great deal of mifchief. BEMBO, Peter, a noble Venetian, fecretary to Leo X. and afterwards cardinal, was one of the beft writers of the 16th century. He was a good poet both in Italian and Latin ; but he is ju'Uy cenlured for the loofenefs and immodefty of fome of his poems. He pub- lifhed, befides thefe, A Hiftory of Venice j Letters j and a book in praife of the duke and duchefs of Urbino. He died in 1^47, in the yad year of his age. BEMSTER, or Bemister, a town of Dorfetftnre in England, feated on the river Bert, in Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50. 45. BEN. See Behn. Ben, in Pharmacy, the name of an exotic purgative fruit, of the fize and figure of a nut j whence it is alfo called the ben nut, fometimes balanus tnyrepfca, or glans unguentana. Naturalifts diftinguifh two kinds of bens ; viz. the great, ben magnum, which refembles the filbert, and is by fome called avellana purgatrix, brought from America ; and the fmall, ben parvum, brought from Ethiopia. Ben-nuts yield, by expreflion, much oil, which from its property of not becoming rancid, at leaft for years, is ufed as a menftruum for the extraftion of the odoriferous parts of the flowers of jeffanun} violets? rofes. hyacinths, lilies of the valley, tuberofes, jonquils, clove julyflowers, and others which like thefe yield little or no effential oil by diftillation, but impart their fragrance to expreffed oils. The method of impregnating oil of ben with the odour of flowers is this : Some fine carded cotton is dipped in the oil, and put in the bottom of a proper veffel. On this is fpread a thick layer of frelh flowers, above which more cotton dipt in oil is placed j and thus alternately flowers and cotton are difpofed, till the veffel (which may be made of tin, with a cover to be fcrewed on to it, or of porcelain) is full. By di- geftion during 24 hours in a water-bath, the oil will receive the odour of the flowers. BENARES, a diftrift of Hindoftan Proper in the Eaft Indies, which lies between Bahar and Oude ; and comprehends the circars of Benares, Jionpour, Chunar, and Gazypour. This diftrift was ceded to the Englifti in 1775 J and yields, it is faid, a clear revenue of 380,000!. annually. Benares, a populous city in the Eaft Indies, and capital of the diftrift of the fame name. It is fituated on the north fide of the Ganges, which is here very broad and the banks are very high. Benares has been much celebrated as the ancient feat of Braminical learning. Several Hindoo temples embellifh the banks of the river 5 and many other of the public and private buildings are extremely magnificent. The ftreets, how¬ ever, are narrow, and the houfes high, fome of them even five ftories, which are inhabited by different families. The more opulent inhabitants live in detached houfes, which have an open court, and are furrounded by a wall. In the centre of the city there is a large Maho¬ metan mofque, which was built by the emperor Au- rengzebe, who deftroyed a magnificent Hindoo temple which had been erefted on the fame fpot. Many of the Hindoo temples were demolifhed by the Mahome¬ tans, the ruins of which are ftill vifible in different places round the city. The fame manners and cuftoms ftill prevail among thefe people, as at the remoteft period which hiftory has traced. No innovations either in civil or religious matters have-been admitted. An in- furredftion was excited here in 1781, and by the formi¬ dable appearance which it affumed, threatened to prove fatal to the Engliftt intereft in Hindoftan. It was at length fuppreffed, and the rajah Cheyt Sing was depo- fed in 1783. Benares has been alfo long celebrated for its oblervatory. See Observatory. It is 425 miles fouth-eaft of Delhi, and 400 miles north- weft of Calcutta, in E. Long. 83. 10. N. Lat. 25. 20. BENAVARRI, a town of the kingdom of Arra- gon in Spain, feated on the frontiers of Catalonia. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat 41. 55. BENAVENTO, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, and Terra di Campos, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Ela, in W. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 42. 4. BENAVIDUS, or Bonavitus (Marcus Mantua), a celebrated civilian, taught civil law with reputation, during 60 years, at Padua the place of his birth j and died in 1582, aged 93. His principal works are, I. ColleBanea fuper Jus Ccefareum. 2. Conftliorum, tom. ii. 3. Problematum legalium. 4. De illujlribus Jurifconfultis, &c. BENCH, or Banc, in Law. See Banc. Free, Tree. Bench, King’s Bench. BEN Frec-BENCH fignifies that eftate r 5 in copyhold-lands which the wife being efpoufed a virgin, has, after the deceafe of her hufband, for her dower, according to the , cuftom of the manor. As to this free-bench, feveral manors have feveral cuftoms ; as in the manors of Eaft and Weft Enbourne, in the county of Berks, and other parts of England, there is a cuftom, that when a copy- hold tenant dies, the widow ftiall have her free bench in all the deceafed hufband’s lands, whilft (he lives Angle and chafte ; but if ftie commits incontinency, fhe fhall forfeit her eftate : neverthelefs, upon her coming into the court of the manor, riding on a black ram, and having his tail in her hand, and at the fame time re¬ peating a form of avords prefcribed, the fteward is ob¬ liged, by the cuftom of the manor, to re-admit her to her free-bench. King's BENCH, a court in which the king was for¬ merly accuftomed to fit in perfon, and on that account was moved with the king’s houfehold. This was ori¬ ginally the only court in Weftminfter-hall, and from this it is thought that the courts of common pleas and exchequer were derived. As the king in perfon is ftill prefumed in law to lit in this court, though only repre- fented by his judges, it is faid to have fupreme autho¬ rity : and the proceedings in it are fuppofed to be co¬ ram nobis, that is, before the king. This court con- fifts of a lord chief juftice and three other juftices or judges, who are inverted with a fovereign jurifdi&ion over all matters whether of a criminal or public nature. The chief juftice has a falary of 5500I. and the other judges 2400I. each. All crimes againft the public good, though they do not injure any particular perfon, are under the cogni¬ zance of this court j and no private fubjedl: can fuffer any unlawful violence or injury againft his perfon, li¬ berty, or poffeflions, but a proper remedy is afforded him here*, not only for fatisfadlion of damagesfuftained, but for the punifhment of the offender j and wherever this court meets with an offence contrary to the firft principles of juftice, it may punifh it. It frequently proceeds on indi&ments found before other courts, and removed by certiorari into this. Perfons illegally com¬ mitted to prifon, though by the king and council, or either of the houfes of parliament, may be bailed in it; and in fome cafes even upon legal commitments.— Writs of mandamus are iffued by this court, for the reftoring of officers in corporations, &c. unjuftly turned out, and freemen wrongfully disfranchifed. The court of King’s Bench is now divided into a crown fide and plea fide; the one determining criminal, and the other, civil caufes. On the crown fide, or crown office, it takes cogni¬ zance of all criminal caufes, from high treafon down to the moft trivial mifdemeanour or breach of the peace. Into this court alfo indidlments from all inferior courts may be removed by writ of certiorari ; and tried either at bar, or at nijiprius, by a jury of the county out of which the indictment is brought. The judges of this court are the fupreme coroners of the kingdom. And the court itfelf is the principal court of criminal jurif- diftion known to the laws of England. For which reafon, by the coming of the court of King’s Bench into any county (as it was removed to Oxford on ac¬ count of the ficknefs in 1665,) all former commiffions of oyer and terminer, and general gaol-delivery, are at 52 1 BEN once abforbed and determined ipfo fatto: in the fame manner as, by the old Gothic and Saxon conftitutions, Jure vetujlo obtinuit, quicvijfe omnia inferiora judicia dicentejus rege. Into this court (if King’s Bench hath , reverted all that was good and falutary of the Jiar- chamber. On the plea fide, this court determines all perfonal aCtions commenced by bill or writ; as aCtions of debt, upon the cafe, detinue, trover, ejeCtment, trefpafs, wafte, &c. kgainft any perfon in the cuftody of the marffial of the court, as every perfon fued here is fup¬ pofed to be by law. The officers on the crown fide are the clerk and fe- condary of the crown ; and on the fide of the pleas there are two chief clerks or prothonotaries, and their fecondary and deputy, the cuftos brevium, two clerks of the papers, the clerk of the declarations, the figner and fealer of bills, the clerk of the rules, clerk of the errors, and clerk of the bails ; to which may be added the filazers, the marftial of the court, and the crier. Amicable Bench. See Amicable. BENCHERS, in the inns of court, the fenior mem¬ bers of the fociety, who are inverted with the govern¬ ment thereof. BENCOOLEN, a fort and town of Afia, on the fouth-weft eoaft of the iftand of Sumatra, belonging to the Britiffi. The place is known at fea by a fiender mountain called the Sugar Loaf, which rifes about 20 miles inland. About a quarter of a mile from the fea ftands an Indian village, whofe houfes are fmall and low, and built on ports. The country about Be'n- coolen is mountainous and woody, and the air unwboie- fome, the mountains being continually covered with thick heavy clouds that produce lightning, thunder, and rain. There is no beef to be had, except that of buffaloes, which is not very palatable ; and indeed pro- vifions of all kinds, except fruit, are pretty fcarce» The chief trade is in pepper, of which great quantities grow on the iftand. There are frequent bickerings be¬ twixt the natives and the factory, to the no fmall in¬ jury of the Eaft India Company. The fadtory Avas once entirely deferted ; and had not the natives found that trade decreafed by reafon of their abfence, it is fcarcely probable that ever the Engliffi would have been invited there again. E. Long. IOI. 5. S. Lat. 4. 5. BEND, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable or¬ dinaries, containing a third part of the field when charged, and a fifth when plain. It is fometimes, like other ordinaries, indented, ingrafted, &c. and is either dexter or finifter. See Heraldry. In BEND, is when any things, borne in arms, are placed obliquely from the upper corner to the oppofite lower, as the bend lies. BENDER, a town of Beffarabia in European Tur¬ key feated on the river Niefter, in E. Long. 29. 5. N. Lat. 46. 40. It is remarkable for being the place of retreat of Charles XII. after he was defeated by the Ruffians at the battle of Pultowa in 1709. BENDERM ASSEN, a town of the ifland of Bor¬ neo in Afia, and capital of a kingdom of the fame name. It has a good harbour; and ftands in E. Long. 113. 50^ S. Lat. 2. 40. BENDIDA, in antiquity, a feflival, not unlike the Bacchanalia, celebrated by the Athenians in honour of Diana. King’s" Bench il Ben did a. BENDING, BEN Bending BENDING, in a general fenfe, the reducing a II ftraight body into a curve, or giving it a crooked BenedidL form, l~^v The bending of timber-boards, Stc. is etfefted by means of heat, whereby their fibres are fo relaxed that you may bend them into any figure. BENDING, in the fea language, the tying two ropes or cables together: thus they fay, bend the cable, that is, make it fall to the ring of the anchor j bend the fail, make it fall to the yard . BENDS, in a lliip, the fame with what are called wails, or wales: the outmoft timbers of a Ihip’s fide, on which men fet their feet in climbing up. They are reckoned from the water, and are called the Jirjl, fe- cond, or third bend. They are the chief ftrength of a (hip’s fides •, and have the beams, knees, and foot-hooks, bolted to them. BENDY, in Heraldry, is the field divided into four, fix, or more parts, diagonally, and varying in metal and colour.—The general cultom of England is to make an even number ; but in other countries they regard it not, whether even or odd. BENCAPED, among failors. A fhip is faid to be bencaped when the water does not flow high enough to bring her oft" the ground, out of the dock or over the bar. BENEDETTO, St, a confiderable town of the Mantuan, in Italy, in E. Long. n. 25. N. Lat. 45. o. BENEDICITE, among ecclefiaftical writers, an ap¬ pellation given to the fong of the three children in the fiery furnace, on account of its beginning with the word benedicite. The ufe of this fong in Chriftian wor- (hip is very ancient, it appearing to have been fung in all the churches as early as St Chryfoftom’s time. BENEDICT XIV. Pope, (Profper Lambertini of Bologna), celebrated for his learning and moderation, which gained him the efteem of all fenlible Proteftants. He was the patron of learned men and celebrated artifts; and an elaborate writer on theological fubjedts. His works made 12 vols. in folio. He died in 1758. Benedict, St, the founder of the order of the Be- nedidline monks, was born in Italy about the year 480. He was fent to Rome when he was very young, and there received the firft part of his education. At 14 years of age he was removed from thence to Sublaco, about 40 miles diftant. Here he lived a moft afcetic life, and (hut himfelf up in a cavern, where nobody knew any thing of him except St Romanus, who, we are told, ufed to defcend to him by a rope, and to fupply him with provifions. But being afterwards dif- covered by the monks of a neighbouring monaftery, they chofe him for their abbot. Their manners, how¬ ever, not agreeing with thofe of Benedict, he returned to his folitude •, whither many perfons followed him, nnd put themfelves under hit diredlion, fo that in a (hort time he built 12 monafteries. In the year 328, or the following, he retired to Mount Caffino, where idolatry was dill prevalent, there being a temple of Apollo eredled here. He inftrudled the people in the adjacent country, and having converted them, he broke the Image of Apollo, and built two chapels on the moun¬ tain. Here he founded alfo a monaftery, and inftituted the order of his name which in time became fo fa¬ mous and extended all over Europe. It was here too Vol. IIL Part II, BEN that he compofed his Regula Monachorum, which Gre- BenediA, gory the Great fpeaks of as the moft fenfible and beft Benedie- written piece of that kind ever publiftied. The time i of his death is uncertain, but is placed between 540 v and 550. He was looked upon as the Elifha of his time ; and is reported to have wrought a great number of miracles, which are recorded in the fecond book of the Dialogues of St Gregory the Great. Benedict, abbot of Peterborough, was educated at Oxford, became a monk in the monaftery of Chrift’s church in Canterbury, and fume time after was chofen prior by the members of that fociety. Though he had been a great admirer of Archbilhop Becket, and wrote a life of that prelate, he was fo much efteemed by Henry II. that by the influence of that prince he was elefted abbot of Peterborough, A. D. 1177. He af- fifted at the coronation of Richard I. A. D. 1189 ; and was advanced to be keeper of the great feal, A.D. 1191. But he did not long enjoy this high dignity, as he died on Michaelmas day, A.D. 1193. Befides his life of Arehbilhop Becket, he compofed a Hiftory of Henry II. and Richard I. from A.D. 1170 to A.D. 1192} which hath been much and juftly efteemed by many of our greateft antiquaries, as containing one of the beft ac¬ counts of the tranfadlions of thole times. A beautiful edition of this work was publilhed at Oxford, in two volumes, by Mr Hearne, A.D. 1735. BENEDICTINES, in church hiftory, an order of monks, who profefs to follow the rules of St Benedift. The Benedidlines, being thofe only that are properly called monks, wear a loofe black gown, with large wide fleeves, and a capuche, or cowl, on their heads, ending in a point behind. In the canon law, they are ftyled black friars, from the colour of their habit. The rules of St Benedift, as obferved by the Englifh monks before the diffblution of the monafteries, were as follows : They were obliged to perform their devo¬ tions feven times in 24 hours, the w7hole circle of which devotions had a refpeft to the paflion and death of Chrift : they were obliged always to go two and two together: every day in lent they were obliged to faft till fix in the evening, and abated of their ufual time of fleeping and eating j but they were not allorved to praftife any voluntary aufterity without leave of their fuperior: they never converfed in their refedlory at meals, but were obliged to attend to the reading of the Scriptures : they all dept in the fame dormitory, but not two in a bed j they lay in their clothes : for fmall faults they were fliut out from meals ; for greater they were debarred religious commerce, and excluded from the chapel ; and as to incorrigible offenders, they were excluded from the monafteries. Every monk had two coats, two cowls, a table-book, a knife, a needle, and a handkerchief; and the furniture of their bed was a mat, a blanket, a rug, and a pillow. The time when this order came into England is well known 5 for to it the Englilh owe their converfion from idolatry. In the year 596, Pope Gregory fent hither Auguftine, prior of the monaftery of St Andrew at Rome, with feveral other Benedi&ine monks. St Auguftine became archbifhop of Canterbury, and the Benedi&ines founded feveral monafteries in England, as alfo the me¬ tropolitan church of Canterbury, and all the cathedrals that were afterwards eredled. 4 A Pope [ 553 1 BEN [ 554 ] BEN Benedic- Pope John XXII. who died in 1334, after an exaft Bene (He ’n(lu*ry> f^>und, that, fince the firft rife of the order, tion there had been of it 24 popes, near 200 cardinals, 7000 —V—' archbifhops, 15,000 bifhops, 15,000 abbots of renown, above 4000 faints, and upwards of 37,000 monalteries. There have been likewife of this order 20 emperors and IO empreffes, 47 kings and above 50 queens, 20 fons of emperors, and 48 fons of kings; about 100 princeffes, daughters of kings and emperors; belides dukes, mar- quifes, earls, counteffes, &c. innumerable. The order has produced a valt number of eminent writers and other learned men. Their Rabanus fet up the fchool of Germany. Their Alcuinus founded the univerfity of Paris. Their Dionyfius Exiguus perfe&ed the eeclefi- altical computation. Their Guido invented the fcale of mufic ; and their Sylvefter, the organ. They boaft to have produced Anfelmus, Ildephonfus, Venerable Bede, See. There are nuns likewife who follow the rule of St Benedict; among whom thofe who call themfelves mi¬ tigated, eat flelh three times a-week, on Sundays, Tuef- days, and Thurfdays ; the others obferve the rule of St Benedict in its rigour, and eat no flelh, unlefs they are lick. BENEDICTION, in a general fenfe, the aft of blefling, or giving praife to God, or returning thanks for his favours. Hence alfo benediftion is Hill applied to the aft of faying grace before or after meals. Nei¬ ther the ancient Jews nor Chriftians ever ate without a Ihort prayer. The Jews are obliged to rehearfe 100 benediftions per day ; of which 80 are to be fpoken in the morning. The firft treatife of the firft order in the Talmud, entitled Seraim, contains the form and order of the-daily benediflions. It was ufual to give benediftion to travellers on their taking leave ; a prac¬ tice which is ftill preferved among the monks. Bene- N diftions were likewife given among the ancient Jews, as well as Chriftians, by impofition of hands. And when at length the primitive fimplicity of the Ghriftian wor- Ihip began to, give way to ceremony, they added the lign of the crofs, which was made with the fame hand, as before, only elevated, or extended. Hence benedic¬ tion, in the modern Romilh churchy is ufed, in a more particular manner, to denote the fign of the crofs made by a bilhop, or prelate, as conferring fome grace on the people. The cuftom of receiving benediflion, by bow¬ ing the head before the bilhops, is very ancient; and was fo univerfal, that emperors themfelves did not de¬ cline this mark of fubmiflion. Under the name benedic¬ tion, the Hebrews alfo frequently underftand the pre- fents which friends make to one another, in all probabi¬ lity becaufe they are generally attended with bleflings and compliments, both from thofe who give and thofe who receive them. Nuptial BENEDICTION, the external ceremony per¬ formed by the prieft in the office of matrimonv. This is alfo called facer dotal and matrimonial benediflion, by the Greek1- U^oXoyia and h^aUxurix. The nuptial bene- didlion is not effential to, but the confirmation of, a marriage in the civil law. Beatic Benediction, (benediflio beaticay, is the viaticum given to dying perfons. The pope begins all his bulls with this form : Salutem et apojlolicam bene- diflionem. Benediction is alfo ufed for an ecclefiaftical cere- 2 mony, whtS^eby a thing is rendered facred or venerable. Benedic. In this fenfe benediftion differs from confecration, as in the latter unftion is applied, which is not in the former : -Benefice- Thus the chalice is confecrated, and the pix bleffed ; as " J I the former, not the latter, is anointed : though, in the common ufage, thefe two words are applied promifeu- oufly.—The fpirit of piety, or rather of fuperftition, has introduced into the Romiffi church benediftions for almoft every thing. We read of forms of benediftions for wax candles, for boughs, far affies, for church-vef* fels, and ornaments ; for flags or enfigns, arms, firft- fruits, houfes, (hips, pafeal eggs, cilicium or the hair¬ cloth of penitents, churchyards, &c. In general, thefe benediftions are performed by afperfions of holy water, figns of the crofs, and prayers fuitable to the nature of the ceremony. Tire forms of thefe benediftions are found in the Roman pontifical, in the Roman miffal, in the book of ecclefiaftical ceremonies printed in Pope Leo X.’s time, and in the rituals and ceremonies of the different churches which are found collefted in Fa¬ ther Martene’s work on the rites and difeipline of the church. BENEFICE {beneficiuni), in middle-age writers, is ufed for a fee, fometimes denominated more peculiarly beneficium militare. In this fenfe, benefice was an eftate in land, at firft granted for life only ; fo called, becaufe it was held ex mcro benefxio of the donor : and the te¬ nants were bound to fwear fealty to the lord, and to ferve him in the wars. In after-times, as thefo tenures became perpetual and hereditary, they left their name of benefeia to the livings of the clergy ; and retained to themfelves the name olfeuds. Benefice, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, a church en¬ dowed with a revenue for the performance of divine fervice ; or the revenue itfelf affigned to an ecclefiafti¬ cal perfon, by way of ftipend, for the fervice he is to do that church. All church-preferments, except biftioprics, are called benefices ; and all benefices are, by the canonifts,.feme- times ftyled dignities : but we now ordinarily diftinguilh between benefice and dignity ; applying dignity to bi- ffioprics, deaneries, archdeaconries, and prebendaries ; and benefice to parfonages, vicarages, and donatives. Benefices are divided by the canonifts into Ample and facerdotal. In the firft there is no obligation but to read prayers, fing, &c. fuch as canonries, chaplainlhips, chantries, &c. : the fecond are charged with the cure of fouls, or the direftion and guidance of confciences ; fuch as vicarages, reftories, &c. The Romanifts again diftinguiffi benefices into regular and fecular. Regular or titular benefices are thofe held by a religious, or a regular who has made profeffion of fome religious order ; fuch are abbeys, priories, conven¬ tuals, &c.; or rather, a regular benefice is that which cannot be conferred on any but a religious, either by its foundation, by the inftitution of fome fuperior, or by pre- feription i for prefeription, forty years poffeffion by a re¬ ligious makes the benefice regular. Secular benefices are only fuch as are to be given to fecular priefts, i. e. to fuch as live in the world and are not engaged in any monaftic order. All benefices are reputed fecular, till the contrary is made to appear. They are called fecu¬ lar benefices, becaufe held by feculars; of which kind are almoft all cures. The canonifts diftinguiffi three manners of vacating B E N : [ 555 ] Dejure, when the perfon enjoying it Romans, denoted Benefice a benefice, viz. x || is guilty of certain crimes expreffed in'thofe laws'as he- Bem ficnim. re{v> fimony, &c. 2. De faBo, as well as de jure, by the natuial death or the relignation of the incumbent j which refignation may be either exprefs or tacit, as when he engages in a Rate, &c. inconfiftent with it, as, among the Romanifts, by marrying, entering into a re¬ ligious order, or the like. 3. By the fentence of a judge, by way of punifhment for certain crimes, as concubi¬ nage, perjury, &c. Benefices began about 500. The following account of thofe in England is given as the faft by Dr Burn, viz. that there are 1071 livings not exceeding 10I. per annum : 1467 livings above 10I. and not exceeding 20I. per annum $ 1126 livings above 20I. and not ex¬ ceeding 30I. per annum 5 1049 livings above 30I. and not exceeding 40I. per annum ; 884 livings above 4c!. and not exceeding 50!. per annum j 5597 livings un¬ der 50I. per annum. It mull be 500 years before every living can be raifed to 60I. a-year by Queen Anne’s bounty, and 339 years before any of them can exceed 50I. a-year. On the whole, there are above 11,000 church-preferments in England, exclufive of bifhoprics, deaneries, canonries, prebendaries, prieft- vicars, lay-vicars, fecondaries, &c. belonging to cathe¬ drals, or chorifters, or even curates, to wTell-beneficed clergymen. Benefice in commendam is that, the direction and management of which, upon a vacancy, is given or re¬ commended to an ecclefiaftic, for a certain time, till he may be conveniently provided for. BENEFICIARII, in Roman antiquity, denote fol- diers who attended the chief officers of the army, be¬ ing exempted from other duty. Beneficiarii were alfo foldiers difeharged from the military fervice or duty, and provided with heneficia to fubfift on. Thefe were probably the fame with the former, and both might be comprifed in the fame definition. They were old expe¬ rienced foldiers, who, having ferved out their legal time, or received a difeharge as a particular mark of honour, were invited again to the fervice, where they were held in great efteem, exempted from all military drudgery, and appointed to guard the ftandard, &c. Thefe, when thus recalled to fervice, were alfo denominated evocati; before their recal, emeriti. Beneficiarii wfas alfo ufed for thofe raifed to a high¬ er rank by the favour of the tribunes or other magi- llrates. The wTord benefeiarius frequently occurs in the Roman inferiptions found in Britain, where confulis is always joined with it; but beh&es benefeiarius confu/is, we find in Grutar beneficiarius tribuni, preetorii, legati, preefeBi, proconfu/is, &c. BENEFICIARY, in general, fomething that relates to benefices. Beneficiary, Beneficiarius, is more particularly ufed for a beneficed perfon, or him who receives and enjoys one or more benefices. A beneficiary is not the pro¬ prietor of the revenues of his church ; he has only the adminiftration of them, though unaccountable for the fame to any but God. Beneficiary is alfo ufed, in middle-age writers, for a feudatory or vaflal. The denomination was alfo given to the clerks or officers who kept the accounts of the beneficia, and made the writings necelfary thereto. BENEFICIUM, in military matters among the BEN a promotion to a higher rank by the Beneficiujn favour of fome perfon in authority. || BENEFIELD, Sebastian, an eminent divine 0fBenevento.^ the 17th century, was born in 1559, at Preftonbury in ~ Gloucefterffiire, and educated at Corpus Chrifti college in Oxford. In 1608 he took the degree of dodlor in divinity, and five years after was chofen Margaret pro- felfor in that univerfity. He had been prefented feveral years before to the re&ory of Meyfey-Hampton, in Gloucefterlhire. He publiffied Commentaries upon the firft, fecond, and third chapters of Amos ; a confider- able number of fermonsj and fome Latin treatifes. He died in 1630. BENEFIT of clergy. See Clergy. BENESOEUF, a town of Egypt, feated on the weftern ffiore of the Nile, and remarkable for its hemp and flax. E. Long. 31. o. N. Lat. 29. 10. BENEVENTE, a town of the province of Leon, in Spain, feated on the river Efla, in W. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 42. 4. BENEVENTO, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, wdth an archbifhop’s fee. It is fituated near the confluence of the rivers Sabato and Calore, in a fertile valley called the Strait of Bencvento, full of gen¬ tlemen’s feats and houfes of pleafure. This town hath frequently fuffered terribly by earthquakes; particularly in 1703, when a great part of it was overturned, and the reft much damaged. E. Long. 14. 57. N. Lat. 41. 6. The arch of Trajan, now called the Porta Aurea, forms one of the entrances to the city. This arch, though it appears to great difadvantage from the walls and houfes that hem it in on both fides, is in tolerable prefervation, and one of the moft magnificent remains of Roman grandeur to be met with out of Rome. The archite&ure and fculpture axe both Angularly beautiful. This elegant monument was erefted in the year of Chrift 114, about the commencement of the Parthian war, and after the fubmiffion of Decebalus had entitled Trajan to the furname of Dacicus. The order is Compofite ; the materials ivhite marble ; the height 60 palms; length, 37 and a half; and depth 24. It confifts of a fingle arch, the fpan of which is 20 palms, the height 35. On each fide of it, two fluted columns, upon a joint pedeftal, fupport an en¬ tablement and an attic. The intercolumniations and frize are covered with baflb-relievos, reprefenting the battles and triumphs of the Dacian war. In tlje attic is the infeription. As the fixth year of Trajan’s con- fulate, marked on this arch, is alfo to be feen on all the milliary columns he erefted along his new road to Brundufium, it is probable that the arch was built to commemorate fo beneficial an undertaking. Except the old metropolis of the wrorld, no city in Italy can boaft of fo many remains of ancient fculpture as are to be found in Benevento. Scarce a wall is built of any thing but altars, tombs, columns, and remains of enta¬ blatures. The cathedral is a clumfy edifice, in a ftyle of Go¬ thic, or rather Lombard, architefture. This church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, was built in the fixth century, enlarged in the nth, and altered confiderably in the 13th, when Archbilhop Roger adorned it with a new front. To obtain a fufficient quantity of mar¬ ble for this purpofe, he fpared neither farcophagus, 4 A 2 altar, BEN [ 556 ] B E N altar, nor infcription $ but fixed them promifcuoufly and irregularly in the Avails of his barbarous ftruflure. Three doors (a type of the Trinity, according to the rules ellabliihed by the myftical Vitruvii of thofe ages) opened into this facade. That in the centre is of bronze, emboffed with the life of Chrift, and the effigies of the Beneventine metropolitan, with all his fuffragan bi- ffiops. The infide offers nothing to the curious obfer- ver but columns, altars, and other decorations, execu¬ ted in the moft inelegant flyle that any of the church- building barbarians ever adopted. In the court Hands a fmall Egyptian obelifk, of red granite, crorvded with hieroglyphics.- In the adjoining fquare are a fountain and a very indifferent ftatue of Benedict XIII. long archbiffiop of Benevento. Oi the Beneventine hiftory the following abftradt is given by Mr Swinburne, in his Travels in Sicily. Ac¬ cording to fome authors (he informs us), Diomed was the founder of Beneventum ; whence its origin muff be referred to the “ years that immediately fucceeded the Trojan Avar. Other Avriters affign it to the Sam- nite*, who made it one of their principal towns, where they frequently took refuge when Avorfted by the Ro¬ mans. In their time its name was Maleventum, a word of uncertain etymology : however, it founded fo ill in the Latin tongue, that the fuperftitious Romans, after achieving the conquetl of Samnium, changed it into Beneventum, in order to introduce their colony under fortunate aufpices. Near this place, in the 479th year of Rome, Pyrrhus was defeated by Curius Dentatus. In the war againft Hannibal, Beneventum fignalized its attachment to Rome, by liberal tenders of fuccour and real fervices. Its reception of Gracchus, after his defeat of Hanno, is extolled by Livy j and, from the gratitude of the fenate, many folid advantages accrued to the Beneventines. As they long partook, in a di- ftinguifhed manner, of the glories and profperity of the Roman empire, they alfo feverely felt the effects of its decline, and fhared in a large proportion the horrors of devaftation that attended the irruption of the nor¬ thern nations. “ The modern hiftory of this city will appear inte- refling to thofe readers Avho do not defpife the events of ages which we ufually and juftly call dark and bar¬ barous. They certainly are of importance to all the prefent ftates of Europe; for at that period origi¬ nated the original exiftence of moft of them. Had no northern favages defcended from their fnoAvy mountains, to overturn the Roman coloffus, and break afunder the fetters of mankind, feAv of thofe powers, which now make fo formidable a figure, would ever have been fo much as heard of. The avengers of the general wrongs Avere, no doubt, the deftroyers of arts and literature, and brought on the thick clouds of ig¬ norance, Avhieh for many centuries no gleam of light could penetrate j but it is to be remembered, alfo, that the Romans themfelves had already made great progrefs in baniffiing true tafte and knoAvledge, and would very foon have been a barbarous nation, though neither Goths nor Vandals had ever approached the frontier. “ The Lombards came the laft of the Scythian or Scandinavian hordes to invade Italy. After fixing the feat of their empire at Pavia, they fent a detach- aient to poffefs the fouthern provinces. In 571, Zotto Avas appointed duke of Benevento, as a feudatory of the king of Lombardy •, and feems to have confined his rule to the city alone, from which he faiiied forth to feek for booty. The lecond duke, whole name was Arechis, conquered almoft the Avhole country that now conftitutes the kingdom of Naples. His fucceffors ap¬ pear long to have remained fatisfied Avith the extent of dominion he had tranfmitted to them. Grimwald, one of them, ufurped the crown of Lombardy but his fon Romwald, though a very fuccefsful warrior, contented himfelf Avith the ducal title. The fall of Defiderius, laft king of the Lombards, did not affedl the ftate of Benevento. By an effort of policy or refolution, Are¬ chis the fecond kept poffeffion ; and availing himfelf of the favourable conjundlure, afferted his independence,-— threAv off all feudal fubmiffion,—affumed the ftyle of prince,—and coined money with his own image upon it; a prerogative exercifed by none of his predeceflors as dukes of Benevento. During four reigns, this ftate maintained itfelf on a refpeftable footing ; and might long have continued fo, had not civil war, added to ve¬ ry powerful affaults from abroad, haftened its ruin. Radelchis and Siconulph afpired to the principality; and each of them invited the Saracens to his aid. The defolation caufed by this conflidl is ffiarcely to be de- fcribed. No better method for terminating thefe fatal diffenfions could be devifed than dividing the dominions into two diftindl fov'ereignties. In 851, Radelchis reign¬ ed as prince at Benevento; and his adverfary fixed his court with the fame title at Salerno. From this treaty of partition, the ruin of the Lombards became inevita¬ ble : a Avant of union undermined their ftrength,—fo¬ reigners gained an afcendant over them, irrefolution and Aveaknefs pervaded their whole fyftem of government.. The ereftion of Capua into a third principality was an¬ other deftruftive operation : and now the inroads of the- Saracens, the attacks of the eaftern and weftern emper¬ ors, anarchy and animofity at home, reduced the Lom¬ bard ftates to fuch Avretchednefs, that they were able to- make a very feeble refiftance to the Norman arms. The city of Benevento alone efcaped their hvay, by a grant which the emperor Henry II. had made of it to the bi- ftiop of Rome, in exchange for the territory of Bam¬ berg in Germany, where the popes enjoyed a kind of fovereignty. From the year 1054 to this day, the Ro¬ man fee, Avith fome ffiort interruptions of poffeffion, has exercifed temporal dominion over this city. Benevento- has given three popes to the chair ot St Peter ; viz. Fe¬ lix III. Vitffor III. and Gregory VIII. and, Avbat it is; much prouder of, reckons St Januarius in the lift of its biffiops.” BENEVENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Samnites, formerly called Maleventum from the unwholefomenefs of the wind, and under that appella¬ tion it is mentioned by Livy ; but after a Roman colony was led thither in the 485th year of the city, it came to have the name of Beneventum, as a mere aufpieious title. It is mentioned by Horace as an ancient city, faid to have been built by Diomedes before the Trojan war. Now Benevento. BENEVOLENCE, in morals, fignifies the love of mankind in general, accompanied Avith a delire to pro¬ mote their happinefs. See Morals. BENFIELD, a toAvn of France, in the department of the LoAver Rhine, whofe fortifications Avere demo- lilhed BEN [ 557 ] BEN Ban field, lilhed in confequence of the treaty of Weftphalia. E. Bengal. Lon^. 7. 45. N. Lat. 48. 14. —1 BENGAL, a country ofHindoflan in Alia, bounded on the ealf by the kingdoms of Aflem, Tipra, and Ar- racan •, on the weft by Malva and Berar ; on the north by Gehud, Rotas, Benares, and Jefuat j and on the fouth by Orixa and the bay of Bengal. Its greateft length from weft to eaft is about 720 miles, and its breadth from fouth to north, where greateft, is not lefs than 300 ; though in fome places, not above 150 j ex¬ tending from 21 to 25 degrees of north latitude, and t from 80 to 91 of eaft longitude. Climat3fex- As this country lies almoft entirely within the torrid tremeiy un- zone, and in the middle of a very extenfive continent, healthy. jt is fometimes fubjeft to fuch extremes of heat as ren¬ der it very fatal to European conftitutions. Dr Lind is of opinion, that the climate of Bengal is the molt dangerous in this refpedft of any of the Engl ill) territo¬ ries, excepting Bencoolen on the coaft of Sumatra. Extreme Part t^'s unhealthinefs arifes from the mere circum- heatofthe fiance of heat; for in all the fouthern parts of India, land wind, when the wind blows over land, it is fo extremely hot and its fur- an(j fuffocating as fcarcely to be borne. The reafon Fedts^ Cf" ^ evident from the mere infpeclion of a map of Afia, where it is evident, that whatever wind blows over land, efpecially in the fouthern parts, muft pafs over an immenfe traft of country ftrongly heated by the tun ; and as in every part of this extenfive continent there are fandy deferts of very confiderable magnitude, the heat is thus prodigioufly increafed. This becomes very evident on the falling of a ftiower of rain at the time the land-wind prevails •, for if the wind in its way pafles through the ftiower, the air is agreeably cooled though the Iky ftiould be ever fo clear ; while thofe who relide only at a few miles diftance, but out of the direct line of the ftiower, will be fainting under the exceflive heat. Here, indeed, when the air is clear, the funbeams are much more powerful than in our cli¬ mate, infomuch that the light at noon-day is too power¬ ful for the eyes to bear } and the large liars, as Venus and Jupiter, ftiine with a furprifing luftre. Thus the reflexion of the funbeams from the earth mu ft necef- farily occalion an extraordinary degree ol heat in the atmofphere ; fo that from the winds above mentioned very great inconveniences fometimes arife, fimilar to thofe which are occafioned by the Harmattan in Africa. Mr Ives tells us, that it is affirmed they will fnap glafs if it be too much expofed to them ; he has feen the veneering ftripped off from a cheft of drawers by their means j and they will certainly crack Bud chap almoft every piece of wood that is not well lea- foned. In certain places they are fo loaded with fand, that the horizon appears quite hazy where they blow, and it is almoft impoffible to prevent the eyes from be¬ ing thus greatly injured. They have likewife a very pernicious effe61 on fuch people as are expofed to them while fleeping. This feldom fails to bring on a fit of the barbiers, a kind of paralytic diftemper attended with a total deprivation of the ufe of the limbs, and which the patient never gets the better of but by re¬ moving to fome other climate. Thele hot winds are made ufe of with great fuccefs for cooling liquors, by wrapping a wet cloth round the bottles and expofing it to the air. The reafon of this is explained under the article Evaporation. Mr Ives remarks, that it Bengal, will thus cool much fooner than by being expofed to “v 1 ‘ the cool fea-breeze. ^ '['he great caufe of the unhealthinefs of Bengal, how-inunda- ever, is owing to the inundations of the Ganges and tions of the Burrampooter, by which fuch quantities of putrefcible matters are brought down as infed the air with the moftc‘e c malignant vapours when the waters retire. Though the rainy feafon begins in Bengal only in the month of June, the river begins to fwell in the mountains of Thibet early in April, and by the latter end of that month in Bengal alfo. The reafon of this is partly the melting of the fnow on the mountains of Thibet, and partly the vaft collodion of vapours brought by the fou heriy or fouth- weft monfoon, which are fuddenly ftopped by the high mountains of Thibet. Hence it is obvious, that the accumulation and condenfation of thele vapours muft firft take place in the neighbourhood of the mountains which oppofe them •, and thus the rainy fealon commences fooneft in thofe places which lie neareft the mountains. The rivers in Bengal begin to rife at firft very flowly, the increafe being only at the rate of one inch per day for the firft fortnight. It then gradually augments to two and three inches before any quantity of rain falls in the low countries j and when the rain becomes general, the increafe at a medium is five inches per day. By the latter end of July, all the lower parts of Bengal, con¬ tiguous to the Ganges and Burrampooter, are overflowed, and prefent a furface of water more than 100 miles wide. This vaft colledion of fluid, however, is owing in a great meafure to the rains which fall on the low country itfelf; for the lands in the neighbourhood are overflowed fome time before the bed of the river is filled/ It muft: be obferved, that the ground on the bank of the>’ river, and even to fome miles diftance, is higher than that which is more remote ; and thus a reparation is' made for a confiderable time betwixt the waters of the land-flood and thofe of the river. . ^ As fome of the lands in Bengal would receive da-5ome iands ma^e from fuch a copious inundation, they muft for guarded this reafon be guarded by ftrong dykes to refift theilomto° waters, and admit only a certain quantity. Thefe, colledlively taken, are faid to be more than 1000 miles in length, and are kept up at an enormous expence } yet they do not always anfwer the purpofe, on account of the loofenefs of the earth of which they are com- pofed, even though fome are of the thicknefs of an or¬ dinary rampart at the bafe. One particular branch of the Ganges (navigable only in the rainy feafon, and then equal in fize to the Thames at Chelfea) is con¬ duced for 70 miles between dykes: and when full, the paflengers look down upon the adjacent country as from an eminence. As the tide lofes its power of countera&ing fuch an impetuous torrent of frelh water, the height of the in¬ undation gradually diminifties as it approaches the fea, and totally vanilhes at the point of confluence j which is owing to the facility with which the waters of the inundation fpread over the level of the ocean. But when the force of winds confpires with that of the ^ tide, the waters are retarded in fuch a manner as fome- Difafters times to raife the inundation two feet above the ordi-occafioned nary level; which has been known to occafion the lofsby t0° of whole crops of rice. In the year 1763, a melan- Safton, choly x BEN Bengal. Dangerous effects of the north- weft winds Of the in¬ land navi¬ gation in .Bengal. * See Gan¬ ges. choly accident happened at Luckipour, when a llrong 1 gale of wind, confpiring with a high fpring-tide, at a ieafon when the periodical flood was within a foot and a half of its higheft pitch, the waters are faid to have rifen fix feet above their ordinary level. Thus the in¬ habitants of a particular difiridt were fwept away with their houfes and cattle $ and to aggravate the diftrefs, it happened in a part of the country where it was fcarce poflible to find a tree for a drowning man to efcape to. For fome days before the middle of Auguft the in¬ undation is at a ftand, and then begins to abate by a ceflation of rains in the mountains, though great quan¬ tities ftill continue to fall on the low country. The inundation does not, however, in its decreafe, always keep pace with that of the river, by reafon of the height of the banks ; but after the beginning of O6I0- ber, w'hen the rain has nearly ceafed, the remainder goes off quickly by evaporation, leaving the ground exceedingly fertilized- From the time that the monfoon changes in 0